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UCSB    LIBRARY 
X  - 


THE 


LONDON  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


VOL.  V. 


CAFFRARIA  TO  CLEPSYDRA. 


J.  H addon,  Printer,  Castle  Street,  London. 


THE 


LONDON    ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 


UNIVERSAL  DICTIONARY 


SCIENCE,  ART,  LITERATURE,  AND  PRACTICAL  MECHANICS, 


COMPRISING    A 


ILLUSTRATED    BY 


NUMEROUS  ENGRAVINGS,  A  GENERAL  ATLAS, 

AND  APPROPRIATE  DIAGRAMS. 


Sic  oportet  ad  librum,  preset-tint  miscellanei  generis,  legendum  accedere  lectorem,  ut  sold  ad  cnnvivium  conviva 
civilis.  Convivator  annititur  omnibus  satisfacere  i  et  tamen  si  quid  apponitar,  quod  hujus  ant  illius  palato  non 
respondeat,  et  hie  et  ille  urbane  dissimulant,  et  alia  fercula  probant,  ne  quid  contristent  coiivivatorem. 

Eratmuf. 

A  reader  should  sit  down  to  a  book,  especially  of  the  miscellaneous  kind,  as  a  well-behaved  visitor  does  to  a  ban- 
quet. The  master  of  the  Feast  exerts  himself  to  satisfy  his  guests  ;  but  if,  after  all  his  care  and  pains,  something  should 
appear  on  the  table  that  does  not  suit  this  or  that  person's  taste,  they  politely  pass  it  over  without  notice,  and  commend 
other  dishes,  that  they  may  not  distress  a  kind  host.  Tramlalion. 


BY  THE  ORIGINAL  EDITOR  OF  THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  METROPOLITANA, 

ASSISTED    BY    EMINENT    PROFESSIONAL    AND    OTHER    GENTLEMEN. 

IN  TWENTY-TWO   VOLUMES. 
VOL.  V. 


LONDON : 
PRINTED  FOR  T.  TEGG  &  SON,  73,   CHEAPSIDE ; 

R.  GRIFFIN  &  Co.,  GLASGOW;    T.  T.  &  H.  TEGG,  DUBLIN;    ALSO  J.  &  S.  A.  TEGG, 
SYDNEY  AND  HOBART  TOWN. 

El    1837. 


THE 


LONDON    ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


C^RULESCENS,  in  entomology,  a  small 
species  of  cancer,  abundant  in  the  seas  between 
the  tropics.  Also,  a  black  species  of  cryptoce- 
phalus ;  with  the  striated  elytrae  casrulescens. 
Found  in  Barbary.  Also,  a  species  of  cpram- 
byx,  inhabiting  Germany.  Also,  a  species  of 
chrysomela,  of  a  greenish  blue  color. 

C^RULESCENS,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of 
anas.  This  kind  inhabits  North  America;  the 
color  is  fuscous,  beneath  white ;  wing-coverts 
and  posterior  part  of  the  back  bluish.  This  is 
the  anser  sylvestris  freti  Hudsonis  of  Brisson ; 
the  blue-winged  goose  of  Latham ;  1'oie  des 
Esquimaux  of  Burton.  Also,  a  species  of  rallus ; 
the  blue-necked  rail  of  Latham.  A  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  bird. 

C/ERULEUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of 
cimex,  entirely  blue,  without  any  spots.  Also, 
the  name  of  a  species  of  carabus,  rhinomacer, 
cucajus,  scarabseus,  and  cryptocephalus.  All 
European  insects,  except  the  last,  which  is  found 
in  the  tropics  of  Africa. 

C.KRULEUS,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  cucu- 
lus  ;  the  blue  Madagascar  cuckoo  of  Latham ; 
and  le  taitson  of  Buffon.  Also  the  name  of  a 
species  of  oriolus ;  the  blue  oriole  of  Latham ; 
the  Xanthormus  caeruleus  of  Brisson ;  and  the 
blue  jay  of  Ray.  Also  a  species  of  Ramphas- 
tos;  the  blue  toucan  of  Latham.  Found  in 
South  America. 

C.SRULEUS,  in  zoology,  a  species  of  coluber, 
the  scales  of  which  are  white  on  one  side  and 
beneath. 

CAER\VYS,  a  parish  and  market  town  of 
Flint,  five  miles  S.S.E.  from  St.  Asaph,  and 
204  north-west  from  London.  The  word  Caer 
signifies  a  city,  and  Gwys,  a  summons,  the 
county  assizes  having  been  regularly  held  here, 
though  now  removed  to  Mould.  In  the  middle 
of  the  town  are  four  streets,  in  the  centre  stands 
a  fine  elm  tree.  At  this  place  it  was  customary, 
in  ancient  times,  for  the  princes  of  Wales  to  give 
a  silver  harp  annually  to  the  best  bard  or  musi- 
cian; but  this  custom  has  been  discontinued  ever 
since  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth.  The  market 
on  Tuesday  is  the  best  in  the  county. 

C.'ESALPINIA,  BRASILETTO,  or  BRASJL- 
WOOD,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and 
decandria  class  of  plants;  natural  order  thir- 
ty-third, lomentaceae ;  CAL.  quinquefid,  with 
the  lowest  segment  larger  in  proportion.  There 
are  five  petals,  the  lowest  most  beautiful  It  is  a 
leguminous  plant.  There  are  nine  species,  the 
most  remarkable  of  which  are,  C.  Brasiliensis, 
commonly  called  brasiletto.  It  grows  naturally 
in  the  warmest  parts  of  America,  from  whence 
IIP  wood  is  imported  for  the  dvers  who  use  it 
Vol..  V.— PART!. 


much.  The  demand  has  been  so  great,  that  none 
of  the  large  trees  are  left  in  any  of  the  British 
plantations;  the  largest  remaining  being  not 
above  two  inches  in  thickness,  and  eight  or  nine 
feet  in  height.  The  branches  are  slender  and 
full  of  small  prickles ;  the  leaves  are  pinnated ; 
the  lobes  growing  opposite  to  one  another,  broad 
at  their  ends,  with  one  notch.  The  flowers  are 
white,  papilionaceous,  with  many  stamina  and 
yellow  apices,  growing  in  a  pyramidal  spike,  at 
the  end  of  a  long  slender  stalk  :  the  pods  enclose 
several  small  round  seeds.  The  color  produced 
from  this  wood  is  greatly  improved  by  solution 
of  tin  in  aqua  regia.  2.  C.  mimosa  or  mimo- 
sordes.  Prickly  leaflets,  oblong,  obtuse  :  stamens 
shorter  than  the  corals,  legumes  woolly.  A  sen- 
sitive plant  like  the  mimosa  tribe,  and  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies. 

C/ESALPINUS  (Andrew),  an  eminent  phi- 
losopher, physician,  and  botanist,  was  born  at 
Arezzo.  After  having  been  many  years  professor 
at  Pisa,  he  became  physician  to  Pope  Clement 
VIII.  He  was  the  author  of  Questiones  Peri- 
pateticse,  a  work,  defending  the  philosophy  of 
Aristotle  against  the  doctrines  of  Galen,  from 
which  he  appears  to  have  approached  very  near 
to  the  theory  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood ; 
having  explained  the  use  of  the  valves  of  the 
heart,  and  pointed  out  the  course  which  these 
compelled  the  blood  to  take  on  both  sides  during 
the  contraction  and  dilatation  of  that  organ.  He 
wrote  also  a  botanical  work  De  Plantis,  and  is 
justly  esteemed  the  founder  of  Systematic  Boxany. 
His  Hortus  Siccus,  consisting  of  785  dried  spe- 
cimens of  plants,  pasted  on  266  folio  pages,  was 
extant  in  1740.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1603. 

C/ESAR  (Caius  Julius),  the  illustrious  Ro- 
man general  and  historian,  was  of  the  family  of 
the  Julii,  who  pretended  to  be  descended  from 
Venus  by  /Eneas.  See  JULIUS  CAESAR.  He  was 
born  at  Rome  on  the  12th  of  the  month  Quin- 
tilis  (afterwards  from  him  called  July)  A.  U.  C. 
653,  and  lost  his  father  in  669.  Being  nephew 
to  Marius,  he  was  early  proscribed  by  Sylla ; 
who  was  with  much  entreaty  prevailed  on  to 
save  his  life-  Uiat  said  to  his  friends  when  he 
consented,  thai*  •  he  saw  in  that  young  man  many 
Mariuses.'  Caesar,  by  his  valor  and  eloquence, 
soon  acquired  the  highest  reputation  in  the  field 
and  in  the  senate.  Beloved  and  respected  by  his 
fellow-citizens,  he  enjoyed  successively  every 
magisterial  and  military  honor  the  republic  could 
bestow,  consistent  with  its  free  constitution.  But 
at  length  having  subdued  Pompey,  the  great  rival 
of  his  growing  power,  his  boundless  ambition 
effaced  the  glory  of  his  former  actions  :  for,  pur- 
suing his  favorite  maxim,  '  that  he  had  rather 

B 


be  the  first  man  in  a  village,  than  the  second  in 
Rome,'  he  procured  himself  to  be  chosen  perpe- 
tual dictator;  and,  not  content  with  this  uncon- 
stitutional power,  his  faction  had  resolved  to 
raise  him  to  the  imperial  dignity ;  when  the 
friends  of  the  civil  liberties  of  the  republic  rashly 
assassinated  him  in  the  senate-house.  By  this 
impolitic  measure  they  defeated  their  own  pur- 
pose, involving  the  city  in  that  consternation  and 
terror,  which  produced  general  anarchy,  and 
paved  the  way  to  the  revolution  they  wanted  to 
prevent ;  the  imperial  government  being  abso- 
lutely founded  on  the  murder  of  Julius  Caesar. 
He  fell  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  A.  A.  C. 
43.  His  Commentaries  contain  a  History  of  his 
principal  Voyages,  Battles,  and  Victories.  The 
London  edition,  in  1712,  in  folio,  is  preferred. 
A  particular  detail  of  Caesar's  transactions  will 
be  found  under  the  article  ROME. 

C^SAR,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  title  borne  by 
all  the  emperors  from  Julius  Caesar  to  the  de- 
struction of  the  empire.  It  was  also  used  ^s  a 
title  of  distinction  for  the  presumptive  heir  of  the 
empire,  as  King  of  the  Romans  is  now  used  for 
that  of  the  German.  This  title  took  its  rise  from 
the  surname  of  the  first  emperor,  which,  by  a 
decree  of  the  senate,  all  the  succeeding  emperors 
were  to  bear.  Under  his  successor,  the  appel- 
lation of  Augustus  being  appropriated  to  the 
emperors,  in  compliment  to  that  prince,  the  title 
Caesar  was  given  to  the  second  person  in  the  em- 
pire, though  still  it  continued  to  be  also  given  to 
the  first;  and  hence  the  difference  betwixt  Cassar 
used  simply,  and  Cfesar  with  the  addition  of  Im- 
perator  Augustus.  The  dignity  of  Caesar  remained 
to  the  second  of  the  empire,  till  Alexius  Comne- 
nus  having  elected  Nicephorus  Melissenus  Caesar, 
by  contract,  and  it  being  necessary  to  confer 
some  higher  dignity  on  his  own  brother  Isaacius, 
he  created  him  Sebastocrator,  with  the  prece- 
dency over  Melissenus ;  ordering,  that  in  all  ac- 
clamations, &c.  Isaacius  Sebastocrator  should  be 
named  the  second,  and  Melissenus  Caesar  the 
third. 

CAESAR  (Sir  Julius),  a  learned  civilian,  was 
descended  by  the  female  line  from  the  dukes  de 
Cesarini  in  Italy ;  and  was  bora  near  Tottenham, 
in  Middlesex,  in  1557.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, advanced  to  many  honorable  employments, 
admitted  LL.  D.  of  Oxford  and  Paris,  and  for  the 
last  twenty  years  of  his  life  was  master  of  the 
rolls.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  extensive 
bounty  and  charity  to  all  persons  of  worth,  so 
that  he  seemed  to  be  the  almoner  general  of  the 
nation.  He  died  in  1639,  in  the  seventy-ninth 
year  of  his  age.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  the 
MSS.  of  this  lawyer  were  offered,  by  the  execu- 
tors of  some  of  his  descendants,  to  a  cheese- 
monger for  waste  paper ;  but,  being  timely  in- 
fpected  by  Mr.  Samuel  Paterson,  that  gentleman 
Siscovered  their  worth,  and  had  the  satisfaction 
lo  find  his  judgment  confirmed  by  the  profession, 
to  whom  they  were  sold  in  lots  for  upwards  of 
£500,  in  1757. 

CJESAREA,  an  ancient  city  on  the  coast  of 
Pho?nicia.  It  was  conveniently  situated  for  trade ; 
but  had  a  very  dangerous  harbour,  so  that  no 
ships  could  be  safe  in  it  when  the  wind  was  at 
south-west.  Herod  the  Great,  king  of  Judea, 


CJES 

remedied  this  inconvenience  at  an  immense  ex- 
pence  and  labor,  and  made  it  one  of  the  most 
convenient  havens  on  that  coast.  He  also  beau- 
tified it  with  many  buildings,  and  bestowed 
twelve  years  on  the  finishing  and  adorning  it. 

C.KSAREA  AUGUSTA,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
Roman  colony,  situated  on  the  river  Iberus  in 
Spain,  before  called  Salduba,  in  the  territories 
of  the  Edetani;  now  commonly  thought  to  be 
Saragossa. 

CAESARIAN  OPERATION.    See  MIDWIFERY 

C^ESARIANS,  C&SARIENSES,  in  Roman  an- 
tiquity,  were  officers  or  ministers  of  the  Roman 
emperors ;  they  kept  the  account  of  the  revenues 
of  the  emperors ;  and  took  possession,  in  their 
name,  of  such  things  as  devolved  or  were  con- 
fiscated to  them. 

C^ESAROMAGUS,  a  town  of  theTrinobantes, 
in  Britain ;  by  some  supposed  to  be  Chelmsford, 
by  others  Brentford,  and  by  others  Burflet. 

C7ESONES,  a  denomination  given  to  those 
cut  out  of  their  mothers'  wombs.  Pliny  ranks 
this  as  an  auspicious  kind,  of  birth ;  the  elder 
Scipio  Africanus,  and  the  first  of  the  family  of 
Caesars,  were  brought  into  the  world  in  this  way. 

C^ESTUS,  in  antiquity,  a  large  gantlet  made 
of  raw  hide,  which  the  wrestlers  made  use  of 
when  they  fought  at  the  public  games. — It  was  a 
kind  of  leathern  strap,  strengthened  with  lead  or 
plates  of  iron,  which  encompassed  the  hand,  the 
wrist,  and  part  of  the  arm,  to  defend  these  parts 
as  well  as  to  enforce  their  blows. 

C./ESULIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  class 
syngenesia,  order  polygamia  aequalis.  Recep- 
tacle chaffy ;  seeds  involved  in  the  chaff;  down- 
less;  calyx  three-leaved.  Two  species  only  :  1, 
C.  axillaris,  with  leaves  lanceolate,  tapering  to 
the  base,  serrate,  alternate ;  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies.  2.  C.  radicans:  with  leaves  lanceolate, 
tapering  to  the  top,  very  entire,  opposite.  A  na- 
tive of  Guinea. 

CAESURA,  in  the  ancient  poetry,  is  when, 
in  the  scanning  of  a  verse,  a  word  is  divided,  so 
that  one  part  seems  cut  off,  and  belongs  to  a  dif- 
ferent foot  from  the  rest : 

Mentijri  nojli :  nunjquam  menjdacia  prosunt ; 

where  the  syllables  ri,  li,  quam,  and  men,  are 
caesuras.  Or,  it  denotes  a  certain  division  of  the 
words  between  the  feet  of  a  verse  ;  whereby  the 
last  syllable  of  a  word  becomes  the  first  of  a  foot : 
as  in 

Armavi|rumque  ca(no,Troji/«qui  |  primus  ab  |  oris  j 
where  the  syllables  no  and  jtE  are  caesuras. 

C.ESURA,  or  C.SOURE,  in  the  modern  poetry, 
denotes  a  rest  or  pause  towards  the  middle  of  an 
Alexandrian  verse,  by  which  the  voice  and  pro- 
nunciation are  aided,  and  the  verse,  as  it  were, 
divided  into  two  hemistichs. 

CjETERIS  PARIBUS,  a  Latin  term  in  fre- 
quent use  among  mathematical  and  physical 
writers.  The  words  literally  signify  other  things 
being  alike  or  equal.  Thus  we  say,  the  heavier 
the  bullet, caeteris  paribus,  the  greater  the  range; 
i.  e.  by  how  much  the  bullet  is  heavier,  if  the 
length  and  diameter  of  the  piece  and  strength  of 
the  powder  be  the  same,  by  so  much  will  the 
utmost  range  or  distance  of  a  piece  of  ordnance 
be  the  greater.  Thus  also,  in  a  physical  way, 


CAFFRARIA. 


we  say,  the  velocity  and  quantity  circulating  in 
a  given  time  through  any  section  of  an  artery, 
will,  creteris  paribus,  be  according  to  its  diame- 
ter, and  nearness  to  or  distance  from  the  heart. 

C.&TOBRIX,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town 
of  Lusitania,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  on  the 
east  side;  now  extinct.  It  had  its  name  from 
its  fishery ;  and  there  still  exist  fish-ponds  on  the 
shore,  made  with  plaster  of  Paris,  which  illus- 
trate the  name  of  the  ruined  city. 

CZEYX,  in  mythology,  a  king  of  Thrace,  who 
was  metamorphosed  into  a  halcyon. 

CAFER,  in  entomology,  an  African  species  of 
cirnex :  color  black,  with  a  white  band  on  the 
thorax  ;  ferruginous  wing-cases,  with  four  white 
spots.  Also  a  species  of  green  scarabaeus,  with 
the  margin  of  the  thorax  and  elytrse  spotted  with 
white.  Inhabiting  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

CAFER,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  merops, 
with  gray  plumage  and  a  yellow  spot  near  the 
anus,  tail  long.  Native  of  Ethiopia.  Also,  a 
species  of  picus,  brown  above,  beneath  light 
green,  dotted  with  black,  the  under  part  of  the 
wings  and  tail  vermilion  colored.  Found  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

CAFFA,  or  KAFFA,  a  city  and  port  town  of 
Russia  in  Europe,  situated  on  the  south-east 
part  of  Crim  Tartary.  It  is  the  most  consider- 
able town  in  the  country,  and  gives  name  to  the 
straits  mentioned  below.  It  was  anciently  called 
Theodosia ;  a  name  which  has  been  restored 
since  the  Russians  have  obtained  this  country. 
It  is  150  miles  north-east  of  Constantinople. 

CAFFA,  STRAITS  OF,  run  from  the  Euxine  or 
Black  Sea,  to  the  Palus  Meotus,  or  Sea  of  Azoph. 

CAFFACA,  in  natural  history,  a  name  given 
by  the  Turks  and  Tartars  to  a  peculiar  kind  of 
earth,  of  a  gray  color,  having  a  light  cast  of  green 
in  it.  It  is  very  soft  and  unctuous,  and  resem- 
bles our  fullers'  earth ;  but  is  more  astringent, 
and  adheres  very  firmly  to  the  tongue ;  these 
people  use  this  earth  when  they  bathe. 

CAFFEIN,  the  base  of  coffee.  By  adding 
muriate  of  tin  to  an  infusion  of  unroasted  coffee, 
M.  Chenevix  obtained  a  precipitate,  which  he 
washed  and  decomposed  by  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. The  supernatant  liquid  contained  a  pecu- 
liar bitter  principle,  which  occasioned  a  green 
precipitate  in  concentrated  solutions  of  iron. 
When  the  liquor  was  evaporated  to  dryness,  it 
was  yellow  and  transparent  like  horn.  It  did 
not  attract  moisture  from  the  air,  but  was  soluble 
in  water  and  alcohol.  The  solution  had  a  plea- 
sant bitter  taste,  and  assumed  with  alkalies  a 
garnet-red  color.  It  is  as  delicate  a  test  of  iron 
as  infusion  of  galls ;  yet  gelatine  occasions  no 
precipitate  with  it. 

CAFFER,  Bos.     See  Bos. 

CAFFER,  in  entomology,  a  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
species  of  cerambyx  ;  color  brassy  green,  thorax 
spinous,  wing-cases  testaceous,  and  short  an- 
tennae. 

CAFF1LA,  a  company  of  merchants  or  tra- 
vellers who  join  together,  in  order  to  go  with 
more  security  through  the  dominions  of  the  Grand 
Mogul,  and  other  countries  on  the  continent  of 
the  East  Indies.  The  caffila  differs  from  a  ca- 
ravan, at  least  in  Persia;  for  the  caffila  belongs 
properly  to  some  sovereign  or  some  powerful 


company  in  Europe,  whereas  a  caravan  is  a  com- 
pany of  particular  merchants,  each  trading  upon 
his  own  account. 

CAFFRA,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  apis, 
hirsute  and  black,  with  the  posterior  part  of  the 
thorax  and  anterior  part  of  the  abdomen  yellow. 

CAFFRA,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  certhia  ; 
color  fuscous,  the  breast  and  abdomen  pale,  and 
the  middle  feathers  of  the  tail  longest.  This  bird 
and  the  Caffra  apis  are  both  natives  of  Caffraria, 
whence  their  name. 

CAFFRARIA,  a  country  of  Africa,  extending 
across  the  southern  part  of  the  continent,  and 
contained  on  the  west  between  the  twentieth  and 
twenty-fifth  degree  of  south  latitude,  and  between 
the  twenty-fourth  and  thirty-second  degree  of 
south  latitude  on  the  east.  Some  geographers 
have  applied  this  name  to  the  whole  country  ly- 
ing south  of  Cape  Negro  and  the  River  Del 
Spiritu  Santo,  and  reaching  toward  the  north, 
between  Lower  Guinea  and  Monomatapa,  as 
high  as  the  equator.  But  the  appellation  should 
be  confined  to  that  portion  of  cou-ntry  inhabited 
by  the  Caffres,  from  whom  it  takes  its  name ; 
a  people  with  whom  we  are  closely  connected  by 
our  colonial  possessions  at  the  Cape,  and  differing 
widely  in  appearance,  disposition,  and  manners, 
both  from  the  negroes  as  well  as  the  Hottentots  of 
this  continent. 

Of  their  countiy  our  knowledge  is  as  yet  de- 
fective, though  it  has  been  lately  increased  by  the 
travels  of  Mr.  Campbell  and  others.  The  Booa 
huanas,  Barroloos,  Damaras,  Tambookies,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  Cafferland,  who  are  particu- 
larly distinguished  by  the  colonists  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  by  the  name  of  Caffres,  are  the 
principal  tribes  of  which  we  have  any  account : 
and  it  is  to  the  latter  of  these  that  the  descrip- 
tions of  Paterson,  Sparmann,  Vaillant,  and  Bar- 
row, refer. 

Towards  the  east,  this  country  is  in  many 
places  extremely  fertile.  The  mountains  are  co- 
vered with  forests,  and  the  plains  with  luxuriant 
herbage,  refreshed  and  fertilised  by  innumerable 
streams.  But  towards  the  west  it  is  a  perfect 
desert.  The  inhabitants  keep  no  cattle,  and  their 
whole  subsistence  depends  upon  the  exchanging 
of  copper  rings  and  beads  with  the  Booshuanas 
on  the  east,  and  the  Namaqua  Hottentots  on  the 
south.  These  rings  they  manufacture  from  cop- 
per ore,  found  in  great  abundance,  in  a  chain  01 
mountains  extending  from  the  Orange  River  to 
the  tropic.  On  the  banks  of  the  Great  Fish  River, 
which  is  the  boundary  between  the  Cape  colony 
and  Cafferland,  Mr.  Barrow  experienced  a  very 
remarkable  variation  in  the  temperature  of  the 
air,  during  the  space  of  two  days,  and  the  climate 
generally  is  very  variable,  but  they  have  little 
rain,  except  in  summer,  when  it  is  accompanied 
by  thunder  and  lightning. 

Mr.  Campbell  has  principally  illustrated  the 
towns  of  the  interior,  which  we  treat  in  their  al- 
phabetical places,  and  particularly  Lekatoo, 
which  was  also  visited  in  1801  by  commissioners 
from  the  Cape  colonial  government.  See  AF- 
RICA. 

The  history  and  habits  of  the  Caffres  have  be- 
come additionally   interesting   to    this   country 
since  the  tide  of  emigration  has  been  directed 
B2 


CAFFRARIA. 


eastward  of  our  Cape  colony,  and  their  charac- 
ter has  become,  to  numerous  British  settlers,  that 
of  the  most  important  plunderers  upon  earth. 

These  tribes  ars  supposed  to  be  of  Arabic 
origin.  They  call  themselves  Kaussis.  Like  the 
Hottentots,  they  are  a  singularly  insulated  race. 
We  are  persuaded  from  a  diligent  comparison  of 
the  best  accounts,  that,  also,  like  the  Hottentots, 
they  ;ire  a  greatly  injured  people,  and  have  been 
goadod,  by  the  bad  usage  of  many  generations, 
to  the  outrages  they  are  still  found  to  commit. 
The  practice  of  the  rite  of  circumcision  alone 
seems  to  connect  them  with  the  history  of  the 
world.  This  they  perform,  like  the  Mahomme- 
dans,  in  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  year,  but  con- 
nect with  it  no  religious  ceremony  or  notion, 
except  that  of  respect  to  their  ancestors.  If  they 
have  any  sort  of  religion  besides,  it  is  unaccom- 
panied with  any  public  rites.  Their  language  is 
soft  and  harmonious,  and  differs  much  from  that 
of  the  Hottentots,  although  the  names  of  their 
mountains  and  rivers  are  evidently  of  Hottentot 
origin. 

The  dwellings  of  these  people  resemble  bee- 
hives, constructed  on  a  wooden  frame,  and  plas- 
tered both  within  and  without  with  a  composition 
of  clay  and  the  dung  of  cattle.  They  are  then 
neatly  covered  with  a  kind  of  matting. 

Every  Caffer  bears  arms,  not  as  a  profession, 
but  as  the  exigence  of  his  affairs  seem  to  de- 
mand it.  They  are  -all  both  shepherds  and 
warriors,  as  have  been  the  greatest  and  the  best 
of  mankind  ;  they  evidently  prefer  the  former 
mode  of  life,  and  there  seems  no  just  foundation 
for  attributing  to  them  a  cruel  or  sanguinary 
disposition  ;  their  moderation  towards  the  colo- 
nists, in  a  variety  of  instances,  directly  indicates 
the  contrary.  And  of  treachery  they  have  not  a 
shade  in  their  character.  '  Le  Caffre,'  says  M. 
Vaillant,  '  cherche  toujours  son  ennemi  face  a 
face;  il  ne  peut  lancer  sa  hassagai,  qu'il  ne  soit 
a  decouvert ;  le  Hottentot,  au  contraire,  cache 
sous  une  roche,  ou  derriere  un  buisson,  envoie 
la  mort,  sans  s'exposer  a  la  recevoir ;  1'un  est  le 
tigre  perh'de  qui  fond  traitreusement  sur  la  proie; 
1'autre  est  le  lion  genereux  qui  s'annonce,  se 
montre,  attaque,  et  peril,  s'il  n'est  pas  vainquer.' 
His  principal  weapons  are  the  hassagai,  or 
omkontoo,  as  he  calls  it,  a  sort  of  spear  with  an 
iron  head  of  a  foot  long,  fixed  to  a  tapering  shaft 
of  about  four  feet  in  length;  and  the  keerie. 
The  former  he  throws  with  wonderful  dexterity, 
seldom  failing  of  his  mark,  at  the  distance  of 
fifty  or  sixty  paces.  The  keerie  is  used  either 
in  a  close  engagement  or  at  a  distance.  It  is 
n  club  of  about  two  feet  and  a  half  long,  and  at 
one  end  nearly  three  inches  in  diameter.  To 
these  we  may  add  a  shield  of  an  oval  shape,  made 
of  the  thickest  part  of  a  bullock's  hide,  which 
he  carries  to  defend  himself  against  the  darts  and 
arrows  of  his  enemy.  Unlike  his  neighbours, 
the  Hottentots  and  Bosjesmans,  he  does  not  use 
poison  on  his  weapons,  and  rarely  attacks  by 
surprise. 

The  Caffres  are  more  attached  to  a  pastoral 
than  an  agricultural  life;  though  their  soil,  as 
far  as  it  is  known,  and  particularly  to  the  east, 
offers  great  facilities  for  cultivation,  and  is  so 
extremely  fertile,  that,  with  a  very  little  labor, 


it  might  be  made  to  produce  the  finest  grain  and 
fruits  of  the  colony.  So  extremely  negligent  are 
they  of  these  advantages,  that  a  large  species 
of  water  melon  and  niil'.et  aie  their  principa, 
culinary  plants.  They  likewise  cultivate  some 
tobacco  and  hemp,  both  of  which  they  use  for 
smoking.  They  rarely  kill  any  of  the  cattla 
for  food,  except  to  show  hospitality  to  a  stranger. 
Milk  is  their  ordinary  diet,  which  they  always 
use  in  a  curdled  state ;  berries  of  various  de- 
scriptions, and  the  seeds  of  plants,  which  the 
natives  call  plantains,  are  also  eaten,  and  a  few 
of  the  gramineous  roots  with  which  the  woods 
and  the  banks  of  the  rivers  abound.  Occasion- 
ally too,  the  palm-bread  of  the  Bosjesmans  is 
found  amongst  them.  Their  total  ignorance  of 
the  use  of  ardent  spirits,  and  fermented  liquors, 
and  their  general  temperance  and  activity,  pre- 
serve them  from  the  ravages  of  many  disorders 
which  abound  amongst  the  other  native  tribes,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  value  of  their  independence. 
Their  wealth  consisting  solely  of  their  cattle, 
they  devote  the  principal  part  of  their  time  to 
the  management  of  them,  which  is  conducted 
with  great  regularity;  and  even  the  affairs  of 
the  dairy  are  superintended  wholly  by  the  men. 
By  a  sharp  whistling  sound,  made  either  artifi- 
cially with  a  piece  of  bone  or  ivory,  or  by  means 
of  the  hand  applied  to  the  mouth  (as  our  Eng- 
lish boys  frequently  make  it),  they  contrive  to 
inure  their  cattle  to  a  sort  of  mechanical  train- 
ing. One  signal  of  this  kind  disperses  them  in 
the  morning  to  their  pastures,  another  separates 
the  cows  from  the  herd  to  be  milked,  and  a 
third  collects  them  all  for  marching.  Among 
their  oxen  many  resemble  the  black  cattle  of  the 
Highlands,  others  are  as  remarkable  for  their 
size,  and  are  not  unlike  the  Alderney  cow. 
Some  are  used  for  riding,  as  they  have  no  horses 
among  them,  and  the  horns  of  these  they  twist 
into  a  variety  of  fantastic  shapes.  The  con- 
structing their  habitations,  y  the  breaking  up  of 
the  ground  and  preparing  it  for  the  seed,  and 
the  gathering  in  of  their  harvest,  fall  to  the  lot 
of  the  women ;  who  also  manufacture  a  coarse 
earthenware  for  boiling  their  food,  and  very  neat 
reed  baskets,  which  serve  as  milk  pails.  The 
commerce  of  this  people  is  divided  between 
the  Dutch  farmers  and  their  eastern  neighbours, 
the  Tambookies.  To  the  former  they  bring 
their  cattle  in  exchange  for  small  pieces  of 
copper  and  iron,  glass  beads,  and  other  trifles  ; 
from  the  Tambookie  nation  they  procure  their 
wives. 

Previous  courtship  is  not  considered  necessary 
to  marriage.  When  a  man  once  selects  the  ob- 
ject of  his  wishes,  nothing  remains  but  to  strike 
a  bargain  with  the  father ;  the  amount  of  which 
is  generally  an  ox  or  a  couple  of  cows  ;  and  the 
damsel  resigns  herself  to  her  fate,  without  emo- 
tion or  surprise.  The  Tambookie  wives,  how- 
ever, are  thought  rather  a  dear  commodity ;  they 
are  rarely  obtained  but  by  the  chiefs  ;  and,  among 
the  common  people,  this  custom  of  purchasing 
wives  renders  polygamy,  though  allowable,  not 
frequent,  as  they  can  seldom  afford  the  price  of 
more  than  one.  Their  marriages  are  celebrated 
with  feasts  and  dancing,  which  not  unfrequently 
last  for  weeks  together.  '  A  Caffre  woman," 


C  A  F  F  R  A  II  I  A. 


Mr.  Bartow  says,  'is  only  serious  when  she 
dances ;  and  at  such  times  her  eyes  are  constantly 
fixed  on  the  ground,  and  her  whole  body  seems 
to  be  thrown  into  convulsive  motions.' 

The  government  of  the  Caffres  is  monarchical, 
but  administered  by  various  subordinate  chiefs, 
who  are  distinguished  from  the  people  at  large  by 
a  brass  chain  suspended  on  the  left  side  of  the 
head,  from  a  wreath  of  copper  beads.  The  regal 
honor  descends  from  father  to  son  ;  in  default  of 
the  latter  to  a  nephew ;  and,  in  default  of  both, 
it  becomes  elective,  an  occasion,  when  it  occurs, 
of  considerable  strife.  Their  rulers  seem  to  have 
no  control,  however,  over  the  lives  or  properties 
of  those  they  govern.  Their  laws,  apparently 
suggested  by  natural  principles,  are  very  few  arid 
simple.  If  the  death  of  a  fellow  creature  be  the 
effect  of  accident,  a  fine  is  paid  to  the  relatives  of 
the  deceased,  but  premeditated  murder  is  visited 
with  instant  death.  Of  imprisonment  for  any 
crime  they  have  no  conception ;  restitution  is  the 
punishment  inflicted  for  theft ;  and  the  same  laws, 
in  cases  of  their  delinquency,  are  applied  equally 
to  the  chiefs  and  to  their  subjects. 

Mr.  Barrow,  in  the  course  of  his  first  expedi- 
tion into  Caffre-land,  penetrated  to  the  capital, 
which  is  not  far  east  of  the  Fish  River,  and  con- 
ducted a  negociation  with  their  king  Gaika,  of 
which  he  gives  a  very  interesting  account.  Hav- 
ing waited  for  some  time  in  conversation  with 
the  mother  of  this  chief,  about  thirty-five,  and 
his  queen,  a  very  pretty  girl  of  fifteen,  the  king 
made  his  appearance  on  an  ox  in  full  gallop,  at- 
tended by  five  or  six  of  his  people.  Business 
commenced,  with  little  ceremony,  undertheshade 
of  a  mimosa.  Anticipating,  with  great  prompti- 
tude and  ease  of  manner,  the  general  object  of 
the  visit,  he  began  by  observing,  that  none  of  the 
Uaffres  who  had  passed  the  frontier  were  to  be 
considered  as  his  subjects.  '  He  said  they  were 
chiefs  as  well  as  himself,  and  entirely  indepen- 
dent of  him;  but  that  his  ancestors  had  always 
held  the  first  rank  in  the  country,  and  their  su- 
premacy had  been  acknowledged  by  the  colonists 
on  all  occasions;  that  all  those  Caffres  and  their 
chiefs  who  had  a  long  time  been  desirous  to  enter 
under  the  protection  of  his  family  had  been 
Aindly  received,  and  that  those  who  chose  rather 
to  remain  independent  had  been  permitted  to  do 
so  without  being  considered  in  the  light  of  ene- 
mies.' He  then  entered  as  freely  into  the  history 
of  his  family.  '  He  informed  us,'  continues  Mr. 
B.  'that  his  father  died  and  left  him  when  very 
young,  under  the  guardianship  of  Zembei,  one  of 
Ids  first  chiefs,  and  his  own  brother,  who  had 
acted  as  regent  during  his  minority ;  but  that 
raving  refused  to  resign  to  him  his  rights,  on 
loming  at  years  of  discretion,  his  father's  friends 
jad  showed  themselves  in  his  favor,  and  by  their 
assistance  he  had  obliged  his  uncle  to  fly ;  that 
this  man  had  then  joined  Khootar,  a  powerful 
chief  to  the  northward,  and  with  their  united 
power  had  made  war  upon  him :  that  he  had  been 
Hctorious  and  had  taken  Zembei  prisoner.'  In- 
stead of  a  cruel  death,  which  we  should  have, 
magined  the  uncle  now  to  have  been  exposed  to,. 
Be  was  treated  it  seems  with  great  lenity  and 
respect,  his  wives  and  children  were  returned  to 
him,  and  he  was  only  so  far  considered  a  captive 


as  never  to  be  suffered  to  leave  the  village  in 
which  the  king  resided. 

They  have  some  singular  practices  in  the  in- 
terment of  their  dead.  The  bodies  of  their  chil- 
dren are  deposited  in  ant-hills,  which  have  been 
excavated  by  the  ant-eater.  On  their  chiefs  only 
is  bestowed  the  honor  of  a  grave,  which  is  gene- 
rally dug  very  deep  in  the  places  where  their 
oxen,  stand  during  the  night;  the  rest  of  their 
dead  are  thrown  promiscuously  into  a  ditch,  and 
left  without  covering  to  be  devoured  by  the 
wolves,  whom  the  Caffres  never  attempt  to 
destroy,  from  a  consideration  of  their  services. 
With  this  apparent  neglect  of  their  bodies,  a 
Cattre  not  only  cherishes  great  respect  for  his 
deceased  relatives,  but  to  swear  by  their  memory 
is  to  take  the  most  sacred  oath. 

The  Caffre  women  possess  cheerful  and  ani- 
mated countenances,  are  modest  in  their  carriage, 
lively  and  curious,  but  not  intruding;  and,  though 
of  a  color  nearly  approaching  to  black,  their  well- 
constructed  features,  their  beautifully  clean  teeth, 
and  their  eyes  dark  and  sparkling,  combine  to 
render  many  comparatively  handsome.  They 
have  neither  the  thick  lips  nor  the  flat  noses  of 
African  negroes.  As  the  females  of  a  nation  but 
partially  civilised,  they  are  remarkable  for  a 
sprightly  and  active  turn  of  mind,  and  in  this 
respect  are  totally  different  from  their  neighbours 
the  Hottentots.  In  point  of  general  figure,  how- 
ever, the  latter  seem  to  have  the  advantage  in 
their  youth. 

The  men  are  tall,  muscular  and  robust,  of  an 
open  countenance,  and  manly  graceful  figure. 
Good  nature  and  intelligence  are  depicted  in 
their  features,  which  never  betray  any  signs  of 
fear  or  suspicion.  Their  hair,  which  is  short  and 
curling,  and  their  skin,  which  is  nearly  black, 
are  rubbed  over  with  a  solution  of  red  ochre ; 
and  though  a  few  wear  cloaks  of  skin,  most  of 
them  go  quite  naked.  The  women  wear  cloaks 
that  extend  below  the  calf  of  the  leg ;.  and  their 
head-dress,  which  is  a  leather  cap,  is  adorned 
with  beads,  shells,  and  polished  pieces  of  iron  01 
copper. 

CAFFRISTAN,  or  KUTTORE,  an  extensive 
mountainous  region  of  India,  bounding  Cabul  to 
the  north,  and  extending  northward  from  the 
thirty-fifth  degree  of  latitude  to  Cashmere.  The 
general  level  of  this  country  is  considerably 
above  those  on  each  side  of  it.  Kuttore  is  the 
general  name  of  this  tract;  that  of  Caffristan 
signifies  the  land  of  infidels.  It  is  classed  as  a 
dependency  of  Cashgar,  by  the  people  of  llinr 
dostan,  but  is  little  known  to  them.  It  seems 
to  be  governed  by  a  number  of  petty  chieftains, 
and  has  members  worth  the  attention  of  the 
various  enquirers  of  the  neighbourhood. 

CAGANUS,  or  CACANUS,  an  appellation 
anciently  given  by  the  Huns  to  their  kings.  The 
word  appears  also  to  have  been  formerly  applied 
to  the  princes  of  Muscovy^  now  called  czars. 
From  the  same  also,  probably,  the  Tartar  title 
chain  or  kan,  had  its  origin. 

CAGAO,  in  natural  history,  the  Indian  name 
of  a  large  bird  which  inhabits  the  mountains, 
and  feeds  on  pistachio  nuts,  and  other  fruit" 
which  it  swallows  whole.  It  is  very  voracious, 
and  is  of  the  size  of  a  hen,  but  has  a  longer  neck. 


CAG  ^ 

CAGE',  v.  &  n.  Fr.  cage ;  Ital.  gaggia,  gab- 
bia;  Belg.  kovi ;  Lat.  cavea;  a  place  of  con- 
finement ;  a  prison ;  a  coop  for  birds ;  generally 
a  place  shut  in  and  fastened. 

Take  any  bird  and  put  it  in  a  cage, 
And  do  all  thin  entente  and  thy  coragp, 
To  foster  it  tenderly  with  mete  and  drinke 
Of  all  deiutees  that  thou  canst  bethinke, 
And  keepe  it  all  so  clenely  as  thou  may  ; 
Although  the  cage  of  gold  be  never  so  gay. 
Yet  had  this  bird,  by  twenty  thousand  fold, 
Lever  in  a  forest  that  is  wide  and  cold, 
Gon  eten  worms,  and  swiche  wretchednesse  ; 
For  ever  this  bird  will  don  his  besinesse 
To  escape  out  of  this  cage  whan  that  he  may  : 
His  libertee  the  bird  desireth,  ay. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

See  whether  a  cage  can  please  a  bird  ?  or  whether 
a  dog  grow  not  fiercer  with  tying  ?  Sidney. 

He  taught  me  how  to  know  a  man  in  love  ;  in 
•which  cage  of  rushes,  I  am  sure  you  are  not  a  prisoner. 

Shakspeare. 

He  cwoln,  and  pampered,  with  high  fare, 
Sits  down,  and  snorts,  caged  in  his  basket  chair. 

Donne. 

Have  you  not  seen  the  nightingale 
A  prisoner  like  coopt  in  a  cage ; 
How  doth  she  chant  her  wonted  tale 
In  that  her  narrow  hermitage  ; 
Even  then  her  charming  melody  doth  prove 
That  all  her  bars  are  trees,  her  cage  a  grove. 

Old  Song.     Sir  ».  L' Estrange. 

The  bird  in  thrall,  the  more  contented  lyes, 
Because  the  hawke  so  neere  her  she  espyes, 
And  though  the  cage  were  open,  more  would  feare 
To  venture  out  than  to  continue  there  ; 
So  if  thou  couldst  perceive  what  birds  of  prey 
Are  hovering  round  about  thce  every  day, 
To  seize  thy  soule  (when  she  abroad  shall  goe, 
To  take  the  freedome  she  desireth  so), 
Thou  farre  more  fearfull,  wouldst  of  them,  become 
Then  thou  art  now  of  what  thou  fiyest  from. 

George  Withers. 

Though  slaves,  like  birds  that  sing  not  in  a  cage, 
They  lost  their  genius,  and  poetick  rage  ; 
H>mers  again  and  Pindars  may  be  found, 
And  his  great  actions  with  their  numbers  crowned. 

Waller. 

And  parrots,  imitating  human  tongue, 
And  singing  birds  in  silver  cages  hung  j 
And  every  fragrant  flower,  and  oilorous  green. 
Were  sorted  well,  with  lumps  of  amber  laid  between. 

Dry  den. 

The  reason  why  so  few  marriages  are  happy,  is, 
because  young  ladies  spend  their  time  in  making  nets, 
not  in  making  cages.  Swift. 

A  man  recurs  to  our  fancy,  by  remembering  his 
garment ;  a  beast,  bird,  or  fish,  by  the  cage,  or  court- 
yard, or  cistern,  wherein  it  was  kept. 

Wattt  on  the  Mind. 
The  yelping  cur  her  heels  assaults  ; 
The  magpie  blabs  out  all  her  faults  ; 
Poll  in  the  uproar,  from  her  cage, 
With  this  rebuke  outscrcamed  her  rage.  Gay. 

So  settling  on  his  cage,  by  play, 

And  chirp,  and  kiss,  he  seemed  to  say, 

You  must  not  live  alone. 
Nor  would  he  quit  that  chosen  stand, 
Till  I  with  slow  and  cautious  hand, 

Returned  him  to  his  own. 

Cou-per.   The  Faithful  Bird. 


CAG 

You  gave  me  last  week  a  young  linnet. 
Shut  up  in  a  fine  golden  cage  ; 

Yet  how  sad  the  poor  thing  was  within  it — 
O  how  did  it  flutter  and  rage  ; 

Then  he  moped  and  he  pined, 

That  his  wings  were  confined, 
Till  I  opened  the  door  of  his  den  ; 

Then  so  merry  was  he, 

Because  he  was  free, 
He  came  to  his  cage  back  again. 

Garrick, 

CAGES,  CAVEJE,  in  antiquity,  were  places  in 
the  ancient  amphitheatres,  wherein  wild  beast* 
were  kept,  ready  to  be  let  out  for  sport.  These 
beasts  were  usually  brought  to  Rome  shut  up  in 
oaken  or  beechen  cages,  artfully  formed,  and 
covered  or  shaded  with  boughs,  that  the  creatures, 
deceived  with  the  appearance  of  a  wood,  might 
fancy  themselves  in  their  forest.  The  fiercer 
sort  were  pent  in  iron  cages,  lest  wooden  prisons 
should  be  broke  through.  The  caveae  were  a 
sort  of  iron  cages  different  from  dens,  which 
were  under  ground  and  dark ;  whereas  the  caveae 
being  airy  and  light,  the  beasts  rushed  out  of 
them  with  more  alacrity  and  fierceness  than  if 
they  had  been  pent  under  ground.  Iron  cages 
have  been  formerly  used  for  the  security  or 
punishment  of  prisoners.  Bajazet  is  said  to  have 
died  in  one  when  prisoner  to  Timour  the  Tartar, 
but  the  correctness  of  this  idea  is  doubted,  and 
seemingly  on  good  grounds,  by  some  historians. 
They  were  used  in  France  by  Louis  XIV.,  and 
in  England  by  Edward  I.,  who  confined  the 
countess  of  Buchan  in  this  manner,  at  the  castle 
of  Berwick-upon-Tweed. 

CAGGAW,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by  the 
people  of  Guinea,  to  a  plant  which  they  boil  in 
water,  and  use  the  decoction  to  wash  the  mouth 
with,  as  a  cure  for  the  tooth-ache.  Its  leaves 
are  smooth  and  shining,  like  those  of  the  laurel, 
but  they  are  thin,  and  bend  like  those  of  the 
bay. 

CAGIT,  in  natural  history,  a  name  given  by 
the  people  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  to  a  spe- 
cies of  parrot,  very  common  in  their  woods  ;  it 
is  of  a  middling  size,  and  is  all  over  of  a  fine 
green  color. 

CAGLIARI,  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Sar- 
dinia, is  seated  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  has  a 
university,  and  is  an  archbishop's  see.  The  har- 
bour, which  is  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Mular- 
gia,  is  excellent,  and  the  town  has  a  good  trade; 
but  it  is  a  place  of  no  strength,  and  small  size. 
It  was  taken,  with  the  whole  island,  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1708,  who  transferred  it  to  the  emperor 
Charles  VI. ;  but  it  was  retaken  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1717,  and  about  two  years  afterwards  ceded 
to  the  duke  of  Savoy,  in  lieu  of  Sicily.  The  ob- 
jects of  traffic  are  salt,  oil,  and  wine.  Inhabitants 
about  30,000. 

CAGLIARI  (Paul),  called  also  Paulo  Veronese, 
an  excellent  painter,  born  at  Verona,  in  1532. 
Gabriel  Cagliari,  his  father,  was  a  sculptor,  and 
Antonio  Badile,  his  uncle,  was  his  master  in 
painting.  He  was  esteemed  the  best  of  the  Lom- 
bard painters,  and  styled,  il  pittor  felice,  the 
happy  painter.  There  is  scarcely  a  church  in 
Venice  where  some  of  his  performances  are  not 
to  be  seen.  De  Piles  says,  '  his  picture  of  the 
marriage  at  Cana,  is  almost  the  triumph  of 


CAI 

painting  itself.'  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  sent  for  him 
to  paint  the  Escurial,  and  made  him  great  offers; 
cut  Paul  excused  himself  from  leaving  his  own 
lountry,  where  his  reputation  was  so  well  estab- 
lished, that  most  of  the  princes  of  Europe 
ordered  their  ambassadors  to  procure  something 
of  his  hand  at  any  rate.  Titian  used  to  say,  he 
was  the  ornament  of  his  profession.  And  Guido 
lleni  being  asked  which  of  his  predecessors  he 
would  choose  to  be,  were  it  in  his  power,  after 
Raphael  and  Corregio,  named  Paul  Veronese. 
He  died  of  a  fever  at  Venice  in  1588,  and  had  a 
tomb  and  a  statue  of  brass  erected  to  his  mem- 
ory in  the  church  of  St.  Sebastian. 

CAHIRCONRIGH,  a  conical  mountain  of 
Ireland,  in  Kerry,  Munster,  more  than  700  yards 
above  the  sea  level,  and  forming  a  sort  of  penin- 
sula between  the  bays  of  Castlemayn  and  Tralee. 

CAI1ILLO,  in  ichthyology,  a  name  given  by 
some  authors  to  the  lupus  marinus,  or  wolf  fish. 

CAHORS,  a  considerable  walled  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Lot,  and 
ci-devant  province  of  Querci.  It  is  seated  on  a 
peninsula  of  the  river,  and  built  partly  on  a 
craggy  rock.  The  principal  street  is  narrow; 
and  terminates  in  the  market-place,  in  which  is 
the  town-house.  The  cathedral  is  a  Gothic 
structure,  and  has  a  large  square  steeple.  It  has 
a  university,  and  is  forty-five  miles  north-west  of 
Toulouse.  It  has  a  population  of  1 1,728  inhabi- 
tants; and  manufactures  of  woollen  and  fine  linen, 
brandy,  and  oil.  In  the  vicinity  is  raised  the 
celebrated  vin  de  grave.  It  had  formerly  a 
university,  and  is  still  a  bishop's  see. 

CA11YS,  a  dry  measure  for  corn,  used  in 
some  parts  of  Spain,  particularly  at  Seville  and 
at  Cadiz.  It  is  near  a  bushel  of  our  measure. 

CAIA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  common  prae- 
nomen  among  the  women,  as  Caius  was  among 
the  men.  Hence  the  custom  of  the  bride  saying, 
on  being  introduced  into  her  husband's  house, 
'  Ubi  tu  Caius,  ego  Caia,'  i.  e.  '  Where  you  are 
master,  I  will  be  mistress.' 

CAIA,  in  the  Turkish  military  orders,  an  officer 
serving  in  the  post  of  a  deputy  or  steward,  and 
acting  for  the  body  of  janissaries. 

CAJA,  in  entomology,  the  specific  name  of 
the  garden  tiger  moth,  a  well-known  species  of 
phalana.  The  anterior  wings  are  whitish,  with 
large  fuscous  spots:  posterior  ones  red,  with 
black  spots. 

CAJ  ANA,  a  town  of  European  Russia,  in  Fin- 
land, the  capital  of  the  district  of  Cajana  Lehn. 
It  stands  on  lake  Ulea,  on  the  borders  of  Lap- 
land, where  the  Pytha  forms  a  tremendous  cata- 
ract. The  inhabitants  gain  their  living  by  tillage. 
It  is  seventy-two  miles  south-east  of  Uleaborg. 

CAIANI,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a  sect  of 
heretics,  thus  denominated  from  one  Caianus  of 
Alexandria,  their  leader,  otherwise  called  Aph- 
thartodocetae. 

CAJANIA,  a  province  of  Sweden,  the  same 
with  East  Bothnia.  See  BOTHNIA. 

CAIAPHAS,  high  priest  of  the  Jews,  succeed- 
ed Simon,  the  son  of  Camith,  about  A.  D.  16,  or 
as  Calrnet  thinks,  in  25,  and  married  the  daugh- 
ler  of  Annas,  who  was  conjoined  with  him  in  the 
priestly  office.  His  iniquitous  conduct  with  re- 
gard to  oui  Siviour,  with  his  strong,  though 


7  CAJ 

undesigned,  expression  of  the  necessity  of  one 
dying  to  save  others,  are  recorded  by  the  evan- 
gelists. About  two  years  after  our  Saviour's 
death,  Caiaphas  and  Pilate  were  both  deposed 
by  Vitellius,  then  governor  of  Syria,  and  after- 
wards emperor  :  whereupon  Caiaphas,  unable  to 
bear  this  disgrace,  killed  himself,  A.  D.  35.  See 

ANNAS. 

CAIC,  CAICA,  or  CAIQUE,  in  sea  language,  is 
used  to  denote  the  skiff  or  sloop  belonging  to  a 
galley.  The  Cossacs  give  the  same  name  to  a 
small  kind  of  bark  used  in  the  navigation  of  the 
Black  Sea.  It  is  equipped  with  forty  or  fifty 
soldiers;  their  employment  is  a  kind  of  piracy. 

CAICOS,  a  cluster  of  islands  in  the  Atlantic, 
between  St.  Domingo  and  the  Bahama  islands, 
on  the  edge  of  one  of  the  Bahama  banks.  North 
of  this  bank  are  four  or  five  islands  of  consider- 
able extent.  The  largest,  called  the  Grand 
Caicos,  is  due  north  from  St.  Domingo,  and 
about  400  miles  from  New  Providence ;  about 
sixty  miles  long,  and  two  or  three  broad.  There 
are  here  several  good  anchorages,  particularly 
that  at  St.  George's  Key,  where  there  is  a  port 
of  entry,  and  a  small  battery.  The  harbour  ad- 
mits vessels  drawing  fourteen  feet  water.  But 
none  of  the  settlements  are  very  flourishing. 
Long.  72°  W.,  lat.  21°  N. 

CATCUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  sphinx, 
inhabiting  Surinam.  Color  of  the  wings  fuscous  : 
posterior  pair  rufous,  streaked  with  black  ;  ab- 
domen cinerous,  with  black  rings. 

CAJEPUT  OIL,  the  volatile  oil  obtained  by 
distillation  from  the  leaves  of  the  cajeputa  offici- 
narum,  the  melaleuca  leucadertdron  of  Linnaeus, 
frequent  on  the  mountains  of  Atnboyna,  and 
other  Molucca  islands.  It  is  prepared  in  great 
quantities,  and  sent  to  Holland  in  copper  flasks. 
As  it  comes  to  us,  it  is  of  a  green  color,  from  the 
copper  of  the  flasks ;  very  limpid,  lighter  than 
water,  of  a  strong  smell  resembling  camphor,  and 
a  strong  pungent  taste,  like  that  of  cardamoms, 
and  is  often  adulterated  with  other  essential  oils, 
colored  with  the  resin  of  milfoil.  It  burns  en- 
tirely away,  without  leaving  any  residuum.  In 
medicine  it  is  used  as  a  general  stimulant  and 
antispasmodic.  Hence  it  is  recommended  in 
flatulent  colic,  paralysis,  chorea,  hooping  cough, 
and  convulsive  disorders  in  general.  The  dose 
is  from  one  to  six  drops.  It  is  also  of  consider- 
able use  externally  applied  for  the  relief  of  tooth- 
ache, rheumatic  pains,  sprains,  &c.  Insects  have 
a  great  aversion  to  this  oil ;  the  vapor  of  which 
appears  to  intoxicate  and  kill  them.  Cajeput 
oil  is  a  perfect  solvent  of  caoutchouc,  from 
which  solution  a  fine  drying  varnish  may  be 
made. 

CAJETA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  port  and 
town  of  Latium,  so  called  from  ^Eneas's  nurse ; 
now  called  Gaeta. 

CAJETAN  (Cardinal),  was  born  atCajeta,  in 
Naples,  in  14G9."  His  proper  name  was  Thomas 
de  Vio ;  but  he  adopted  that  of  Cajetan  from  the 
place  of  his  nativity.  lie  defended  the  authority 
of  the  pope,  which  suffered  greatly  at  the  council 
of  Nice,  in  a  work  entitled,  Of  the  Power  of  the 
Pope ;  and  for  this  work  he  obtained  the  bishop- 
ric of  Cajeta.  He  was  afterwards  raised  to  the 
archiepiscopal  see  of  Palermo,  and  in  1517  was 


CAI 

made  a  cardinal  by  pope  Leo  X.  The  year 
after,  he  was  sent  as  legate  into  Germany,  t<; 
quiet  the  commotions  raised  against  indulgences 
by  Martin  Luther;  but  Luther,  under  protec- 
tion of  Frederic,  elector  of  Saxony,  set  him  at 
defiance;  for  though  he  obeyed  the  cardinal's 
summons  in  repairing  to  Augsburg,  yet  he  ren- 
dered all  his  proceedings  ineffectual.  He  died 
in  1534.  He  wrote  Commentaries  upon  Aris- 
totle's Philosophy,  and  upon  Thomas  Aquinas's 
Theology;  and  made  a  literal  Translation  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament. 

CAIFA,  CAIPHA,  or  HAIFA,  a  sea-port  town 
of  Palestine,  on  the  south  side  of  the  bay  of 
Acre.  From  a  poor  village  this  has  sprung  up 
on  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  city,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Carmel.  It  is  built  without  plan,  and 
defended  by  walls  on  the  land  side,  which  were 
constructed  by  Daher,  a  late  chief  of  Acre ;  he 
also  established  a  custom-house  here,  at  a  time 
when  the  port  of  Acre  was  choked.  It  is  now 
governed  by  an  Arab  ;  the  inhabitants  are  Ma- 
hommedans  and  Greeks.  In  March,  1799,  the 
Turks  evacuated  Caifa  at  the  approach  of  the 
French  general,  Kleber,  leaving  abundant  stores 
in  the  place.  The  French  established  a  garri- 
son here,  and  built  ovens  for  the  use  of  the  army, 
which  tlie  British  soon  after  made  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  destroy.  Distant  thirteen  miles 
south-west  of  Acre. 

CAI-FONG,  or  KAI-FONG,  a  city  of  China, 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Honan.  It  stands 
only  two  leagues  from  the  Hoang-ho,  or  Yellow 
River,  and  is  situated  so  low  that  the  bed  of  the 
river  is  higher  ground  than  the  city,  and,  to 
guard  against  inundations,  strong  dykes  or  em- 
bankments have  been  constructed,  which  extend 
above  ninety  miles.  When  it  was  besieged  by 
100,000  rebels,  in  1642,  the  commander  of  a 
body  of  forces  sent  for  its  rel.ief,  resolved  to 
attempt  drowning  the  enemy,  by  breaking  down 
the  embankment.  His  stratagem  was  successful ; 
but,  while  the  enemy  was  destroyed,  the  inun- 
dation overwhelmed  also  the  city,  and  300,000 
of  the  inhabitants  perished.  At  that  time  it  was 
nine  miles  in  circumference.  It  has  been  sub- 
sequently re-built,  but  in  an  inferior  style.  Its 
jurisdiction  comprehends  four  cities  of  the 
second  class,  and  thirty  of  the  third.  Distant 
315  miles  south-west  of  Pekin. 

CAILLE  (Nicholas  Louis  de  la),  an  eminent 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  was  born  at  Ru- 
migny,  in  the  diocese  of  Rheims,  in  1713.  In 
1729  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  studied  the  clas- 
sics, philosophy,  and  mathematics.  Afterwards 
he  studied  divinity  at  the  college  of  Lisieux,  was 
ordained  a  deacon,  and  officiated  in  the  church 
of  the  college  of  Mazarin  several  years ;  but  he 
never  entered  into  orders,  apprehending  that  his 
astronomical  studies  might  too  much  interfere 
with  his  religious  duties.  In  1739  he  was  con- 
joined with  M.  de  Thury,  son  of  M.  Cassini,  in 
verifying  the  meridian  of  the  royal  observatory, 
through  the  whole  kingdom  of  France.  In  No- 
retnber,  the  same  year,  whilst  he  was  engaged 
in  the  operations  which  this  grand  undertaking 
Required,  he  was  elected  into  the  vacant  mathe- 
fcatical  chair,  which  the  celebrated  M.  Varignon 
Sad  so  worthily  filled.  Here  he  began  to  deliver 


8  CAI 

lectures  about  the  end  of  1740;  and  an  obser- 
vatory was  erected  for  his  use  in  the  college,  and 
furnished  with  the  best  instruments.  In  May 
1741,  he  was  admitted  into  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences,  as  an  adjoint  member  for  astronomy. 
Besides  many  excellent  papers  in  their  memoirs, 
he  published  Elements  of  Geography,  Mechan- 
ics, Optics,  and  Astronomy.  He  carefully  com- 
puted all  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon  that 
had  happened  since  the  Christian  era,  which 
were  printed  in  a  book  published  by  two  Bene- 
dictines, entitled  L'  Art  de  Verefier  les  Dates, 
&c.,  Paris,  1750,  in  4to.  Besides  these,  he  com- 
piled a  volume  of  Astronomical  Ephemerides, 
from  1745  to  1755 ;  another  from  1755  to  1765 ; 
a  third  from  1765  to  1775  ;  an  excellent  work, 
entitled  Astronomiae  Fundamenta  Novissimis 
Solis  et  Stellarum  Observationibus  Stabilita; 
and  the  most  correct  solar  tables  that  ever  ap- 
peared. Having  gone  through  a  seven  yeara 
series  of  astronomical  observations  in  his  own 
observatory,  he  formed  a  project  of  going  to 
observe  the  southern  stars  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  This  was  highly  approved  of  by  the 
academy,  and  by  the  prime  minister  Comte  d' 
Argenson,  and  readily  agreed  to  by  the  states  of 
Holland.  At  length,  on  the  21st  of  November, 
1 759,  he  sailed  for  the  Cape,  and  arrived  there 
on  the  19th  of  April,  1751.  Here  he  accom- 
plished the  measurement  of  a  degree  of  latitude, 
and  returned  to  Paris  the  27th  of  September, 
1754;  and  at  his  coming  into  port,  he  refused  a 
bribe  of  100,000  livres,  offered  by  one  that 
thirsted  less  after  glory  than  gain,  to  be  sharer 
in  his  immunity  from  custom-house  searchers. 
After  receiving  the  congratulatory  visits  of  his 
more  intimate  friends  and  the  astronomers,  he 
drew  up  a  reply  to  some  strictures,  which  pro- 
fessor Euler  had  published  relative  to  the 
meridian,  and  then  he  settled  the  results  of  the 
comparison  of  his  own,  with  the  observations  of 
other  astronomers,  for  the  parallaxes.  His  fame 
was  now  established  upon  a  firm  basis,  and  he 
was  unanimously  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Society  at  London  ;  of  the  institute  of  Bologna  ; 
of  the  Imperial  Academy  at  Petersburgh  ;  and  ot" 
the  royal  academies  of  Berlin,  Stockholm,  and 
Gottingen.  In  1760  he  was  attacked  by  a  severe 
fit  of  the  gout ;  which,  however,  did  not  inter- 
rupt his  studies ;  for  he  then  planned  out  a 
History  of  Astronomy,  through  all  Ages,  with  a 
Comparison  of  the  Ancient  and  Modern  Obser- 
vations, and  the  Construction  and  Use  of  the 
Instruments  employed  in  making  them.  In 
order  to  pursue  this  task,  in  a  suitable  retire- 
ment, he  obtained  a  grant  of  apartments  in  the 
royal  palace  of  Vincennes ;  and  whilst  his  astro- 
nomical apparatus  was  erecting  there,  he  began 
printing  his  catalogue  of  the  southern  stars,  and 
the  third  volume  of  his  Ephemerides.  The  state 
of  his  health  was,  towards  the  end  of  1763, 
greatly  reduced.  This  induced  him  to  settle  his 
affairs ;  his  MSS.  he  committed  to  the  care  and 
discretion  of  his  esteemed  friend  M.  Maraldi. 
It  was  at  last  determined  that  a  vein  should  be 
opened  :  but  this  brought  on  an  obstinate  lethar- 
gy, of  which  he  died,  aged  forty-nine. 

CAILLOMA,  a  town  of  Peru,  in  the  provincp 
of  Collahuas,  famous  for  the  silver  mines  of  its 


CAJ 

neighbourhood.  The  country  around  is  barren, 
but  the  mountains  are  supposed  to  contain  many 
untouched  veins  of  precious  metal.  It  is  forty- 
six  miles  N.N.  E.  of  Arequipa. 

CAIMACAN,  or  CAIMACAM,  in  the  Turkish 
iffairs,  a  dignity  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  answer- 
ing to  lieutenant  or  rather  deputy,  among  us. 
There  are  usually  two  caimacans;  one  resides  at 
Constantinople,  as  governor  thereof;  the  other 
attends  the  grand  vizier  in  quality  of  his  lieu- 
tenant, secretary  of  state,  and  first  minister  o° 
his  council,  and  gives  audience  to  ambassadors 
Sometimes  there  is  a  third  caimacan,  who  attend., 
the  sultan;  whom  he  acquaints  with  any  public 
disturbances,  and  receives  his  orders  concerning 
them. 

CAIMAN,  the  American  name  of  a  crocodile. 

CAIN,  the  eldest  son  of  Adam  and  Eve,  and 
th^  first  man  born  into  this  world.  He  is  gene- 
rally styled  the  first  murderer  ;  but,  although  it  is 
certain  that  he  killed  his  brother  Abel,  it  appears 
by  no  means  equally  certain  that  he  intended  it 
Death,  except  that  of  the  beasts  sacrificed  by 
Abtl,  was  then  hardly  known;  and  the  extent  of 
suffering  which  the  human  body  could  bear, 
without  inducing  death,  was  totally  unknown. 
It  seems,  therefore,  probable,  that  Cain  had 
killed  his  brother  in  a  fit  of  passion,  when  he 
intended  nothing  more  than  a  severe  drubbing. 
This  seems  further  confirmed  by  the  punishment 
inflicted  on  him  by  the  Searcher  of  hearts;  which 
was  only  banishment,  a  punishment  often  inflicted 
since  for  manslaughter.  He  is  the  first  builder 
on  record.  Philo  pretends  that  he  built  seven 
cities. — Alsted.  Chron.  p.  257. 

CAINAN,  or  KENAN,  the  son  of  Enoch,  great- 
grandson  of  Adam,  and  the  fourth  of  the  Ante- 
diluvian patriarchs,  was  born  A.M.  325:  begat 
Mahalaleel  in  395,  and  died  in  1235,  aged  910. 
There  was  another  Cainan,  the  son  of  Arphaxad, 
and  father  of  Salah  ;  mentioned  only  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  Gen.  x.  24.,  and  xi.  12;  and  in  Luke, 
iii.  36:  of  this  name  no  notice  is  taken  in  the 
Hebrew  text,  the  Samaritan,  or  the  Vulgate. 

CAINIANS,  or  CAINITES,  a  sect  of  heretics 
in  the  second  century,  so  called  on  account  of 
their  great  respect  lor  Cain,  and  Judas,  and 
others  of  the  same  class,  who,  according  to 
them,  had  a  mighty  knowledge  of  all  things. 
Dr.  Lardner,  however,  disputes  the  credibility 
of  the  relations,  of  Epiphanius  and  Irenaeus, 
concerning  this  people. 

CAJOLE',  v.  ~\      Fr.   cajoler ;    Goth,   goela, 

CAJOL'ER,         ygagoela,   to   entice.      See   to 

CAJOL'ERY,  n.  j  GULL.  It  describes  a  pur- 
pose, and  that  of  the  worst  kind,  deception;  to 
cajole  is  to  entrap  by  flattery,  coaxing  and 
wheedling. 

The  one  affronts  him,  while  the  other   cajoles  and 

pities  him  :  takes  up  his  quarrel,  shakes  his  head  at 

it,  clasps  his  hand  upon  his  breast,  and  then  protests 

and  protests.  L' Estrange. 

Thought  he,  'tis  no  mean  part  of  civil 

State  prudence,  to  cajole  the  devil.  Hudibrat. 

A  plan  to  rob  the  house  was  laid, 
The  thief  with  love  seduced  the  maid  ; 
Cajoled  the  cur,  and  stroked  his  head, 
And  bought  his  secresy  with  bread. 

Cor, 


)  CAI 

If  the  king  were  present,  Cleon,  there  would  be 
no  need  of  my  answering  to  what  you  have  just 
proposed.  He  would  himself  reprove  you  for  en- 
deavouring to  cajole  him  into  an  imitation  of  foreign 
absurdities,  and  for  bringing  enmity  upon  him,  by 
such  unmanly  flattery.  As  he  is  absent,  I  take  upon 
me  to  tell  you,  in  his  name,  that  no  praise  is  lasting 
but  what  is  rational. 

Q.  Curtius.  Trans. 

CAIQUE.     See  CAIC. 

CA  IRA,  French,  the  name,  or  rather  chorus 
of  a  political  French  song,  very  popular  all  over 
France,  in  the  beginning  of  the  revolution. 
The  words  literally  signify,  it  will  do,  or  it 
will  go  on,  and  are  said  to  have  been  used 
almost  proverbially  by  the  late  Dr.  Franklin, 
concerning  the  .  American  revolution ;  from 
which  circumstance  they  were  adopted  as  the 
chorus  of  the  French  revolution  song.  Songs, 
however,  as  well  as  states,  are  subject  to  revolu- 
tions. This  song  and  the  Marseilloise  hymn, 
another  popular  French  song,  were  both  prohi- 
bited from  being  sung  in  public  by  the  French 
directory,  soon  after  the  revolution  in  September 
1797,  they  being  considered  as  rallying  signs  of 
the  party  in  opposition. 

CAIRNS,  or  CARNES,  the  vulgar  name  of  those 
heaps  of  stones  which  are  to  be  seen  in  many- 
places  of  Britain,  particularly  Scotland  and 
Wales.  They  are  composed  of  stones  of  all  di- 
mensions, thrown  together  in  a  conical  form,  <i  • 
flat  stone  crowning  the  apex.  Various  causes 
have  been  assigned  by  the  learned  for  these 
heaps  of  stones.  They  have  supposed  them  to 
have  be^n,  in  times  of  inauguration,  the  places 
where  the  chieftain  elect  stood  to  show  himself 
to  best  advantage  to  the  people;  or  the  place 
from  whence  judgment  was  pronounced ;  or  to 
have  been  erected  on  the  road  side  in  honor  of 
Mercury;  or  to  have  heen  formed  in  memory  of 
some  solemn  compact,  particularly  where  accom- 
panied by  standing  pillars  of  stones ;  or  for  the 
celebration  of  certain  religious  ceremonies.  Sucli 
might  have  been  the  reasons,  in  some  instances, 
where  the  evidences  of  stone  chests  and  urns  are 
wanting:  but  these  are  so  generally  found  that 
they  seem  to  determine  the  most  usual  purpose 
of  the  piles  in  question  to  have  been  for  sepul- 
chral monuments.  Even  this  destination  might 
render  them  suitable  to  other  purposes,  particu- 
larly religious,  to  which  by  their  nature  they 
might  be  supposed  to  give  additional  solemnity. 
According  to  Toland,  fires  were  kindled  on  the 
tops  of  flat  stones,  at  certain  times  of  the  year, 
particularly  on  the  eves  of  the  first  of  May  and 
the  first  of  November,  for  the  purpose  of  sacri- 
ficing; at  which  time  all  the  people  having  ex- 
tinguished their  domestic  fires,  rekindled  them 
from  the  sacred  fires  of  the  cairns.  In  general, 
therefore,  these  accumulations  appear  to  have 
been  designed  for  the  sepulchral  protection  of 
heroes  and  great  men.  The  stone  chests,  the 
repository  of  the  urns  and  ashes,  are  lodged  in 
the  earth  :  sometimes  only  one,  sometimes  more, 
are  found  thus  deposited ;  and  Mr.  Pennant 
mentions  an  instance  of  seventeen  being  disco- 
vered under  the  same  pile.  Cairns  are  of  dif- 
ferent sizes,  some  of  them  very  large  Mr.  Pen- 
nant describes  one  in  the  island  of  Arian  114 


10 


CAIRO. 


feet  over,  and  of  vast  height.  They  may  justly 
be  supposed  to  have  been  proportioned  in  size 
to  the  rank  of  the  person,  or  to  his  popularity : 
the  people  of  a  whole  district  assembled  to  show 
their  respect  to  the  deceased ;  and,  by  an  active 
honoring  of  his  memory,  soon  accumulated  heaps 
equal  to  those  that  astonish  us  at  this  time.  But 
these  honors  were  not  merely  those  of  the  day ; 
as  long  as  the  memory  of  the  deceased  endured 
not  a  passenger  went  by  without  adding  a  stone 
to  the  heap;  they  supposed  it  would  be  an 
honor  to  the  dead,  and  acceptable  to  his  manes. 
To  this  moment  there  is  a  proverbial  expression 
among  the  Highlanders,  allusive  to  the  old  prac- 
tice :  a  suppliant  will  tell  his  patron,  '  Curri  mi 
doch  er  do  charne,'  '  I  will  add  a  stone  to  your 
cairn  ;'  meaning,  when  you  are  no  more,  I  will 
do  all  possible  honor  to  your  memory.  Cairns 
are  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  our  islands,  in 
Cornwall,  Wales,  and  all  parts  of  north  Britain ; 
they  were  in  use  among  the  northern  nations ; 
Dahlberg,  in  his  323d  plate,  has  giv-en  the  figure 
of  one.  In  Wales  they  are  called  carneddau : 
but  the  proverb  taken  from  them  there,  is  not  of 
the  complimental  kind :  '  Karn  ar  dy  hen,'  or, 
'  A  cairn  on  your  head,'  is  a  token  of  impre- 
cation. 

CAIRO,  or  GRAND  CAIRO,  (Victorious), 
sometimes  called  the  queen  of  cities,  stands  upon 
the  east  bank  of  the  Nile,  a  little  above  the 
Delta,  or  plain  of  Lower  Egypt.  Founded, 
according  to  the  oriental  writers,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,it  received  its  present  name  from  Moaz,  the 
first  caliph,  m  memory  of  his  conquest  of  Egypt. 
H*>re  he  erected  a  splendid  palace;  but  two  cen- 
turies elapsed  before  Cairo  could  be  considered 
as  anything  but  the  famed  residence  of  a  military 
sovereign.  In  the  Crusades  the  neighbouring 
capital  of  Egypt,  Fostat,  was  reduced  to  ashes, 
to  disappoint  the  Christians  of  their  booty ;  and 
the  inhabitants  sought  an  asylum  in  Cairo,  which 
from  that  period  became  the  capital  of  this  coun- 
try. It  was  greatly  enlarged,  adorned,  and  for- 
tified, by  the  emperor  Saladin,  and  was  in  the 
height  of  its  prosperity  about  the  commencement 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  As  a  central  emporium 
for  the  trade  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  closely 
connected  with  Alexandria,  it  was  a  first  rate 
commercial  city,  and  respectable  also  for  men  of 
science  and  learning.  But  the  conquest  of  Egypt 
by  the  Turks,  and  the  discovery  of  a  passage  to 
India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  diverted  this 
flourishing  trade,  and  all  the  intercourse  of  Europe 
with  the  east  into  a  different  channel,  and  caused 
a  decline  from  which  it  has  never  arisen.  But 
Cairo  is  still  described  as  a  large  city,  equal 
in  extent  to  Paris.  It  is  of  a  crescent  form,  more 
than  nine  miles  in  circumference ;  and  seen  from 
the  Nile,  from  which  it  is  about  a  mile  distant,  it 
presents  a  most  magnificent  scene,  in  which  the 
citadel  towering  above  innumerable  other  lofty 
edifices,  and  countless  minarets,  all  springing  as 
it  were  out  of  a  grove  of  the  richest  foliage,  are 
the  most  conspicuous  objects.  On  a  nearer  ap- 
proach the  streets  are  found  to  be  crooked,  nar- 
row, and  unpaved ;  and  from  the  crowds  of  men 
and  animals,  pressing  along  through  dust  and 
filth,  &re  any  thing  but  -agreeable.  The  houses 
me  chiefly  of  wood,  or  unburnt  bricks  dried  in 


the  sun,  and  consist  only  of  a  single  story.  Some, 
however,  are  constructed  of  a  soft  stone.  The 
houses  are  crowded  into  groupes,  with  large 
intervening  spaces,  all  of  which,  as  well  as  the 
courts  and  gardens  within  the  walls,  are  covered 
with  water  by  the  welcome  inundation  of  the 
Nile.  The  terraced  roofs  of  the  houses  are  de- 
scribed by  Sonnini  as  covered  with  innumerable 
turtle  doves,  crows,  kites,  and  vultures,  which 
are  never  disturbed  by  the  inhabitants,  and  con- 
sequently exhibit  a  degree  of  tameness  and  fami- 
liarity which  appears  surprising  to  an  European. 
In  the  interior  the  better  houses  have  a  large  hall, 
rising  the  whole  height  of  the  house,  and  covered 
with  a  small  dome.  Every  thing  here  is  arranged 
with  a  view  to  coolness ;  the  floor  is  inlaid  with 
marble  and  colored  earthenware,  and  fountains 
spring  up  into  marble  basins.  Mats  and  mattresses 
cover  the  floor,  over  which  is  spread  a  rich  car- 
pet, on  which  they  sit  cross-legged. .  Around  the 
wall  is  a  sort  of  sofa  with  cushions,  to  support 
the  back  and  elbows  ;  and  above,  at  the  height  of 
seven  or  eight  feet,  a  range  of  shelves  adorned 
with  porcelain.  The  walls  are  either  chequered 
with  sentences  from  the  Koran,  or  with  painted 
foliage  and  flowers.  The  windows  have  neither 
glass  nor  moving  sashes,  but  open  lattice  work, 
which  frequently  costs  more  than  our  glazing; 
and  into  which  a  dim  light  enters  from  the  inner 
courts,  pleasingly  qualified  by  their  verdure. 
The  widest  street  in  Cairo  is  one  which  traverses 
the  whole  length  of  the  city,  but  would  be  re- 
garded only  as  a  lane  in  Europe.  The  others 
are  so  narrow,  that  a  slight  covering  is  frequently 
thrown  over  them,  to  exclude  the  sun's  rays. 
Most  of  the  streets,  or  at  least  every  district,  has 
a  gate  which  is  shut  as  soon  as  it  is  dark.  A 
canal  supplied  by  the  Nile,  called  the  Calisch, 
and  which  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  broad, 
runs  through  the  city.  Its  mouth,  when  the 
waters  of  the  river  begin  to  increase,  is  closed  by 
a  mound  of  earth,  which  is  not  removed  till  they 
have  risen  to  a  certain  height.  The  opening 
then  takes  place,  and  a  magnificent  festival  is 
celebrated  on  the  occasion.  The  bashaw  places 
himself  in  a  tent,  which  stands  by  the  side  of  the 
canal ;  nuts,  melons,  and  some  small  coins,  are 
thrown  in,  and  a  discharge  of  fire-works  takes 
place.  From  the  river  to  the  city  the  canal  is 
only  an  ill  kept  ditch,  without  any  lining,  or  even 
any  regular  boundary.  The  Arabs  indeed  assert, 
that  it  is  paved  with  marble,  but  if  so,  it  is  en- 
tirely concealed  beneath  the  mud.  Along  the 
line  of  it,  in  the  city,  there  are  a  number  of 
large  squares,  from  a  quarter  to  three  quarters  of 
a  mile  round,  into  which  its  water  is  conducted. 
During  the  season  of  inundation,  these  of  course 
bear  the  appearance  of  lakes,  and,  being  bordered 
by  the  finest  houses  in  Cairo,  present  a  scene  of 
great  beauty,  especially  when  covered  with  plea- 
sure boats  and  barges,  and  enlivened  by  music 
and  fire  works.  When  the  inundation  subsides 
the  lake  becomes  a  marsh,  and  a  repository  of 
mud,  from  which  the  most  offensive  vapors  ex- 
hale. The  whole,  however,  is  quickly  dried  up 
by  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun,  and  it  is  then  soon 
covered  by  luxuriant  vegetation.  It  now  often 
becomes  a  theatre  for  those  exhibitions  which 
form  the  delight  of  the  inhabitants;  and  in  which 


CAIRO. 


11 


jugglers,  tumblers,  mountebanks,  and  dancing 
girls,  display  in  succession  their  various  feats. 
The  citadel,  which  stands  on  a  rocky  eminence, 
is  three  miles  in  circumference,  and  affords  one 
of  the  most  splendid  views  in  Egypt.  It  includes 
the  palace  of  the  pacha,  the  barracks  of  the  janis- 
saries, and  some  remains  of  antiquity ;  among 
which  is  Joseph's  well,  dug  to  the  depth  of  276 
feet  through  the  solid  rock.  The  diameter  of  the 
well  varies  at  different  depths,  and,  where  it  is 
contracted,  stages  are  formed  for  oxen  to  drive  a 
wheel  for  raising  the  water.  A  huge  pile  of 
building  within  the  citadel  is  called  Joseph's  pa- 
lace, the  great  hall  of  which  has  been  much  ad- 
mired. 

Among  the  other  public  buildings  of  this  city, 
the  resevoirs  for  water,  and  the  baths,  are  worth 
notice ;  the  warehouses  as  well  as  the  market  places, 
are  spacious  and  commodious ;  but  the  mosques,  of 
which  more  than  300  are  erected  within  the  walls, 
form,  with  their  numerous  and  lofty  minarets,  the 
chief  ornament  of  the  place.  The  Jews  have  a 
synagogue  here ,  and  the  Greeks,  and  other  sects 
of  .Christians,  places  of  worship. 

A  caravan  arrives  at  Cairo  from  Abyssinia, 
loaded  with  the  rich  productions  of  the  interior 
of  Africa,  and,  being  joined  by  another  from  the 
western  part  of  Africa,  it  proceeds  towards  Ara- 
bia. This  perilous  journey  is  undertaken  partly 
for  religious,  and  partly  fcr  commercial  purposes. 
Having  performed  the  prescribed  ceremonies  at 
the  holy  city,  and  exchanged  their  merchandise 
for  the  commodities  of  the  east,  the  immense  body 
of  travellers,  amounting,  it  is  said,  sometimes 
to  100,000,  return  from  Mecca  by  the  same  route. 
Its  manufactures  are  linen  cloth,  silk  stuffs,  sugar, 
sal-ammoniac,  salt-petre,  and  coarse  gunpowder; 
glass  lamps,  and  several  kinds  of  leather.  The 
mode  of  hatching  chickens  by  means  of  artificial 
heat,  which  has  been  long  known  in  Egypt,  is 
still  practised  here.  Cairo  also  contains  a  book- 
market,  where  a  prodigious  number  of  beautiful 
manuscripts  are  exposed  for  sale.  Here  Dr. 
Clarke  purchased  for  seven  pounds  a  complete 
copy  of  the  Arabian  Nights,  having  many  tales 
which  have  not  been  translated  into  the  European 
languages ;  but  it  was  unfortunately  lost.  Many 
of  the  Mamelukes  collect  large  and  expensive 
libraries.  The  police  here  is  well  managed,  and 
a  general  quiet  results.  The  principal  occasions 
on  which  it  is  disturbed,  are  those  of  marriage 
and  circumcision.  The  bride,  a  few  days  before 
the  ceremony,  walks  in  procession  to  the  bath, 
•where  she  remains  till  the  nuptials,  when  a  second 
procession  takes  place.  On  these  occasions,  all 
the  magnificence  which  a  family  is  able  to  dis- 
play is  ostentatiously  paraded.  The  bride,  pre- 
ceded by  a  band  of  music,  walks  below  a  mag- 
nificent canopy,  surrounded  and  followed  by  nu- 
merous attendants.  Every  article  of  finery  which 
can  be  collected  is  carried  by  the  attendants,  a 
small  portion  being  assigned  to  each.  The  pro- 
cessions for  the  other  purpose  are  also  splendid, 
and  attended  by  numerous  horsemen  and  bands 
of  music. 

The  population  of  Cairo  is  variously  stated, 
from  the  extreme  amounts  of  250,000,  300,000, 
to  700,000,  souls ;  it  is  composed  of  people  of 
all  countries  and  religions.  Among  those  of 


oriental  origin,  and  who  have  it  in  their  power 
to  indulge  in  them,  the  luxurious  manners  and 
customs  of  the  east  prevail.  Sailing  on  the  Nile 
is  one  great  amusement  of  all  classes  in  Cairo, 
and  vessels  of  a  light  construction  are  elegantly 
fitted  up  for  this  purpose.  Boulac,  about  a  mile 
to  the  west  of  Cairo,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  is  its  principal  port.  It  suffered  severely 
from  the  French,  who  plundered  and  burned  it 
to  the  ground. 

About  a  mile  distant,  higher  up  the  river,  stands 
Fostat,  or  Old  Cairo,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
formerly  the  capital  of  Egypt,  and  still  a  popu- 
lous place.  The  great  canal,  which  formed  a 
communication  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  sea, 
passes  off  from  the  river  near  this  place,  and 
proceeds  towards  Cairo,  where  it  divides  the  city 
as  we  have  already  mentioned.  This  place  is 
inhabited  in  a  great  measure  by  Copts,  who  have 
twelve  churches,  and,  among  others,  one  of  pe- 
culiar sanctity,  which  they  report  to  have  been 
the  residence  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  when  she  was 
compelled  to  fly  into  Egypt.  Their  c'hurches 
generally  consist  of  a  nave  and  two  aisles,  with 
galleries  supported  by  pillars,  and  adorned  in 
front  with  columns  that  support  the  roof.  The 
part  containing  the  altar  is  separated  by  a  parti- 
tion that  is  finely  adorned  with  carving,  and  inlaid 
with  ivory  and  tortoise-shell.  The  patriarch  of 
the  Coptic  church  is  established  at  Old  Cairo. 
A  street  is  called  by  his  name,  in  which  is  the 
church  of  St.  Macarius,  where  he  is  elected  and 
enthroned.  The  Jews  have  also  an  ancient  syna- 
gogue here.  Dr.  Pococke  saw  two  ancient 
manuscripts  of  the  law,  and  a  manuscript  of  the 
Bible  amongst  them,  pretended  to  have  been 
written  by  Ezra.  To  the  north-east  there  is  an 
ancient  mosque,  called  Amrah,  said  to  contain 
nearly  400  pillars,  collected  from  various  more 
ancient  edifices.  In  Old  Cairo  are  granaries, 
which  are  honored  with  the  name  of  Joseph; 
they  are  square  courts,  surrounded  with  walls 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high,  and  without  any  roof. 
The  grain  is  only  covered  with  matting,  which  ill 
protects  it  from  birds,  for  whose  depredations  an 
allowance  is  said  to  be  made  to  the  keepers. 
The  aqueduct,  a  rustic  edifice,  by  which  water 
is  conveyed  to  the  castle  of  New  Cairo,  is  a  su- 
perior work  ;  it  is  a  hexagon  building,  each  side 
being  eighty  or  ninety  feet  in  length,  and  about 
as  many  in  height ;  on  the  outside  there  is  an 
easy  ascent  for  oxen,  who  turn  the  Persian 
wheels  by  which  the  water  is  raised  to  the  top. 
The  whole  is  supported  by  arches  from  ten  to  fif- 
teen feet  wide,  of  which  Pococke  counted  289, 
but  Sonnini  350.  Opposite  to  it  is  the  mouth  of 
the  canal  before  mentioned.  On  an  island  in  the 
middle  of  the  river  (Rhoda),  is  the  celebrated 
Mikias  Nilometer,  or  measurer  of  the  Nile,  the 
purpose  of  which  is  to  ascertain  the  rising  of  the 
river  during  the  annual  inundation.  It  is  com- 
posed of  a  noble  marble  pillar,  surmounted  by 
a  Corinthian  capital,  which  rises  from  the  centre 
of  a  basin  having  a  communication  with  the  Nile, 
and,  being  graduated,  indicates  the  increase  in  the 
height  of  that  important  stream.  A  splendid 
dome  supported  by  columns,  surmounts  the  pil- 
lar. This  building  is  said  to  be  1000  years  old. 

CAIRO,  a  small  town  of  Italy,  in  Piedrnout, 


CA1 


12 


CAI 


in  tnc  Duchy  of  Montferrat,  between  Acqui  and 
Finale,  on  the  road  to  Savona.  Here  is  a  consi- 
derable carrying  trade,  and  here  was  fought  on 
21st  September,  1794,  a  bloody  battle  between 
the  French  and  the  Austro-Sardinians,  in  which 
the  latter  were  defeated.  In  1796  the  town  was 
taken  by  the  French.  It  stands  on  the  river 
Bormida  ;  twelve  mile?  E.N.E.  of  Ceva,  eighteen 
south  of  Acqui,  and  twenth-five  E.N.E.  of  Mon- 
dovi.  Population  4000. 

CAIRO  is  also  th»  name  of  a  post-township 
of  the  United  States,  in  Greene  County,  New 
York. 

CAISSON,  in  military  affairs,  a  wooden  frame 
or  chest,  made  square,  the  side  planks  about 
two  inches  thick :  it  may  be  made  to  contain 
loaded  shells.  Caissons  are  buried  under  ground, 
at  the  depth  of  five  or  six  feet,  under  some  work 
the  enemy  intends  to  possess  himself  of;  and 
when  he  becomes  master  of  it,  fire  is  put  to  the 
train,  which  inflames  the  shells  and  blows  up  the 
assailants.  Sometimes  a  quantity  ofloose  powder 
is  put  into  the  chest  on  which  the  shells  are 
placed,  sufficient  to  put  them  in  motion,  and 
raise  them  above  ground  ;  at  the  same  time  that 
the  blast  of  powder  sets  fire  to  the  fuze  in  the 
shells,  which  must  be  calculated  to  burn  from  1 
to  2£  seconds.  Also  a  kind  of  flat-bottomed 
boat  in  which  brick  or  stone  work  is  built,  then 
sunk  to  the  bottom  for  forming  the  foundations. 
Some  of  the  caissons  which  were  usedbyLabelye, 
for  the  erection  of  Westminster-bridge,  contained 
above  150  load  of  fir  timber.  They  are  also 
used  in  dock-yards  to  raise  ships, — the  water 
being  let  in  so  as  to  allow  the  caisson  to  be 
brought  under  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  it  is 
then  pumped  out,  and  the  buoyancy  of  the  large 
caisson  raises  the  vessel.  The  ship's  sides  and 
bottom  tending  to  fall  outwards,  by  their  own 
weight,  and  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  caisson 
tending  to  be  forced  inwards,  by  the  external 
pressure  of  the  water,  it  is  obvious,  that  by 
placing  props  or  shoars  between,  both  will  be 
supported,  while  the  ship  will  ride  with  all  her 
stores  on  board,  and  masts  standing  nearly  as 
easy  as  when  in  water. 

CAITAIA,  in  zoology,  the  name  of  an  Ame- 
rican monkey,  remarkable  for  its  smell,  having 
somewhat  of  a  scent  of  musk ;  its  hair  is  long 
and  of  a  whitish-yellow  color ;  its  head  is  round  ; 
its  forehead  depressed,  and  very  small ;  its  nose 
small  and  flatted,  and  its  tail  arched.  It  is  easily 
tamed,  but  very  clamorous  and  quarrelsome. 

CAITHNESS,  otherwise  called  the  county  of 
Wick,  is  the  most  northern  county  of  Scotland. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  ocean,  and  by 
Strathnaver  and  Sutherland  on  the  south  and 
south-west;  from  these  it  is  divided  by  the 
mountain  Orde,  and  a  continued  ridge  of  hills 
as  far  as  Knockfin,  and  thence  by  the  whole 
course  of  the  river  Hallowdale.  On  the  north  it 
is  washed  by  the  Pentland  frith,  which  divides  it 
from  the  Orkneys.  It  extends  thirty-five  miles 
from  north  to  south,  and  about  twenty  from  east 
to  west.  The  coast  is  rocky,  and  remarkable  for 
a  number  of  bays  and  promontories.  Of  these, 
the  principal  are  Sandside-head,  to  the  west, 
pointing  to  the  opening  of  Pentland-fi  ith  ;  Orcas, 
now  Holbom-hcad  and  Dunnet-Hcad,  both 


pointing  northward  to  the  frith.  Scribister-bay, 
on  the  north-west,  is  a  good  harbour,  where 
ships  may  ride  securely.  Rice-bay,  on  the  east 
side,  extends  three  miles  in  breadth ;  but  is  of 
dangerous  access,  on  account  of  some  sunk  rocks 
at  the  entrance.  At  the  bottom  of  this  bay  ap- 
pear the  ruins  of  two  strong  castles  the  seat  of 
the  earl  of  Caithness,  called  Castle  Sinclair,  and 
Gernego,  joined  to  each  other  by  a  draw-bridge. 
Duncan's-bay,  otherwise  called  Dunsby-head,  is 
the  north-east  point  of  Caithness,  and  the  most 
extreme  promontory  in  Britain.  At  this  place 
the  breadth  of  the  frith  does  not  exceed  twelve 
miles.  It  is  the  ordinary  ferry  to  the  Orkneys. 
Here  is  likewise  Clythness  pointing  east  and 
Noshead  pointing  north-east.  The  sea  in  this 
place  is  very  impetuous,  being  in  continual  agi- 
tation from  violent  counter-tides,  currents,  and 
vortices.  The  only  island  belonging  to  this 
county  is  that  of  Stroma,  in  the  Pentland  frith, 
two  miles  from  the  main  land.  The  county  of 
Caithness,  though  chiefly  mountainous,  flattens 
towards  the  sea-coast,  where  the  ground  is  arable, 
and  produces  good  harvests  of  oats  and  barley, 
sufficient  for  the  natives,  and  yielding  a  surplus 
for  exportation.  Caithness  is  well  watered  with 
small  rivers,  brooks,  lakes,  and  fountains,  and 
affords  a  few  woods  of  birch,  but  is  in  general 
bare  of  trees;  and  even  those  the  inhabitants 
plant  are  stunted  in  their  growth.  Lead  is 
found  at  Dunnet,  copper  at  Old  Urk,  and  iron 
ore  at  several  places ;  but  these  advantages  are 
not  improved.  The  air  of  Caithness  is  tempe- 
rate, though  in  the  latitude  of  58°,  where  the 
longest  day  in  summer  lasts  eighteen  hours ; 
and  when  the  sun  sets  he  makes  so  small  an 
arch  of  a  circle  below  the  horizon,  that  the  people 
enjoy  twilight  until  he  rises  again.  The  fuel 
used  by  the  inhabitants  of  Caithness  consists  of 
peat  and  turf,  which  the  ground  yields  in  great 
plenty.  The  forests  of  Moravins  and  Berridale 
afford  abundance  of  red  deer  and  roe-bucks  :  the 
country  is  well  stored  with  hares,  rabbits,  growse, 
heathcocks,  plover,  and  all  sorts  of  game ;  besides 
a  peculiar  species  of  birds  called  snow-fleets ; 
which  are  about  the  size  of  a  sparrow,  exceed- 
ingly delicious,  and  come  hither  in  large  flights 
about  the  middle  of  February,  and  depart  in 
April.  The  hills  are  covered  with  sheep  and 
black  cattle,  which  are  so  numerous  that  a  fat 
cow  has  been  sold  for  4s.  sterling.  The  rocks 
along  the  coasts  are  frequented  by  eagles,  hawks, 
and  all  kinds  of  sea-fowl,  whose  eggs  and  young 
are  taken  in  vast  quantities  by  the  natives.  The 
rivers  and  lakes  abound  with  trout,  salmon,  and 
eels;  and  the  sea  affords  a  very  advantageous 
fishery.  Various  obelisks  and  ancient  monu- 
ments appear  in  this  district,  and  several  Romish 
chapels  are  still  standing.  Caithness  is  well 
peopled  with  a  race  of  hardy  inhabitants,  who 
employ  themselves  chiefly  in  fishing  and  breed- 
ing sheep  and  black  cattle,  and  are  remarkably 
industrious.  This  county  sends  out  in  some 
years  about  20,000  head  of  black  cattle,  but  in 
bad  seasons  the  farmers  kill  and  salt  vast  num- 
bers for  sale.  Great  numbers  of  swine  are  also 
reared.  They  are  short,  high-backed,  long- 
bristled,  sharp,  slender,  and  long-nosed  ;  have 
long  erect  ears,  and  a  most  ferocious  look.  Vast 


CAK 


13 


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numbers  of  salmon  are  taken  at  Castle-hill, 
Dunnet,  Wick,  and  Thurso.  In  November 
great  numbers  of  seals  are  a'so  taken. 

CAITIFF,  n.  &,  adj.  or\       Ital.    cattivo,     a 

CAI'TIVE,  (captive;  a  slave  ;  a 

CAI'TIVELY,  £  wretch;   Fr.  chetlf ; 

CAI'TIVEXESS.  3  Rom.     caitiv,  from 

Lat.  captivus,  a  slave;  whence  it  came  to  signify 
a  bad  man,  with  some  implication  of  meanness  ; 
as  knave  in  English,  and  fur  in  Latin  ;  so  certain- 
ly does  slavery  destroy  virtue.  'H/ucrv  ri}c 
nptrijc  mroaivvTai  £tt\oiov  i/pap- — Homer.  A 
slave  and  a  scoundrel  are  signified  by  the  same 
words  in  many  languages.  A  mean  villain ;  a 
despicable  knave  ;  it  often  implies  a  mixture  of 
wickedness  and  misery. 

The  spyrit  of  the  Lord  on  me,  for  which  thing  he 
anoyntide  me  ;  he  sente  me  to  pveche  to  pore  men, 
to  hecle  contryt  men  in  herte,  and  to  preche  remis- 
sioun  to  caitifs,  and  sighte  to  blinde  men,  and  to 
deliver  broken  men  into  remissioun. 

Wiclif's  New  Test.  Luke  iv. 

Vile  caitiff"!  vassal  of  dread  and  despair, 
Unworthy  of  the  common  breathed  air  ! 
\VIiy  livest  thou,  dead  dog,  a  longer  day, 
And  dost  not  unto  death  thyself  prepare  ?          Spenser. 

Tis  not  impossible 

Hut  one,  the  wicked'st  caitiff  on  the  ground, 
May  seem  as  shy,  as  grave,  as  just,  as  absolute, 
As  Angelo.  Sluikspeare. 

The  wretched  caitiff,  all  alone, 
As  he  believed,  began  to  moan, 
And  tell  his  story  to  himself.  Hudibras. 

CAIUS  (Dr.)    See  KAYE. 

CAKE',  v.  &  n.  ^      Per.    kak ;    Arab,   kaak  ; 

CAKE'BKEAD,       >Swed.    kaka ;    Teut.    hack  : 

CAKE'HOUSE.  j  Belg.  koek  ;  Welsh  caccen,  a 
small  flat  bread  ;  a  sweet  biscuit ;  concreted,  co- 
agulated matter.  To  cake  is  to  form  into  a  solid 
mass  ;  to  clot  together.  A  cake,  metaphorically, 
and  in  vulgar  speech,  is  one  who  is  soft,  lumpish, 
and  heavy  ;  a  fool  without  vivacity. 

And  whan  the  miller  saw  that  they  were  gon, 
He  half  a  bushel  of  her  flour  hath  take, 
A  nd  bad  his  wif  go  knede  it  in  a  cake. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

You  must  be  seeing  christenings !  do  you  look  for 
ale  and  cakes  here,  you  rude  rascals?  Shakspeare. 

This  is  that  very  Mab, 

That  plats  the  manes  of  horses  in  the  night, 

And  cakes  the  elflocks  in  foul  sluttish  hairs.          Id. 

There  is  a  cake  that  groweth  upon  the  side  of  a 
dead  tree,  that  hath  gotten  no  name,  but  it  is  large, 
and  of  a  chestnut  colour,  and  hard  and  pithy. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

The  dismal  day  was  come  ;  the  priests  prepare 
their  leavened  cakes,  and  fillets  for  my  hair.   Drydcn. 

Then  when  the  fleecy  skies  new  cloath  the  wood, 
And  cakes  of  rustling  ice  come  rolling  down  the  flood. 

Id. 

He  rinsed  the  wound, 

And  washed  away  the  strings  and  clotted  blood, 
That  caked  within.  Addixun. 

This  burning  matter,  as  it  sunk  very  leisurely,  had 
time  to  cake  together,  and  form  the  bottom,  which 
covers  the  mouth  of  that  dreadful  vault,  which  lies 
underneath  it.  Addism  on  Italy. 

The  good  woman  on  her  return,  finding  the  cakes 
all  burnt,  rated  the  king  (Alfred)  very  severely,  that 
he  always  seemed  well  pleased  to  eat  her  warm  cakes, 
tho'  Le  was  thus  negligent  in  toasting  them.  Humtt. 


CAKILE,  sea- rocket,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
plants ;  class  tetradynamia,  order  siliculosa ; 
silicle  lanceolate,  four  sided  :  no  valves  :  two 
deciduous  joints,  each  containing  a  single  seed  ; 
the  lower  joint  with  a  tooth  each  side  at  the  tip. 
Two  species.  1.  C.  maritima,  found  on  our  own 
sea-shores,  with  leaves  pinnatifid,  and  linear 
slightly-toothed  divisions.  2.  C.  ./Egyptiaca,  a 
native  both  of  Egypt  and  Italy. 

CALABAR,  OLD  and  NEW,  settlements  of 
Western  Africa,  are  situated,  the  former  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  which  is  of  considerable 
magnitude,  and  forms,  at  its  mouth,  a  species  of 
estuary ;  and  the  latter  on  a  stream  named  by 
the  Portuguese  the  Rio  Real.  They  are  perhaps 
eighty  miles  apart.  The  soil  is  a  loose  but 
fertile  sand,  yielding  yams  in  abundance,  fine 
sugar  canes,  Cayenne  pepper,  &c.  The  country 
is  overrun  with  brushwood,  amongst  which  the 
natives  plaut  their  yams.  The  roads  are  scarcely 
to  be  called  more  than  foot-paths,  but  the  interior 
is  not  known  for  above  twenty  or  thirty  miles. 
The  natives  are  well  formed,  particularly  the 
women  before  they  become  mothers ;  afterwards, 
it  is  said,  their  breasts  become  unusually  pen- 
dent, and  to  European  sight  very  disgusting. 
There  is  a  remarkable  amphibious  animal  in  this 
district,  called  the  manatea,  about  six  feet  long, 
and  nine  in  circumference,  having  a  head  as 
large  as  an  ox,  and  large  fins  like  hands.  The 
inhabitants  observe  an  eighth  day  holiday,  and 
spend  a  large  portion  of  the  time  in  drinking 
palm  wine  to  intoxication,  and  in  sleep.  The 
principal  place  on  Old  Calabar  River  is  called 
Duke  Town,  and  contains  about  2000  inha- 
bitants ;  at  the  distance  of  two  or  three  miles  is 
Henshaw  Town,  and  King  John  Ambos  Town, 
with  each  about  300  inhabitants.  About  eight 
miles  north  is  Creek  Town,  situated  on  a  small 
navigable  stream,  and  containing  about  1500 
people.  Old  Town  was  formerly  the  capital, 
but  it  has  been  almost  abandoned  of  late,  and 
is  now  inferior  to  Duke  Town.  The  traders' 
houses  are  built  of  wood  brought  from  Liverpool, 
and  thatched  with  bamboo  leaves.  In  the  in- 
terior are  Aqua  and  Howatt ;  but  the  greater 
number  of  slaves,  which  are  exported,  are  drawn 
from  the  coast.  Mr.  Nicholls,  in  180.5,  attempted 
to  reach  the  Niger  by  the  way  of  Calabar ;  but 
was  seized  with  the  fever  of  the  country,  and 
fell  a  victim  to  it  three  months  after  his  arrival. 
The  atmosphere  which  is  breathed  here  is,  in 
truth,  highly  noxious  to  Europeans,  the  air 
being  stagnant,  and  loaded  with  marsh  mias- 
mata. Duke  Town  is  in  about  long.  8°  E., 
lat.  5°  4tf  N. 

The  Rio  Real  flows  down  from  the  north-west, 
from  a  remote  source  ;  and  can  be  ascended  by 
boats  and  shallops  only,  but  vessels  of  any  size 
anchor  in  the  road  at  its  mouth.  The  town  of 
New  Calabar  is  the  centre  of  the  Dutch  com- 
merce in  this  part  of  Africa.  It  stands  on  an 
island  formed  by  the  river,  and  contains  upwards 
of  900  inhabitants. 

CAL'ABASH.  Span,  calaba^a,  KaXirte;  Fr. 
calabasse,  a  species  of  gourd  or  pompion,  the 
fruit  of  the  adansonia  or  baobab  tree. 

CALABASH,  in  botany.     See  CUCURBITA. 

CALABASH,  in  commerce,  a  light  kind  of  ves- 


CAL 


14 


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sel.  formed  of  the  shell  of  a  gourd,  emptied  and 
aned,  serving  to  put  divers  kinds  of  goods  in, 
as  pitch,  resin,  and  the  like.  The  Indians,  botli 
of  the  North  and  South  Sea,  put  the  pearls  they 
have  fished  in  calabashes,  and  the  negroes  on  the 
coast  of  Africa  do  the  same  with  their  gold-dust. 
The  smaller  calabashes  are  also  frequently  used 
by  these  people  as  a  measure,  by  which  they  sell 
these  precious  commodities  to  the  Europeans. 
The  same  vessels  likewise  serve  to  hold  liquors, 
and  answer  as  cups,  and  bottles,  for  soldiers  and 
pilgrims. 

CALABASH  TREE.     See  MELASTOMO. 

CALABASH  TREE,  AFRICAN.   See  ADANSONIA. 

CALABOZO,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Ve- 
nezuela, South  America,  founded  in  the  early 
part  of  the  last  century  by  a  commercial  company 
of  Guipuscoa.  It  is  situated  between  the 
Guarico  to  the  west,  and  the  Orituco  to  the  east; 
but  nearer  the  former  than  the  latter.  The 
streets  and  houses  have  an  agreeable  aspect,  and 
it  has  a  neat  church.  The  fine  pasturage  of  the 
adjacent  country  rears  numerous  herds  of  cattle. 
The  town  is  subject  to  occasional  inundations 
from  the  mighty  streams  adjacent,  and  the 
climate  is  very  hot,  though  tempered  by  the 
north-east  breezes.  There  are  five  dependent 
villages  or  missions,  containing  altogether  98,000 
head  of  cattle.  The  town  itself  has  about 
5000  inhabitants,  and  is  156  miles  south  of 
Caraccas. 

CALABRIA,  a  country  of  Italy,  in  the  king- 
dom of  Naples,  which  was  almost  entirely 
desolated  by  the  earthquakes  of  1783.  The 
reiterated  shocks  extended  from  Cape  Spartivento 
to  Amantea,  above  the  gulf  of  St.  Eufemia,  and 
also  affected  that  part  of  Sicily  which  lies  oppo- 
site to  the  southern  extremity  of  Italy.  Those 
of  the  5th  and  7th  of  February  and  the  28th  of 
March  were  the  most  violent,  and  completed  the 
destruction  of  every  building  throughout  the 
above-mentioned  space.  Not  one  stone  was  left 
upon  another,  south  of  the  narrow  isthmus  of 
Squill  ace ;  and  a  very  large  proportion  of  the 
inhabitants  were  killed  by  the  falling  of  their 
houses,  near  40,000  lives  being  lost.  Some 
were  dug  out  alive,  after  remaining  a  surprising 
\ength  of  time  buried  among  the  rubbish.  Mes- 
sina became  a  mass  of  ruins  ;  its  beautiful  pa- 
lazzata  was  thrown  in  upon  the  town,  and  its 
quay  cracked  into  ditches  full  of  water;  Reggio 
was  almost  destroyed  ;  Tropea  greatly  damaged  ; 
and  every  other  place  in  the  province  levelled  to 
the  ground.  Before  and  during  the  concussion  the 
clouds  gathered,  and  then  hung  immovable  and 
heavy  over  the  earth.  At  Palmi  the  atmosphere 
had  so  fiery  an  aspect,  that  many  people  thought 
part  of  the  town  was  burning.  It  was  afterwards 
remembered,  that  an  unusual  heat  had  affected 
the  skins  of  several  persons  just  before  the  shock; 
the  rivers  assumed  a  muddy  ash-colored  tinge, 
and  a  sulphureous  smell  was  almost  general.  A 
frigate  passing  between  Calabria  and  Lipari  felt 
so  severe  a  shock,  that  the  steersman  was  thrown 
from  the  helm,  and  the  cannons  were  raised  up 
to  their  carriages,  while  all  around  the  sea  ex- 
haled a  strong  smell  of  brimstone.  Stupendous 
alterations  were  occasioned  in  the  face  of  the 
country ;  rivers  choked  up  by  the  falling  in  of 


the  hills,  were  converted  into  lakes,  which  if  not 
speedily  drained  by  some  convulsion,  or  opened 
by  human  labor,  would  have  stagnated  and  filled 
the  air  with  pestilential  vapors,  and  destroyed  the 
remnants  of  population.  Whole  acres  of  ground, 
with  houses  and  trees  upon  them,  were  broken 
off  from  the  plains,  and  washed  many  furlongs 
down  the  deep  hollows  which  the  course  of  the 
rivers  had  worn ;  there,  to  the  astonishment  and 
terror  of  beholders,  they  found  a  new  foundation 
to  fix  upon,  either  in  an  upright  or  an  inclining 
position.  In  short,  every  species  of  phenomenon, 
incident  to  these  destructive  commotions  of  the 
earth,  was  to  be  seen  in  its  utmost  extent  and 
variety  in  this  ruined  country.  Their  Sicilian 
majesties,  with  the  utmost  expedition,  despatched 
vessels  loaded  with  every  thing  that  could  be 
thought  of  on  the  occasion  for  the  relief  and 
accommodation  of  the  distressed  Calabrians ;  a 
general  officer  went  from  Naples  with  engineers 
and  troops  to  direct  the  operations  of  the  persons 
employed  in  clearing  away  and  rebuilding  the 
houses,  and  to  defend  the  property  of  all  the 
sufferers.  The  king  ordered  this  officer  to  take 
all  the  money  the  royal  treasures  could  supply 
or  borrow  ;  for,  rather  than  it  should  be  wanting 
on  this  pressing  call,  he  was  determined  to  part 
with  his  plate,  nay,  the  very  furniture  of  his 
palace.  A  messenger  sent  off  from  a  town  near 
Reggio  on  the  8th  of  February,  travelled  four 
days  without  shelter,  and  without  being  able  to 
procure  a  morsel  of  bread.  To  add  to  all  their 
other  sufferings,  the  Calabrians  found  themselves 
and  the  miserable  wreck  of  their  fortunes  ex- 
posed to  the  depredations  of  robbers  and  pirates; 
and  to  this  accumulated  distress  succeeded  a 
most  inclement  season,  which  obstructed  every 
effort  made  to  alleviate  it;  almost  daily  earth- 
quakes kept  the  inhabitants  in  continual  dread, 
not  of  being  destroyed  by  the  fall  of  houses, 
for  none  were  left,  but  of  being  swallowed  up 
by  the  splitting  of  the  earth,  or  buried  in  the 
waves  by  some  sudden  inundation.  See  EARTH- 
QUAKE. Calabria  is  divided  into  Ulterior  and 
Citerior. 

CALABRIA  CITERIOR,  or  CITRA,  i.  e.  HITHER 
CALABRIA,  is  one  of  the  twelve  provinces  of 
Naples  ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Cala- 
bria Ulterior,  on  the  north  by  Basilicata,  and  on 
the  west  and  east  by  the  sea.  Cosenza  is  the 
capital. 

CALABRIA  ULTERIOR,  orULTRA,i.  e.  FARTHER 
CALABRIA,  is  washed  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
on  the  east,  south,  and  west,  and  bounded  by 
Calabria  Citra  on  the  north.  Reggio  is  the  ca- 
pital. 

CALACINE,  or  CALLACHENE,  in  ancient 
geography,  an  extensive  district  of  Assyria,  north- 
east of  the  Tigris,  and  south  of  the  Gordian 
mountains  of  Armenia. 

CALADE,  in  the  menage,  the  sloping  de- 
clivity of  a  menage  ground,  upon  which  we  ride 
down  a  horse  several  times,  putting  him  to  a 
short  gallop,  with  his  fore  hams  in  the  air,  to 
learn  him  to  ply  or  bend  his  haunches,  and  form 
his  stop  upon  the  aids  of  the  ciflves  of  the  legs, 
the  stay  of  the  bridle,  and  the  caveson  seasonablv 
given. 

CALAGUAL7E  RADIX,  in  the  materia  medica, 


CAL  1 

the  root  so  called  is  knotty,  and  somewhat  like 
that  of  the  polypody  tribe.  It  has  been  exhi- 
bited internally  at  Rome,  with  success,  in  dropsy  ; 
and  it  is  said  to  be  efficacious  in  pleurisy,  con- 
tusions, and  abscesses. 

CALAHORRA,  an  episcopal  town  of  Spain, 
in  Old  Castile,  seated  on  a  fertile  soil,  on  the 
side  of  a  hill  which  extends  to  the  banks  of  the 
river  Ebro.  It  is  sixty-miles  north-west  of  Sa- 
ragossa. 

CALAIS,  a  sea-port  town  of  France,  the  chief 
town  of  a  district  in  the  department  of  the  Pas 
de  Calais,  the  seat  of  a  prefecture  of  police,  and 
of  a  tribunal  of  commerce.  It  is  situated  on 
marshy  ground,  which,  by  means  of  sluices,  may 
be  overflowed  at  pleasure,  and  is  nearly  surrounded 
by  a  moat  and  a  wall,  which  is  used  as  a  public 
promenade.  Calais  is  defended  by  a  citadel  on 
the  north-west  side,  near  the  sea,  nearly  as  large 
as  the  town.  Fort  Nieulay,  an  oblong  square, 
was  built  in  1680,  is  supported  by  piles,  and 
connected  with  this  citadel  by  a  mole.  The 
harbour  is  not  large,  and  is  much  obstructed  with 
sand,  even  common  merchantmen  can  only  come 
in  at  high  water.  It  consists  of  a  large  quay, 
terminated  by  two  long  wooden  piers.  A  century 
ago  it  is  said  to  have  been  capable  of  admitting 
vessels  of  300  or  400  tons,  but  it  has  now  only 
three  fathoms  at  high  water.  Proposals  have  re- 
peatedly been  made  to  improve  and  deepen  the 
harbour ;  but  these  have  not  as  yet  been  listened 
to,  though  the  expense  would  probably  not  ex- 
ceed 1,500,000  livres.  The  country  around  is 
well  cultivated,  particularly  between  Calais  and 
Gravelines,  and  houses  environed  with  wood, 
rich  meadows,  and  corn-fields,  everywhere  ap- 
pear. The  town  is  a  parallelogram,  having  its 
long  side  towards  the  sea.  The  streets  are  wide 
and  regular,  well  paved,  and  tolerably  clean ; 
and  the  houses  are  well  built.  The  public 
buildings  worth  notice  are  the  arsenal,  built  by 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  the  churches  and  monas- 
teries, a  tolerably  good  theatre,  and  the  hotel  at 
the  Lion  D'  Argent,  which  in  fact  is  itself  a 
small  town.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
stockings  and  soap  ;  and  it  possesses  a  very  con- 
siderable coasting  trade.  It  is  also  the  great 
mart  for  the  salt  and  gin  of  Holland ;  and  the 
fishing  of  cod,  herrings,  and  mackerel,  is  carried 
on  to  a  great  extent.  Two  fairs  are  held  an- 
nually here ;  one  on  the  10th  January,  which 
continues  for  ten  days ;  and  another  on  the  1 1th 
July,  for  nine  days  ;  the  principal  articles  of 
traffic  are  cattle,  jewellery  goods,  iron  and  cop- 
per ware.  This  trade  is  much  facilitated  by  the 
canals  which  communicate  with  Gravelines, 
Ardres,  St.  Omer,  Dunkirk,  and  several  other 
places  in  the  north  of  France.  Regular  packet- 
boats,  in  the  time  of  peace,  sail  twice  a  week  or 
oftener,  with  the  mail  between  Calais  and  Dover. 
The  inhabitants  derive  a  considerable  part  of 
their  support  from  the  intercourse  with  England. 

In  the  twelfth  century,  the  town  was  nothing 
more  than  a  village  belonging  to  the  counts  of 
Boulogne,  but  was  afterwards  so  well  fortified, 
that  Edward  III.  in  1346,  after  the  battle  of 
Cressy,  could  only  reduce  it  by  famine.  It 
continued  in  the  possession  of  England  till 
1558,  when  it  was  taken  by  surprise  by  the  duke 


5  CAL 

ot  Guise.  By  the  subsequent  treaty  of  Chateau- 
Cambresis,  it  was  stipulated  that  the  French 
should  retain  it  for  eight  years,  at  the  expiration 
of  which,  queen  Elizabeth  sent  troops  to  de- 
mand it ;  but  the  surrender  was  evaded  on  the 
ground  that  the  English  had  violated  the  treaty 
by  the  bombardment  of  Havre-de- Grace.  In 
1596  it  was  taken  by  assault  by  the  Spaniards, 
but  restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of  Vervins. 
It  was  bombarded  in  1694  by  the  English, 
under  Sir  Cloudesly  Shovel,  but  without  much 
damage.  Louis  XVIII.  landed  here  from  his 
long  exile  on  the  24th  of  April,  1814  :  a  monu 
ment  is  erected  on  the  spot  to  commemorate  the 
event.  Near  the  town  also  is  a  monument  on 
the  spot  where  Blanchard  descended.  Calais 
was  not  the  scene  of  a  single  execution,  it  is 
said,  during  the  French  revolution.  It  is  twenty 
miles  north-east  of  Boulogne,  twenty-five  south- 
west of  Dunkirk,  fifty-five  north  of  Abbeville, 
170  north  of  Paris,  and  seventeen  and  a  half 
south-east  of  Dover.  Population  8500. 

CALAIS  (St.),  is  a  small  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Sarthe.  Population  3646. 

CALAIS  is  also  the  name  of  a  township  of  the 
United  States,  in  Caledonia  county,  Vermont, 
105  miles  north-east  of  Bennington. 

CALAIS,  in  fabulous  history,  the  twin  brother 
of  Zethes.  They  were  said  to  have  been  the 
sons  of  Boreas  and  Orythyia,  and  to  have  had 
wings.  They  went  on  the  voyage  to  Colchis 
with  the  Argonauts,  delivered  Phineus  from  the 
harpies,  and  were  slain  by  Hercules. 

CALAIS,  STRAITS  OF,  a  department  of  France, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  department  of  the 
North  ;  on  the  south  by  that  of  the  Somme;  on  the 
west  by  the  British  Channel,  and  on  the  north 
by  the  straits  of  Dover.  It  is  formed  partly  out 
of  the  ci-devant  province  of  Artois,  and  partly 
from  that  of  Picardy.  Calais,  St.  Omer,  Be- 
thune,  Hesdin,  Arras,  and  Bapaume  are  its  chief 
towns. 

CALAMAN'CO.  Lat.  caula  monicha,  a  sort 
of  woollen  stuff,  so  called  from  being  used  by 
monks.  In  the  middle  ages  Dr.  Johnson  says  it 
signified  a  hat.  It  is  manufactured  in  England, 
Brabant,  and  Flanders,  particularly  at  Lisle, 
Tournay,  Antwerp,  and  a  few  other  towns.  It  has 
a  fine  gloss ;  and  is  chequered  in  the  warp,  whence 
the  cheques  appear  only  on  the  right  side.  Some 
calamancoes  are  quite  plain,  others  hare  broad 
stripes  adorned  with  flowers,  some  with  plain 
broad  stripes,  some  with  narrow  stripes,  and 
others  watered. 

He  was  of  a  bulk  and  stature  larger  than  ordinary, 
had  a  red  coat,  flung  open  to  shew  a  calamanco  waist- 
coat. Tatler. 

CALAMATA,  or  CALAMETA,  a  considerable 
town  of  European  Turkey,  in  the  Morea,  and 
province  of  Belvedera.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Venetians  in  1685;  but  the  Turks  retook  it 
with  all  the  Morea.  It  stands  on  the  river  Spi- 
narza,  eight  miles  from  the  sea,  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Sparta. 

CALAMBA,  or  CALAMBAC,  in  commerce,  a 
kind  of  wood  brought  from  China,  usually  sold 
under  the  denomination  of  agallochum,  or  aloes- 
wood. 

CALAMIANES,  a  group  of  twelve  islands 


CAL  it; 

in  the  Eastern  seas,  lying  north  and  north-east 
of  Paragoa,  the  most  westerly  of  the  Philippines, 
and  about  half-way  between  Mindora  and  Pala- 
wan. They  are  surrounded  by  rocks  and  shoals, 
which  render  the  navigation  intricate.  The 
largest  two  are  called  Busvagon  and  Calamiane, 
the  latter  being  about  twenty-three  miles  long 
by  five  broad,  and  the  whole  forming  a  province 
which  passes  uhdar  its  name.  The  sultan  of 
Borneo  and  the  Spaniards  divide  the  principal 
and  best  parts  of  them,  independent  of  whom, 
some  natives  rove  in  the  interior.  They  are  of 
mild  disposition,  and  the  country  produces  a  pe- 
culiar kind  of  birds'  nests,  which  form  an  article 
of  traffic,  some  rice,  honey,  wax,  and  pearls. 
Long.  120°  20'  E.,  lat.  12°  N. 

CAL'AMINE,  LAPIS  CALAMINARIS,  or  CAD- 
MI  A  FOSSILIS,  w.  s.  An  ore  of  zinc,  containing  zinc, 
iron,  and  sometimes  other  substances.  It  is  consi- 
derably heavy  ;  moderately  hard  and  brittle ; 
of  a  consistence  between  stone  and  earth  :  the 
color  is  sometimes  whitish  or  gray  :  sometimes 
yellowish,  or  of  a  deep  yellow ;  sometimes  red ; 
sometimes  brown  or  blackish.  It  is  plentiful  in 
several  parts  of  Europe,  Spain,  Sweden,  Bo- 
hemia, Saxony,  France,  and  England,  particu- 
larly in  Derbyshire,  and  also  in  Wales.  The 
calamine  of  England,  however,  is  by  the  best 
judges  allowed  to  be  superior  in  quality  to  that 
of  most  other  countries.  It  seldom  lies  very 
deep,  being  chiefly  found  in  clayey  grounds  near 
the  surface.  In  some  places  it  is  mixed  with 
lead  ores.  It  is  the  only  true  ore  of  zinc,  and 
is  used  as  an  ingredient  in  making  brass.  New- 
mann  relates  various  experiments  with  this  mi- 
neral, the  result  of  which  was  to  show,  that  it 
contained  iron  as  well  as  zinc.  See  ZINC.  The 
lapis  calaminaris,  calcined,  powdered,  and  sifted, 
forms  a  heavy  brownish-yellow  powder,  which, 
when  mixed  with  wax  and  oil,  forms  the  ceratum 
lapidis  calaminaris,  ceratum  epuloticum  of  the 
old  dispensaries,  the  most  commonly  used  of  all 
the  simple  unguents.  It  is  also  employed  in 
collyria  against  defluxions  of  thin  acrid  humors 
upon  the  eyes,  for  drying  up  the  moist  running 
ulcers,  and  healing  excoriations.  It  is  the  basis 
of  an  officinal  epulotic  cerate. 

\Ve  must  not  omit  those,  which,  though  cot  of  so 
much  beauty,  yet  are  of  greater  use,  viz.  loadstones, 
•whetstones  of  all  kinds,  limestones,  calamine,  or  lapis 
calaminaris.  Locke. 

CAL'AMINT,  n.  s.  Lat.  calamintha,  the  name 
of  a  plant.  See  MALISSA. 

CALAMINTHA,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
town  of  Lybia,  mentioned  by  Herodotus. 

CALAMiTA,  or  CALAMITIS,  is  used  to  denote 
the  magnet  or  loadstone. 

CALAMITA  ALBA,  in  natural  history,  the  name 
of  an  earth  dug  in  Spain  and  Italy,  of  '*  nard 
texture,  a  white  color,  and  stypt'c  taste.  They 
pretend  that  this  attracts  flesh  as  ihe  magnet  does 
iron,  and  thence  call  it  magnes  carneus. 

CALAMITIS,  a  name  given  by  some  to  the 
osteocolla,  which,  when  in  small  pieces,  some- 
times pretty  exactly  resembles  the  barrel  of  a 
quill  ;  others  have  called  some  of  the  fossile  co- 
ralloides  by  the  same  name,  there  being  fre- 
quently in  them  the  resemblance  of  several  quills 
cemented  together,  in  stone. 


CAL 


CALAMITY,  n.     }       Lat.    calamitas;    Ir. 

CALAM'ITOUS,  adj.  S  calamite ;  Ital.  caUtmita 
The  primary  idea  is  destruction  of  corn,  when 
standing  on  the  ground;  from  hence  it  has  de- 
rived its  general  and  extensive  application  to 
every  species  of  outward  injury,  inflicted  either 
by  design  or  accident.  Thus  it  comprehends 
every  description  of  misery,  disease  of  body,  in- 
felicity of  mind,  wretchedness  of  condition. 
Who  after  thraldome  of  the  gentle  squire, 

Which  she  beheld  with  lamentable  eye, 

Was  touched  with  compassion  entire, 

And  much  lamented  his  calamity, 

That  for  her  sake  fell  into  misery.  Spenser. 

Why  should  calamity  be  full  of  words-. 

Shaktpeare.   King  Richard  III. 

Alack, 

You  are  transported  by  calamity, 
Thither  where  more  attends  you  ;  and  you  slander 
The  helms  o'  the  state,  who  care  for  you  like  fatherSi 
When  you  curse  them  as  enemies. 

Id.  Corialantu. 

Another  ill  accident  is  drought,  and  the  spindling  of 
the  corn,  which  with  us  is  rare,  but  in  hotter  coun- 
tries common  ;  insomuch  as  the  word  calamity  was 
first  derived  from  calamous,  when  the  corn  could  not 
get  out  of  the  stalk.  Bacon. 

Thither  let  us  tend 

From  off  the  tossing  of  these  fiery  waves, 
There  rest,  if  any  rest  can  harbour  there, 
And  reassembling  our  afflicted  powers, 
Consult  how  we  may  henceforth  most  offend 
Our  enemy,  our  own  loss  how  repair, 
How  overcome  this  dire  calamity, 
What  reinforcements  we 'may  gain  from  hope  ; 
If  not,  what  resolution  from  despair.  Milton. 

Strict  necessity 

Subdues  me,  and  calamitous  constraint! 
Lest  on  my  head  both  sin  and  punishment, 
However  insupportable,  be  all 
Devolved.  Id. 

This  infinite  calamity  shall  cause 
To  human  life,  and  household  peace  confound.    Id. 

Much  rather  I  shall  chuse 
To  live  the  poorest  in  my  tribe,  than  richest. 
And  be  in  that  calamitous  prison  left.  Id. 

In  this  sad  and  calamitous  condition,  deliverance 
from  an  oppressour  would  have  even  revived  them. 

South. 

What  calamitous  effects  the  air  of  this  city  wrought 
upon  us  the  last  year,  you  may  read  in  my  discourse 
of  the  plague.  Harvey  on  Consumptions. 

This  is  a  gracious  provision  God  Almighty  hath 
made  in  favour  of  the  necessitous  and  calamitous ;  the 
state  of  some,  in  this  life,  being  so  extremely  wretched 
and  deplorable,  when  compared  with  others. 

Calamy. 

From  adverse  shores  in  safety  let  her  hear 
Foreign  calamity,  and  distant  war  ; 
Of  which,  great  heaven,  let  her  no  portion  bear. 

Prior. 

CAL'AMUS,  n.  s.  Lat.  A  sort  of  reed  or 
sweet  scented  wood,  mentioned  in  Scripture  with 
the  other  ingredients  of  the  sacred  perfumes.  It 
is  a  knotty  root,  reddish  without,  and  white 
within,  which  puts  forth  long  and  narrow  leaves, 
and  brought  from  the  Indies.  The  prophets 
speak  of  it  as  a  foreign  commodity  of  great  va- 
lue. The  sweet  reeds  have  no  smell  when  they 


CAL  17 

are  green, — but  when  they  are  dry  only.  Their 
form  differs  not  from  other  reeds,  and  their  smell 
is  perceived  upon  entering  the  marshes. 

Take  them  also  unto  thee  principal  spices  of  pure 
myrrh,  of  sweet  cinnamon,  and  of  sweet  calamus. 

Exodus,  xxx.  23. 

CALAMUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  and  hexandria  class  of  plants  :  natural 
order  fifth,  tripetaloideae  :  CAL.  is  hexaphyllous : 
COR.  none,  the  fruit  is  a  dry  monospermous  ber- 
ry, imbricated  backwards.  There  are  nine 
species,  the  principal  one  is,  C.  rotang.  The 
stem  is  without  branches,  has  a  crown  at  top,  and 
is  everywhere  beset  with  straight  spines.  This 
is  the  true  Indian  cane,  which  is  not  visible  on 
the  outside  ;  but  the  bark  being  taken  off  disco- 
vers the  smooth  stick,  which  has  no  marks  of 
spine  on  the  bark.  Sumatra  is  said  to  be  the 
place  where  most  of  these  sticks  grow.  Such 
are  to  be  chosen  as  are  of  proper  growth  between 
two  joints,  suitable  to  the  fashionable  length  of 
canes  as  they  are  worn ;  but  such  are  scarce. 
The  calamus  rotang  is  one  of  the  plants  from 
which  the  drug  called  dragon's  blood  is  obtained. 
The  petrocarpus  draco  and  dracasna  draco,  also 
afford  this  resin.  It  is  generally  much  adulte- 
rated, and  varies  in  goodness  and  purity.  The 
best  kind  is  of  a  dark  red  color,  which,  when 
'  powdered,  changes  to  crimson :  it  is  soluble  in  al- 
cohol, but  not  in  water.  It  readily  melts  and 
catches  flame  :  has  no  smell,  but  discovers  some 
degree  of  warmth  and  pungency  to  the  taste. 
The  ancient  Greeks  were  acquainted  with  the 
astringent  power  of  this  drug,  in  which  character 
it  was  formerly  much  employed  in  haemorrhages 
and  alvine  fluxes. 

CALAMCS,  in  the  ancient  poets, denotes  a  sim- 
ple kind  of  pipe,  the  musical  instrument  of  the 
shepherds,  \isually  made  either  of  an  oaten  stalk 
or  a  reed. 

CALAMUS,  AROMATICUS,  or  sweet-scented 
flag,  in  the  materia  medica,  a  species  of  flag 
called  acorus  by  Linnaeus. 

CALAMUS  SCRIPTORIUS,  in  antiquity,  a  reed 
or  rush  to  write  with.  The  ancients  made  use  of 
styles  to  write  on  tables  covered  with  wax,  and  of 
reed,  or  rush,  to  write  on  parchment,  or  Egyptian 
paper.  Also,  a  kind  of  canal  at  the  bottom  of  the 
fourth  ventricle  of  the  brain,  so  called  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  pen. 

CALAMY  (Edmund),  an  eminent  pvesbyte- 
rian  divine,  born  at  London  in  1600,  and  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge,  where  his  attachment  to  the 
Arminian  party  excluded  him  from  a  fellowship. 
Dr.  Felton,  bishop  of  Ely,  however,  made  him 
his  chaplain;  and,  in  1639,  he  was  chosen  mi- 
nister of  St.  Mary  Aldermary,  in  London.  Upon 
the  opening  of  the  long  parliament,  he  distin- 
guished himself  in  defence  of  the  Presbyterian 
cause ;  and  had  a  principal  hand  in  writing  the 
famous  Smectymnus,  which  he  says,  gave  the 
first  deadly  blow  to  episcopacy.  The  authors 
of  this  tract  were  five,  the  initials  of  those  names 
formed  the  name  under  which  it  was  published, 
viz.  Stephen  Marshal,  Edmund  Calamy,  Thomas 
Young,  Matthew  Newcomen,  and  William  Spar- 
stow.  He  was  afterwards  an  active  member  in 
the  assembly  of  divines,  and  used  his  utmost  en- 
deavours to  prevent  those  violences  committed 
VOL.  V. 


CAL 


after  the  king  was  brought  from  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  In  Cromwell's  time  he  lived  privately, 
but  was  assiduous  in  promoting  the  king's  re- 
turn ;  for  which  he  was  afterwards  offered  a 
bishopric,  but  refused  it.  lie  was  ejected  for 
nonconformity  in  1662  ;  and  died  of  grief  at  the 
sight  of  the  great  fire  of  London  in  1666. 

CALAMY  (Edmund),  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
by  his  eldest  son  Mr.  Edmu  ^d  Calamy,  who 
was  ejected  out  of  the  living  of  moxton  in  Essex 
on  St.  Bartholomew's  day,  1662.  He  was  born  in 
London,  April  5th,  1671.  After  having  learned 
the  languages,  and  gone  through  a  course  of  na- 
tural philosophy  and  logic,  at  a  private  academy 
in  England,  he  studied  philosophy  and  civil  law, 
at  the  university  of  Utrecht,  and  attended  the 
lectures  of  the  learned  Grsevius.  While  he  re- 
sided there,  an  offer  of  a  professor's  chair  in  the 
university  of  Edinburgh  was  made  him  by  prin- 
cipal Carstairs,  sent  over  on  purpose  to  find  a 
person  properly  qualified  for  the  office.  This  he 
declined,  and  returned  to  England  in  1691, 
bringing  with  him  letters  from  Graevius  to  pro- 
fessors Pocock  and  Bernard,  who  obtained  leavf 
for  him  to  prosecute  his  studies  in  the  Bodleiau 
library.  He  entered  into  an  examination  of  tl> 
controversy  between  the  conformists  and  the  noi. 
conformists ;  which  determined  him  to  join  th- 
latter;  and  coming  to  London,  in  1692,  he  was 
chosen  assistant  to  Mr.  Matthew  Sylvester,  at 
Blackfriars ;  and  in  1674  ordained  at  Mr.  An-. 
nesly's  meeting-house.  In  1702  he  was  chosen 
one  of  the  lecturers  in  Salter's-hall ;  and  in  1703 
succeeded  Mr.  Vincent  Alsop  in  Westminster. 
He  drew  up  the  table  of  contents  to  Mr.  Baxter's 
History  of  his  Life  and  Times,  which  was  sen' 
to  the  press  in  1696 ;  and  added  to  it  an  Index/ 
He  next  composed  an  abridgment  of  it,  with  an 
Account  of  many  other  Ministers  who  were 
ejected  after  the  Restoration ;  Their  Apology 
containing  the  grounds  of  their  nonconformity  ; 
and  aContinuation  of  their  History  till  1691.  This 
work  was  published  in  1702.  He  afterward  pub- 
lished a  Defence  of  Nonconformity,  in  tracts, 
in  answer  to  Dr.  Hoadley.  In  1709  he  made  a 
tour  to  Scotland  ;  and  had  the  degree  of  D.  D. 
conferred  on  him  by  the  universities  of  Edin- 
burgh, Aberdeen,  and  Glasgow.  In  1713  he  pub- 
blished  a  second  edition  of  his  Abridgement  of 
Baxter's  History,  in  which,  among  other  addi- 
tions, there  is  a  continuation  of  the  history 
through  King  William's  reign,  and  Queen  Anne's, 
down  to  the  passing  of  the  Occasional  Bill ;  and 
in  the  close  is  subjoined  the  reformed  liturgy, 
which  was  drawn  up  and  presented  to  the 
bishops  in  1661.  In  1718  he  wrote  a  Vindica- 
tion of  his  grandfather  and  others,  against  cer- 
tain reflections  cast  upon  them  by  Mr.  Echard 
in  his  History  of  England;  and  in  1728  ap- 
peared the  Continuation  of  the  Account  of  the 
Ministers,  Lectureis,  Masters,  Fellows  of  Col- 
leges, and  Schoolmasters,  who  were  ejected  after 
the  Restoration.  He  died  June  3rd,  1732, 
greatly  regretted  both  by  the  dissenters  and 
members  of  the  established  church,  with  many 
of  whom  he  lived  iu  great  intimacy.  Besides 
the  pieces  already  mentioned,  he  published 
many  sermons.  He  was  twice  mariied  and  had 
thirteen  children. 

C 


CAL 


18 


CAL 


CALANDRE,  a  name  given  by  the  French 
writers  to  an  insect  that  does  vast  mischief  in 
granaries.  It  is  properly  of  the  scarabaeus  or 
beetle  class ;  it  has  two  antennae  formed  of  many 
round  joints,  and  covered  with  a  soft  and  short 
down;  from  the  anterior  part  of  the  head  there 
is  thrust  out  a  trunk,  which  is  so  formed  at  the 
end,  that  the  creature  easily  makes  way  with  it 
through  the  coat  or  skin  that  covers  the  grain, 
and  gets  at  the  meal  or  farina  on  which  it  feeds  ; 
the  inside  of  the  grain  is  also  the  place  where  the 
females  deposit  their  eggs,  that  the  young  pro- 
geny may  be  born  with  provision  about  them. 
When  the  the  female  has  pierced  a  grain  of  corn 
for  this  purpose,  she  deposites  in  it  one  egg,  or 
at  the  utmost  two,  but  she  most  frequently  lays 
them  single ;  these  eggs  hatch  into  small  worms, 
which  are  usually  found  with  their  bodies  rolled 
up  in  a  spiral  form,  and  after  eating  till  they  ar- 
rive at  their  full  growth,  they  are  changed  into 
chrysales,  and  from  these,  in  about  a  fortnight, 
comes  out  the  perfect  calandre.  The  female 
lays  a  considerable  number  of  eggs ;  and  the  in- 
crease of  these  creatures  would  he  very  great ; 
but  while  in  the  egg  state,  and  even  while  in  that 
of  the  worm,  they  are  subject  to  be  eaten  by 
mites;  these  little  vermin  are  always  very  plen- 
tiful in  granaries,  and  they  destroy  the  far  greater 
number  of  the  larger  animals. 

CALAPIA,  in  entomology,  an  American  spe- 
cies of  cancer,  having  a  crenulated  thorax,  with 
the  posterior  angles  dilated,  hand-claws  crested. 

GALAS  (John),  an  unfortunate  protestant 
merchant  at  Toulouse,  inhumanly  butchered 
under  form  of  law,  to  gratify  the  sanguinary  im- 
pulse of  ignorant  Popish  zeal.  He  had  lived 
forty  years  at  Toulouse.  His  wife  was  an 
Englishwoman  of  French  extraction,  and  they 
had  five  sons  ;  one  of  whom,  Lewis,  had  turned 
Catholic,  through  the  persuasion  of  a  Catholic 
•naid  who  had  lived  thirty  years  in  the  family, 
in  October,  1761,  the  family  consisted  of  Galas, 
his  wife,  Mark  Antony  their  son,  Peter  their  se- 
cond son,  and  this  maid.  Anthony  was  educated 
for  the  bar,  but,  being  of  melancholy  turn,  was 
continually  dwelling  on  passages  from  authors  on 
the  subject  of  suicide,  and  one  night  in  that 
month  hanged  himself  on  a  bar  laid  across  two 
folding  doors  in  their  shop.  The  crowd  col- 
lected by  the  confusion  of  the  family  on  so  shock- 
ing a  discovery,  took  it  into  their  heads,  that  he 
had  been  strangled  by  the  family  to  prevent  his 
changmghis  religion,  and  that  this  was  a  common 
practice  among  Protestants.  The  officers  of  justice 
adopted  the  popular  tale,  and  were  supplied  by 
the  mob  with  what  they  accepted  as  evidences  of 
the  fact.  The  fraternity  of  White  Penitents  got 
the  body,  buried  it  with  great  ceremony,  and 
performed  a  solemn  service  for  him  as  a  martyr ; 
the  Franciscans  did  the  same :  and  after  these 
formalities  no  one  doubted  the  guilt  of  the  de- 
voted heretical  family.  They  were  all  con- 
demned to  the  torture,  to  bring  them  to  confes- 
sion; they  appealed  to  the  parliament;  who,  as 
weak  and  wicked  as  the  subordinate  magistrates, 
sentenced  the  father  to  the  torture,  ordinary  and 
extraordinary,  to  be  broken  alive  upon  the  wheel, 
and  then  to  be  burned  to  ashes ;  which  decree, 
to  the  disgrace  of  humanity,  was  actually  carried 


into  execution.  Peter  Calas,  the  other  son,  was 
banished  for  life  ;  and  the  rest  were  acquitted. 
The  distracted  widow  found  some  friends,  and 
among  the  rest  M.  Voltaire,  who  laid  her  case 
before  the  council  of  state  at  Versailles,  and  the 
parliament  at  Toulouse  were  ordered  to  trans- 
mit the  proceedings.  These  the  king  and  coun- 
cil unanimously  agreed  to  annul ;  the  capitoul, 
or  chief  magistrate  of  Toulouse,  was  degraded 
and  fined ;  old  Calas  was  declared  to  have  been 
innocent ;  and  every  imputation  of  guilt  was  re- 
moved from  the  family,  who  also  received  from 
the  king  and  clergy  considerable  gratuities. 

CA'LASH,  n.  s.  From  Fr.  caleche.  It  is  a 
light  kind  of  carriage,  with  very  low  wheels, 
open  on  all  sides  for  the  conveniency  of  the 
air  and  prospect,  or  at  most  enclosed  with  light 
mantles  of  cloth  to  be  opened  and  shut  at  plea- 
mire. 

Daniel,  a  sprightly  swain,  that  used  to  slash 
The  vigorous  steeds  that  drew  his  lord's  calath.   King. 

The  ancients  used  calashes,  the  figures  of  several  of  \ 
them  being  to  be  seen  on  ancient  monuments.     They 
are  very  simple, light,  and  drove  by  the  traveller  him- 
self. Arbuthnot  on  Coins. 

CALASIO  (Marius),  a  Franciscan  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Rome.  He  published  there,  in  1621, 
a  concordance  of  the  Bible,  which  consisted  of  4 
vols.  folio.  This  valuable  work,  is  in  fact  a  com- 
plete lexicon  of  the  Hebrew,with  its  various  depen- 
dent dialects  ;  forbesides  the  Hebrew  words  in  the 
Bible,  which  are  in  the  body  of  the  boojc  with 
the  Latin  version  over  against  them,  there  are  in 
the  margin  the  differences  between  the  septua- 
gint  version  and  the  vulgate ;  so  that  at  one  view 
may  be  seen  wherein  the  three  texts  agree,  and 
wherein  they  differ.  Moreover  at  the  beginning 
of  every  article  there  is  a  kind  of  dictionary, 
which  gives  the  signification  of  each  Hebrew 
word  ;  and  affords  an  opportunity  of  comparing 
it  with  the  Syriac,  Arabic,  and  Chaldee.  A  valu- 
able edition  of  this  work  was  published  in  Lon- 
don, 1747,  edited  by  the  Rev.  W.  Romaine,  assis- 
ted by  Rowe  Mores,  and  Lutzena  a  Portuguese 
Jevu. 

CALASIRIS  orCALASSis,  in  antiquity,  a  linen 
tunic  fringed  at  the  bottom,  and  worn  by  the 
Egyptians  under  a  white  woollen  garment :  which 
last  they  pulled  off  when  they  entered  the  temples, 
being  only  allowed  to  appear  there  in  linen. 

CALATHUS,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  hand 
basket  made  of  light  wood  or  rushes  ;  used  by  the 
women  to  gather  flowers,  but  chiefly  to  put  their 
work  in.  The  figure  of  the  calathus,  as  repre- 
sented on  ancient  monuments,  is  narrow  at  the 
bottom,  and  widening  upwards  like  that  of  a  top. 
The  Calathus  or  work  basket  of  Minerva  is  no  less 
celebrated  among  the  poets  than  her  distaff.  It 
was  also  the  name  of  a  cup  for  wine  used  in  sa- 
crifices. 

CALATOR,  from  icaXaw,  to  call,  in  antiquity, 
a  crier,  appointed  to  publish  any  thing  aloud,  or 
call  the  people  together. 

CALATRAVA,  a  city  of  Spain  in  New  Cas- 
tile on  the  river  Guadiana,  forty-five  miles  south 
of  Toledo. 

CALATHAVA,  KNIGHTS  OF,  a  military  order  in 
Spain  instituted  under  Sancho  III.  king  of  Cas- 


CAL  19 


CAL 


me,  upon  the  following  occasion : — When  that 
prince  took  the  strong  fort  of  Calatrava  from  the 
Moors  of  Andalusia,  he  gave  it  to  the  templars, 
who,  not  being  able  to  defend  it,  returned  it  him 
again.  Don  Raymond,  of  the  order  of  Cister- 
cians, accompanied  with  several  persons  of  qua- 
lity, then  made  an  offer  to  defend  the  place, 
which  the  king  thereupon  delivered  to  them,  and 
instituted  that  order.  It  increased  so  much  under 
the  reign  of  Alphonsus,  that  the  knights  desired 
to  have  a  grand  master,  which  was  granted.  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella  afterwards,  with  the  consent 
of  pope  Innocent  VIII.  re-united  the  grandmas- 
tership  of  Calatrava  to  the  Spanish  crown ;  so 
that  the  kings  of  Spain  are  now  become  perpetual 
administrators  thereof.  Their  rules  and  habits 
were  at  first  those  of  the 
Cistercians,  but  their  pre- 
sent habit  is  a  mantle 
of  white  silk,  tied  with  a 
cordon  and  tassels,  and  on 
the  left  arm  the  cross  of  the 
order  is  embroidered.  Their 
cross  is  a  cross  fleury  gules 
as  in  the  annexed  figure, 
and  is  worn  at  the  stomach, 
pendants  to  a  red  ribbon.  It  is  styled  the 
gallant  order  of  Calatrava. 

CALAURIA,  in  ancient  geography,  an  island 
of  Greece  in  the  Saronic  bay,  over  against  the 
port  of  Troezen,  at  the  distance  of  forty  stadia. 
Hither  Demosthenes  went  twice  into  banishment; 
and  here  he  died.  Neptune  was  said  to  have  ac- 
cepted this  island  from  Apollo  in  exchange  for 
Delos.  The  city  of  this  name  stood  on  a  high 
ridgenearly  in  the  middle  of  the  island,  command- 
ing an  extensive  view  of  the  gulph  and  its  coasts. 
Here  was  the  temple  of  Neptune  ;  the  priestess 
of  which  was  a  virgin,  who  was  dismissed  when 
marriageable.  The  Macedonians,  when  they  had 
reduced  Greece,  were  afraid  to  violate  the  sanc- 
tuary, by  forcing  from  it  the  fugitives,  his  suppli- 
ants. Antipater  commanded  his  general  to  bring 
away  the  orators,  who  had  offended  him,  alive  ; 
but  Demosthenes  could  not  be  prevailed  on  to 
surrender.  His  monument  remained  in  the 
second  century,  within  the  enclosure  of  the  tem- 
ple. The  city  of  Calauria  has  been  long  aban- 
doned. Traces  of  buildings,  and  of  ancient 
walls,  appear  nearly  level  with  the  ground  ;  and 
some  stones,  in  their  places,  each  with  a  seat  and 
back,  forming  a  little  circle,  once  perhaps  a  bath. 
The  temple,  which  was  of  the  Doric  order,  and 
not  large,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  fragments, 
is  reduced  to  an  inconsiderable  heap  of  ruins. 
The  island  is  now  called  Poro. 

C.  ALBUM,  in  entomology,  an  European  spe- 
cies of  curculio,  particularly  distinguished  by 
having  an  incur vated  line  on  the  wing-cases  at 
the  base,  also  the  specific  name  of  the  common 
butterfly,  a  well  known  species  of  the  European 
papiliones.  This  insect  has  angulated  wings  of 
a  fulvous  color,  spotted  with  black  :  the  posterior 
wings  marked  beneath  with  a  white  curved  line 
resembling  the  letter  C,  whence  its  name. 

CALCANEUM,  calx,  the  heel,  calcar  pterna, 
os  calcis.  The  largest  bone  of  the  tarsus,  which 
forms  the  heel.  See  ANATOMY. 

CALCANTHUM,  red  vitriol.     See  VITRIOL. 


CALCAR,  in  glass-making,  a  small  oven,  or 
reverberatory  furnace,  in  which  the  first  calcina- 
tion of  sand  and  salt  of  potashes  is  made  for  the 
turning  them  into  what  is  called  frit.  This  furnace 
is  made  in  the  fashion  of  an  oven  ten  feet  long, 
•*  seven  broad  in  the  widest  part,  and  two  deep. 
On  one  side  of  it  is  a  trench  six  inches  square, 
the  upper  part  of  which  is  level  with  the  calcar, 
and  separated  only  from  it  at  the  mouth  by  bricks 
nine  inches  wide.  Into  this  trench  they  put  sea 
coal,  the  flame  of  which  is  carried  into  every  part 
of  the  furnace,  and  is  reverberated  from  the  roof 
upon  the  frit,  over  the  surface  of  which  the 
smoke  flies,  and  goes  out  at  the  mouth  of  the 
calcar ;  the  coaU  burn  on  iron  grates,  and  the 
ashes  fall  through. 

CALCAII  (John  de),  a  celebrated  painter,  was 
the  disciple  of  Titian,  and  perfected  himself  by 
studying  Raphael.  Among  other  pieces  he  drew 
a  nativity,  representing  the  angels  around  the  in- 
fant Jesus ;  and  so  ordered  the  disposition  of  hi.4 
picture,  that  the  light  all  proceeds  from  the  child. 
He  died  at  Naples,  in  1 546,  in  the  flower  of  his  age. 
He  designed  the  anatomical  figures  of  Vesalius, 
the  portraits  of  the  painters  of  Vasari. 

CALCAR,  in  conchology,  a  species  of  Turbo,  of 
which  Chemnitz  gives  several  distinct  varieties 
from  India,the  South  Seas,  and  the  Mediterranean. 
Also  a  species  of  nautilus,  found  in  the  Adriatic, 
and  described  by  Plancus  among  his  miscroscopic 
shells. 

CALCAR,  in  entomology,  a  small  German  spe 
cies  of  curculio,  of  a  black  color,  with  single 
toothed  thighs  and  testaceous  antenna?  and  feet. 

CALCARATA.  in  entomology,  a  small  species 
of  buprestis,  with  bidentated  striated  wing-cases, 
shanks  of  the  middle  legs  toothed  :  body  copper- 
colored  :  found  on  German  trees. 

CALCARATUS,  a  species  of  cerambyx,  color 
violaceous-black,  thighs  rufous,  the  posterior  ones 
dentated.  Also  a  species  of  cimex,  color  fuscous, 
abdomen  sanguineous  above,  the  posterior  thighs 
six-toothed.  Both  these  inhabit  Europe. 

CALCAREOUS,  in  mineralogy,  the  third 
order  of  the  class  earths,  according  to  Gmelin's 
system,  consisting  principally  of  carbonate  of 
lime. 

CALCAREOUS  SPAR,  crystallised  carbonate  of 
lime.  It  occurs  crystallised  in  more  than  600 
different  forms,  all  having  for  their  primitive 
form  an  obtuse  rhomboid.  It  occurs  also  in  mas- 
sive and  imitative  shapes. 

The  colors  of  calc-spar  are  gray,  yellow,  red 
and  green,  lustre  vitreous  :  fracture  foliated,  with 
a  threefold  cleavage,  translucent.  It  is  less  hard 
than  fluor  spar,  and  is  easily  broken ;  specific 
gravity,  2'7,  43'6,  carbonic  acid,  and  56-4  lime. 
It  effervesces  powerfully  with  acids,  and  some 
varieties  are  phosphorescent  on  hot  coals.  It  is 
found  in  veins  in  all  rocks,  from  granite  to  allu- 
vial strata.  The  rarest  and  most  beautiful  crys- 
tals are  found  in  Derbyshire. 

CALCA'RIOUS.  Lat.  calx,  calcis;  lime; 
lapis  coctus,  from  \a\g,  denoting  a  stone  or  frag- 
ments of  stones,  from  which  cement  or  mortar  is 
made. —  Vossius.  Scheidius  on  the  other  hand, 
by  mutations  of  icXaw,  frango,  obtains  K\at, 
whence  ica\|. 

On  the  east  side,  ia  the  most  broken  part  of  die 

02 


CAL 


precipices,  is  a  stratmn  of  bones  of  all  sizes,  belong- 
ing to  various  animals  and  fowls,  enchased  in  an  in- 
crustation of  a  reddish  calcarious  rock.  Swinburne. 

CALC BARIUM,  in  antiquity,  a  largess  be- 
stowed on  Roman  soldiers  for  buying  shoes.  In 
monasteries,  calcearium  denoted  the  daily  service 
of  cleaning  the  shoes  of  the  religious. 

CAL'CEATED,  adj.  Lat.  calcatus;  shod; 
fitted  with  shoes. 

CALCEDON.     See  CHALCEDOX. 

CALCEDONIANS,  a  denomination  given  by 
f'optic  writers  to  the  Melchites,  on  account  of 
their  adherence  to  the  council  of  Calcedon. 

CALCEDO'NIUS,  n.  s.  Lat.  the  calcedony. 
A  kind  of  precious  stone.  See  CHALCEDONY. 

Calcedonius  is  of  the  agate  kind,  and  of  a  misty 
grey,  clouded  with  blue,  or  with  purple. 

Woodward  on  Fossils. 

CALCEOLARIA,  from  calceolis,  a  slipper, 
Slipper-wort;  a  genus  of  plants,  class,  diandria  ; 
order,  monogynia :  CAL.  one-leaved  perianth : 
COR.  monopetalous :  STAM.  two  filaments  ;  incum- 
bent anthers  :  PIST.  a  roundish  germ  :  with  Aery 
short  style ;  and  blunt  stigma  :  PER.  capsule  sub- 
conic  ;  seeds  numerous.  Nine  species ;  almost 
all  natives  of  Pern;  generally  with  yellow  clus- 
tering flowers,  some  of  which  are  beautiful  and 
well  worth  cultivating. 

CALCHAS,  in  fabulous  history,  a  famous  di- 
viner, who  followed  the  Greek  army  to  Troy. 
He  foretold  Miat  the  siege  would  last  ten  years ; 
and  that  the  fleet,  which  was  detained  in  the  port 
of  Aulis  by  contrary  winds,  would  not  sail  till 
Agamemnon's  daughter  had  been  sacrificed  to 
Diana.  He  had  received  the  power  of  divination 
from  Apollo.  Calchas  was  informed,  that  as  soon 
as  he  found  a  man  more  skilled  than  himself  in 
divination,  he  must  perish  ;  and  this  happened 
near  Colophon,  after  the  Trojan  war.  lie  was 
unable  to  tell  how  many  figs  were  in  the  branches 
of  ~a  certain  fig-tree ;  and  when  Mopsus  mention- 
ed the  exact  number,  Calchas  died  through 
grief. 

CALCHOPHONOS  LAPIS,  among  the  an- 
cients, a  name  given  to  a  stone  of  a  black  color, 
and  considerable  hardness,  which,  when  cut  into 
thin  plates,  and  struck  against  by  any  other  hard 
body,  gave  a  sound  like  that  of  brass  :  it  seerns 
to  have  been  one  of  the  hard  black  marbles. 

CALCIFRAGUS,  stone-breaking,  an  appel- 
lation given  by  some  to  the  scolopendrium,  by 
others  to  pimpernel,  on  account  of  their  lithron- 
triptic  quality. 

CALCIMURITE,  in  mineralogy,  a  species  of 
earth,  or  stone,  of  the  consistency  of  clay,  found 
near  Thionville.  Its  color  is  blue  or  olive  green, 
and  it  contains  magnesia,  mixed  with  a  conside- 
rable portion  of  calcareous  earth,  and  some  iron. 
The  olive  green  colored,  contains  no  argil.  The 
blue  is  used  by  potters. 

CALCINATION.  The  fixed  residences  of 
such  matters  as  have  undergone  combustion,  says 
Dr.  Ure,  are  called  cinders  in  common  language, 
and  calces,  or  now  more  commonly  oxides,  by 
chemists  ;  and  the  operation,  when  considered 
with  regard  to  these  residues,  is  termed  calcina- 
tion. In  this  general  way  it  has  likewise  been  ap- 
plied to  bodies,  not  really  combustible,  but  only 
deprived  of  some  of  their  principles  by  heat. 


20  CAL 

Thus  we  hear  of  the  calcination  of  chalk,  to  con 
vert  it  into  lime,  by  driving  oft'  its  carbonic  acid 
and  water  ;  of  gypsum  or  plaster  stone,  of  alum, 
of  borax,  and  other  saline  bodies,  by  which  they 
are  deprived  of  their  water  of  crystallisation ; 
of  bones,  which  lose  their  volatile  parts  by  this 
treatment;  and  of  various  other  bodies.  See 
CHEMISTRY.  For  the  ancient  definition,  see  the 
next  article. 

CALCINE',  v.^\      See  CALCARIOUS.    To  re- 

CALX',  n.  I  duce  to  a  calx.    Calcination 

CAL'CINATE,  v.  Vis  thus  described  by  Junius, 

CALCINA'TIOX,  i  as  quoted  by  Dr.  Johnson  : — 

CAL'CINABLE.  j  Such  a  management  of  bodies 
by  fire  as  renders  them  reducible  to  powder ; 
wherefore  it  is  called  chemical  pulverisation. 
This  is  the  next  degree  of  the  power  of  fire  be- 
yond that  of  fusion ;  for  when  fusion  is  longer 
continued,  not  only  the  more  subtle  particles  of 
the  body  itself  fly  off,  but  the  particles  of  fire 
likewise  insinuate  themselves  in  such  multitudes, 
and  are  so  blended  through  its  whole  substance, 
that  the  fluidity,  first  caused  by  the  fire,  can  no 
longer  subsist.  From  this  union  arises  a  third 
kind  of  body,  which,  being  very  porous  and 
brittle,  is  easily  reduced  to  powder ;  for,  the  fire 
having  penetrated  everywhere  into  the  pores  of 
the  body,  the  particles  are  both  hindered  from 
mutual  contact,  and  divided  into  minute  atoms. 
Our  lampcs  brenning  bothe  night  and  day, 

To  bring  about  our  craft,  if  that  we  may  ; 

Our  furaeis  eke  of  calcination, 

And  of  waters  albitication. 

Unslekked  lime  and  gleire  of  an  ey. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  T.ik*. 

Gold,  that  is  more  dense  than  lead,  resists  pe- 
remptorily all  the  dividing  power  of  fire  ;  and  will 
not  be  reduced  into  a  calx,  or  lime,  by  such  operations 
as  reduce  lead  into  it.  Digty- 

Divers  residences  of  bodies  are  thrown  away,  as 
soon  as  the  distillation  or  calcination  of  the  body  that 
yieldeth  them  is  ended.  Boyle. 

This  may  be  effected,  but  not  without  calcittution,  or 
reducing  it  by  art  into  a  subtile  powder. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errowrs. 
Fiery  disputes  that  union  have  calcined, 

Almost  as  many  minds  as  men  we  find.     Denliam. 

This  chrystal  is  a  pellucid  fissile  stone,  clear  as 
water,  and  without  colour,  enduring  a  red  heat,  with- 
out losing  its  transparency,  and,  in  a  very  strong  heat, 
calcining  with  fusion.  Newton's  Opticks. 

The  solids  seem  to  be  earth,  bound  together  with 
some  oil ;  for  if  a  bone  be  calcined,  so  as  the  least 
force  will  crumble  it,  being  immersed  in  oil,  it  will 
grow  firm  again.  Arbuthnot  on  Aliments. 

In  hardening,  by  baking  without  melting,  the  heat 
hath  these  degrees ;  first,  it  indurateth,  then  maketh 
fragile,  and  lastly  it  doth  calcinate. 

Bacon's  Nat.  Hist. 

'  The  earth  that  drinketh  in  the  rain  that  cometh 
oft  upon  it,'  is  but  a  faint  emblem  of  a  calcined  mind. 
Expos.  N.  T.  Heb.  vi. 

CALCIS  LIQUOR,  solution  of  lime  formerly 
called  aqua  calcis.  Take  one  pound  of  lime, 
and  boiling  water,  three  gallons  ;  pour  the  water 
on  the  lime,  let  it  stand  for  some  time,  and  then 
pour  it  into  stopped  glass  bottles  together  with 
the  lime  that  remains.  It  is  exhibited  internally 
in  cardialgia,  spasms,  diarrhoea,  in  doses  of  two 
and  three  ounces,  &c. ;  and  in  proportionate  doses 
in  convulsions  of  children  arising  from  acidity;  or 


CALCULUS. 


21 


ulcerated  intestines,  intermittent  fevers,  &c.     Ex- 
ternally it  is  applied  to  burns  and  ulcers. 

CALCIS  MURIATIS  LIQUOR,  take  of  muriate 
of  lime  two  ounces,  distilled  water  three  fluid 
ounces;  dissolve  the  salt  in  the  water,  and  filter 
it  through  paper. 

CALCIS  ()s.     See  ANATOMY. 

CALCIUM,  the  metallic  basis  of  lime,  first 
procured  by  Sir  H.  Davy,  by  the  process  which 
he  used  for  obtaining  BARIUM  ;  which  see.  It 
was  in  such  small  quantities,  that  little  could  be 
said  concerning  its  nature.  It  appeared  brighter 
and  whiter  than  either  barium  or  strontium;  and 
burned  when  gently  heated,  producing  dry  lime. 
There  is  only  one  known  combination  of  cal- 
cium and  oxygen,  which  is  the  important  sub- 
stance called  lime.  See  LIME. 

CALCOGRAPIIY,  from  Ka\KoS,  brass  and 
ypa^w,  to  write,  the  art  of  writing  on  brass. 

CALC  SINTER.  Stalactitical  carbonate  of 
lime.  It  is  found  in  pendulous  conical  rods, 
massive,  and  in  many  shapes.  Fracture  lamellar, 
or  divergent  fibrous.  Lustre  silky  or  pearly. 
Colors  various,  but  rarely  green.  Translucent, 
very  brittle.  Large  stalactites  are  found  in  the 
grotto  of  Antiparos,  the  woodman's  cave  in  the 
llartz,  the  cave  of  Auxelle  in  France,  in  the  cave 
of  Castleton  in  Derbyshire,  and  Macalister  cave 
in  Sky.  They  are  formed  by  the  filtration  of 
carbonated  lime  water,  through  the  crevices  of 
the  roofs  of  caverns. 

CALCTUFF,  an  alluvial  formation  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  probably  deposited  from  cal- 
careous springs.  It  has  a  yellowish-gray  color  ; 
a  dull  lustre  ;  a  fine  grained  earthy  fracture  ;  and 
is  usually  marked  with  impressions  of  vegetable 
matter.  Its  specific  gravity  is  nearly  the  same 
with  that  of  water.  It  is  soft,  and  easily  cut  or 
broken. 

CALCULARY,  a  congeries  of  little  strong 
knots,  dispersed  through  the  whole  parenchyma 
of  a  pear.  The  calculary  is  most  observed  in 
rough-tasted  or  choak-pears.  The  knots  lie  more 
contiguous  and  compact  together  towards  the 
pear,  where  they  surround  the  acetary.  About 
the  stalks  they  stand  more  distant ;  but  towards 
the  cork  or  stool  of  the  flower  they  still  grow 
closer,  and  there  at  last  gather  into  the  firmness 
of  a  plumb  stone.  The  calculary  is  no  essential 
part,  but  rather  a  disease  of  the  fruit ;  the  several 
knots  whereof  it  consists  being  only  so  many 
concretions  or  precipitations  out  of  the  sap,  as 
we  see  in  wines,  and  other  liquors. 

CALCULATION  is  particularly  used  for  the 
computations  in  astronomy  -and  geometry,  for 
making  tables  of  logarithms,  ephemerides,  find- 
ing the  time  of  eclipses,  &c.  See  ASTRONOMY, 
GEOMETRY,  and  LOGARITHMS. 

CAL'CULE,  v.  &  n.  ~\      Fr.  calculer;  Ital.  cal- 

CAL'CULATE,  v.  |  culare;  Span,  calcular; 

CALCULATION,  {Lat.  calculus,  from  calx, 

CAL'CULATIVE,  j  calcia.      Calculi,    were 

CAL'CULATOR,  |  small    stones   used    in 

CAL'CULATORY.  J  counting,  reckoning, 
and  computing.  Hence  to  calcule,  or  calculate, 
is  to  enumerate,  reckon,  cast  up,  from  parti- 
culars to  the  aggregate. 

His  tables  Toletanes  forth  he  brought, 
Ful  wcl  corrected,  that  there:  lacked  nought 


Nother  his  collect  nc  his  expans  were, 

Nother  his  rotes  ne  his  other  gere, 

As  beii  his  centres,  and  his  argumentes, 

For  his  equations  in  every  thing, 

And  by  his  eighte  speres  in  his  working, 

He  knew  ful  wel  how  far  Anath  was  shove, 

Fro  the  hed  of  thiike  Aries  above, 

That  in  the  ninthe  spere  considered  is, 

Ful  sotilly  he  culculed  all  this. 

Chaucer.      Canterbury  Tales, 

The  general  calcule,  which  was  made  in  the  las: 
perambulation,  exceeded  eight  millions. 

Howel's  Vocal  Forest. 

Cypher,  that  great  friend  to  calculation;  or  rather, 
which  changeth  calculation  into  easy  computation. 

Holder  on  Time. 

But  if  you  would  consmer  tne  true  cause. 
Why  all  these  fires,  why  all  these  gliding  ghosts, 
Why  birds,  and  beasts,  from  quality  and  kind, 
Why  old  men,  fools,  and  children  calculate, 
Why  all  these  things  change,  from  their  ordinance, 
Their  natures  and  pre-formed  faculties, 
To  monstrous  quality  ;   why  you  shall  find, 
That  heaven  hath  infused  them  with  these  spirits, 
To  make  them  instruments  of  fear,  and  warning, 
Unto  some  monstrous  state.  Sliakspeare. 

If  then  their  calculation  be  true,  for  so  they  reckon 

Hooker. 

Being  different  from  calculations  of  the  ancients, 
their  observations  confirm  not  ours. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

The  whole  body  of  the  clergy  and  their  families, 
make  near  100,000  souls,  that  is  about  an  eighteenth 
part  of  the  nation.  And  reckoning  the  population  of 
England  and  Wales  at  eight  millions  of  people, 
every  clergyman  would  have  a  congregation  of  four 
hundred  and  forty-four  persons  to  attend  to,  in  the 
ssme  way  of  calculation. 

Simpson's  Plea  for  Religion. 

CALCULOSE',  adj.  )      From  Lat.  calculus. 

CAL'CULOUS.  f  Stony  ;  gritty. 

The  volatile  salt  of  urine  will  coagulate  spirits  of 
wine  ;  and  thus,  perhaps,  the  stones,  or  calculose  con- 
cretions in  the  kidney  or  bladder,  may  be  produced. 
Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

I  have  found,  by  opening  the  kidneys  of  a  calculous 
person,  that  the  stone  is  formed  earlier  than  I  have 
suggested.  Sharp, 

CALCULUS,  in  antiquity,  a  little  stone  or  peb- 
ble, was  used  in  making  computations,  taking 
suffrages,  playing  at  tables,  and  the  like.  In 
after  times,  pieces  of  ivory,  and  counters  of 
silver,  gold,  &c.  were  used  in  lieu  thereof,  but 
still  retaining  the  ancient  names.  The  Roman 
judges  anciently  gave  their  opinions  by  calculi, 
which  were  white  for  absolution,  and  black  for 
condemnation.  Hence  calculus  albus,  in  ancient 
writers,  denotes  a  favourable  vote,  either  in  a 
person  to  be  absolved  and  acquitted  of  a  charge, 
or  elected  to  some  dignity  or  post;  as  calculus 
niger  the  contrary.  This  usage  is  said  to  have 
been  borrowed  from  the  Thracians,  who  marked 
their  happy  or  prosperous  days  by  white,  and 
their  unfortunate  by  black,  pebbles,  put  each 
night  into  an  urn.  Besides  the  diversity  of 
color,  there  were  some  calculi  also  which  had 
characters  engraven  on  them,  as  those  which 
were  in  use  in  taking  the  suffrages  in  the  senate 
and  at  assemblies  of  the  people.  These  calculi' 
were  made  of  thin  wood,  polished,  and  covered 
over  with  wax.  Their  form  is  still  suen  in  some, 


22 


CALCULUS. 


medals  of  the  Cassian  family ;  and  the  manner 
of  casting  them  into  the  urns,  in  the  medals  of 
the  Licinian  family.  These  calculi  were  marked 
with  the  letters  A  for  absolve,  i.  e.  I  acquit;  C 
for  condemno,  I  condemn  ;  N  L,  non  liquet,  i.  e. 
it  is  not  clear,  must  be  further  examined  and  ad- 
ditional information  given.  Calculi  lusorii  were 
the  chess-men,  or  little  balls,  which  were  em- 
ployed in  the  game  of  chess,  which  the  poets 
allude  to,  both  as  to  their  matter,  their  color,  and 
their  use.  They  were  made  either  of  ivory,  of 
.  old,  silver,  or  glass. 

CALCULUS,  in  chemistry,  this  word,  physiolo- 
gically and  medically  applied,  designates  those 
concretions  of  a  morbid  kind  which  are  found  in 
the  viscera  and  cavities  of  animal  bodies,  as  the 
kidneys  and  urinary  bladder,  the  liver,  gall- 
bladder, and  ducts ;  and  occasionally  in  the 
intestinal  canal ;  to  these  last,  however,  the 
term  concretion,  rather  than  calculus,  is  more 
usually  applied,  and  under  that  word  we  shall 
notice  them,  confining  our  account  in  the  present 
article  to  urinary  and  biliary  calculi. 

Of  urinary  calculi. — These  are  found  at  dif- 
ferent times  in  the  kidneys,  the  ureters,  the 
urinary  bladder,  the  urethra,  and  the  prostate 
gland.  They  are  for  the  most  part  made  up  of 
those  materials,  disproportionately  combined, 
which  always  exist  in  other  proportions  in  the 
urine  itself.  To  this  law,  however,  there  are 
occasional  exceptions.  One  of  the  principal  in- 
gredients in  urine,  as  will  be  seen  by  turning  to 
the  articles  CHEMISTRY  and  URINE,  is  uric  acid, 
and  accordingly  we  find  the  largest  proportion  of 
the  concretions  now  to  be  noticed  to  contain  uric 
acid  as  a  master  princple;  indeed  Majendie,  who 
has  published  a  small  treatise  especially  on  the 
subject  of  urinaiy  calculi,  seems  to  think  that, 
neither  in  a  pathological  nor  practical  point  of 
view,  is  it  of  much  importance  to  take  cognizance 
of  any  other ;  in  this  opinion  he  is  however 
manifestly  erroneous ;  for  although  the  uric  acid 
calculus  is,  as  above  intimated,  of  by  far  the 
most  frequent  occurrence,  we  very  often  meet 
with  others  which  are  exceedingly  different  in 
chemical  composition,  and  for  the  counteraction 
of  which  a  different  medicinal  process  is  deman- 
ded. See  MEDICINE.  It  ought  always  to  be 
recollected  that  there  are  very  few  instances  in 
which  the  substances  that  give  the  character  to 
calculi  are  found  singly.  When  we  talk  of  uric 
acid  calculus,  and  especially  of  the  other  concre- 
tions, we  mean  merely  that  the  name  by  which 
they  are  designated  expresses  the  predominance 
of  the  principle. 

Urinary  calculi  may  be  classed  under  the 
several  following  heads. 

1 .  Uric  or  lilhic  acid  calculi,  which  are  formed 
mainly  of  uric  acid. 

2.  Urate  of  ammonia  calculi. 

3.  Ammoniaco-magnesian  phosphate,   or,   as 
they  are  called,  triple  calculi. 

4.  Calculi  of  phosphate  of  lime. 

5.  Calculi  of  oxalate  of  lime  (mulberry  cal- 
culusi). 

6.  Calculi  of  the  carbonate  of  lime. 

7.  Calculi  of  cystic  pxide. 

Uric  acid  calculus — This,  as  above  stated,  is 
much  more  frequent  in  its  occurrence  than  any 


other.  Some  have  averaged  their  number  at 
about  half  of  the  whole  number  of  concretions 
that  are  found.  Calculi  of  this  kind  are  of 
various  sizes,  from  that  of  a  common  nut  to  that 
of  a  large  egg.  They  more  resemble  the  com- 
mon hard  compact  stones  that  are  found  in  the 
roads,  than  do  the  other  calculi ;  their  shape  is  for 
the  most  part  oval ;  they  have  an  internal  central 
nucleus  from  which  rays  proceed.  Their  color 
is  for  the  most  part  of  a  yellowish  brown  or 
fawn. 

When  treated  with  the  blow-pipe  this  calculus 
blackens  and  gives  out  a"n  ammoniacal  odor.  It 
is  soluble  in  pure  alkalies. 

The  red  sand  so '  commonly  voided  in  gra- 
velly complaints  consists  almost  entirely  of  uric 
acid. 

The  urate  of  ammonia  calculus  is  in  its  pure 
state  by  no  means  common,  but  this  composition 
is  often  found  in  cases  where  the  uric  acid  is  in 
excess,  and  in  this  way  a  mixed  calculus  is 
formed.  This  calculus  is  of  a  clayish  color, 
and  it  is  more  earthy  in  its  fracture  than  the 
uric  acid  concretion ;  it  is  also  much  more  soluble 
in  water,  and  a  distinguishing  property  of  it, 
from  the  mere  uric  acid  calculus,  is  its  solubility 
in  the  alkaline  sub-carbonates,  while  the  latter 
requires  the  alkali  to  be  pure  to  dissolve  it. 

The  ammoniaco-magnesian  phosphate,  is  scarcely 
ever  found  unmixed ;  its  most  usual  combination 
is  with  the  species  next  to  be  described,  viz.  the 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  the  union  constitutes  the 
fusible  calculus  of  Wollaston,  so  named  because 
it  is  susceptible  of  being  melted  or  fused  into  a 
vitreous  matter  by  the  blow-pipe. 

The  ammoniaco-magnesian  phosphate  is  white, 
or  of  a  pale  gray ;  its  texture  is  much  softer  than 
that  of  the  uric  acid  calculus.  This  species  fre- 
quently attains  a  very  large  size.  When  voided 
in  the  form  of  gravel  it  is  white. 

This  calculus  is  soluble  in  acids,  and  not  in 
pure  alkalies. 

The  phosphate  of  lime  calculus  is  of  a  pale 
brown  or  gray  color,  and  smooth  on  its  exter- 
nal surface.  It  is  made  up  of  laminae  that  are 
easily  separated.  This,  like  the  triple  calculus, 
is  easily  soluble  in  the  mineral  acids,  especially 
the  muriatic.  It  requires  an  intense  and  long 
continued  heat  from  the  blow-pipe  to  fuse  it. 
The  calculi  that  are  found  in  the  prostate  gland 
are  of  this  species. 

Oxalate  of  lime,  or  mulberry  calculus,  is  much 
darker  in  its  color  than  the  other  varieties.  Its 
external  surface  is  marked  by  projecting  tubercles 
giving  with  its  color  something  of  a  mulberry 
appearance.  Sometimes  it  is  smooth  and  palet 
externally ;  in  this  case  it  is  also  in  smaller  mas- 
ses, and  has  been  compared  to  a  hemp-seed. 
This  kind  of  calculus  (the  mulberry)  is  ex- 
ceedingly hard. 

Muriatic  and  nitric  acids,  if  concentrated  and 
heated,  dissolve  this  species  of  calculus;  but  it  is 
necessary  for  easy  solution  that  the  concretion 
be  first  powdered.  Pure  alkalies  do  not  act  upon 
it,  but  the  alkaline  carbonates,  when  digested 
with  it,  separate  the  oxalic  acid  from  it  which  is 
replaced  by  the  carbonic  acid. 

The  carbonate  of  lime  calculus  is  exceedingly 
rare  Mr.  Brande  tells  us  that  among  several 


CALCULUS. 


23 


Hundred  calculi  from  the  human  bladder,  which 
Ae  examined,  he  ntver  met  with  a  single  instance 
of  it. 

Cyotic  oxide  calculus  is  so  named  from  its 
being  composed  of  a  peculiar  animal  substance 
which  lias  the  chemkal  habitudes  of  an  oxide,  and 
from  Dr.  Wollaston,  the  discoverer  of  it,  having1 
at  first  supposed  it  to  be  confined  to  the  bladder  : 
this  calculus  more  nearly  resembles  the  ammo- 
niaco-magnesian  phosphate  in  its  external  ap- 
pearance than  any  other,  but  it  is  more  compact 
and  less  laminated. 

This  calculus  is  soluble  both  in  acids  and 
alkalies.  The  acetic,  tartaric,  and  citric  acids  do 
not  however  act  upon  it  freely,  neither  does 
alcohol,  nor  water,  nor  the  carbonate  of  am- 
monia. 

A  j-aiit/tic  oxide  calculus,  and  a  fibrinous  cal- 
culus, have  been  described  by  Dr.  Marcet  as 
differing  from  every  other  known  species.  The 
first  is  of  a  reddish  color,  not  so  readily  soluble 
in  acids  as  in  alkalies ;  its  solution  in  nitric  acid 
when  evaporated  giving  a  yellow  color  (whence 
the  name) ;  it  is  considerably  more  soluble  in 
water  than  uric  acid  calculus,  and  less  easily 
soluble  in  acids  than  the  cystic  oxide.  The  other 
calculus  seemed  similar  in  its  properties  to 
fibrine,  and  hence  Dr.  Marcet  proposed  that,  in 
the  event  of  other  instances  of  the  same  kind 
being  found,  the  name  fibrinous  should  be  given 
to  it 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  classification 
proposed  by  Fourcroy  and  Vauquelen  after  the 
analysis  of  more  than  600  of  these  concretions. 
We  copy  the  table  from  the  last  edition  of  Dr. 
Henry's  Elements  of  Chemistry. 

GENUS  I. — Calculi  composed  chiefly  of  one 
ingredient. 

Species  1.  Calculus  of  uric  acid. 

2.  Calculus  of  urate  of  ammmonia. 

3.  Calculus  of  carbonate  of  lime. 

4.  Calculus  of  oxalate  of  lime. 

GENUS  II. — Calculi  composed  of  two 
ingredients. 

Species  1.  Calculus  of  uric  acid  and  earthy 
phosphates  in  distinct  layers. 

2.  Calculus  of  uric  acid  and  earthy  phosphates 
intimately  mixed. 

3.  Calculus   of  urate   of  ammonia   and   the 
phosphates  in  layers. 

4.  Calculus  of  the  same  ingredients  intimately 
mixed. 

5.  Calculus  of  earthy  phosphates  mixed,  or 
else  in  fine  layers. 

6.  Calculus  of  oxalate  of  lime  and  uric  acid  in 
distinct  layers. 

7.  Calculus   of  oxalate  of  lime  and   earthy 
phosphates  in  layers. 

GENUS  III. —  Calculi  composed  of  three  or 

four  ingredients. 

Species  1.  Calculus  of  uric  acid  or  urate  of 
ammonia,  earthy  phosphates,  and  oxalate  of 
lime. 

2.  Calculus  of  uric  acid,  urate  cf  ammonia, 
earthy  phosphates  and  silex. 

The   urinary  concretions  found  in   the  blad- 


ders of  inferior  animals  contain  no  uric  acid  : 
they  consist  mainly  of  carbonate  and  phosphate 
of  lime  cemented  by  animal  matter. 

For  an  account  of  the  symptoms  which  gravelly 
concretions  produce,  and  for  the  dietetic  and 
medicinal  management  of  gravel  and  stone,  see 
the  articles  MEDICINE  and  SURGERY. 

CALCULI,  BILIARY,  called  gall-stones.  Four- 
croy described  one  species  of  these  as  consisting 
chiefly  of  adipocire ;  but  Chevreul  has  given  the 
name  of  cholesterine  to  the  crystalline  matter  of 
biliary  concretions,  because  it  does  not,  like  true 
adipocire,  produce  a  soap  with  alkalies. 

Cholesterine  is  described  as  a  peculiar  animal 
principle,  insoluble  in  water,  and  nearly  so  in 
cold  alcohol  :  but  soluble  in  nitric  acid.  It  is 
fusible  at  280°,  and  if  rapidly  heated  to  about 
400  it  evaporates  in  dense  smoke. 

Some  biliary  calculi  appear  to  be  mere  'inspis- 
sations  of  bile,  being  soluble  however  in  alcohol 
and  water;  and  these  inspissations  are  often 
found  mixed  in  various  degrees  and  proportions 
with  the  cholesterenic  species,  thus  constituting 
concretions  of  intermediate  characters. 

The  biliary  calculi  of  the  ox  seem  to  consist 
almost  entirely  of  the  yellow  matter  of  bile  in  a 
concrete  state ;  this  is  used  as  a  pigment.  For 
further  information  on  biliary  concretions,  see 
the  article  MEDICINE. 

CALCULUS  DIFFERENTIALS  is  a  method  of 
differencing  quantities,  or  of  finding  an  infinitely 
small  quantity,  which,  being  taken  infinite  times, 
shall  be  equal  to  a  given  quantity ;  or,  it  is  the 
arithmetic  of  the  infinitely  small  differences  of 
variable  quantities.  The  foundation  of  this  cal- 
culus is  an  infinitely  small  quantity,  or  an  infi- 
nitesimal, which  is  a  portion  of  a  quantity 
incomparable  to  that  quantity,  or  that  is  less  than 
any  assignable  one,  and  therefore  accounted  as 
nothing ;  the  error  accruing  by  omitting  it  being 
less  than  any  assignable  one.  Hence  two  quan- 
titie^,  only  differing  by  an  infinitesimal,  are  re- 
puted equal.  Thus,  in  astronomy,  the  diameter 
of  the  earth  is  an  infinitesimal,  in  respect  of  the 
distance  of  the  fixed  stars  ;  and  the  same  holds 
in  abstract  quantities.  The  term,  infinitesimal, 
therefore,  is  merely  relative,  and  involves  a  rela- 
tion to  another  quantity ;  and  does  not  denote 
any  real  ens,  or  being.  Now  infinitesimals  are 
called  differentials,  or  differential  quantities, 
when  they  are  considered  as  the  differences  of 
two  quantities.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  calls  them 
moments  ;  considering  them  as  the  momentary 
increments  of  quantities,  e.  g.  of  a  line,  genera- 
ted by  the  flux  of  a  point,  or  of  a  surface  by 
the  flux  of  a  line.  The  differential  calculus, 
therefore,  and  the  doctrine  of  fluxions,  are  the 
same  thing  under  different  names;  the  former 
given  by  M.  Leibnitz,  and  the  latter  by  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  :  each  of  whom  lay  claim  to  the 
discovery.  There  is,  indeed,  a  difference  in  the 
manner  of  expressing  the  quantities  resulting 
from  the  different  views  wherein  the  two  authors 
consider  the  infinitesimal;.;  the  one  as  moments, 
the  other  as  differences.  Leibnitz,  and  most 
foreigners,  express  the  differentials  of  quantities 
by  the  same  letters  as  variable  ones,  only  pre- 
fixing the  letter  d  :  thus  the  differential  of  JT  is 
called  d  .r ;  and  that  of  y,  du ;  now  d  a-  is  a 


24 


CALCULUS. 


positive  quantity,  if  x  continually  increase ;  ne- 
gative, if  it  decrease.  The  English,  with  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  instead  of  d  x  write  x  (with  a  dot 
over  it);  for  dy,y,  &c.  which  foreigners  object 
against,  on  account  of  that  confusion  of  points 
which  they  imagine  arises  when  differentials  are 
again  differenced ;  besides  that  the  printers  are 
more  apt  to  overlook  a  point  than  a  letter.  The 
rules  for  differencing  quantities  are  the  very 
same  as  those  for  finding  their  fluxions.  See 
FLUXIONS. 

CALCULUS  EXPONENTIALIS  is  a  method  of 
differencing  exponential  quantities,  or  of  finding 
and  summing  up  the  differentials  or  moments  of 
exponential  quantities  ;  or  at  least  bringing  them 
to  geometrical  constructions.  By  exponential 
quantity,  is  here  understood  a  power,  whose  ex- 
ponent is  variable ;  e.  g.  JTX.  «*.  xy.  where  the 
exponent  x  does  not  denote  the  same  in  all  the 
points  of  a  curve,  but  in  some  stands  for  two, 
in  others  for  three,  in  others  for  five,  &c.  To 
difference  an  exponential  quantity  is  the  same 
problem  as  to  find  its  fluxion.  See  FLUXIONS. 

CALCULUS  INTEGRALIS,  or  SUMMATORIUS,  is 
a  method  of  integrating,  or  summing  up  mo- 
ments, or  differential  quantities  ;  i.  e.  from  a  dif- 
ferential quantity  given,  to  find  the  quantity  from 
whose  differencing  the  differential  results.  The 
integral  calculus,  therefore,  is  the  inverse  of  the 
differential  one :  and  is  similar  to  the  inverse 
method  of  fluxions,  the  rules  of  which  also  apply 
to  the  calculus  integralis.  See  FLUXIONS. 

CALCULUS  LITERALIS,  or  LITERAL  CALCULUS, 
is  the  same  with  specious  arithmetic,  or  algebra, 
so  called  from  its  using  the  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet ;  in  contradistinction  to  numeral  arithmetic, 
which  uses  figures.  See  ALGEBRA. 

CALCULUS  MINERVA,  among  the  ancient 
lawyers,  denoted  the  decision  of  a  cause,  wherein 
the  judges  were  equally  divided.  The  expression 
is  taken  from  the  history  of  Orestes,  represented 
by  ./Eschylus  and  Euripides  ;  at  whose  trial,  be- 
fore the  Areopagites,  for  the  murder  of  his 
mother,  the  votes  being  divided  for  and  against 
him,  Minerva  interposed,  and  gave  the  casting 
calculus  or  vote,  on  his  behalf. 

CALCULUS  or  PARTIAL  DIFFERENCES,  is  an  im- 
provement on  the  integral  calculus  suggested  by 
M.  D'Alembert.  It  applies  successfully  to  some  of 
the  most  difficult  problems,  such  as  those  relating 
to  vibrating  cords,  the  propagation  of  sound,  the 
equilibrium  and  motion  of  fluids,  tautochrones 
in  resisting  media,  &c. 

When  we  have  a  function,  z,  of  two  variable 
quantities,  x  and  y,  or  of  a  greater  number,  we 
know  that  by  differencing  first  with  respect  to  x, 
and  then  with  respect  toy,  we  have  the  differential 
d  z  ~  p  d  x  -{-  g  d  y,  p  and.g  being  co-efficients 
that  aftect  d  x  and  d  y  respectively.  Thus  the 
complete  differential  of  z  is  p  d  x  -\-  q  dy ;  where 
p  d  x  and  q  d  y  are  the  differentials  to  which  are 
kjiven  the  name  of  partial. 

It  is  usual  to  denote  these  co-efficients  of  dx 

and  d  y,  in  this  manner ,  - — :  signifying  what 

d  x     dy 

happens  with  regard  to  the  function  z,  by  making 
it  first  vary  as  x  and  dividing  by  d  x,  and  then 
causing  it  to  vary  as  y  and  dividing  by  dy;  so 


that  the  complete  value  of  d  x  is  represented  by 

—^—  d  x  +  - — :  and  it  is  under  this  form  that 
d  x  d  y 

equations  of  partial  differences  commonly  present 
themselves.  Thus  every  equation  between  z,  x,y, 

d  z    d  z 
—j — ,  -j — ,  and,  if  we  please,  between  one  or 

several  constant  quantities,  will  be  an  equation 
of  partial  differences :  such  is,  for  example,  the 

d  z  d  z 

equation,  a \-  b x  y  —  o ;  which  sig- 
nifies, that,  in  order  to  the  solution  of  the  problem 
producing  this  equation,  we  must  find  a  function 
of  x  and  y,  such  that  the  co-efficient  of  the  dif- 
ferential d  x  multiplied  by  a,  plus  that  of  d  y 
multiplied  by  6,  shall  be  zz  x  y.  This  is  one  of 
the  simplest  of  this  kind  of  equations,  and  is 
called  an  equation  of  partial  differences  of  the 
first  order.  One  of  the  second  order,  is  of  the  form 

d*  ?  J  2  -  ,13  7  /7   3   - 

I  U>      Z  |TD_  I  _l_  - 

dx*          axdy  dx3        dy3 

-f-  P  —  o,  is  one  of  the  third  order. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  nature  and  resolution 
of  equations  of  partial  differences,  let  us  take  one 

of  the  most  simple,  such  as  -7 —  zz  P,  where  P 
dy 

is  any  function  whatever  of  x,  y,  and  constant 
quantities.  It  is  required,  therefore,  to  find  a 
function  z  of  x  and  y,  which,  differentiated  ac- 
cording to  y  and  divided  by  d  y,  shall  be  equal  to 
the  given  function  P.  In  order  to  this,  multi- 
plying all  by  d  y,  we  shall  have  —  dy  zz  P  dy; 

whence  it  follows  that  P  d  y  is  only  a  part  of  the 
differential  of  z,  namely  that  which  is  found  by 

d  2 
making  it  vary  as  y  :  thus  the  integral  of  -j—  dy, 

which  is  2  (since  the  preceding  expression  re- 
sulted from  the  differentiation),  making  it  only 
vaiy  as  y  will  be  equal  to  S.  P  d  y  plus,  a  func- 
tion which  can  only  be  in  terms  of  x,  and  which, 
similar  to  the  constant  quantity  added  to  every 
integral  to  render  it  complete,  can  only  be  de- 
termined b^y  the  conditions  of  _  the  problem. 
Representing  indefinitely  this  function  of  .r  by  F 
(j),  we  shall  have  z  —  S.  P  d  y  +  F  (x).  So 

likewise,  if  we  had  - —  zz  P,  we  should  find  'L 

—  S.  P  d  x  +  F  (y). 

We  present  an  example :    Let  the  equation  be 

-j-  zz  a  xy  -f- y3;  we  shall  have  evidently  S.  P  dy  zz 
— -^--pi-;  for  in  this  expression  we  have  only 


a  .r  i/' 


y-^+b 


4' 

y  variable.     Thus  z  will  be  zz 

-4  i 

+  F  (*).    Differencing  this  equation  regard  ing  y 

d  z 
only  as  variable,  we  shall  have  —  dy  zz  (axy  -\-  y3} 

d  y  zz  P  d  y ;  for  F  (x\  ought  not  by  the  nature 
of  the  question  to  give  any  differential,  x  being 
reputed  constant  with  regard  to  y. 

We  have,  in  this  example,  supposed  z  to  be  a 
function  of  only  two  variables,  y  and  x ;  but  it 
might  have  been  a  function  of  three  variables, 


CALCUTTA.  25 

and  have  one  or  two  partial  differentials.    Then,  whose  relation  is  expressed  by  a  determinate  law 

and  in  the  first  case,  the  arbitrary  function  might  we  find  what  that  function  becomes  when  the 

bp  a  function  of  two  other  variables  :  thus,  sup-  law  itself  is  supposed  to  experience  any  variation 

posin-  2  was  a  function  of  *,  y,  u,  and  that  we  had  indefinitely  small,  occasioned  by  the  variation  of 

d  z  one  or  of  several  of  the  terms  which  express  that 

only  one  of  the  partial  differences  of  z,  as  — ,  jaw<     This  calculus  is  almost  the  only  means  of 

the  method  of  integrating  would  be  the  same; 
we  should  integrate  only  with  regard  to  x,  and 
the  function  to  add  would  be  a  function  oft/  and  u, 
denoted  by  F  (y,  u).  Finally,  in  the  case  where  we 

d  z  d  z 


resolving  a  multitude  of  problems  de  maximis  et 
minimis,  wherein  the  difficulty  is  fur  greater  than 
in  such  problems  de  maximis  et  minimis,  as  are 
the  object  of  the  ordinary  differential  or  fluxionary 
calculus.  Such,  in  this  new  order  of  difficulties, 


should  have  two  partial  differences,  as  j-^,  — 

of  the  three  which  would  form  the  complete  dif- 
ferential, we  should  have  only  to  add  a  function 
of  ?/,  F  (u),  namely,  that  of  the  variable  whose 


is  the  problem  wherein  it  is  required  to  ascertain 
the  curve  -which  will  conduct  a  falling  body  in 
virtue  of  its  acceleration  to  a  given  point,  right 
line,  or  curve,  in  the  least  time. 

In  general  every  problem  of  this  nature  is  re- 


partial  difference  is  absent;  and  thus  it  would     duced  to  finding  the  maximum  or  the  minimum 


be  with  a  greater  number  of  variable  quantities 
But,  omitting  more  complicated  examples,  we 


of  a  formula  such  as  S.  Z  d  x,  where  Z  is  a  func- 
tion of  x,  or  of  constant  quantities,  or  of  x  and 


pass  to  the  integral  calculus  of  partial  differences ;    yt  or  of  X)  ^  and  z,  or  of  more  variables  :  Z  may 

even  contain  integrals,  as  S  V,  &c.,  or  integrals 
of  integrals,  as  S  V  S  v,  &c. ;  and  the  methods  of 
taking  the  variations  of  these  expressions  which 
constitute  the  rules  of  the  calculus.  See  La- 
grange's  Analytical  Functions.  Cousin,  Bossut, 
and  Lacroix,  have  likewise  explained  its  princi- 
ples, and  shown  its  applications,  in  their  treatises 
on  the  Integral  Calculus. 

CALCULUS   TIBURTINUS,    a   sort    of  figured 
stone,  found  in  great  plenty  about  the  cataracts 


which  is  the  method  of  finding  a  function  of 
several  variables,  when  we  know  the  relation  of 
the  differential  co-efficients  of  the  total  differential. 
What  we  here  call  differential  co-efficients,  are 
the  factors  which  affect  the  differentials  d  x,  d  y, 
d  t,  Sec. :  these  co-efficients  may  be  denoted  by 
d  z  d  z  d  z 

p,  q,  r,  &c. ;  SO  that  p  =  — ,,  q  =   — ,  r  -  ^ 

&c. :  and  if  from  hence  we  pass  to  the  superior 

d d z  dd z 


orders,  we  shall  havep1  —    ,    2-,  </'  rz:  -7— 5*  r'  —    of  the   Anio,   and   other  rivers  in  Italy  ;  of  a 

white   color,   and   in  shape  oblong,  round,  or 


d  d  z 


Sec.    Thus,  according  to  this  manner  of 


considering  the  calculus,  it  is  required,  having 
given  the  relation  between  p,  q,  r,  &c.,  to  deter- 
mine the  function  z ;  or,  otherwise,  havinsr  given 
the  equation  d  z  —  pdx  +  qdy  +  rdt,  &c., 
and  knowing  the  relation  between  p,  </,  and  r,  or 
between  the  differential  co-efficients,  and  one  or 
two  of  the  variables  x  and  y,  the  problem  is  re- 
duced to  the  finding  of  z. 

Let,  therefore,  the  equation  be  d  z~pd  x  -\- 

q  d  y  (limiting  ourselves  here  to  a  function  of    to  the  honor  of  this  goddess,  having  long  stood 
two  variable  quantities),  and  suppose  th^  relation     near  the  villages  of  Gobindpore  and  Chuttanutty. 

The   situation,  though  very  advantageous   both 


echinated.  These  are  a  species  of  the  strire  la- 
pidea;,  and  so  like  sugar-plumbs,  that  it  is  a 
common  jest  at  Rome  to  deceive  the  unex- 
perienced by  serving  them  up  at  desserts. 

CALCUTTA,  a  city  of  Bengal,  the  capital  of 
British  India,  and  a  bishop's  see,  stands  upon 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  river  Bhagrarutti  or 
Hooghly,  about  100  miles  from  the  Indian  Ocean. 
It  derives  its  name  from  Caly,  the  goddess  of 
time  according  to  the  Hindoo  mythology,  and 
Cutta,  a  house  or  temple  :  a  celebrated  erection, 


between  ;;  and  q  to  be  thus  expressed :  —  9  — 
ap  +  b,  where  «  and  b  are  constant  quantities ; 
the  value  of  z  is  thus  obtained.  In  the  preceding 
equation,  putting  for  q  its  value  ap  +  b,  we  have 
dz~=.pd.t  +  (ap  -\-b}dy;  whencedz — b  dy=.p 
(d  x  -f-  a  d  >/).  But  the  first  member  of  this  equa- 
tion is  integrable,  and  gives  z  —  b  y ;  the  second 
ought  therefore  to  be  so,  if  the  differential  pro- 
posed has  an  integral :  and  that  this  may  have 
place  it  is  necessary  that  p  be  a  function  of  x  -j- 
a  y ;  whence  it  follows  that  the  integral  sought 
will  be  z  —  b  y  —  F  (x  -f-  a  y).  Thus,  we  may 
form  a  variety  of  suppositions  of  relations  be- 
tween z,  x,  y  and  p,  q,  or  of  these  latter  between 
themselves  and  with  the  former;  and  there  will 


for  external  and  internal  commerce,  vessels  of 
the  largest  size  coming  up  from  the  sea,  and  the 
Ganges  opening  a  communication  with  the  most 
northern  parts  of  Ilindostan,  is  considered  un- 
healthy ;  the  country  round  being  marshy,  and 
extensive  lakes,  with  an  immense  tract  of  jungle, 
coming  up  close  to  the  town.  The  Sunderbunds, 
a  collection  of  marshy  jungles,  though  they 
have  been  reduced  by  recent  improvements,  are 
still  very  extensive,  and  generate  in  this  hot 
climate  those  diseases  against  which  few  Euro- 
pean constitutions  can  long  struggle.  The  ap- 
proach to  Calcutta  is  very  striking,  at  full  tide 
the  river  is  about  a  mile  broad,  and  both  banks 


result  so  many  particular  cases  of  equations  of    are  lined  with  the  villas  of  European  residents, 
partial  differences   to  integrate.     Euler,   in  his     The  spires  of  the  churches,  temples  and  minarets, 
Integralis,  has  given  complete  instnic-    the  company's  botanical  gardens,  and  the  citadel 


tions  on  this  subject:  the  reader  may  likewise 
advantageously  consult  Traites  du  Calcul  dif- 
ferentiel  et  du  Calcul  Integral  du.  M.  Lacroix. 

The  calculus  of  variations,  suggested  by  La- 
grange,  is  that  by  which,  having  given  an  ex- 
pression or  function  of  two  or  more  variables 


of  Fort  William,  combine  in  a  magnificent 
coup  d'o?il,  and  exhibit  a  first  impression  of  the 
importance  of  the  British  possessions  on  this  con- 
tinent highly  interesting  and  striking.  This 
capital  extends  in  a  very  various  breadth,  about 
six  miles  along  the  river.  Between  the  town 


26 


CALCUTTA. 


and  Fort  William  is  a  noble  esplanade,  on  one 
side  of  which  appear  the  best  houses  of  Cal- 
cutta, in  a  line  with  the  new  government- 
house.  This  is  an  Ionic  structure  on  a  rustic 
base,  the  central  is  the  state  part  of  the  building, 
which  was  erected  during  the  government  of  the 
marquis  Wellesley.  On  the  north  side  there  is 
a  flight  of  steps,  under  which  carriages  drive  to 
the  entrance,  and  on  the  south  a  circular  colon- 
nade, surmounted  with  a  dome.  The  wings  at 
the  four  corners  contain  the  private  apartments, 
and  are  connected  together  by  well  ventilated 
circular  passages.  The  other  public  buildings 
are  the  town-house,  the  two  English  churches, 
the  courts  of  justice,  and  the  various  places  of 
native  Portuguese,  Armenian,  Greek  and  Ca- 
tholic worship.  The  metropolitan,  under  the 
title  of  bishop  of  Calcutta,  assisted  by  three 
archdeacons,  has  the  superintendence  of  all  the 
ecclesiastical  affairs  of  India ;  the  other  clergy 
are  called  chaplains,  and  are  all  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  military;  except  those  who 
have  charge  of  the  two  English  churches.  There 
is  also  a  resident  clergymen  of  the  church  of 
Scotland,  and  a  church  of  that  communion. 

The  southern  part  of  Calcutta  is  occupied  al- 
most entirely  by  Europeans,  who  have  adopted 
a  style  of  building,  at  once  magnificent  in  ap- 
pearance, and  well  adapted  to  the  climate.  Every 
house  of  respectability  is  detached,  enclosed 
with  walls,  and  fronted  with  an  elegant  veranda 
shading  a  flight  of  steps.  The  northern  part, 
which  contains  perhaps  three-fourths  of  the 
city,  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  natives,  and  is  of  a 
totally,  different  appearance.  The  best  houses 
are  of  brick,  two  stories  high,  and  having  ter- 
races on  the  roof,  but  the  far  greater  part  are 
mere  mud  or  bamboo  cottages ;  the  streets  are 
narrow,  crowded,  unpaved,  and  filthy.  The 
white  ant  commits  great  ravages  in  all  parts  of 
the  town,  and  will  sometimes  wholly  destroy  the 
timbers  of  a  house  before  any  damage  appears. 
Fires  are  also  very  frequent  in  the  north  part. 

What  was  once  the  village  of  Chouringhee, 
and  a  mere  collection  of  native  huts,  is  now  a 
splendid  suburb  of  Calcutta,  extending  into  the 
country  a  considerable  distance.  The  sides  of 
the  principal  square  are  500  yards  in  extent, 
the  middle  being  occupied  by  a  large  tank.  Here 
is  the  old  fort  and  the  custom-house,  in  front  of 
which  a  handsome  quay  has  been  lately  con- 
structed. In  the  back  of  this  village  is  the 
burying-ground,  no  graves  being  allowed  in  the 
church-yard. 

Fort  William,  the  strongest  fortress  in  India, 
stands  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  below  the  town. 
It  is  an  octagon,  not  exact  in  its  sides.  Five  of 
them  next  the  land  are  regular,  but  the  others 
being  designed  to  guard  against  an  attack  by 
water,  are  accommodated  to  the  bearing  of  the 
guns  upon  all  objects  in  the  river.  The  interior 
is  very  open  and  extensive ;  presenting  large 
grass-plats  and  gravel-walks,  shaded  by  trees 
intermixed  with  piles  of  balls,  shells,  rows  of 
cannon,  and  accommodated  for  12  or  15,000 
men ;  a  house  for  the  commandant,  a  cannon 
foundry,  and  an  arsenal,  well  supplied  with  stores. 
The  works  are  so  contrived  as  scarcely  to  be 
seen  on  the  land  side,  but  on  a  very  near  approach. 


Upwards  of  twenty  well  furnished  bazaars  sup- 
ply the  city  with  all  the  requisites  of  life,  and  the 
materials  of  a  very  lucrative  and  extensive  com- 
merce with  every  part  of  the  east.  Vessels  of  all 
sizes,  and  to  the  amount  of  50,000  tons  burden, 
are  often  seen  off  the  town  :  but  the  larger  ships 
generally  stop  at  Diamond  harbour.  There  are 
several  docks  for  building  ships,  and  its  com- 
merce amounts  to  nearly  £10,000,000  per  annum. 
The  tables  of  all  classes  here  are  supplied  with 
game,  and  those  of  the  wealthy  with  abundance 
of  plantains,  pine-apples,  melons,  peaches,  and 
oranges.  In  1802  the  population  was  computed 
at  600,000;  a  few  years  after,  (including  the 
suburbs),  at  1,000,000,  of  which  about  one-half 
may  be  given  to  the  city.  And  the  surrounding 
districts  were  said,  in  the  same  year,  to  contain 
within  a  space  of  twenty  miles  2,225,000,  or 
more  than  1760  persons  to  a  square  mile.  In  the 
town  there  are  supposed  to  be  about  80,000 
houses.  In  the  year  1690  the  English  first 
founded  a  factory  here,  by  virtue  of  a  firman 
granted  to  them  by  the  emperor  Aurengzebe. 
In  the  year  1696,  in  consequence  of  a  rebellion 
in  Bengal,  they  were  allowed  to  fortify  it.  This 
place  is  that  called  the  Old  Fort,  and  it  is  210 
yards  in  length  and  about  115  in  breadth;  and 
consisting  of  a  rampart  and  four  bastions,  with 
two  gates.  It  contains  all  the  company's  store- 
houses, and  a  few  dwelling-houses.  In  the  year 
1698,  the  prince  Azeen  Ooshan,  grandson  of 
Aurungzebe,  granted  the  Company  a  perpetual 
lease  of  the  three  villages  before  mentioned  ;  in 
the  subsequent  year,  in  compliment  to  king  Wil- 
liam, the  factory  was  dignified  with  the  title  of 
Fort  William.  It  and  the  town  continued  to 
flourish  till  the  year  1756,  when  it  was  taken  by 
the  nabob  Suraja  Dowlah,  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  garrison  were  suffocated  in  the  infamous 
black  hole,  which  is  now  used  as  a  store  room. 
The  nabob  now  changed  its  name  to  Alynagur, 
but  when  it  was  retaken  by  lord  Clive  and  admi- 
ral Watson,  in  1757,  its  former  title  was  restored. 
The  new  fort  was  begun  in  1 758.  Calcutta  con- 
tains, besides  the  supreme  court  of  justice,  a  court 
for  the  district  of  Calcutta,  and  a  number  of 
police  magistrates  to  superintend  the  peace  of  the 
town.  There  are  also  courts  of  appeal  from 
the  Calcutta  circuit,  and  from  all  the  other  courts 
of  justice  of  Bengal  and  its  dependencies.  The 
natives  out  of  Calcutta  are  tried  by  their  own 
laws.  Here  are  also  a  College,  well  endowed  by 
government,  and  which  cultivates  any  branch  of 
oriental  literature  with  great  success  ;  an  Asiatic 
Society,  and  other  literary  institutions ;  a  theatre, 
assembly  rooms  in  abundance,  &c. 

During  the  late  war  with  France,  the  Euro- 
pean inhabitants  were  all  embodied  into  a  militia 
corps  of  infantry  and  cavalry,  and  formerly  the 
city  was  nearly  surrounded  by  a  trench  called 
the  Mahratta  ditch,  but  it  has  been  for  some  time 
dry.  Ascending  the  river  from  Calcutta  we  ar- 
rive at  Barnagore,  a  village  on  the  east  bank, 
where  the  Dutch  had  formerly  a  fort.  Serampore, 
on  the  right  bank,  ten  miles  above  Calcutta,  is  a 
Danish  settlement,  consisting  of  a  few  factors' 
houses,  and  a  native  town,  with  a  battery  for 
saluting.  Here  are  the  chief  establishments  of 
the  Bap'isi  mission.  Accounts  are  kept  here  in 


CAL 


27 


CAL 


current  rupees,  an  imaginary  coin,  annas  and 
pici,  twelve  pici  being  one  anna,  and  sixteen 
annas  a  rupee. 

In  1811-12,  there  arrived  at  Calcutta 

V&asels.  Tonnage. 

193  under  English  colors     .     .     .     78,504 

11  under  Portuguese  colors    .     .       4,180 

8  under  American  colors.      .     .       2,313 

389  under  Indian  colors,  of  all  sizes  66.227 


601 


151,224 


The  clearances  out  were  about  of  similar 
amount.  Calcutta  stands  in  N.  lat.  22°  34  .,  E. 
long.  88°  28' 

CALCARIA  JUDICIARIA,  in  our  ancient  bar- 
barous customs,  the  method  of  trial  by  boiling 
water.  See  ORDEAL. 

CALDARIUM,  in  the  ancient  baths,  1.  A 
brazen  vessel  of  hot  water,  placed  in  the  hypo- 
caustum,  to  be  drawn  thence  into  the  piscina  or 
bath,  to  give  it  the  proper  heat:  2.  A  stove  or 
sudatory,  being  a  close  vaulted  room,  wherein 
by  hot  dry  fumes,  without  water,  people  were 
brought  into  a  profuse  perspiration. 

CALDERON  (Don  Pedro,  De  la  Barca),  a 
Spanish  officer,  who,  after  having  signalised  him- 
self in  the  military  profession,  quitted  it  for  the 
ecclesiastical,  and  then  commenced  dramatic 
writer.  His  dramatic  works  make  1 7  vols. 
in  4to.  Some  Spanish  writers  have  compared 
him  to  Shakspeare.  He  nourished  about  1640. 

CALDERWOOD  (David),  a  divine  of  the 
church  of  Scotland,  and  a  distinguished  writer 
in  behalf  of  the  Presbyterians.  He  was  settled 
about  1604  at  Crelling  near  Jedburg.  Being 
desirous  of  bringing  the  church  of  Scotland 
nearer  to  a  conformity  with  that  of  England, 
King  James  I.  earnestly  endeavoured  to  restore 
the  episcopal  authority,  and  enlarge  the  powers 
of  the  Scotch  bishops.  This  was  very  warmly 
opposed  by  many  of  the  ministers,  particularly 
by  Mr.  Calderwood ;  who,  when  James  Law, 
bishop  of  Orkney,  came  to  visit  the  presbyteries 
of  Merse  and  Teviotdale,  declined  his  jurisdic- 
tion, by  a  paper  dated  May  5th,  1608.  In  May, 
the  next  year,  king  James  went  to  Scotland ;  and 
on  the  17th  June  held  a  parliament  at  Edin- 
burgh :  when  the  clergy  met  in  one  of  the  chur- 
ches, to  advise  with  the  bishops.  This  assembly 
was  contrived  in  order  to  resemble  the  English 
convocation.  To  this  Mr.  Calderwood  ob- 
jected ;  and  on  hearing  of  their  intention  to  pass 
a  bill,  empowering  James  to  alter  the  constitu- 
tions of  the  church,  he,  with  several  other 
ministers,  protested,  and  said  that  they  would 
rather  submit  to  any  penal  law  than  obey  such 
an  authority.  This  protest  was  presented  to  the 
clerk  register,  who  refused  to  read  it  before  the 
states.  However,  though  not  read,  it  had  its 
effect ;  for  although  the  bill  had  the  consent  of 
parliament,  yet  the  king  caused  it  to  be  laid 
aside,  and  not  long  after  called  a  general  assem- 
bly at  St.  Andrews.  Soon  after,  the  parliament 
was  dissolved,  and  Mr.  Calderwood  was  sum- 
moned to  appear  before  the  high  commission 
court  at  St.  Andrews,  to  answer  for  his  mutinous 
and  seditious  behaviour.  The  king  came  to  that 
city  in  person ;  and  Mr.  Calderwood,  refusing  to 


comply  with  what  the  king  in  person  required  of 
him,  was  imprisoned.  Afterwards  the  privy 
council  ordered  him  to  banish  himself  out  of  the 
king's  dominions  before  Michaelmas,  and  not  to 
return  without  licence.  Having  unsuccessfully 
applied  to  the  king  for  a  prorogation  of  his 
sentence,  he  retired  to  Holland,  where,  in  1623, 
he  published  his  celebrated  piece  entitled  Altare 
Damascenum,  in  which  he  attacks  the  church  of 
England  with  great  asperity.  He  returned  home 
and  remained  some  time  in  obscurity.  During 
his  retirement,  he  collected  all  the  memorials 
relating  to  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  Scotland, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation  to  the 
death  of  king  James ;  which  collection  is  still 
preserved  in  the  university  library  in  Glasgow. 
In  1643  he  was  employed  in  drawing  up  the 
Porm  of  the  Directory  for  the  public  Worship  of 
God  by  the  General  Assembly.  He  died  at  Jed- 
burg  about  1652. 

CAL'DRON,  Lat.  caldarium ;  Fr.  chaudron. 
A  large  pot  or  boiler. 

In  the  midst  of  all 

There  placed  was  a  caldron  wide  and  tall. 
Upon  a  mighty  furnace,  Doming  hot. 

Faerie  Queene. 
Fire  burn;  and  cauldron  bubble.  Shakspeare. 

And  now  about  the  cauldron  sing 
Like  elves  and  fairies  in  a  ring. 
Enchanting  all  that  you  put  in.  Id. 

And  the  priest's  custom  was,  that  when  any  man 
offered  sacrifice,  the  priest's  servant  came  while  the 
flesh  was  in  seething,  with  a  flesh-hook  of  three  teeth 
in  his  hand  :  and  he  struck  it  into  the  pan,  or  kettle, 
or  caldron,  or  pot,  all  that  the  flesh-hook  brought  up 
the  priest  took  for  himself.  1  Sam.  ii.  14. 

Some  strip  the  skin  ;  some  portion  out  the  spoil ; 
The  limbs,  yet  trembling,  in  the  caldrons  boil  j 
Some  on  the  fire  the  reeking  entrails  broil. 

Dryden't  JEneid. 

In  the  late  eruptions,  this  great  hollow  was  like  a 
vast  caldron,  filled  with  glowing  and  melted  matter, 
which,  as  it  boiled  over  in  any  part,  ran  down  the 
sides  of  the  mountain.  Addlson. 

CALDWALL  (Richard),  a  learned  English 
physician,  born  in  Staffordshire,  about  1513. 
He  studied  physic  at  Oxford  ;  and  was  examined, 
admitted  into,  and  made  censor  of,  the  college 
of  physicians  at  London,  all  in  one  day.  Six 
weeks  after  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  elects ;  and 
in  1570,  president.  He  wrote  several  medical 
pieces,  and  translated  a  book  on  the  art  of 
surgery,  written  by  one  Horatio  More,  a  Floren- 
tine physician.  Camden  says  that  Caldwall 
founded  a  chirurgical  lecture  in  the  college  of 
physicians  and  endowed  it  with  a  handsome 
salary.  He  died  in  1585. 

CALE,  or  KALE,  a  species  of  brassica. 

CALE  (la),  a  French  punishment,  inflicted 
when  a  soldier,  or  sailor,  maliciously  wounds 
another.  The  offender  is  tied  to  the  yard  arm, 
suddenly  plunged  into  the  sea  and  then  drawn 
up  again,  as  often  his  offence  merits. 

CALEB,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  polygamia 
a?qualis  order,  and  syngenesia  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order,  forty-ninth,  compositae.  Receptacle 
paleaceous,  the  pappus  hairy,  calyx  imbricated. 
There  are  eight  species,  natives  of  the  West  Indies. 

CALEB,  the  son  of  Jephunneh,  of  the  tribe 


CALEDONIA. 


of  Judah,  one* of  the  twelve  spies  who  were  sent 
to  view  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  the  only  one 
who  joined  with  Joshua  in  giving  a  favorable 
report  of  it.  His  capture  of  Hebron,  defeat  of 
the  Anakims,  and  portioning  of  his  daughter 
Achsah,  are  recorded  in  Josh.  xiv.  6.  15,  xv.  13. 
19,  and  Judg.  i.  9,  15.  This  hero  had  three  sons 
and  a  numerous  posterity. 

CALEDONIA,  the  ancient  name  of  Scot- 
land. From  Tacitus,  Dio,  and  Solinus.  we  find 
that  ancient  Caledonia  comprehended  all  that 
country  lying  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde. 
In  proportion  as  the  Silures  or  Cimbri  advanced 
toward  the  north,  the  Caledonians,  being  more 
circumscribed,  were  forced  to  emigrate  into  the 
islands  on  the  western  coasts  of  Scotland.  It  is 
in  this  period,  probably,  we  ought  to  place  the 
first  great  migration  of  the  British  Gael  into 
Ireland;  that  kingdom  being  much  nearer  to 
Galloway  and  Cantire,  than  many  of  the  Scottish 
isles  are  to  the  continent  of  North  Britain.  To 
the  country  which  the  Caledonians  possessed, 
they  gave  the  name  of  Cael-doch  ;  which  is  the 
only  appellation  the  Scots,  who  speak  the  Gaelic 
language,  know  for  their  own  division  of  Britain. 
Cael-doch  is  a  compound  of  Gael  or  Gael,  the 
first  colony  of  the  ancient  Gauls  who  emigrated 
into  Britain,  and  doch,  a  district  or  division. 
The  Romans,  by  transposing  the  letter  1  in  Gael, 
and  by  softening  into  a  Latin  termination  the  ch 
of  doch,  formed  the  well  known  name  of  Cale- 
donia. This  appears  to  be  a  much  more  natural 
etymology  than  that  of  Camden,  from  the  old 
British  word  kaled,  hard,  because  the  people 
were  a  hardy  rustic  race.  See  SCOTLAND. 

CALEDONIA,  NEW,  an  island  in  the  South  Sea, 
discovered  by  Captain  Cook,  and  next  to  New 
Holland  and  New  Zealand,  the  largest  that  has 
been  discovered  in  that  sea.     It  extends  from 
19°  37'  to  22°  30'  S.   lat.  and  from  163°  37' 
to   167°  14'  E.  long.      Its  length  from  north- 
west to  south-west  is  about  eighty  leagues ;  but 
its  greatest  breadth  does  not  exceed  ten  leagues. 
This  island  is  diversified  by  hills  and  valleys, 
amongst    which    issue   abundance   of    rivulets. 
Along  its  north-east  shore  the  land  is  flat ;  well 
watered,  and  cultivated;  but  the  mountains  and 
higher  parts  of  the  land  are  in  general  barren. 
The  country  in  general  bears  a  great  resemblance 
to  those  parts  of  New  South  Wales,  which  lie 
under  the  same  parallel.    Its  natural  productions 
are  also  generally  the  same,  and  the  woods  are 
without  underwood,   as  in  that  country.     The 
whole  coast  is  surrounded  by  reefs  and  shoals 
which  render  access  to  it  dangerous ;  but  every 
part  seems  inhabited.     The  natives  begin  their 
cultivation  by  setting  fire  to  the  grass,  &c.  with 
which  the  ground  is  covered,  but  have  no  notion 
of  preserving  its  vigor  by  manure ;  they,  how- 
ever,  recruit  it  by  letting-  it  lie  for  some  years 
untouched.     New  Caledonia  seems  to  differ  "from 
all  the  other  islands  yet  discovered  in  the  South 
Sea,  in  being  entirely  destitute  of  volcanic  pro- 
ductions.    New  species  of  several  plants  were 
found,  particularly  a  new  passion-flower ;  and  a 
few   young   bread-fruit   trees     not    sufficiently 
grown  to  bear  fruit;  plantains  and  sugar-canes 
are'  found  here  also  in  small  quantity,  and  cocoa 
hut  trees  are  small  and  thinly  planted.     Caputi 


or  Melaleuca  trees  were  also  found  in  flower 
Mosqui*oes  are  very  numerous.      A  great  variety 
of  birds  were  seen,  for  the  most  part  entirely 
new ;  particularly  a  beautiful  species  of  parrot 
before  unknown.      A  new  species  of  fish,  of  the 
^renus  tetraodon,  was  caught  by  captain  Cook's 
people,  and   after  some  hesitation  cooked  and 
eaten.     Its  oiliness,  happily,   though  it  had  no 
other  bad  taste,    prevented   them   from  taking 
above  a  morsel  or  two.     In  a  few  hours   after 
they  had  retired  to  rest,  they  were  awakened  by 
alarming  symptoms,  being  all  seized  with   an 
extreme  giddiness  :  their  hands  and  feet  benum- 
bed, so  that  they  were  scarcely  able  to  move; 
and  great  languor  and  oppression  Doming  over 
them.     Emetics  were  administered   with  some 
success,  but  sudorifics  relieved  them.       But  the 
effects  of  this  poison  did  not  go  off  entirely  for 
six  weeks.     There  are  great  numbers  of  turtles 
on  this  island.      The  houses  are  circular  huts, 
something  like  a  bee-hive,  and  full  as  close  and 
warm ;  they  commonly  erect  two  or  three  near 
each  other  under  a   cluster   of  lofty   fig-trees, 
whose  leaves  are  impervious  to  the  sun.     Their 
canoes  are   clumsy  vessels,  made  of  two  trees 
hollowed  out,  having  a  raised  gunnel  about  two 
inches  high,  and  closed  at  each  end  with  a  bulk 
head  of  the  same  height ;  so  that  the  whole  is 
like  a  long  square  trough,  about  three  feet  shorter 
than  the  body  of  the  canoe.     Two  thus  fitted  are 
fastened  to  each  other  about  three  feet  asunder, 
by  means  of  cross  spars,  which  project  about  a 
foot  over  each  side.     A  deck  is  laid  over  them, 
made  of  plank  and  small  round  spars,  on  which 
they  have  a  hearth,  and  generally  a  fire  burning; 
they  are  navigated  by  one  or  two  latteen  sails, 
extended  to  a  small  latteen  yard,  the  end  of 
which  is  fixed  to  a  notch  in  the  deck.  The  inha- 
bitants are  robust,  in  general  well  proportioned, 
and  of  honest  dispositions.      A  few  measured 
six  feet  four  inches.     Some  wear  their  hair  long 
and  tie  it  up  to  the  crown  of  their  heads ;  others 
suffer  only  a  large  lock  to  grow  on  eacli  side, 
which  they  tie  up  in  clubs;  many  others  as  well 
as  all  the  women  wear  it  cropt  short.     The  men 
go  almost   entirely   naked.      The  dress  of  the 
women  who  are  of  modest  character,  is  a  short 
petticoat  or  fringe,   consisting  of  filaments  or 
little  cords,  about  eight  inches  long,  fastened  to 
a  very  long  string,  which  they  tie  several  times 
round  their  waist.      The  married  women  wear  a 
black-  and  the  unmarried  a  white  petticoat.    The 
general  ornaments  of  both  sexes  are  ear-rings, 
necklaces,  amulets,  and  bracelets  made  of  shells, 
stones,   &c.      Their   fishing   tackle   they  prize: 
above  everything.   Notwithstanding  their  inoffen- 
sive disposition,  these  islanders  are  well  provided 
with  clubs,  spears,  darts,  and  slings  :  their  clubs 
are  about  two  feet  and  a  half  long,  and  variously 
formed ;  some  like  a  scythe,  others  like  a  pick- 
axe ;  some  with  a  head  like  a  hawk,  others  with 
round  heads ;  but  all  neatly  made,  and  ornamen- 
ted.    The  slings  are  simple,  but  they  form  the 
stones   into   a   shape   something   like   an    egg. 
They  drive  the  dart  by  the  assistance  of   short 
cords  knobbed  at  one  end  and  looped  at  the 
other,    called  by  the  seamen   beckets.      These 
contain  a  quantity  of  red  wool  taken  from  the 
gn;at  Indian  bat.      Bows  and  arrows  arc  wholly 


CAL 

unknown  among  them,  and  their  language  bears 
little  affinity  to  that  spoken  in  the  other  South 
Sea  islands;  their  only  musical  instrument  is 
a  kind  of  whistle  of  brown  wood,  about  two 
inches  long.  Many  of  them  were  observed  to 
have  their  legs  and  arms  much  swelled  with  a 
kind  of  leprosy.  Lieutenant  Pickersgill  was 
showed  a  chief  whom  they  named  Tea-beoma, 
and  styled  their  arrekee  or  king ;  but  nothing 
further  is  known  of  their  government,  and  no- 
thing at  all  of  their  religion.  The  French  ex- 
pedition called  here  in  1793,  and  found  the  in- 
habitants much  altered  for  the  worse  both  in  their 
manners  and  condition.  Many  groups  of  herds 
were  deserted,  and  cultivated  land  abandoned  : 
in  1774  it  was  supposed  to  have  had  50,000  in- 
habitants, but  seems  at  this  last  visit  to  have 
declined  greatly.  Long.  163°  3; '  lat.  20°  S. 

CALEDONICA,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of 
ardea,  the  Caledonian  night  heron  of  Latham. 
The  general  color  of  the  plumage  is  ferruginous 
arid  white  beneath :  legs  yellow ;  crest  on  the  back 
of  the  head  of  three  feathers ;  bill  and  frontlet 
black,  eye-brows  white,  area  of  the  eyes  green. 

CALEFACIENTIA,  or  CALEFACIENTS,  in 
medicine,  heating  or  warming  medicines. 

CALEFACTION  may  be  denned,  the  pro- 
duction of  heat  in  a  body  from  the  action  of  fire, 
or  that  impulse  impressed  by  a  hot  body  on  others 
around  it.  It  is  used  in  pharmacy,  by  way 
of  distinction  from  coction,  which  implies 
boiling.  Medicines  of  this  kind  diffuse  a  sen- 
sation of  warmth  by  their  immediate  impression 
on  the  nerves,  without  any  actual  increase  of  the 
temperature ;  they  also  tend  to  accelerate  the 
circulation,  and  therefore  to  augment  the  actual 
heat.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  the  animal 
temperature  is  generated  by  the  chemical  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  blood  in  the  course  of 
circulation,  in  consequence  of  the  absorption 
and  evolution  of  different  gaseous  fluids.  When- 
ever, therefore,  the  rapidity  of  the  circulation  at 
large  is  increased,  by  general  stimulants ;  or  the 
vessels  of  any  part  are,  by  a  local  stimulas,  ex- 
cited to  greater  action,  and  transmit  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  blood ;  the  evolution  of  heat  will 
necessarily  be  augmented ;  and  there  will  be  a 
sensation  of  warmth  in  the  general  system  in  all 
its  parts. 

CALENBERG,  a  principality  of  Lower  Sax- 
ony, one  of  the  four  divisions  of  Brunswick ;  boun- 
ded on  the  north  by  the  duchy  of  Verden,  on  the 
east  by  the  principality  of  Zell,  on  the  south  by 


:i>  CAL 

tbo^e  of  Grunenliagen  and  Wolfenbuttle,  and  on 
th?  west  by  Westphalia.  See  BRUNSWICK. 

CALENBERG,  a  castle  of  Germany,  in  the 
principality  seated  on  the  river  Leine,  fifteen 
miles  south  of  Hanover,  and  subject  to  the 
King  of  Hanover.  Long.  9°  43'  E.,  lat.  52°  20'  N . 

CALENDAR,  in  astronomy  and  chronology. 
See  CHRONOLOGY.  The  late  revolutionary  calen- 
dar of  the  French  was  a  distribution  of  time 
entirely  new,  adopted  by  the  Convention,  soon 
after  the  abolition  of  royalty,  in  1792;  and  still 
continued  with  little  alteration  until  1801.  The 
year  commenced  at  midnight,  on  the  beginning 
of  that  day,  on  which  the  true  autumnal  equinox 
falls,  by  the  observatory  of  Paris.  It  was  divided 
into  twelve  equal  months,  of  thirty  days  each ; 
after  which  five  supplementary  days  were  added, 
to  complete  the  365  days  of  the  ordinary  year. 
These  five  days  did  not  belong  to  any  month. 
They  were  first  named  sans-culottides,  in  honor 
of  the  sans-culottes,  or  inferior  ranks  of  society ; 
but  this  name  was  changed  soon  after  the  revo- 
lution in  July  1794.  Each  month  was  divided 
into  three  decades  of  ten  days  each ;  distinguished 
by  first,  second,  and  third  decade.  The  years 
that  received  an  intercalary  day,  when  the  posi- 
tion of  the  equinox  requires  it,  which  we  call  em- 
bolismic,  bissextile,  or  leap-years,  the  French 
called  Olympic;  and  the  period  of  four  years, 
ending  with  an  Olympic  year,  an  olympiad.  The 
intercalary  day,  on  that  occasion,  was  placed  after 
the  ordinary  five  supplementary  days,  and  being 
the  last  day  of  the  Olympic  year,  was  dedicated  to 
Olympic  games  to  be  celebrated  in  honor  of  the 
revolution;  and  to  the  renovation  of  the  national 
oath,  '  To  live  free  or  die.'  The  months  had 
all  new  names  expressive  of  their  respective 
relations,  either  to  the  season  of  the  year,  the 
temperature  of  the  air,  or  the  state  of  the  vege- 
tation. Each  day  from  midnight  to  midnight, 
was  divided  into  ten  parts,  each  part  into  ten 
others,  and  so  on  to  the  last  measurable  portion 
of  time.  The  days  of  the  decade  were  denomina- 
ted from  the  first  ten  numbers,  thus ;  Primdi, 
Duodi,  Tridi,  Quatridi,  Quintidi,  Sextidi,  Sep- 
tidi,  Octidi,  Nonidi,  Decadi.  In  the  almanac, 
or  annual  calendar,  instead  of  the  numerous 
names  of  saints,  in  the  popish  calendars,  every 
day  was  inscribed  with  the  name  of  some  animal, 
utensil,  work,  fruit,  flower,  or  vegetable,  suited 
to  the  day  or  the  season.  As  a  curious  relic  of 
the  revolution,  and  containing  some  improvements 
mixed  with  far  more  serious  objections,  we  sub- 
join 


THE  NAMES  OF  THE  MONTHS  AND  SUPPLEMENTARY  DAYS. 


AUTUMN. 
WINTER. 
SPRING. 
SUM  MET.. 


NAMES. 

SIGNIFICATION. 

rVendemiaire, 

Vintage  month, 

<  Brumaire, 

Fog  month, 

(.Frimaire, 

Sleet  month, 

f  Nivose, 

Snow  month, 

<  Pluviose, 

Rainy  month. 

CVentose, 

Windy  month. 

f  Germinal, 

Bud  month, 

<  Floreal, 

Flower  month, 

C  Prairial, 

Pasture  month, 

f  Messidor, 
<  Thermidor, 
O'ructidor, 

Harvest  month, 
Hot  month, 
Fruit  month, 

DURATION. 
from  Sept.  22.       to     Oct.  21. 

Oct.  22. 

Nov.  21 
Dec.  21. 

Jan.  20. 

Feb.  19. 

March  21 

April  20.- 

May  20. 

June  19. 

July  19. 


Aug.  19.      — 


Nov.  20. 
Dec.  20. 
Jan.  19. 
Feb.  18. 
March  20. 
April  19. 
May  19. 
June  18. 
July  18. 
Aug.  17. 
Sept.  16. 


30 


Les  Vertus, 
Le  Genie, 
Le  Travail, 


CALENDER. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  DAYS,  DEDICATED  AS  FEASTS  TO 


The  Virtues, 

Genius, 

Labor, 


Sept.  17. 
Sept.  18. 
Sept.  19. 


CALENDAR  OF  PRISONERS,  in  law,  a  list  of 
all  the  prisoners'  names  in  the  custody  of  each 
sheriff.  See  EXECUTION. 

CALENDARIUM  FESTUM.  The  Christians 
retained  much  of  the  ceremony  and  wantonness 
of  the  calends  of  January,  which  for  many  ages 
was  held  a  feast,  and  celebrated  by  the  clergy 
with  great  indecencies,  under  the  names  of  festum 
kalendarium,  or  hypodiaconorum,  or  stultorum, 
i.  e.  the  feast  of  fools.  The  people  met  masked 
in  the  church,  and  in  a  ludicrous  way  proceeded 
to  the  election  of  a  mock  pope,  who  exercised  a 
jurisdiction  over  them  suited  to  the  festivity  of  the 
occasion.  Fathers,  councils,  and  popes,  long  la- 
bored to  restrain  this  licence,  to  little  purpose. 
The  feast  of  the  calends  was  in  being  as  low  as 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

CAL'ENDER,  v.  &  n.  )      Lat.  cylindrus ;  Fr. 

CAL'ENDERER,  n,  >  calandrer ;  a  hot  press, 
an  iron  cylinder  filled  with  hot  coals.  To  ca- 
lender is,  with  this  instrument  to  hot-press ;  to 
dress  cloth ;  to  lay  the  nap  of  cloth  smooth.  A 
calender  is  also  a  press  in  which  clothiers  smooth 
their  cloth. 

CALENDER  is  a  machine  used  for  pressing 
silks,  stuffs,  calicoes,  or  linens ;  to  make  them 
smooth,  even,  and  glossy.  It  is  also  used  for 
watering,  or  giving  the  waves  to  tabbies  and 
mohairs.  The  word  came  into  our  language  per- 
haps immediately  from  the  French  calandre, 
which  is  derived  from  the  Latin  cylindrus  :  be- 
cause the  whole  effect  of  the  machine  depends 
upon  cylinders. 

These  commonly  consist  of  two  large  wooden 
rollers,  round  which  the  pieces  are  wound ;  they 
are  then  put  between  two  large,  close,  polished 
planks  of  wood,  or  plates  of  iron,  the  lower 
serving  as  a  fixed  base,  and  the  upper  being- 
movable,  by  means  of  a  wheel  like  that  of  a 
crane,  with  a  rope,  fastened  to  a  spindle,  which 
makes  its  axis  ;  this  upper  part  is  of  a  prodigious 
weight,  sometimes  twenty  or  thirty  thousand 
pounds.  It  is  the  weight  of  this  part,  together 
with  its  alternate  motion,  that  gives  the  polish, 
and  makes  the  waves  on  the  stuffs,  by  causing  the 
cylinders  on  which  they  are  put  to  roll  with  great 
force  over  the  lower  board.  The  rollers  are  taken 
off,  and  put  on  again  by  inclining  the  machine. 
The  French  used  formerly  an  extraordinary  ma- 
chine, called  the  royal  calender,  made  b*y  order 
of  M.  Colbert ;  the  lower  table  or  plank  of  which 
•was  made  of  a  block  of  smooth  marble,  and  the 
upper  lined  at  bottom  with  a  plate  of  polished 
copper.  This  was  called  the  great  calender,  they 
have  also  a  small  one  with  tables  of  polished  iron 
or  steel.  Calenders  without  wheels  are  some- 
times wrought  by  a  horse  harnessed  to  a  wooden 
bar,  which  turns  a  large  arbor  placed  upright ; 
at  the  top  of  which,  on  a  kind  of  drum,  is  wound 
u.  rope,  the  two  ends  of  which,  being  fastened  to 
the  extremities  of  the  upper  plank  of  the  engine, 
give  it  motion.  But  the  horse  calender  is  in  lit- 
tle esteem.  Worsteds  are  sometimes  calendered 
in  the  thread.  Domestically  this  operation  is  also 


L'Opinion, 

Les  Recom- 

penses 


Opinion, 
Rewards, 


Sept.  20. 
Sept.  21. 


known  by  the  name  of  mangling ;  and  a  section 
of  the  useful  machine  once  so  common  in  En- 
gland, is  seen  below. 


This  is  in  fact  merely  a  strone  level  table,  with 
a  stout  cover,  and  made  of  well  seasoned  wood 
to  prevent  its  casting.  The  cloth  being  smoothly 
spread  upon  it,  the  coffer  A,  which  is  placed 
upon  two  smoothly  turned  rollers  of  iron,  is  made 
to  move  alternately  from  one  end  of  the  table  to 
the  other,  until  the  cloth  is  sufficiently  smoothed, 
when  a  fresh  portion  is  spread  upon  the  table, 
and  the  operation  repeated  until  the  process  is 
finished  with  the  whole.  The  cloth  may  be  very 
regularly  and  quickly  drawn  along  the  table,  by 
unwinding  it  from  a  roller  at  one  end,  and 
winding  it  upon  a  similar  roller  at  the  other.  If 
it  be  desirable  occasionally  to  employ  heat,  it  may 
be  done  by  casting  the  iron  rollers  of  the  coffer, 
A,  hollow,  and  filling  the  cavity  with  small  cylin- 
ders of  cast  iron,  previously  heated.  The  motion 
is  communicated  to  the  coffer,  A,  by  two  belts, 
cords,  or  chains  B,  B,  which,  after  passing  over 
a  pulley  at  either  end  of  the  table,  are  wound 
round  the  cylinder  or  barrel  C.  By  turning  a 
handle  or  winch,  W,  the  barrel  is  moved  round, 
and  the  motion  communicated  to  the  box  in 
either  direction. 

While  the  foregoing  machine  has  been  found 
very  serviceable  in  large  families,  and  will  shorten 
the  operation  of  ironing,  as  it  is  termed,  by  dis- 
posing quite  as  neatly  of  bed  linen  and  large 
clothes ;  for  purposes  of  business,  what  has  been 
called  the  five  bowl  calender  is  generally  used. 
This  machine  is  usually  set  in  motion  by  a  horse, 
or  in  large  manufactories  by  water  wheels,  or  the 
steam  engine ;  we  give  in  our  plate  CALENDER- 
ING an  elevation  of  it.  Fig.  1 .  is  a  front  elevation. 
The  frame  work,  A,  consists  of  three  strong  pieces 
of  hard  wood,  and  sometimes  of  cast  iron,  two 
of  them  upright  (made  generally  of  12-in.  by 
6  stuff),  and  connected  by  a  transverse  piece  at 
top  equally  stout,  and  perhaps  by  a  cross  rail 
below ;  both  being  well  secured  by  screw  bolts, 
as  upon  them  bears  the  whole  stress  of  the  ma- 
chine. What  are  called  the  bowls,  or  calenders, 
are  placed  one  above  the  other  between  the  top 
and  the  bottom.  Of  these  the  bowls  marked  e 
and  i,  are  generally  of  the  same  diameter,  and 
made  of  hard  wood  or  iron.  In  working  the 
machine,  the  whole  five  bowls  are  made  to  revolve 
on  their  respective  axes,  each  moving  in  an  in- 
verted direction  to  that  next  it,  or  with  which  it 


.L.V.PAOE30. 


Fia.l. 


Fta.Z. 


/-•//</,•«  .  /'/////'.I-///-//  ty  TTiotnaSTn/fi.  7.'t,t'/t,-<i/'..-r,/,-^tfay / 


CALENDER. 


31 


moves;  and  the  revolutions  are  in  an  inverse 
ratio  to  the  diameters,  exposing  an  equal  portion 
of  the  circumference  of  each  to  that  of  the  other 
against  which  it  presses.  A  belt  passing  over 
and  turning  the  pullies  at  D,  communicates  the 
motion  ;  a  pully  being  fast  upon  the  axis  of  the 
main  cylinder  g.  /'and  h  receive  their  motions 
by  means  of  the  wheels  C  C  being  worked  with 
B,  affixed  to  the  axis  of  g  e  and  i,  by  their  regular 
friction  upon  /"and  h.  The  cloth  is  placed  first 
down  the  front  of  e,  and  behind  f;  then  in  front 
of  g,  and  behind  A,  finally  it  comes  out  in  front 
of  i,  and  falls  down  on  a  clean  board  or  into  a 
box  contrived  to  receive  it.  The  folding  it  up 
smoothly  and  carefully,  now  prepares  the  cloth 
for  pressing.  This  is  generally  done  by  placing 
a  certain  number  of  pieces  between  thin  smooth 
boards  of  wood,  and  pieces  of  glazed  pasteboard 
above  and  below  every  piece  of  cloth.  For  the 
common  screw  press,  water  presses  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  Mr.  Bramah's  forcing  press  have  been 
lately  introduced,  and  by  this  means,  while  the 
strength  of  a  child  is  sufficient  for  the  operation, 
its  power  may  be  rendered  greater  than  almost 
any  ordinary  exertion  of  human  force.  Their 
successful  operation,  however,  depending  greatly 
upon  local  circumstances,  they  have  not  as  yet 
superseded  the  common  screw  press  in  Glasgow 
and  Manchester.  See  HYDRAULICS. 

f,  and  A,  as  we  have  said,  are  generally  hard 
wood  or  cast  iron  cylinders,  and  the  main  cy- 
linder or  bowlg,  used  formerly  to  be  made  of  wood. 
But  in  Lancashire,  what  have  been  called  paper 
bowls  are  now  generally  preferred.  Its  first  cost  is 
five  or  six  times  as  great  as  that  of  a  wooden 
one,  but  its  advantage  is,  that  it  never  warps  or 
splits,  and  takes  eventually  a  much  smoother 
surface,  while  it  presses  better  against  every  part 
of  the  cloth.  The  construction  of  the  paper 
bowl  is  thus  explained  in  Dr.  Brewster's  Ency- 
clopaedia. The  axis  of  the  cylinder  is  a  square 
bar  of  malleable  iron,  of  the  proper  length. 
Upon  this  is  first  put  a  strong  round  plate  of  cast 
iron,  of  the  diameter  intended  for  the  cylinder 
when  finished.  A  quantity  of  thick  stout  paste- 
board is  then  procured,  and  cut  into  round 
pieces,  rather  larger  in  the  diameter  than  the 
iron  plate.  In  the  plates,  and  in  every  piece  of 
the  pasteboard,  a  square  hole  must  be  cut  in  the 
centre  to  receive  the  axis  ;  and  the  circle  being 
divided  into  four  or  five  equal  parts,  a  hole  must 
also  be  cut  at  each  of  the  divisions,  an  inch  or 
two  within  the  rim.  These  pieces  of  pasteboard 
being  successively  put  upon  the  axis,  a  long  rod 
of  malleable  iron,  with  a  head  at  one  end,  and 
screwed  at  the  other,  is  also  introduced  through 
each  of  the  holes  near  the  rim,  and  this  is  con- 
tinued until  a  sufficient  number  are  thus  placed 
to  form  a  cylinder  of  the  length  required,  proper 
allowance  being  made  for  the  compression  which 
the  pasteboard  is  afterwards  to  undergo.  Another 
round  plate  is  then  put  on,  and  nuts  being  put 
upon  the  screws,  the  whole  are  screwed  tight, 
and  a  cylinder  formed.  The  cylinder  is  now  to 
be  placed  in  a  stove,  exposed  to  a  strong  heat, 
and  must  be  kept  there  for  at  least  several  days  ; 
and,  as  the  pasteboard  shrinks  by  exposure  to 
the  heat,  the  screws  must  be  frequently  tightened 
until  the  whole  mass  has  been  compressed  as 


much  as  possible.  When  the  cylinder  is  thus 
brought  to  a  sufficient  degree  of  density,  it  is  re- 
moved from  the  stove ;  and,  when  allowed  to 
cool,  the  expansion  of  the  pasteboard  forms  a 
substance  almost  inconceivably  dense  and  hard. 
Nothing  now  remains  but  to  turn  the  cylinder, 
and  this  is  an  operation  of  no  slight  labor  and 
patience.  The  motion  in  turning  must  be  slow, 
not  exceeding  forty  revolutions  in  a  minute,  and 
the  substance  is  now  so  hard  and  tough,  that 
tools  of  a  very  small  size  must  be  used  to  cut  or 
scrape  it  until  true..  Three  men  are  generally 
employed  for  the  turning,  even  when  the  motion 
of  the  cylinder  is  effected  by  mechanical  power, 
two  being  necessary  to  sharpen  tools  for  the  third 
who  turns,  so  quickly  are  they  blunted. 

Tin's  useful  engine  was  first  introduced  into 
this  country  by  the  Hugonots,  driven  by  perse- 
cution from  France  and  Holland.  Lawns  and 
muslins  being  of  light  texture,  require  a  machine 
of  lighter  power  and  pressure.  This  is  repre- 
sented in  our  plate  CALENDERING,  fig.  2,  and 
consists  of  three  cylinders  of  equal  diameters 
(generally  about  six  inches),  easily  moved  by 
a  common  winch  or  handle  at  F.  The  central 
cylinder  is  iron,  and  the  others  wood  or  paste- 
board. They  are  moved  with  equal  velocities 
by  the  small  wheels  at  E.  The  machine  is  always 
used  cold. 

The  GLAZING  CALENDER,  an  improvement 
upon  the  common  five-bowl  calender  for  the 
purposes  of  glazing  cloth,  was  first  invented  by 
the  superintendent  of  Mr.  Miller's  works  of 
Glasgow  :  a  profile  view  and  description  of  the 
machine  are  furnished  in  the  Edinburgh  En- 
cyclopaedia, whence  we  extract  it.  The  machine 
is  exhibited  in  fig.  3  of  our  plate.  It  consists  of 
five  bowls  or  cylinders,  like  the  common  calen- 
der, but  instead  of  those  bowls  revolving  with  a 
velocity  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  their  respective 
diameters,  so  as  always  to  present  an  equal  sur- 
face, and  to  act  merely  by  their  pressure  against 
each  other,  the  bowls  or  cylinders  /'and  A  move 
with  greater  velocity  than  the  bowls  e,g,  and  i, 
and  thus  create  or  generate  friction  at  three 
several  parts  of  the  operation.  This  difference 
is  produced  merely  by  the  addition  of  a  few 
wheels ;  and  the  difference  between  the  common 
and  glazing  calender  will  be  seen  at  a  single 
glance,  by  comparing  the  wheel  work  of  figs.  1. 
and  3.  In  fig.  1  the  motion  of  all  the  cylin- 
ders is  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  their  diameters,  so 
that  each  presents  an  equal  surface.  In  fig.  3 
the  motion,  instead  of  being  directly  communi- 
cated from  9  to  7,  as  in  fig.  1,  is  given  by  the 
intervention  of  two  additional  wheels.  The  in- 
crease of  motion  depending  entirely  on  the 
relative  number  of  the  wheels  B  and  C,  on  the 
axis  of  the  cylinders  9  and  7  to  each  other  (for 
the  intermediate  wheels  E  and  F  merely  com- 
municate the  motion  without  affecting  the  velo- 
city), 9  is  made  to  revolve  considerably  quicker 
than  in  the  common  calender,  and  thus  the  ne- 
cessary friction  is  created.  To  reduce  the  glazing 
to  the  common  calender,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
remove  the  wheels  E  and  F  entirely,  and  to  sub- 
stitute a  larger  wheel  for  the  wheel  B,  which  may 
be  calculated  to  work  directly  into  the  wheel  C. 
The  profile  view  given  in  this  figure  affords 


CAL 


32 


CAL 


opportunity  also  of  showing  the  way  in  which 
the  cloth  is  conducted  from  the  table  II  over  the 
roller  I,  through  the  calender,  and  received  again 
at  G.  This  is  common  to  both  calenders.  A 
patent  for  Scotland  was  taken  for  the  glazing 
calender ;  and,  upon  a  trial  of  some  years,  it  has 
met  with  the  entire  approbation  of  those  who 
have  been  in  habits  of  having  their  goods  glazed 
by  it.  As  one  machine,  by  being  worked  day 
and  night,  is  capable  of  glazing  nearly  1000 
pieces  of  cloth  of  twenty-eight  yards  each,  in  a 
week,  it  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  occasional 
hurry  to  which  shippers  are  sometimes  unavoi- 
dably subjected. 

CALENDERS,  a  sect  of  dervises,  or  Mahomme- 
dan  friars,  the  disciples  of  Santon  Calender!.  They 
are  rather  a  sect  of  Epicureans  than  a  society  of 
religious.  They  honor  a  tavern  as  much  as  a 
mosque,  and  think  they  pay  as  acceptable  worship 
to  God  by  the  free  use  of  his  creatures  as  others 
do  by  the  greatest  austerities  and  acts  of  devo- 
tion. They  are  called  in  Persia,  and  Arabia, 
Abdals  or  Abdallat,  i.e.  persons  consecrated  to  the 
honor  and  service  of  God.  Their  garment  is  a 
single  coat,  of  a  variety  of  pieces,  quilted  like 
a  rug.  They  preach  in  the  market-places, 
and  live  upon  what  their  auditors  bestow  upon 
them. 

CAL'ENDS,  n.  ")  Lat.  calendarium.  An 
CAL'ENDAR,  v.  &  n.  >  almanac,  or  yearly  re- 
CALEN'DOGRAPHER.  ^gister,  in  which  the 
months  and  stated  times  are  marked  as  festivals 
and  holidays.  The  first  days  of  the  months 
were  denominated  kalends.  The  word  means 
calling,  or  proclaiming,  and  was  applied  to  these 
particular  days,  because  on  them  it  was  declared, 
or  announced,  whether  the  nones  of  the  months 
should  be  five  or  seven.  To  calendar,  is  to  re- 
cord, or  register. 

Twenty-five  years  have  I  but  gone  in  travail 
Of  you  my  sons  ;  nor  till  this  present  hour, 
My  heavy  burdens  are  delivered  :' — 
The  duke  my  husband,  and  my  children  both, 
And  you  the  calendar*  of  their  nativity, 
Go  to  a  gospel's  feast,  and  go  with  me. 

Shahspeare.   Comedy  of  Errors. 
What  hath  this  day  deserved  ?  what  hath  it  done, 
That  it  in  golden  letter  should  be  set 
Among  the  high  tides,  in  the  calendar? 

Shakspeare.     King  John. 

We  compute  from  calendars  differing  from  one 
another ;  the  compute  of  the  one  anticipating  that  of 
the  other.  Brown. 

Cursed  be  the  day  when  first  I  did  appear; 
Let  it  be  blotted  from  the  calendar, 
Lest  it  pollute  the  month  !  Dryden's  Pallet. 

Experienced  men,  inured  to  city  ways, 
Heed  not  the  calendar  to  count  their  days.        Gay. 

CALENDS,  in  Roman  antiquity.  See  KAL- 
ENDS. 

CALENDS,  GREEK,  a  proverbial  expression 
among  the  Romans,  adopted  into  most  modern 
languages,  signifying  never,  because  the  Greeks 
had  no  calends. 

CALENDULA,  in  botany,  the  marigold ;  a 
genus  of  the  polygamia  necessaria  order,  and 
syngenesia  class  of  plants ;  natural  order  forty- 
ninth,  composite •  The  receptacle  is  naked; 


there  is  no  pappus :  CAL.  polyphyllous  and 
equal ;  the  seeds  of  the  disk  membranaceous. 
Of  this  there  are  twenty-five  species ;  natives  of 
the  Cape  and  South  of  Europe.  They  are  so 
well  known  as  to  need  no  description  except — 
C.fructicosa,  which  some  years  ago  was  introduced 
from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  has  a  slender 
shrubby  perennial  stalk,  rising  to  seven  or  eight 
feet,  but  requiring  support :  this  sends  out  a 
great  number  of  weak  branches,  from  the  bottom 
to  the  top,  which  hang  downward  unless  sup- 
ported :  they  are  garnished  with  oval  leaves, 
having  short  flat  foot-stalks,  of  a  shining  green 
color  on  their  upper  side,  but  pale  underneath. 
The  flowers  come  out  at  the  end  of  the  branches, 
on  short  naked  foot-stalks.  The  flowers  of  the 
common  marigold  have  been  exhibited  medici- 
nally :  as  aperients  in  uterine  obstructions  and 
icteric  disorders,  and  as  diaphoretics  in  exanthe- 
matous  fevers.  The  leaves  of  the  plant  are  sti- 
mulating, aperient,  and  antiscorbutic. 

CALEN.DULA,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  the 
motacilla,  found  in  Pennsylvania.  The  color  is 
greenish  ash,  the  crown  having  a  deep  yellow 
hue,  and  the  abdomen  and  wings  yellowish  be- 
neath. This  is  the  roitelet  rubis  of  Buffon,  the 
ruby  crowned  wren  of  Latham,  and  calendula 
Pennsylvanica  of  Brisson. 

CALENS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  chrysis 
of  a  large  size :  color  glossy  blue ;  abdomen 
golden ;  tail  blue  and  armed  with  four  teeth. 
Found  in  Siberia.  Also  a  species  of  cimex  found 
in  India.  The  head,  thorax,  and  wing-cases,  are 
black,  scutel  fulvous. 

CAL'ENTURE,  Lat.  caleo ;  Span,  calentar, 
calentura ;  the  word  signifies  to  heat ;  a  fever. 
Dr.  Johnson  says,  it  is  a  disease  peculiar  to 
sailors  in  a  hot  climate,  wherein  they  imagine 
the  sea  to  be  green  fields,  and  will  throw  them- 
selves into  it.  This  sense  may  be  gathered  from 
some  of  the  following  illustrations  : — 

Thus  said  the  scark-tt  whore  to  her  gallant, 

Who  strait  designed  his  brother  to  supplant ; 

Fiends  of  ambition  here  his  soul  possessed , 

And  thirst  of  empire  calentured  his  breast.    Marvcll. 

And  for  that  lethargy  there  was  no  cure, 
But  to  be  cast  into  a  calenture.  Denham. 

So,  by  a  calenture  misled, 

The  mariner  with  rapture  sees, 
On  the  smooth  ocean's  azure  bed, 

Enamelled  fields  and  verdant  trees  : 
With  eager  haste  he  longs  to  rove 

In  that  fantastic  scene,  and  thinks 
It  must  be  some  enchanted  grove  ; 

And  in  he  leaps,  and  down  he  sinks. 

Swift. 

•CALENTURE,  in  medicine,  is  a  disease  more 
frequently  mentioned  by  former  than  by  any 
later  writers  of  credit.  Dr.  Stubbs  (Philosph. 
Transact.  No.  36.)  relates  two  cases  which  oc- 
curred during  a  voyage  to  Jamaica.  They  we-e 
accompanied  with  delirium,  independent  of 
fever,  and  produced  by  disorders  in  the  stomach 
and  bowels.  The  symptoms  were  therefore 
quickly  removed  by  an  emetic.  The  popular 
definition  describes  it  as  a  distemper  peculiar  to 
seamen  in  hot  climates,  in  which  they  imagine  the 


CAL  33 


CAL 


sea  to  be  green  fields  and  will  throw  themselves 
into  it.  Such  is  the  common  idea ;  but  it  is 
most  probable  that  the  natural  wish  of  a  febrile 
delirium  to  cool  the  body,  by  leaping  into  water, 
has  in  this  case  been  mistaken  for  the  imagina- 
tion of  green  fields  &c.  in  the  sea.  A  calenture 
has  been  cured  by  vomiting,  bleeding,  a  spare  diet 
and  the  neutral  salts  ;  a  single  vomit  commonly 
removing  the  delirium,  and  the  cooling  medi- 
cines completing  the  cure. 

GALES,  in  ancient  geography,  a  municipal 
city  of  some  note  in  Campania  near  Casilinum. 

CALF',  n.       "|      Teut.   kable,  kulbe ;    Sax. 

CALVE',  v.         j  cealf ;     Swed.     half;    Arm. 

CALF'-LIKE,      I  kelve,  apparently  from  Goth. 

CAL'VISH,          f  ko,  a  cow,  and  alf,  progeny ; 

CALF'-HEAD,        ala,  afta,  to  bring  forth.  Mil- 

CALF'-SKIN.  J  ton  uses  the  word  in  this 
general  sense ;  but  its  common  acceptation  is  the 
young  of  a  cow.  The  same  word,  differently 
derived,  signifies  the  thick  part  of  the  leg.  Goth, 
and  Swed.  kafle,  is  a  round  stump. 

I  would  they  were  barbarians,  as  they  are, 
Though  in   Rome  littered ;  no  Romans,  as  they  are 

not, 
Though  calved  in  the  porch  o'  the'  capitol. 

Shahspeare. 

When  she's  calved,  then  set  the  dam  aside, 
And  for  the  tender  progeny  provide.  Dryden. 

The  colt  hath  about  four  years  of  growth  ;  and  so 
the  fawn,  and  so  the  calf.       Bacon's  Natural  History. 
Acosta  tells  us  of  a  fowl  in  Peru,  called  condore, 
which  will  kill  and  eat  up  a  whole  calf  at  a  time. 

Wilhins. 

Ah,  Blouzelind !  I  love  thee  more  by  half 
Than  does  their  fawns,  or  cows  the  new-fallen  calf. 

Gay. 

The  witless  lamb  may  sport  upon  the  plain, 
The  frisking  kid  delight  the  gaping  swain  ; 
The  wanton  calf  may  skip  with  many  a  bound, 
And  my  cur,  Tray,  play  deftest  feats  around  ; 
But  neither  lamb,  nor  kid,  nor  calf,  nor  Tray, 
Dance  like  Buxoma  on  the  first  of  May.  Id. 

When  waggish  boys  the  stunted  besom  ply, 
To  rid  the  slabby  pavement  ;  pass  not  by 
Ere  thou  hast  held  their  hands  ;  some  heedless  flirt 
Will  overspread  thy  calves  with  spattering  dirt.        Id. 

CALF,  in  husbandry.  A  calf  should  be  allowed 
to  suck  and  follow  its  mother  during  the  first  six  or 
eight  days ;  after  this  it  begins  to  eat  pretty  well. 
But  if  the  object  be  to  have  it  quickly  fattened  for 
the  market,  a  few  raw  eggs  every  day,  with  boiled 
milk,  and  a  little  bread,  will  make  it  excellent 
veal  in  four  or  five  weeks.  This  applies  only  to 
such  as  are  designed  for  the  butcher.  When  in- 
tended to  be  brought  up,  they  ought  to  have  at 
least  two  months  suck;  as  the  longer  they  suck, 
the  stronger  and  larger  they  grow.  Those  that 
are  brought  forth  in  April,  May,  or  June,  are  the 
most  proper  for  this;  when  calved  later,  they  do 
not  acquire  sufficient  strength  to  support  them 
during  the  winter.  There  are  two  ways  of  breed- 
ing calves  intended  to  be  reared.  The  one  is  to 
let  the  calf  run  about  with  its  dam  all  the  year 
round;  which  is  the  method  in  the  cheap  breed- 
ing countries,  and  is  generally  allowed  to  make 
the  best  cattle.  The  other  is  to  take  them  from 
the  dam  after  they  have  sucked  about  a  fortnight ; 
they  are  then  to  be  taught  to  drink  flat  milk. 
VOL.  V. 


which  is  to  be  made  but  just  warm,  it  being  very 
dangerous  to  give  it  them  too  hot.  The  best 
time  of  weaning  calves  is  from  January  to  May ; 
they  should  have  milk  for  twelve  weeks  after; 
and  a  fortnight  before  that  is  left  oif,  water  should 
be  mixed  with  the  milk  in  larger  quantities. 
When  they  have  been  fed  on  milk  for  a  month, 
little  wisps  of  hay  should  be  placed  about  them, 
in  cleft  sticks,  to  induce  them  to  eat.  In  the 
beginning  of  April  they  should  be  turned  out  to 
grass ;  only,  for  a  few  days,  they  should  be  taken 
in  at  night,  and  have  milk  and  water,  till  they 
are  so  able  to  feed  themselves  that  they  do  not 
regard  it.  The  grass  must  not  be  too  rank,  but 
short  and  sweet,  that  they  may  like  it,  and  yet 
get  it  with  some  labour.  Calves  should  always 
be  weaned  at  grass;'  for  if  it  be  done  with  hay 
and  water,  they  often  grow  big-bellied  and  rot. 
When  those  are  selected  which  are  to  be  kept  as 
bulls,  the  rest  should  be  gelded ;  the  sooner  the 
better.  Between  ten  and  twenty  days  is  the  pro- 
per age.  About  London  almost  all  the  calves 
are  fatted  for  the  butcher,  as  there  is  a  good  mar- 
ket for  them,  and  the  lands  are  not  so  profitable 
to  breed  upon  as  in  cheaper  countries.  The 
way  to  make  calves  fat  and  fine  is  to  keep  them 
very  clean;  give  them  fresh  litter  every  day;  and 
to  hang  a  large  chalk-stone,  where  they  can  easi- 
ly get  at  it  to  lick  it,  but  out  of  the  way  of  being 
fouled  by  the  dung  and  urine.  The  coops  are 
to  be  placed  so  as  not  to  have  too  much  sun,  and 
so  high  above  the  ground  that  the  urine  may 
run  off.  Some  bleed  them  once  when  they  are 
a  month  old,  and  a  second  time  before  they  kill 
them ;  which  greatly  whitens  the  flesh;  the  bleed- 
ing is,  by  some,  repeated  oftener,  but  this  is  suf- 
ficient. Calves  are  very  apt  to  be  loose  in  their 
bowels;  which  wastes  and  very  much  injures 
them.  The  remedy  is  to  give  them,  from  a  horn, 
chalk  scraped  among  milk.  If  it  does  not  suc- 
ceed, give  them  bole  armoniac  in  large  doses, 
and  use  the  cold  bath  every  morning.  If  a  cow 
will  not  let  a  strange  calf  suck  her,  the  common 
method  is  to  rub  both  her  nose  and  the  calPs  with 
a  little  brandy,  which  generally  reconciles  them. 

CALF,  in  zoology.     See  Bos. 

CALF,  GOLDEN,  an  idol,  set  up  and  worshiped 
by  the  Israelites  at  the  foot  of  mount  Sinai.  Our 
version  makes  Aaron  fashion  this  calf  with  a 
graving  tool  after  he  had  cast  it  in  a  mould :  the 
Geneva  translation  makes  him  engrave  it  first, 
and  cast  it  afterwards.  Others,  render  the  whole 
verse  thus ;  '  And  Aaron  received  them  (the 
golden  earings),  and  tied  them  up  in  a  bag,  and 
got  them  cast  into  a  molten  calf;'  which  version 
is  authorised  by  the  different  senses  of  the  word 
tzur,  which  signifies  to  tie  up  or  bind,  as  well  as 
to  shape  or  form ;  and  of  the  word  cherret,  which 
is  used  both  for  a  graving  tool  and  a  bag.  See 
AARON.  This  calf  Moses  is  said  to  have  burnt 
with  fire,  ground  to  powder,  and  strewed  upon 
the  water  which  the  people  were  to  drink.  How 
this  could  be  accomplished  has  been  a  question. 
Many  have  thought,  that  as  gold  is  indestructible, 
it  could  only  be  burnt  by  the  miraculous  power 
of  God;  but  M.  Stahl  conjectures,  that  Moses 
dissolved  it  by  means  of  liver  of  sulphur.  See 
CHEMISTRY,  Index.  M.  Voltaire,  in  his  Essay 
on  Toleration  (in  other  respects  an  excellent 

D 


CAL  34 

work),  argues  much  upon  the  impossibility  of 
grinding  to  powder  so  ductile  a  metal  as  gold ; 
but  any  goldsmith  could  have  informed  him,  that 
nothing  is  easier ;  for  the  purest  gold  may  at  any 
time  be  made  as  brittle  as  glass,  by  mixing  with 
it  a  small  quantity  of  brass ;  nay,  such  an  antipa- 
thy exists  between  the  two  metals,  that  gold,  in 
working,  will  often  become  quite  unmalleable, 
by  only  accidentally  touching  a  piece  of  brass, 
while  it  is  warm.  And  if  we  suppose  the  Egyp- 
tian goldsmiths  to  have  been  as  fond  of  profit,  as 
the  modern  jewellers  of  Europe,  it  is  probable 
they  might  have  put  brass  pins  (a  practice  now 
not  uncommon)  in  the  joints  of  the  gold  ear- 
nngs,  which  they  had  sold  or  lent  to  the  Hebrew 
ladies;  in  which  case,  the  whole  mass  being 
melted  together,  when  the  calf  was  made,  Moses 
would  require  no  miraculous  power  to  enable 
him  to  grind  it  to  powder;  nor  would  he  even 
need  to  throw  in  any  additional  quantity  of  brass, 
to  render  it  brittle,  when  he  burnt,  or  melted,  it, 
(as  perhaps  the  word  should  be  rendered) 
with  fire. 

CALF,  SEA.  See  PHOCA. 
CALF-SKIXS,  in  the  leather  manufacture,  are 
prepared  and  dressed  by  the  tanners,  skinners, 
and  curriers,  who  sell  them  for  the  use  of  shoe 
makers,  sadlers,  book-binders,  and  others,  who 
employ  them  in  their  several  manufactures.  The 
English  calf-skin  is  much  valued  abroad,  and  the 
sale  of  it  very  considerable  in  France  and  other 
countries;  where  attempts  have  been  made  to 
imitate  it,  but  in  vain;  the  smallness  and  weak- 
ness of  the  calves  about  Paris,  which  at  fifteen 
days  old  are  not  so  big  as  the  English  ones  when 
newly  calved,  being  an  insurmountable  obstacle. 
CALF  AT,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  embe- 
riza ;  rather  smaller  than  the  common  sparrow : 
color  hoary;  vinaceous  beneath;  head,  throat, 
and  margin  of  the  tail,  black;  bill,  legs,  and 
orbits,  red.  This  is  le  Calfat  of  Buffon,  and  the 
red  eyed  bunting  of  Latham;  and  is  found  at 
Madagascar. 

CAL'IBER,")      ft.  calibre;  from  Lat.  cava- 

CAL'IVER,      > libra;  measure  of  a  tube;  but 

CAL'IBRE.     j  x^a   was   an  '  instrument   for 

measuring.     It  signifies  the  bore  of  fire  arms ; 

metaphorically  applied  to  the  quality,  state,  or 

degree ;  the  size  or  dimensions  of  intellect,  worth, 

or  estimation. 

They  could  not  but  be  convinced,  that  declamations 
of  this  kind  would  rouse  him ;  that  he  must  think, 
coming  from  men  of  their  calibre,  they  were  highly 
mischievous. 

Dwrke.     Appeal  from  the  New  to  the  Old  Whigt. 

CALIBER,  or  CALIPER,  properly  denotes  the 
diameter  of  any  body ;  thus  we  say,  two  columns 
of  the  same  caliber;  the  caliber  of  a  bullet,  &c. 

CALIBER  COMPASSES,  CALIPER  COMPASSES, 
or  CALLIPERS,  a  sort  of  compasses  made 'with 
arched  legs,  to  take  the  diameter  of  round  or 
swelling  bodies.  Caliber  compasses  are  chiefly 
used  by  gunners,  for  taking  the  diameters  of  the 
parts  of  a  piece  of  ordnance,  or  of  bombs,  bullets, 
&c.  Their  legs  are  therefore  circular ;  and  move 
on  an  arch  of  brass,  whereon  is  marked  the  inches 
and  half  inches,  to  show  how  far  the  points  of 
the  compasses  are  opened  asunder.  The  gaugers, 
al.so,  sometimes  use  calibers,  to  embrace  the  two 


CAL 


heads  of  any  cask,  in  order  to  find  its  length. 
The  calibers  used  by  carpenters  and  joiners,  are 
a  piece  of  board,  notched  triangular  wise  in  the 
middle,  for  taking  measures. 

CALLIPERS,  GUNNER'S,  are  instruments  in 
which  a  right  line  is  so  divided  as  that  the  first  part 
being  equal  to  the  diameter  of  an  iron  or  leaden 
ball  of  one  pound  weight,  the  other  parts  are  to 
the  first  as  the  diameters  of  balls  of  two,  three,  or 
four,  &c.  pounds  are  to  the  diameter  of  a  ball  of 
one  pound.  The  caliber  is  used  by  engineers, 
from  the  weight  of  the  ball  given,  to  determine 
its  diameter,  or  vice  versa.  The  gunner's  calli- 
pers consist  of  two  thin  plates  of  brass  joined  by 
a  rivet,  so  as  to  move  quite  round  each  other : 
the  length  from  the  centre  of  the  joint  is  between 
six  inches  and  a  foot,  and  the  breadth  from  one  to 
two  inches;  that  of  the  most  convenient  size  is 
about  nine  inches  long.  Many  scales,  tables,  and 
proportions  &c.  .may  be  introduced  on  this  instru- 
ment; but  none  are  essential  to  it,  except  those 
for  taking  the  caliber  of  shot  and  cannon,  and  for 
measuring  the  magnitude  of  salient  and  entering 
angles.  The  most  complete  and  best  sort  of  cal- 
lipers, however,  usually  contain  the  following 
articles,  viz.  first,  the  measure  of  convex  diame- 
ters in  inches,  &c ;  second,  of  concave  diameters ; 
third,  the  weight  of  iron  shot  of  given  diameters; 
fourth,  the  weight  of  iron  shot  for  given  gun  bores ; 
fifth,  the  degrees  of  a  semicircle ;  sixth,  the  pro- 
portion of  troy  and  avoirdupois  weight ;  seventh, 
the  proportion  of  English  and  French  feet  and 
pounds  weight;  eighth,  factors  used  in  circular 
and  spherical  figures;  ninth,  tables  of  the  speci- 
fic gravities  and  weight  of  bodies;  tenth,  tables 
of  the  quantity  of  powder  necessary  for  the  proof 
and  service  of  brass  and  iron  guns;  eleventh, 
rules  for  computing  the  number  of  shot  or  shells 
in  a  complete  pile;  twelfth,  rules  for  the  fall  or 
descent  of  heavy  bodies;  thirteenth,  rules  for  the 
raising  of  water;  fourteenth,  rules  for  firing  artil- 
lery and  mortars ;  fifteenth,  a  line  of  inches ;  six- 
teenth, logarithmetic  scales  of  numbers,  sines, 
versed  sines,  and  tangents;  seventeenth,  a  secto- 
ral line  of  equal  parts,  or  the  line  of  lines ;  eigh- 
teenth, a  sectoral  line  of  planes  and  superficies ; 
and,  nineteenth,  a  sectoral  line  of  solids.  See 
COMPASSES. 

CAL'ICE,  n.  s.  Lat.  culix.    A  cup ;  a  chalice. 

There  is  a  natural  analogy  between  the  ablution  of 
the  body  and  the  purification  of  the  soul ;  between 
eating  the  holy  bread  and  drinking  the  sacred  calice, 
and  a  participation  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 

Taylor. 

CALICHON,  an  ancient  instrument  of  the 
lute  kind,  mounted  with  five  strings,  tuned  to  the 
following  ascending  intervals :  viz.  G,  first  line 
bass,  C  F  A  and  D  following. 

CAL'ICO,  J      Fr.  calicut.    A  kind 

CAL'ICO-PRINTER.  J  of  cotton  cloth,  brought 
from  Calicut,  in  Malabar.  This  cloth  is  deco- 
rated with  various  colors,  forms,  and  figures, 
by  a  process  of  painting. 

If  thou  but  please  to  walk  into  the  Pawn 
To  buy  thee  cambrick,  calico,  or  lawn, 
If  thou  the  whiteness  of  the  same  wouldst  prove 
From  thy  far  whiter  hand  pluck  off  thy  glove  ; 
And  those  which  by  as  the  beholders  staud, 
Will  take  thy  hand  for  lawn,  lawn  for  thy  hand. 

Dray  ton.     Edward  IV.  to  Mrs.  SJunc. 


CALIFORNIA. 


35 


I  wear  the  hooped  petticoat,  and  am  all  in  calicoes 
what  the  finest  are  in  silks.  It  is  a  dreadful  thing  to 
be  poor  and  proud.  Spectator,  No.  292. 

As,  suppose  an  ingenious  gentleman  should  write 
a  poem  of  advice  to  a  callico-printcr :  do  you  think 
there  is  a  girl  in  England,  that  would  wear  any  thing 
but  the  taking  of  Lisle,  or  the  battle  of  Oudenarde  ? 
They  would  certainly  be  all  the  fashion,  till  the 
heroes  abroad  had  cut  out  some  more  patterns.  I 
should  fancy  small  skirmishes  might  do  for  under  pet- 
ticoats, provided  they  had  a  siege  for  the  upper. 

Tatler,  No.  3. 

CALICO,  a  species  of  cloth  of  cotton  thread, 
manufactured,  formerly,  at  Calicut  in  the  East 
Indies;  but  we  have  now  in  this  country  esta- 
blished manufactories  which  equal  those  in  the 
east.  It  is  said  that  in  this  business,  and  in  the 
printing  of  calicoes,  there  are  250,000  persons 
employed. 

CALICUT,  or  CALICODU,  a  town  and  district 
extending  along  the  coast  of  Malabar,  between 
the  parallels  of  10°  and  12°  N.  lat.,  one  of 
the  principal  residences  of  the  Nairs,  the  Calicut 
rajah,  or  Zamorin  of  the  Europeans,  being 
one  of  their  chiefs.  lie  is  called  by  his  own 
caste  the  Tamuri  rajah.  According  to  Dr.  Bu- 
chanan, the  origin  of  the  name  of  this  town  and 
district  is  traced  to  Cheruman  Permal,  a  usurper 
who  lived  1000  years  since,  and  who,  having 
divided  Malabar  amongst  his  nobles,  had  no  prin- 
cipality to  bestow  on  the  ancestor  of  the  Tamuri 
(Zamorin).  He  therefore  gave  that  chief  his 
sword,  with  all  the  territory,  in  which  a  cock 
crowing  at  a  small  temple  here  could  be  heard ; 
hence  these,  his  original  dominions  of  the  Tamu- 
ri, were  called  Calicodu,  or  cock  crowing.  The 
place  continued  to  be  the  chief  residence  of  the 
Tamuri  Rajah  until  the  Mahommedan  invasion, 
and  became  a  flourishing  city,  owing  to  the  suc- 
cess that  its  lords  had  in  war,  and  the  encourage- 
ment which  they  gave  to  commerce.  Tippoo 
destroyed  the  town  and  removed  its  inhabitants ; 
but,  in  little  more  than  a  year  after,  the  English 
conquered  the  province,  and  the  old  inhabitants 
returned  with  joy  and  rebuilt  the  town.  See 
Buchanan's  Journey  through  Malabar. 

The  males  of  the  family  of  the  rajah,  are  called 
Tamburans,  and  the  females  Tamburetties.  Their 
offspring  are  generally  the  children  of  Namburis, 
or  brahmins  of  high  caste,  and  sometimes  Nairs 
of  the  highest  rank.  Although  these  females  are 
betrothed  in  infancy,  and  marry  at  the  age  of  ten, 
they  never  cohabit  with  their  husbands,  which  it 
is  said  would  be  esteemed  a  profanation ;  but  live 
in  the  houses  of  their  mothers  and  brothers, 
at  the  expense  of  the  husband,  and  adopting  other 
men  for  their  companions.  No  man  thus  knows 
his  own  father.  This  family  pretends  to  far  higher 
rank  than  the  brahmins.  In  1766,  according 
to  Mr.  Hamilton,  'when  Hyder  invaded  Mala- 
bar, the  Cochin  rajah  quietly  submitted  to  pay 
tribute ;  while  the  pride  of  the  Zamorin  refused 
any  kind  of  submission;  and,  after  an  unavailing 
resistance,  being  made  prisoner,  set  fire  to  the 
house  in  which  he  was  confined,  and  was  burned 
with  it.  Several  of  his  personal  attendants,  who 
were  accidentally  excluded  when  he  shut  the 
door,  afterwards  threw  themselves  into  the  flames 
and  perished  with  their  ma?!:er. '  The  chiefs  of 


Punatoor,  Mannacollatil,  Talapuli,  Tirumana- 
chery,  Agemcutil,  and  others,  were  at  one  time 
tributary  to  the  Zamorin,  and  furnished  quotas  of 
troops  to  him  in  war.  He  is  now  entirely  a  sti- 
pendiary of  the  British  government. 

The  town  of  Calicut,  the  capital  of  the  district, 
stands  in  lat.  11°  18'  N.,  long.  75°  50'  E.,  and 
contains  perhaps,  5,000  houses.  It  is  inhabited 
chiefly  by  Mopleys ;  and  is  situated  on  a  river 
navigable  by  boats  100  miles,  by  which  a  great 
quantity  of  teak  timberis  floated  down  for  exports. 
It  also  exports  areka,  cocoa-nuts,  pepper,  ginger, 
turmeric,  cardemums,  coir,  and  charcoal  of  the 
cocoa-nut  shell,  remarkable  for  the  intense  heat  it 
gives ;  and  manufactures  piece  goods.  This  port 
is  the  principal  one  of  India  visited  by  the  Arabs 
of  Muscat.  Here  Vasco  de  Gama  freighted,  in  1498, 
the  first  European  vessel  that  ever  sailed  tor  the 
west,  with  Indian  commodities.  The  sea,  however, 
has  long  since  covered  the  ancient  city,  and  at 
very  low  tides  the  tops  of  temples  and  minarets 
are  said  to  be  seen.  The  present  town  stands, 
low  and  unsheltered,  on  the  sea  shore.  The 
streets  are  narrow,  crowded  with  people,  and  dir- 
ty. Hyder  AH  took  the  town  in  1773,  and  ex- 
pelled 'the  merchants  and  factors,  ordering  the 
cocoa-nut  trees  and  sandal  wood  to  be  destroyed, 
and  the  pepper  vines  to  be  rooted  out.  Tippoo 
Saib  afterwards  destroyed  it  more  completely  as 
we  have  seen.  Yet  it  has  since  flourished  under 
British  domination  and  protection.  It  is  distant 
seventy-six  miles  west  of  Coimbetore,  and  ninety- 
five  south-west  of  Seringapatam.  Long.  75°  30' 
E.,  lat  11°15'N. 

CAL'ID,      >      See  CALX,  CALCAREOUS,  and 
CALID'ITV.  J  CALCINE. 

Ice  will  dissolve  in  any  way  of  heat ;  for  it  will 
dissolve  with  fire,  it  will  colliquate  iu  water,  or  warm 
oil  ;  nor  doth  it  only  submit  into  an  actual  heat,  but 
not  endure  the  potential  calidity  of  many  waters. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

CALIDJE  PLANTS,  from  calor,  heat;  plants 
that  are  natives  of  warm  climates;  such  as  those 
of  the  East  Indies,  South  America,  &c.  These 
plants,  says  Linneeus,  will  bear  a  degree  of  heat 
which  is  40°,  on  a  scale  in  which  the  freezing 
point  is  0,  and  100  the  heat  of  boiling  water. 
In  the  tenth  degree  of  cold  they  cease  to  grow, 
lose  their  leaves,  become  barren,  and  perish. 

CALIDRIS,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  sco- 
lopax;  the  red  shank  of  Latham,  totanuss  of  Bris- 
son,  and  rotbren  of  Frisch.  The  bill  is  straight 
and  red;  legs  scarlet,  secondary  quill-feathers 
white.  .  Inhabits  England  and  America. 

CALIDUCT,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  pipe, 
disposed  along  the  walls  of  houses  or  apartments, 
for  conveying  heat  to  several  remote  parts  of  the 
house  from  one  common  furnace. 

CALIDUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  ci- 
mex,  of  a  fuscous  color  above,  and  testaceous 
beneath;  antennae  black.  Found  in  Africa. 

CA'LIF,  n. s.  f      Arab,  khalifa;   an  heir  or 

CA'LIPH.  $  successor.  A  title  assumed 
by  the  successors  of  Mahomet  among  the  Sara- 
cens, who  were  vested  with  absolute  power  iu 
affairs  both  religious  and  civil.  Thomson  says, 
it  signifies  a  vicar,  a  lieutenant,  one  who  holds 
the  place  of  Mahomet. 

CALIF.     See  CALIPH 

U  2 


36 


CALIFORNIA. 


CALIFORNIA,  a  considerable  peninsula  on 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  united  on  the  north  to  the 
continent  of  North  America,  from  which  the 
other  part  is  separated  by  a  narrow  sea,  called 
the  Gulf  of  California,  and  bounded  on  the 
south  and  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  near  300 
leagues  in  length,  and  in  different  places  ten, 
twenty,  thirty,  and  forty  leagues  wide.  It  in- 
cludes a  superficial  area  of  above  9000  leagues. 
This  peninsula  is  said  to  have  been  discovered 
by  Sir  Francis  Drake,  and  by  him  called  New 
Albion;  and  the  Gulf  of  California  has  been 
sometimes  called  the  Vermilion  Sea,  Purple  Sea, 
and  Red  Sea.  In  a  peninsula  of  so  vast  an  ex- 
tent, which  reaches  nearly  from  the  23rd  to  the 
45th  degree  of  latitude,  the  soil  and  climate 
must  naturally  be  found  to  vary.  Some  parts 
ire  continually  covered  with  flowers,  while 
others  are  inhospitable  deserts.  According  to 
father  Bergert  de  Schelestat,  it  is  nothing  but  a 
chain  of  barren  rocks,  covered  with  briars,  with- 
out water,  without  wood,  thinly  inhabited,  and 
incapable  of  culture ;  only  the  sea-coasts  having 
been  discovered  till  1788.  The  heat  would  be 
insupportable,  if  not  moderated  in  the  afternoon 
by  the  east  wind,  which  blows  but  seldom,  or  by 
the  south,  which  is  there  more  frequent.  It  rare- 
ly rains,  and  then  only  in  small  quantities.  The 
soil  is  naked  rock,  or  covered  with  pebbles,  fertile 
in  some  few  places  which  are  watered.  It  seems 
to  have  been  produced  by  a  volcano  or  an  earth- 
quake ;  few  fruit  trees  are  found,  some  forest  trees 
and  underwood,  towards  the  south,  are  all  that 
offer;  Indian  figs  grow  wild.  Such  was  the 
account  given ;  but  later  observations  and  disco- 
veries have  explored  places,  particularly  in  the 
northern  division  of  this  peninsula,  where  the 
soil  is  excellent,  and  capable  of  culture ;  and  it 
is  reported,  that  vines  grow  naturally  on  the 
mountains  ;  that  the  Jesuits,  when  they  resided 
there,  made  wine  enough  to  serve  for  the  con- 
sumption of  Mexico,  of  an  excellent  quality,  and 
in  its  taste  approaching  to  that  of  Madeira. 
Here  also  grain  of  every  kind  is  said  to  flourish 
well :  together  with  all  the  roots  and  fruits  of  the 
tropics  and  such  as  have  been  imported  for  Spain. 
Fish,  game,  hares,  and  rabbits,  are  very  common, 
and  the  most  enchanting  birds.  Small  gray 
well  flavored  partridges  feed  in  companies  of 
three  or  four  hundred  in  the  thickets.  In  the 
forests  are  found  gigantic  stags,  in  flocks  of  forty 
or  fifty  at  a  time.  They  are  brown,  with  large 
branches  nearly  four  feet  and  a-half  long,  and 
considered  among  the  most  beautiful  amimals  of 
America.  Sebastian  Viscaino  asserts  that  he  saw 
some  whose  branches  were  nearly  nine  feet  in 
length.  They  are  very  fleet,  and  can  scarcely  be 
taken,  except  by  artifice.  Perouse  saw  them  taken 
in  this  way  : — A  stag's  head  was  fixed  with  its  long 
branches  upon  an  Indian's  head,  who,  armed  with 
a  bow  and  arrows,  crept  on  all  fours  among  the 
brushwood  and  long  grass,  imitating  the  motion 
of  a  stag  when  feeding.  He  thus  drew  around 
him  the  unsuspecting  herd,  and  then  shot  among 
them  with  fine  effect. 

Latterly  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  other  do- 
mestic animals,  have  greatly  increased  here.  The 
coasts  furnish  great  quantities  of  fish ;  and  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  the  pearl  oyster 


has  been  an  article  of  flourishing  commerce  to 
the  colonists.  It  seems  also,  from  M.  Humboldt, 
that  the  Indian  population  had  considerably  in- 
creased in  California  just  before  his  visit.  He 
says  it  had  more  than  doubled  within  the  twelve 
preceding  years.  Here  are  eighteeen  Spanish 
missions,  founded  between  the  years  1769  and 
1798,  and  containing  together  apopulation  of  from 
15  to  17,000  souls.  The  residence  of  the  governor 
of  the  Californias  is  at  Monterey.  He  has  a 
salary  of  4000  piasters ;  but  his  authority  is  not 
allowed  to  interfere  with  the  affairs  of  the  mis- 
sions ;  except  to  grant  assistance  when  they 
require  it.  His  real  subjects,  therefore,  are  only 
about  400  military,  distributed  in  the  different 
presidios,  and  which  keep  in  subjection  about 
50,000  wandering  Indians.  Every  parish  is 
governed  by  two  missionaries,  whose  authority 
over  the  converted  Indians  is  absolute ;  and  the 
domestic  economy  of  each  mission  differs  little 
from  that  of  a  West  India  plantation.  '  The 
men  and  women,'  according  to  Perouse,  '  are 
assembled  by  the  sound  of  a  bell ;  one  of  the 
priests  conducts  them  to  their  work,  to  church, 
and  to  all  their  other  exercises.'  Pearl  oysters  are 
found  on  the  coast  of  Old  California,  and  have 
been,  during  two  centuries,  a  great  inducement 
to  adventurers  to  visit  that  barren  region.  The 
oysters  are  most  abundant  in  the  southern  partj 
particularly  round  the  islands  of  Santa  Cruz,  San 
Josef,  and  the  bay  of  Ceralvo.  They  lie  in  great 
numbers  on  the  banks  which  are  called  hostias, 
in  three  or  four  fathoms  water ;  and  may  be  seen 
as  plainly  as  if  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  The 
pearls  are  large  and  beautiful,  but  of  an  irregular 
figure ;  but  this  fishery  has  of  late  years  mucr 
.  declined. 

The  native  tribes  that  inhabit  the  country  ac- 
knowledge few  regular  chiefs.  Each  father  is  a 
prince  in  his  own  family,  but  his  power  ceases  wlun 
the  children  are  able  to  provide  for  themselves. 
Each  tribe  has,  nevertheless,  sometimes  persons 
appointed,  who  call  assemblies  to  divide  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  earth,  regulate  the  fisheries,  and 
to  march  at  their  head,  if  engaged  in  war.  They 
owe  their  rank  to  the  choice  of  their  companions, 
but  they  are  agents  only,  not  princes.  The  shade 
of  a  tree  serves  them  as  a  retreat  during  the  day, 
and  in  the  night  they  retire  to  their  huts,  built 
on  piles  at  the  side  of  rivers  or  ponds.  Want 
of  provision  obliges  them  often  to  change  their 
abode,  and  in  severe  winters  they  retire  into  caves. 
A  girdle  and  piece  of  linen,  which  passes  round 
the  body,  some  ornaments  for  the  head,  and  a 
chain  of  pearls,  serve  them  for  dress  and  finery; 
some  insert  colored  feathers  in  holes,  which  they 
make  in  their  ears  and  nostrils  ;  some  bind  their 
forehead  with  bands,  like  net-work,  with  which 
too  they  cover  their  arms,  adorned  with  chains 
of  pearls  like  bracelets.  Those  who  live  towards 
the  north,  where  they  have  no  pearls,  dress  their 
heads  with  shells.  The  women  commonly  wear 
a  species  of  long  robe,  made  of  the  leaves  of 
palms  \  some  wear  nothing  but  a  girdle.  These 
palm-leaves  are  woven  with  art,  and  dyed  of 
different  colors ;  and  of  them  they  make  baskets, 
which  hold  their  roots  and  provisions. 

CALIFORNIA,  THE  GULF  OF,  SEA  OF  CORTES, 
or  VERMILION  SEA,  formed  by  the  peninsula  of 


CAL  37 

Ca.ifornia  on  the  west,  and  the  continent  on  the 
east,  is  300  leagues  long,  and  fifty  to  twenty 
broad.  The  chief  knowledge  we  have  of  it  is, 
that  the  east  coast  is  high  and  broken,  lined  with 
shoals,  to  the  latitude  of  27^°.  The  only 
places  on  the  coast  (the  intendance  of  Sonoro) 
are  the  port  of  Guitivas,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
considerable  river  Mayo ;  and  that  of  Guayma 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Yaqui.  This  last  is  sur- 
rounded by  elevated  hills,  and  before  the  entrance 
is  Pelican  Island,  which  is  left  on  the  right  hand 
in  entering.  Ships  anchor  in  five  fathoms.  The 
small  Spanish  village  is  ten  miles  up  the  river. 
The  Colorado,  a  considerable  river,  falls  into  the 
head  of  this  gulf.  The  bay  of  Monterey,  the 
best  on  the  coast  of  New  California,  is  very  in- 
different ;  it  is  limited  by  Point  Pinos  (fir  tree) 
on  the  south,  and  point  Anno  Nueva  on  the  north, 
distant  seven  leagues.  The  whole  is  bordered 
by  a  sandy  beach,  but  entirely  exposed,  except 
round  Point  Pinos,  where  is  a  cove,  in  which  a  few 
ships  may  lie,  and  this  is  properly  the  port  of 
Monterey.  The  river  of  that  name  is  an  insig- 
nificant stream,  four  leagues  north-east  of  the 
bay.  San  Francisco,  the  most  northern  of  the 
ports  of  the  Spanish  missions,  is  an  excellent 
harbour,  entirely  between  two  low  points  which 
expand  into  a  noble  basin.  On  the  south  shore 
is  the  Presidio,  and  a  fort  garrisoned  by  thirty- 
five  men,  and  a  lieutenant  of  artillery.  Sir  Fran- 
cis Drake's  Bay  is  four  leagues  north  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, open  to  the  south  and  south-east,  but 
affording  good  anchorage  on  the  south  shore. 
It  receives  a  river,  whose  mouth  is  crossed  by  a 
bar,  with  a  surf  that  renders  its  entrance  dange- 
rous. Port  de  la  Podega  is  seven  leagues  north 
of  Sir  Francis  Drake's  Bay.  Cape  Mendocino  is 
a  promontory,  with  two  elevated  points,  ten  miles 
asunder,  the  southernmost  resembling  Dunnose, 
on  the  Isle  of  Wight.  Twenty  leagues  farther 
north  is  Port  Trinidad,  an  open  bay,  but  which 
receives  a  river  that  may  be  entered  'by  boats, 
and  wood  and  water  are  abundant.  Cape  Blanco, 
named  Cape  Orford  by  Vancouver,  is  a  low 
point,  covered  to  the  water's  edge  with  wood. 

CALIG7E,  in  Roman  antiquity,  soldiers  shoes, 
made  like  sandals,  without  upper  leather  to  cover 
the  superior  part  of  the  foot,  though  otherwise 
reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  leg,  and  fastened 
with  thongs.  The  sole  of  the  caliga  was  of  wood, 
like  the  sabot  of  the  French  peasants,  and  its 
bottom  stuck  full  of  nails.  From  these  caligse 
the  emperor  Caligula  took  his  name,  as  having 
been  born  in  the  army,  and  afterwards  bred  up  in 
the  habit  of  a  soldier.  According  to  Du  Cange, 
a  sort  of  caligas  was  also  worn  by  monks  and 
bishops,  when  they  celebrated  mass  pontifically. 

CALIGATI,  an  appellation  applied  by  some 
ancient  writers  to  the  common  soldiers  in  the 
Roman  armies,  from  the  caligae  which  they  wore. 

CALIGATION, ».    ^     Lat.    caliga,'  dark- 

CALIG'INOUS,  adj.       >  ness,  obscurity,  cloudi- 

CALIG'INOUSNF.SS,  n.  j ness;  dim. 

Instead  of  a  diminution,  or  imperfect  vision,  in  the 
mole,  we  affirm  an  abolition,  or  total  privation ;  in- 
stead of  caligation  or  dimness,  we  conclude  a  cecity  or 
blindness.  Brown. 

CALIGO,  or  CALIGATIO,  in  medicine,  cloudi- 
ness, dimness,  or  suffusion  of  sight,  caused  by 


the  interposition  of  some  opaque  substance  be- 
tween the  light  and  the  optic  netve.  The  species 
of  caligo  are  distinguished  according  to  the  situa- 
tion of  the  interposed  body  :  thus  caligo  lentis, 
caligo  corneas,  caligo  pupillae,  caligo  humorum, 
and  caligo  palpebrarum. 

CAL'IGRAPHY,  orl      From    Ka\os,  beau- 
CAL'LIGRAPHY,  n.       ?  tiful,    and    ypa^w,    to 
CAL'LIGRAPHIC.          5  grave  or  write.    Beau- 
tiful writing.     See  CALLIGRAPHY. 

This  language  is  incapable  of  caligraphy. 

Priduaux. 

The  minutes  of  acts,  &c.  were  always  taken  in  a 
kind  of  cypher,  or  short-hand  ;  such  as  the  notes  of 
Tyro  in  Gruter :  by  which  means,  the  notaries  were 
enabled  to  keep  pace  with  a  speaker,  or  person  who 
dictated.  These  notes,  being  understood  by  few, 
were  copied  over  fair,  and  at  length,  by  persons  who 
had  a  good  hand,  for  sale,  &c.  and  these  were  called 
calligraphy.  Dr.  A.  Rees. 

CALIGULA,  the  Roman  emperor  and  tyrant, 
began  his  reign  A.  D.  37,  with  every  promising 
appearance  of  becoming  the  real  father  of  his 
people;  but  at  the  end  of  eight  months  he  was 
seized  with  a  fever,  which,  it  is  thought,  left  a 
frenzy  on  his  mind :  for  his  disposition  totally 
changed,  and  he  committed  the  most  atrocious 
acts  of  impiety,  cruelty,  and  folly;  such  as  pro- 
claiming his  horse  consul,  feeding  it  at  his  table, 
introducing  it  to  the  temple  in  the  vestments  of 
the  priests  of  Jupiter,  &c.  and  causing  sacrifices 
to  be  offered  to  himself,  his  wife,  and  the  horse. 
After  having  murdered  many  of  his  subjects  with 
his  own  hands,  and  caused  others  to  be  put  to 
death  without  any  just  cause,  he  was  assassinated 
by  a  tribune  of  the  people  as  he  came  out  of  the 
amphitheatre,  A.  D.  41,  in  the  twenty-ninth  year 
of  his  age,  and  the  fourth  of  his  reign. — See 
ROME,  HISTORY  OF. 

CALIN,  a  compound  metal,  whereof  the 
Chinese  make  tea  canisters,  and  the  like.  The 
ingredients  seem  to  be  lead  and  tin. 

CALIPH.  Arab,  khalifa,  an  heir  or  successor. 
A  title  assumed  by  the  successors  of  Mahomet 
among  the  Saracens,  who  were  vested  with  ab- 
solute power  in  affairs  both  religious  and  civil. 
See  KHALIF. 

CALIPPIC  PERIOD,  in  chronology,  a  series 
of  seventy-six  years,  perpetually  recurring,  at 
every  repetition  of  which  it  was  supposed  by  its 
inventor  Calippus,  an  Athenian,  the  mean,  new, 
and  full  moons,  would  return  to  the  same  day 
and  hour  of  the  solar  year.  Meton,  100  years 
before,  had  invented  the  period  or  cycle,  of  nine- 
teen years ;  assuming  the  quantity  of  the  solar 
year  365d.  6h.  18'  56"  503  314  34s ;  and  the  lunar 
month,  29d.  12A.  45'  47"  263  484  305 :  but  Calip- 
pus, considering  that  the  Metonic  quantity  of  the 
solar  year  was  not  exact,  multiplied  Melon's  pe- 
riod by  four,  and  thence  arose  a  period  of  seventy- 
six  years,  called  the  Calippic.  The  Calippic 
period,  therefore,  contains  27,559  days :  and 
since  the  lunar  cycle  contains  235  luna- 
tions, and  the  Calippic  period  is  quadruple  of 
this,  it  contains  940  lunations.  This  period 
began  in  the  third  year  of  the  112th  Olympiad, 
or  the  4,384th  of  the  Julian  period  It  is  demon 


CAL 


38 


CAL 


strated,  nowever,  that  the  Calippic  period  itself  is 
not  accurate ;  tlmt  is  does  not  bring  the  new  and 
full  moons  precisely  to  their  places :  8/t.  5'  52* 
60"  being  the  excess  of  940  lunations  above 
seventy-six  solar  years ;  but  brings  them  too 
late,  by  a  whole  day  in  225  years. 

CALISTE,  in  conchology,  a  species  of  Venus, 
set  with  transverse  acute  striae,  membraneous  in 
front,  the  anterior  slope  short,  and  the  posterior 
aperture  obscure.  Found  on  the  shores  of  the 
Red  Sea. 

CALIX,  or  CALYX.    See  BOTANY. 

CALIXTINS,  a  name  given  to  those,  among 
the  Lutherans,  who  follow  the  sentiments  of  Ca- 
lixtus.  See  CALIXTUS.  Also  a  sect  in  Bohemia, 
derived  from  the  Hussites,  about  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  who  asserted  the  use  of  the 
cup,  as  essential  to  the  eucharist.  They  are  not 
ranked  by  Romanists  in  the  list  of  heretics,  as  in 
the  main  they  still  adhered  to  the  doctrine  of 
Rome.  The  reformation  they  aimed  at  extended 
only  to  four  articles  :  1.  To  restore  the  cup  to  the 
laity.  2.  To  subject  criminal  clergymen  to  pu- 
nishment by  the  civil  magistrate.  3.  To  strip  the 
clergy  of  their  lands,  lordships,  and  all  temporal 
jurisdictions.  4.  To  grant  liberty  to  all  capable 
priests  to  preach  the  word  of  God. 

CALIXTUS  (George),  a  celebrated  divine, 
and  professor  at  Helmstadt,  in  the  Duchy  of 
Brunswick,  who  died  in  1656.  He  opposed  the 
opinion  of  St.  Augustin,  on  predestination,  and 
endeavoured  to  form  a  union  among  the  various 
members  of  the  Romish,  Lutheran,  and  reformed 
churches. 

CALK',  v.          ~\     Fr.caZrtge.salcum  or  tow; 

CALK'ER. 

CALK'ING 

CALK'ING 

ten ;  Fr.  calfater  ;  Hind,  kalaputta ;  Ara.  kalaf'a, 
kilufat ;  icaXjj^artje,  are  used  in  the  sense  of  our 
word.  To  stop  the  seams  of  a  ship ;  to  cram  or 
stuff  in  materials  to  keep  out  the  water  from 
leaks  and  chasms,  made  by  violence  or  accident. 
Calking  is  used  in  a  more  general  sense :  Cham- 
bers says,  it  is  a  term  in  painting,  used  where 
the  backside  is  covered  with  black  lead,  or  red 
chalk,  and  the  lines  traced  through  on  a  waxed 
plate,  wall,  or  other  matter,  by  passing  lightly 
over  each  stroke  of  the  design  with  a  point, 
which  leaves  an  impression  of  the  color  on  the 
plate  or  wall. 

Thy  riches,  and  thy  fairs,  thy  merchandise,  thy 
martners,  and  thy  pilots,  thy  calhers,  and  the  occu- 
piers of  thy  merchandise,  and  all  thy  men  of  war, 
that  are  in  thee,  and  in  all  thy  company  which  is  in 
the  midst  of  thee,  shall  fall  into  the  midst  of  the 
seas  in  the  days  of  thy  ruin. 

Ezehicl  xxvii.  27. 

There  is  a  great  errour  committed  in  the  manner  of 
calking  his  majesty's  ships ;  which,  being  done  with 
rotten  oakum,  is  the  cause  they  are  leaky. 

Raleigh's  Essays. 

So  hero  some  pick  out  bullets  from  the  side ; 
Some  drive  old  oakum  through  each  seam  and  rift  j 

Their  left  hand  does  the  calking  iron  guide, 
The  rattling  mallet  with  the  right  they  lift.     Dryden. 

CALKING,  a  term  in  painting.  See  the  pre- 
ceding article. 


urcnes. 

CALK',  v.  ~\  Fr.caZflge.salcum  or  tow; 
CALK'ER,  n.  f  or  Sax.  c&le,  the  keel  of  a 
CA LK'ING,  ?  ship ;  but  Swed.  kullfattra  ; 

CALK'ING-IRON.  *  Dan.  kalfatre ;  Bel.  kalfa- 


CALKING,  in  maritime  affairs.  See  CAULKING. 

CALKINS,  the  prominent  parts  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  a  horse-shoe,  bent  downwards,  and 
forged  to  a  sort  of  point.  They  are  apt  to  make 
horses  trip;  they  also  occasion  bleymes,  and  ruin 
the  back  sinews.  If  fashioned  in  form  of  a  hare's 
ear,  and  the  horn  of  a  horse's  heel  be  pared  a 
little  low,  they  do  little  damage;  whereas,  the 
great  square  calkins  spoil  the  foot.  Calkins  are 
either  single  or  double,  that  is,  at  one  end  of  the 
shoe,  or  at  both  :  these  last  are  deemed  less  hurt- 
ful, as  the  horses  can  tread  more  even. 

CALL',  v.  &  n.  ^      KaXtw ;  Lat.  calo  ;  Welsh 

CALL'ER,  n.        >  and  Aim.galw ;  Goth,  kalla ; 

CALL'ING,  n.  3  Swed.  kala;  Teut.  and  Belg. 
kallen ;  Heb.  kol ;  Ara.  gal,  the  voice.  To  name ; 
to  speak  aloud ;  to  invite ;  to  mark,  signify,  or 
denote.  Its  religious  sense  ot  ilmne  vocation, 
(for  which  see  below)  has  but  too  often  been 
used  lightly,  by  both  religious  and  irreligious 
men.  As  used  alone  with  prepositions  an- 
nexed, and  in  all  the  different  shades  of  its 
acceptations,  it  is  thus  exhibited  by  Dr.  John- 
son. We  shall,  however,  a  little  vary  his 
•'llustrations. 

To  name ;  to  denominate. 

And  God  called  the  light  day,  and  the  darkness  he 
called  night.  Genesis  i.  5. 

Whilst  on  her  father's  knee  the  damsel  played, 
Patty  he  fondly  called  the  smiling  maid.  Gay. 

And  what  they  call  the  prudent  part 
Is  to  wear  interest  next  the  heart.  Id. 

To  summon,  or  invite,  to  or  from  any  place, 
thing,  or  person.  It  is  often  used  with  local 
particles,  as  up,  down,  in,  out,  off. 

Of  all  the  day  she  saw  him  not  with  eye  ; 
She  trowed  he  was  in  som  maladio, 
For,  for  no  crie,  hire  maiden  coud  him  calle, 
He  n'olde  answer — for  nothing  that  might  fallc. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

Wherein  his  weaker  wandering  steps  to  guyde, 
An  auncient  matrone  she  to  her  does  call, 
Whose  sober  lookes  her  wisdome  well  descryde 
Her  name  was  Mercy  ;  well  known  over  all 
To  be  both  gratious  and  eke  liberall.  Spenser. 

Be  not  amazed  ;  call  all  your  senses  to  you  ;  de- 
fend my  reputation,  or  bid  farewell  to  your  good  life 
for  ever.  Shahspeare. 

Why  came  not  the  slave  back  to  me  when  I  called 
him.  Id.  King  Lear, 

Are  you  called  forth  from  out  a  world  of  men, 
To  slay  the  innocent  ?  Id.  Richard  III. 

The  soul  makes  use  of  her  memory,  to  call  to  mind 
what  she  is  to  treat  of.  Duppa's  Rules  to  Devotion. 

Or  call  up  him  that  left  half  told 
The  story  of  Cambuscan  bold.  Milton. 

Such  fine  employments  our  whole  days  divide  ; 
The  salutations  of  the  morning  tide. 

Call  up  the  sun  ;  those  ended,  to  the  hall 
We  wait  the  patron,  hear  the  lawyers  bawl.     Dryden. 
Then  by  consent  abstain  from  further  toils, 

Call  off  the  dogs,  and  gather  up  the  spoils.  Addison. 

I  am  called  off  from  public  dissertations,  by  a  do- 
mestic affair  of  great  importance.  Taller. 

The  passions  call  away  the  thoughts,  with  incessant 
importunity,  toward  the  object  that  incited  them. 

Wallf. 


CAL  39 

Up  springs  the  lark 

Shrill  voiced  and  loud,  the  messenger  of  morn  ; 
Ere  yet  the  shadows  fly,  he  mounted  sings 
Amid  the  dawning  clouds,  and  from  their  haunU 
Calls  up  the  tuneful  nations. 

Thornton's  Seasons.      Spring. 

A  stag  sprang  from  the  pasture  at  his  call, 
A  ud  kneeling  licked  the  withered  hand  that  tied 
A  wreath  of  woodbine  round  his  antlers  tall, 
And  hung  his  lofty  neck  with  many  a  flowret  small. 

Beattie. 

To  convoke ;  to  summon  together. 

How  call  we  our  high  court  of  parliament. 

S/utkspeare. 

The  king  being  informed  of  much  that  had  passed 
that  night,  sent  to  the  lord  mayor  to  call  a  common 
council  immediately.  Clarendon. 

To  summon  judicially. 

The  king  had  sent  for  the  earl  to  return  home, 
where  he  should  be  called  to  account  for  all  his  mis- 
carriages. Id. 

Once  a  day,  especially  in  the'  early  years  of  life 
and  study,  call  yourselves  to  an  account,  what  new 
ideas,  what  new  proposition  or  truth,  you  have  gained. 

Watts. 

To  summon  by  command. 

In  that  day  did  the  Lord  God  of  hosts  call  to  weep- 
ing and  to  mourning,  and  to  baldness,  and  to  girding 
with  sackcloth.  Isaiah  xxii.  12. 

Shall  we  call  in  the  ambassador,  my  liefce  ? 

Si'iukspeare* 

See  thy  Mother  is  near — 
Hark  !  she  calls  thee  to  hear, 
What  age  and  experience  advise.  Guy. 

To  invoke. 

I  call  God  for  a  record  upon  my  soul,  that,  to  spare 
you,  I  came  not  as  yet  unto  Corinth. 

2  Corinthians,  i.  23. 

To  appeal  to. 

When  that  lord  perplexed  their  counsels  and  de- 
signs with  inconvenient  objections  in  law,  the  autho- 
rity of  the  lord  Manchester,  who  had  trod  the  same 
paths,  was  still  called  upon.  Clarendon. 

To  proclaim  ;  to  publish. 

Nor  ballad  singer,  placed  above  the  crowd, 
Sings  -with  a  note  so  shrilling,  sweet,  and  loud, 
Nor  parish  clerk,  who  calls  the  psalm,  so  clear. 

Gay. 

To  answer  ;  to  reply  or  echo  back. 
Or  from  the  mountain-glade's  aerial  brow, 
While  to  her  song  a  thousand  echoes  call, 
Marks  the  wild  woodland  wave  below, 
Where  shepherds  pipe  unseen,  and  waters  fall. 

Beattie. 

To  excite;  to  put  in  action;  to  bring  into 
view. 

He  swells  with  angry  pride, 
And  calls  forth  all  his  spots  on  every  side. 

Cowley. 

See  Dionysius  Homer's  thoughts  refine, 
And  call  new  beauties  forth  from  every  line.  Pope. 

To  stigmatise  with  some  opprobrious  denomi-, 
nation. 

Deafness  unqualifies  men  for  all  company,  except 
friends  j  whom  I  can  call  names,  if  they  do  not  speak 
loud  enough.  Swift  to  Pope. 


CAL 


To  call  back ;  to  revoke  ;  to  retract. 

He  also  is  wise,  and  will  bring  evil,  and  will  not 
call  buck  his  words  ;  but  will  arise  against  the  house 
of  the  evil  doers  ;  and  against  the  help  of  them  that 
work  iniquity.  Isaiah  xxxi.  2. 

To  call  for  ;  to  demand ;  to  require  ;  to  claim. 

Madam,  his  majesty  doth  call  for  you, 
And  for  your  grace,  and  you,  my  noble  lord. 

Shakipeare. 

You  see  how  men  of  merit  are  sought  after  ;  the 
undeserver  may  sleep,  when  the  man  of  action  is 
calledfor.  Id. 

Among  them  he  a  spirit  of  phrensy  sent, 
Who  hurt  their  minds, 
And  urged  you  on,  with  mad  desire, 
To  call  in  haste  for  their  destroyer. 

Milton's  Sampson  Agonislc's. 
For  master,  or  for  servant  here  to  call, 
Was  all  alike,  where  only  two  were  all. 

Dryden's  Fabks. 

I  have  been  accustomed  to  entwine 
My  thoughts  with  Nature  rather  in  the  fields, 
Than  Art  in  galleries  ;  though  a  work  divine 
Calls  for  my  spirit's  homage,  yet  it  yields 
Less    than  it  feels  j    because   the    weapon   which  it 

wields 
Is  of  another  temper.  Byron's  Childe  Harold. 

To  call  in  ;  to  resume  money  at  interest. 

Horace  describes  an  old  usurer,  as  so  charmed  with 
the  pleasures  of  a  country  life,  that,  in  order  to  make 
a  purchase,  he  called  in  all  his  money  ;  but  what  was 
the  event  of  it?  why,  in  a  very  few  days  after,  he 
put  it  out  again.  Addison's  Spectator. 

To  call  in;  to  resume  any  thing  that  is  in  other 
hands. 

If  clipped  money  be  called  in  all  at  once,  and  stop- 
ped from  passing  by  weight,  I  fear  it  will  stop  trade. 

Locke. 

Neither  is  any  thing  more  cruel  and  oppressive  in 
the  French  government,  than  their  practice  of  calling 
in  their  money,  after  they  have  sunk  it  very  low,  and 
then  coining  it  anew,  at  a  higher  value.  Swift, 

To  call  in ;  to  summon  together  ;  to  invite. 

The  heat  is  past,  follow  no  farther  now ; 
Call  in  the  powers,  good  cousin  Westmoreland. 

Shakspearc. 

He  fears  my  subjects  loyalty, 
And  now  must  call  in  strangers. 

Denham's  Sophy. 

To  call  over ;  to  read  aloud  a  list  or  muster- 
roll. 

To  call  out;  to  challenge;  to  summon  to 
fight. 

When  their  sovereign's  quarrel  calls'  em  oat 
His  foes  to  mortal  combat  they  defy. 

Dryden'i  Virgil. 

The  verb  used  in  the  neutral  sense  signifies  to 
stop  without  intention  of  staying. .  This  meaning 
probably  arose  from  the  custom  of  denoting  one's 
presence  at  the  door  by  a  -call ;  but  it  is  now 
used  with  great  latitude.  This  sense  is  well 
enough  preserved  by  the  particles  on  or  at ;  but 
is  forgotten,  and  the  expression  made  barbarous 
by  in. 

To  make  a  short  visit. 
And,  as  you  go,  call  on  my  brother  Quintus, 
And  pray  him,  with  the  tribunes,  to  come  to  me. 

Ben  Jonao*. 


CAL 


40 


He  ordered  her  to  call  at  his  house  once  a  week, 
which  she  did  for  some  time  after,  when  he  heard  no 
more  of  her.  Temple. 

That  I  might  begin  as  near  the  fountain-head  as 
possible,  I  first  of  all  called  in  at  St.  James's. 

Addison's  Spectator. 

To  call  on  ;  to  solicit  for  a  favor,  or  a  debt.     ' 

I  would  be  lotii  to  pay  him  before  his  day  ;  what 
need  I  be  so  forward  with  him,  that  calls  not  on  me  ? 
Shakspeare.   Henry  IV. 

To  call  on  ;  to  repeat  solemnly. 

Thrice  call  upon  my  name  ;  thrice  beat  your  breast  ; 
And  hail  me  thrice  to  everlasting  rest.  Dryden, 

The  Athenians,  when  they  lost  any  men  at  sea, 
went  to  the  shores,  and,  catting  thrice  on  their  name, 
raised  a  cenotaph,  or  empty  monument,  to  their  me- 
mories. Broome  on  the  Odyssey. 

To  call  upon  ;  to  implore  ;    to  pray  to. 

Call  upon  me  in  the  day  of  trouble  ;  I  will  deliver 
thee,  and  thou  shalt  glorify  me.  Psalm  i.  15. 

The  neuter  substantive  from  the  verb  has  also 
a  diversity  of  acceptations,  as  will  be  obvious 
from  the  subjoined  instances. 

A  vocal  address  of  summons  or  invitation. 

But  death  comes  not  at  call,  justice  divine 
Mends  not  her  slowest  pace  for  prayers  or  cries. 

Milton. 

But  would  you  sing,  and  rival  Orpheus'  strain, 
The  wondering  forest  soon  should  dance  again  : 
The  moving  mountains  hear  the  powerfull  call, 
And  headlong  streams  hang  listening  in  their  fall. 

Pope. 

A  requisition  authoritative  and  public. 

It  may  be  feared,  whether  our  nobility  would  con- 
tentedly suffer  themselves  to  be  always  at  the  call, 
and  to  stand  to  the  sentence,  of  a  number  of  mean 
persons.  Hooker's  Preface. 

Divine  vocation;  summons  to  true  religion. 

Yet  he  at  length,  time  to  himself  best  known, 
Remembering  Abraham,  by  some  wonderous  cart, 
May  bring  them  back  repentant  and  sincere.     Milton. 

A  summons  from  heaven  ;  an  impulse. 

How  justly  then  will  impious  mortals  fall, 
Whose  pride  would  soar  to  heaven  without  a  cull  I 


Those  who  to  empire  by  dark  paths  aspi  - 
Still  plead  a  call  to  what  they  most  desire. 

Dryden. 

St.  Paul  himself  believed  he  did  well,  and  that  he 
had  a  call  to  it,  when  he  persecuted  the  Christians, 
whom  he  confidently  thought  in  the  wrong  :  but  yet 
it  was  he,  and  not  they,  who  were  mistaken.  Locke. 

Authority;  command. 

Oh,  Sir  !  I  wish  he  were  within  my  call,  or  yours. 


A  demand  ;  a  claim. 

Dependence  is  a  perpetual  call  upon  humanity,  and 
a  greater  incitement  to  tenderness  and  pity,  than  any 
other  motive  whatsoever.  Addison's  Spectator. 

An  instrument  to  call  birds. 

For  those  birds  or  beasts  were  made  from  such 
pipes  or  call*,  as  may  express  the  several  tones  of 
those  creatures,  which  are  represented. 

Wilhim'  Mathematical  Magic. 

Calling;  vocation;  employment. 

Now  through  the  land  his  cure  of  souls  he  stretched, 
And  like  a  primitive  apostle  preached  ; 
Still  cheerful,  ever  constant  to  his  call, 
By  manv  followed,  loved  ,by  most   admired  by  all. 

Dryden. 


CAL 

A  nomination. 

Upon  the  sixteenth  was  held  the  sergeants'  feast  at 
Ely-place,  there  being  nine  Serjeants  of  that  call. 

Bacon. 

Calling  is  applied  to  vocation;  profession; 
trade. 

If  God  has  interwoven  such  a  pleasure  with  our 
ordinary  calling,  how  much  superior  must  that  be, 
which  arises  from  the  survey  of  a  pious  life  ?  Surely, 
as  much  as  Christianity  is  nobler  than  a  trade. 

South. 

We  find  ourselves  obliged  to  go   on  in  honest  in- 
dustry in  our  callings.  Rogers. 
I  cannot  forbear  warning  you  against  endeavouring 
at  wit  in  your  sermons  ;  because  many  of  your  calling 
have  made  themselves  ridiculous  by  attempting  it. 

Swift. 

I  left  no  calling  for  this  idle  trade, 
No  duty  broke,  no  father  disobeyed.         Pope. 
To  proper  station  or  employment. 
The  Gauls  found  the  Roman  senators  ready  to  die 
with  honour  in  their  callings. 

To  class  of  persons  united  by  the  same,  employ- 
ment or  profession. 

It  may  be  a  caution  to  all  Christian  churches  and 
magistrates,  not  to  impose  celibacy  on  whole  callings, 
and  great  multitudes  of  men  or  women,  who  cannot 
be  supposable  to  have  the  gift  of  continence. 

Hammond. 

Divine  vocation ;  invitation  or  impulse  to  the 
true  religion. 

Give  all  diligence,  to  make  your  calling  and  elec- 
tion sure.  2  Peter,  i.  10. 

St.  Peter  was  ignorant  of  the  caHin</ of  the  Gentiles. 
Hahewill  on  Providence. 

CALL,  among  fowlers,  the  noise  or  cry  of  a 
bird,  especially  to  its  young,  or  to  its  mate  in 
coupling  time.  One  method  of  catching  par- 
tridges is  by  the  natural  call  of  a  hen  trained  for 
the  purpose,  which  drawing  the  cocks  to  her, 
they  are  entangled  in  a  net.  Different  birds  re- 
quire different  calls ;  but  most  of  them  are  com- 
posed of  a  pipe  or  reed,  with  a  little  leathern 
bag,  somewhat  in  form  of  a  bellows;  which,  by 
the  motion  given  thereto,  yields  a  noise  like 
that  of  the  species  of  bird  to  be  taken.  The  call 
for  partridges  is  formed  like  a  boat  bored  through, 
and  fitted  with  a  pipe  or  swan's  quill,  &c.  to  be 
blown  with  the  mouth,  to  make  the  noise  of  the 
cock  partridge,  which  is  very  different  from  the 
call  of  the  hen.  Calls  for  quails,  &c.  are  made 
of  a  leathern  purse  in  shape  like  a  pear,  stuffed 
with  horse  hair,  and  fitted  at  the  end  with  the 
bone  of  a  cat's,  hare's,  or  coney's  leg,  formed 
like  a  flageolet.  They  are  played,  by  squeezing 
the  purse  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  at  the  same 
time  striking  on  the  flageolet  part  with  the 
thumb,  to  counterfeit  the  call  of  the  hen  quail. 

CALL,  among  sailors,  a  sort  of  whistle  or  pipe, 
of  silver  or  brass,  used  by  the  boatswain  and  his 
mates  to  summon  the  sailors  to  their  duty,  and 
direct  them  in  the  different  employments  of  the 
ship. 

CALL  OF  THE  HOUSE,  in  the  British  Parliament, 
is  the  calling  over  the  names  of  the  members,  to 
discover  whether  there  be  any  in  the  house  not 
returned  by  the  clerk  of  the  crown ;  or  what 
members  are  absent  without  leave,  or  just  cause. 
In  the  former  case,  every  person  answers  to  his 


CAL 


41 


CAL 


name,  and  departs  out  of  the  house,  in  the  order 
wherein  he  is  called.  In  the  latter,  each  person 
stands  up  uncovered  at  the  mention  of  his  name. 

CALLA,  African  or  Ethiopian  arum  :  a  genus 
of  the  monogynia  order,  in  the  heptandria  class 
of  plants;  natural  order  second,  piperitae  :  CAL. 
spatha  plain ;  the  spadix  covered  with  florets ; 
there  is  no  corolla ;  no  petals ;  and  the  berries 
polyspermous.  There  are  three  known  species. 
The  principal  is  C.  ./Ethiopica,  a  plant  which 
grows  naturally  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It 
propagates  very  fast  by  offsets,  which  should  be 
taken  off  in  the  end  of  August,  at  which  time  the 
old  leaves  decay ;  for  at  this  time  the  roots  are  in 
their  most  inactive  state.  They  are  so  hardy  as 
to  live  without  any  cover  in  mild  winters,  if 
planted  in  a  warm  border  and  dry  soil ;  but,  with 
a  little  shelter,  they  may  be  preserved  in  full 
growth,  even  in  hard  frost. 

CALLAO,  a  sea-port  of  Peru,  and  the  port 
of  Lima,  is  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  this 
latter  name,  and  built  on  a  low  flat  point  of  land, 
strongly  fortified.  Its  road,  which  is  the  best  of 
Peru,  affords  good  anchorage  all  over  it,  is  shel- 
tered by  many  desert  islands,  and  protected  by 
several  batteries.  The  frequency  of  earthquakes 
here,  have  caused  the  houses  to  be  built  of  slight 
materials,  and  they  make  altogether,  says  Mr. 
Stephenson,  '  a  sorry  appearance.'  They  are 
generally  about  twenty  feet  high,  with  mud 
walls,  flat  roofs,  and  divided  into  two  stories ; 
the  under  one  forms  a  row  of  small  shops  open 
in  front,  and  the  upper  one  an  uncouth  corridor. 
About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  landing  place 
is  the  draw-bridge,  over  a  dry  foss,  and  an  en- 
trance under  an  arched  gateway  to  the  castle,  the 
Real  Felipe.  The  former  city  of  Callao  stood 
at  a  short  distance  to  the  south  of  this  town 
Ulloa  describes  the  memorable  scene  of  the 
earthquake  which  swallowed  up  above  3000 
souls  here  in  1746.  '  The  sea,'  says  he,  '  receding 
to  a  considerable  distance  from  the  shore,  re- 
turned in  mountainous  waves,  foaming  with  the 
violence  of  the  agitation,  and  suddenly  turned 
Callao  and  the  neighbouring  country  into  a  sea. 
This  was  not,  however,  totally  performed  by  the 
first  swell  of  the  waves,  for  the  sea  retiring  fur- 
ther, returned  with  still  more  impetuosity,  the 
stupendous  water  covering  both  the  walls  and 
other  buildings  of  the  place,  so  that  whatever 
had  escaped  the  first,  was  now  totally  over- 
whelmed by  these  terrible  mountains  of  waves, 
and  nothing  remained  except  a  piece  of  the  wall 
of  the  port  of  Santa  Cruz,  as  a  memorial  of  this 
terrible  devastation.  There  were  then  twenty- 
three  ships  and  vessels,  great  and  small,  in  the 
harbour,  of  which  nineteen  were  absolutely 
sunk,  and  the  other  four,  amongst  which  was  a 
frigate  called  St.  Fermus,  carried  by  the  force  of 
the  waves  to  a  great  distance  up  the  country. 
This  terrible  inundation  extended  to  other  parts 
on  the  coast,  as  Cavallos  and  Guanape.  At 
Callao,  where  the  number  of  inhabitants  amounted 
to  about  4000,  two  hundred  only  escaped  ;  and 
twenty-two  of  these  by  means  of  the  above- 
mentioned  fragment  of  a  wall.  On  a  calm  day 
the  ruins  may  yet  be  seen  under  water  at  that 
part  of  the  bay  called  the  mar  braba,  rough  sea, 
and  on  the  beach  a  sentry  is  constantly  placed, 


according  to  a  recent  traveller,  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  charge  of  any  treasure  that  may  be 
washed  ashore  ;  a  circumstance  that  often  hap- 
pens. An  old  mulatto,  one  of  the  three  or  four 
who  were  saved,  told  Mr.  Stephenson  that  he 
was  sitting  on  some  timber  which  had  been 
landed  from  a  ship  in  the  bay,  at  the  time  that 
the  great  wave  of  the  sea  rolled  in  and  buried 
the  city,  and  that  he  was  carried  clinging  to  the 
log,  near  to  the  chapel,  a  distance  of  three  miles. 
Callao  is  six  miles  distant  from  Lima. 

CALLA-SUJUNG,  or  CALLA-SUSUNG,  a  town 
of  Asia,  in  the  island  of  Bouton,  seated  about  a 
mile  from  the  sea,  on  the  top  of  a  small  hill  sur- 
rounded with  cocoa-nut  trees. 

CALLE,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of  Hi- 
gher Spain,  seated  on  an  eminence,  which  hung 
over  the  river  Durius.  It  is  now  called  Oporto. 

CAL'LET,  v.  &  n.  Fr.  calotte ;  a  coif  or 
naif  kerchief  for  a  woman  ;  also  a  little  light  cap, 
or  night-cap  worn  under  a  hat.  Perhaps  the 
distinguishing  badge  at  one  period  of  lewd  and 
infamous  women,  for  of  such  persons  the  word 
is  descriptive.  Skinner  applies  it  to  an  impu- 
dent woman  ;  Dr.  Johnson  to  a  trull. 

The  firste  parte  of  this  name  we  have  yfounde  : 
Let  us  ethimologise  the  secounde : 
As  the  firste  findir  mente,  I  am  right  sure, 
Cfor  Calot;  for  Of,  we  havin  0; 
And  L  for  leude  ;  and  I)  for  Demenure  : 
The  craft  of  the  enventour  ye  male  se,  lo  ! 
How  one  name  signifieth  personis  two, — 
A  colde  olde  knave,  cokcold  himself  wenying  ; 
And  eke  a  calot  of  Leude  Demyning. 

Chaucer'i  Remedie  of  Love. 

He  called  her  whore  :  a  beggar  in  his  drink 
Could  not  have  laid  such  terms  upon  his  cutlet. 

Shakspeare. 

lAGO.  What  name  fair  lady  ? 

Dts.   Such  as,  she  says,  my  lord  did  say  I  was. 

EMIL.  He  called  her  whore  ;  a  beggar  in  his  drink, 
Could  not  have  laid  such  terms  upon  his  collet. 

I  AGO.  Why  did  he  so? 

DES.  I  do  not  know,  I  am  sure,  I  am  none  such. 
Shakspeare.   Othello. 

CALL  EVA,  in  ancient  British  geography,  a 
town  of  the  Atrebates ;  now  called  VVallingford. 
See  ATREBATES. 

CALL1AS,  the  cousin  german  of  Aristides  the 
Just,  but  of  a  character  the  very  opposite  of  that 
disinterested  hero.  At  the  battle  of  Marathon, 
Callias  being  a  torch-bearer,  and  in  virtue  of  his 
office,  having  a  fillet  on  his  head,  one  of  the  Per- 
sians took  him  for  a  king,  and,  falling  down  at 
his  feet,  discovered  to  him  a  vast  quantity  of  gold 
hid  in  a  well.  Callias  not  only  seized  it  for  his  own 
use,  but  had  the  cruelty  to  kill  the  poor  man, 
that  he  might  not  mention  it  to  others ;  by  which 
infamous  action  he  entailed  on  his  posterity  the 
name  of  Laccopluti,  or  enriched  by  the  well. 
The  only  good  action  recorded  of  him  is  his  ge- 
nerosity in  relieving  his  brother-in-law  Cimon 
from  prison,  by  paying  the  heavy  fine  to  which 
he  was  so  unjustly  and  ungratefully  subjected  by 
the  Athenians.  See  ATTICA. 

CALLIBLEPHARA,  from  icaXXoc,  beauty, 
and  /3\£0apov,  eye-lid;  in  ancient  medical  writers, 
a  name  given  to  certain  compositions  intended  to 
make  the  eye-lids  beautiful. 

CALLICARPA.     See  JOUNSONIA. 


GAL 


42 


CAL 


CALLICO.    See  CALICO  and  COTTON. 

CALLICRATES,  an  ancient  sculptor,  who  is 
said  to  have  engraved  some  of  Homer's  verses  on 
a  grain  of  millet,  made  an  ivory  chariot  that 
might  be  concealed  under  the  wing  of  a  fly,  and 
an  ant  of  ivory,  in  which  all  the  members  were 
distinct.  He  flourished  about  A.A.C.  472. 

CALLICHTHYS,  in  ichthyology,  a  species  of 
silurus,  having  the  second  dorsal  fin  one-rayed ; 
a  double  row  of  scales  on  the  sides ;  cirri  four. 

CALLIGONUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
digynia  order,  belonging  to  the  polyandria  class 
of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  twelfth  order,  holoracese.  The  calyx 
is  pentaphyllous,  without  petals  or  styles ;  the 
fruit  hispid  and  monospermous.  There  are 
three  species,  natives  of  Ararat,  Barbary,  and 
Russia. 

CALLIGRAPHY,  the  art  of  small  beautiful 
writing.  Callicrates  is  said  to  have  written  an 
elegant  distich  on  a  sesamum  seed.  Peter  Bale, 
in  1575,  wrote  the  Lord's  prayer,  creed,  ten  com- 
mandments, and  two  short  prayers  in  Latin,  with 
his  own  name,  motto,  day  of  the  month,  year  of 
the  Lord,  and  reign  of  the  queen,  in  the  compass 
of  a  single  penny,  inchased  in  a  ring  and  border 
of  gold,  and  covered  with  a  crystal,  all  so  accu- 
rately written  as  to  be  very  legible  with  a  mag- 
nifying glass. 

CALLIMACHUS,  a  celebrated  architect, 
painter,  and  sculptor,  born  at  Corinth,  who 
having  seen  by  accident  a  vessel  about  which  the 
plant  called  acanthus  had  raised  its  leaves,  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  forming  the  Corinthian  capital. 
See  ACANTHUS.  He  flourished  about  A.  A.C.  540. 

CALLIMACHUS,  a  celebrated  Greek  poet,  a 
native  of  Cyrene,  in  Lybia,  flourished  under 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  Ptolemy  Euergetes, 
kings  of  Egypt,  about  A.  C.  280.  He  passed, 
according  to  Quintilian,  for  the  prince  of  the 
Greek  elegiac  poets.  His  style  is  elegant,  deli- 
cate, and  nervous.  He  wrote  a  great  number  of 
small  poems,  of  which  we  have  only  some  hymns 
and  epigrams  remaining.  Catullus  has  closely 
imitated  him,  and  translated  into  Latin  verse  his 
small  poem  on  the  locks  of  Berenice.  Calli- 
machus  was  also  a  grammarian  and  a  learned 
critic.  There  is  an  edition  of  his  remains,  by 
Messrs.  Le  Fevre,  4to. ;  and  another  in  2  vols. 
8vo.,  with  notes  by  Spanheim,  Graevius,  Bent- 
ley,  &c.  Dr.  Tytler  of  Brechin  has  translated 
his  poems  into  English  verse. 

CALLIMUS,  or  CALAINUS,  in  physiology,  a 
stony  substance  mentioned  by  Pliny,  found  in 
the  cavity  of  the  aetites,  or  eagle  stone.  It  fills 
the  hollow  of  the  aetites,  much  as  the  yoke  does 
the  white  of  an  egg.  See  -SvriTES. 

CALLINICUS  of  Heliopolis,  inventor  of  a 
composition  to  burn  in  the  water,  called  the 
Greek  fire. 

CALLIONYMUS,  the  dragonet,  in  ichthy- 
ology, a  genus  of  fishes  belonging  to  the  order 
of  jugulares.  The  upper  lip  is  doubled  up  ;  the 
eyes  are  very  near  each  other ;  the  membrane  of 
the  gills  has  six  radii ;  breathing  aperture  in  the 
neck  ;  the  operculum  is  shut ;  the  body  is  naked ; 
and  the  ventral  fins  are  at  a  great  distance  from 
each  other.  There  are  seven  species ;  the  prin- 
cipal are,  C,  dracunculus,  with  the  first  bone  of 


the  back  fin  shorter  than  its  body,  which  is  of  a 
spotted  yellow  color.  It  frequents  the  shores  of 
Genoa  and  Rome.  C.  Indicus,  has  a  smooth 
head,  with  longitudinal  wrinkles ;  the  lower  jaw 
is  a  little  longer  than  the  upper  one ;  the  tongue 
obtuse  and  emarginated ;  the  apertures  of  the 
gills  are  large  :  it  is  of  a  livid  color,  and  the  anus 
is  in  the  middle  of  the  body.  It  is  a  native  of 
Asia.  C.  lyra,  with  the  first  bone  of  the  back 
fin  as  long  as  the  body  of  the  animal,  and  a 
cirrhus  at  the  anus.  It  is  found  as  far  north  as 
Norway  and  Spitzbergen,  and  as  far  south  as  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  not  unfrequent  on  the 
Scarborough  coast,  where  it  is  taken  by  the  hook 
in  thirty  or  forty  fathoms  water.  It  is  often  found 
in  the  stomach  of  the  cod. 

CALLIOPE,  from  icaXXoc,  beauty,  and  w^, 
voice,  in  the  Pagan  mythology,  the  muse  who 
presides  over  eloquence  and  heroic  poetry.  She 
was  fabled  to  have  a  very  sweet  voice,  and  was 
reckoned  the  first  of  the  nine  sisters.  Horace 
styles  her  Regina : 

Descende  caelo,  et  die  age  tibia, 

Regina,  longum,  Calliope,  melos, 

Seu  voce  mine  mavis  acuta, 

Seu  fidihus  citharave  Phoebi. 
Her  distinguishing  office  was  to  record  the  wor- 
thy actions  ot  the  living;  arid,  accordingly,  she 
is  represented  with  tablets  in  her  hand. 

CALLIOPE,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  papilio, 
the  wings  of  which  are  yellow ;  the  anterior  pair 
three  streaks  ;  the  posterior  ones,  three  bands. 

CAL'LIPERS,  7i.  i.  Of  this  word  I  know 
not  the  etymology ;  nor  does  any  thing  more  pro- 
bably occur,  than  that,  perhaps,  the  word  is 
corrupted  from  clippers,  instruments  with  which 
any  thing  is  clipped,  enclosed  or  embraced. 
Compasses  with  bowed  shanks. 

Callipers  measure  the  distance  of  any  round,  cy- 
lindrick,  conical  body;  so  that  when  workmen  use 
them,  they  open  the  two  points  to  their  described 
•width,  and  turn  so  much  stuff  off  the  intended  place, 
till  the  two  points  of  the  callipers  fit  just  over  their 
work.  Moron's  Mechanical  Exercises, 

CALLIPERS.     See  CALIBER  COMPASSES. 

CALLIPOLIS,  in  ancient  geography,  the 
name  of  several  cities  of  antiquity,  particularly 
one  upon  the  Hellespont,  next  the  Propontis, 
and  opposite  to  Lampsacus  in  Asia;  now  called 
Gallipoli. 

CALLIPIC  PERI'OD.     See  CALIPPIC. 

CALLlRRHOE,  in  ancient  geography,  called 
also  Enneacrunos,  from  its  nine  springs,  a  foun- 
tain not  far  from  Athens,  greatly  adorned  by 
Pisistratus,  where  there  were  several  wells,  but 
this  was  only  the  running  spring.  It  was  also 
the  name  of  a  very  fine  spring  of  hot  water  be- 
yond Jordan, near  the  Dead  Sea,  into  which  it  runs. 

CALLISIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  in  the  triandria  class  of  plants ;  in 
the  natural  method  of  the  sixth  order,  ensatae  : 
CAL.  triphyllous ;  the  petals  are  three  ;  antherae 
double  ;  the  capsule  is  bilocular.  There  is  but 
one  species,  a  native  of  America  and  the  West 
Indies. 

CALLISTHENES,  the  philosopher,  disciple, 
and  relation  of  Aristotle,  by  whose  desire 
he  accompanied  Alexander  the  Great  in  his 
expeditions  :  but  proving  too  severe  a  censurer 


CAL 


43 


CAL 


of  that  hero's  conduct,  he  was  put  by  him  to  the 
torture,  on  suspicion  of  a  treasonable  conspira- 
cy, and  died  under  it,  A.  A.  C.  328. 

CALLISTIA,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a  Les- 
bian festival?  wherein  the  women  presented  them- 
selves in  Juno's  temple,  and  the  prize  was 
assigned  to  the  fairest.  There  was  another  of 
these  contentions  at  the  festival  of  Ceres  Eleu- 
sinia,  among  the  Parrhasians ;  and  another 
among  the  Eleans,  where  the  most  beautiful 
man  was  presented  with  a  complete  suit  of 
armour,  which  he  consecrated  to  Minerva ;  to 
whose  temple  he  walked  in  procession,  accom- 
panied by  his  friends,  who  adorned  him  with 
ribands,  and  crowned  him  with  a  garland  of 
myrtle. 

CALLTSTO,  in  fabulous  history,  the  daughter 
of  Lycaon,  king  of  Arcadia,  and  one  of  Diana's 
nymphs.  Jupiter,  falling  in  love  with  her, 
assumed  the  form  of  Diana,  and  in  due  time  she 
was  delivered  of  Areas.  Juno,  enraged,  turned 
her  into  a  she  bear.  Meantime  Areas  grew  up, 
and  became  a  famous  hunter,  when  he  was  fif- 
teen years  of  age;  but  as  he  was  just  going  to 
shoot  his  mother,  not  knowing  her  in  her  savage 
form,  Jupiter  interposed  to  prevent  the  parricide, 
and  translated  them  both  to  the  stars,  where  they 
.  became  the  constellations,  called  the  greater  and 
lesser  bear. — Ovid.  Metam.  Lib.  ii.  Fab.  5. 

CALLISTRATUS,  an  excellent  Athenian 
orator,  who  was  banished  for  having  obtained 
too  great  an  authority  in  the  government.  De- 
mosthenes was  so  struck  with  the  force  of  his 
eloquence,  and  the  glory  that  it  procured  him, 
that  he  abandoned  philosophy,  and  resolved 
thenceforward  to  apply  himself  to  oratory. 

CALLISTUS  (John  Andronicus),  was  a 
native  of  Thessalonica,  and  professor  of  peripa- 
tetic philosophy  in  Constantinople,  where  he  was 
much  esteemed  for  his  learning.  When  that 
city  was  taken  he  fled  to  Rome,  where  he  read 
lectures  on  Aristotle,  and  afterwards  moved  to 
Florence,  where  he  had  a  vast  concourse  of  dis- 
ciples :  among  whom  were  Angel  us  Politianus, 
Janus  Pannonius,  George  Valla,  and  others. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  removed  to 
France,  where  he  died,  in  an  advanced  age,  with 
the  character  of  a  learned  and  worthy  man.  He 
left  some  Greek  MSS.,  particularly  one,  in  the 
public  library  at  Paris,  entitled  A  Monody  on 
the  Miseries  of  Constantinople. 

CALLITRICHE,  or  STAR-GRASS,  in  botany, 
a  genus  of  the  digynia  order,  in  the  monandria 
class  of  plants ;  natural  order  twelfth,  holora- 
ceae.  It  has  no  calyx,  but  two  petals,  and  the 
capsule  is  bilocular  and  tetraspermous.  The 
species  are  all  annuals. 

CALLOT  (James),  a  celebrated  engraver, 
born  at  Nancy,  in  1593.  In  his  youth  he  tra- 
velled to  Rome  to  learn  designing  and  engrav- 
ing, and  thence  to  Florence,  where  the  grand 
duke  took  him  into  his  service.  .  After  the  death 
of  that  prince,  Callot  returned  home,  when 
Henry,  duke  of  Lorraine,  settled  a  considerable 
pension  upon  him.  His  leputation  soon  spread- 
ing all  over  Europe,  the  infanta  of  the  Nether- 
lands drew  him  to  Brussels,  where  he  engraved 
the  siege  of  Breda.  Louis  XIII.  made  him  de- 
sign the  sieges  of  Rochelle  and  Rhe.  Having 


taken  Nancy  in  1631,  he  proposed  that  Callot 
should  represent  the  new  conquest ;  but  Callot 
begged  to  be  excused;  and  some  courtiers  re- 
solving to  oblige  him  to  do  it,  he  answered,,  that 
he  would  sooner  cut  off  his  thumb,  than 
do  any  thing  against  the  honor  of  his  prfnce 
and  country.  This  excuse  the  king  accepted  ; 
and  said,  that  the  duke  of  Lorraine  was  happy  in 
having  such  faithful  and  affectionate  subjects. 
Callot  followed  his  business  so  closely,  that, 
though  he  died  at  forty-three  years  of  age,  he  is 
said  to  have  left  of  his  own  execution  1500 
pieces.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  principal  : 
1.  The  Murder  of  the  Innocents.  2.  The  Marriage 
of  Cana  in  Galilee.  3.  The  Passion  of  Christ,  on 
twelve  very  small  upright  plates ;  first  impres- 
sions very  scarce.  4.  St.  John  in  the  island  of 
Patmos.  5.  The  Temptation  of  St.  Anthony. 
6.  The  Punishments;  the  execution  of  several 
criminals.  7.  The  Miseries  of  War;  in  eigh- 
teen small  plates.  8.  The  great  Fair  of  Florence. 
9.  The  little  Fair,  or  Players  at  Bowls.  This  is 
one  of  the  scarcest  of  Callot's  prints ;  and  it  is 
very  difficult  to  meet  with  a  fine  impression  of  it 

CALLIXTUS  III.  a  Spaniard,  named  Al- 
phonso  de  Borgia,  elected  Pope  in  1455,  and 
died  in  1458,  after  attempting 
in  vain  to  stir  up  the  princes 
of  Europe  against  the  Turks. 
Medals  were  struck  in  ho- 
nor of  this  pope,  bearing,  as 
in  the  annexed  figure,  his 
effigy,  and  the  inscription, 
CALISTUS  III.  PONT. 
MAX. 

CALLOSA,  in  entomology,  a  small  Italian 
species  of  apis,  the  color  of  which  is  a  dark  shin- 
ing blue,  with  a  white  lip,  and  white  callous  dots 
on  each  side  of  the  thorax,  in  front  of  the  wings. 

CAL'LOUS,  adj.~\      Lat.  callus;    Fr.   callo- 
CAL'LOUSNESS,      SsiYe.      Properly  that  hard- 
CALLOS'ITY.         j  ness  of  the  foot  induced  by 
walking.      Indurated;     hardened;  inexorable; 
applied  to  wounds  or  the  edges  of  ulcers  when 
in  an  insensible  state ;  to  the  mind  that  is  slug- 
gish and  misapprehensive ;  to  a  hard  unfeeling 
heart,  dead  to  the  sympathies  and  tendernesses  of 
human  nature. 

Licentiousness  has  so  long  passed  for  sharpness  of 
•wit,  and  greatness  of  mind,  that  the  conscience  is 
grawn  callous.  L' Estrange. 

The  wretch  is  drenched  too  deep ; 
His  soul  is  stupid,  and  his  heart  asleep  ; 
Fattened  in  vice,  so  callous  and  so  gross, 
He  sins,  and  sees  not,  senseless  of  his  loss. 

Dry  den. 

The  oftenerwe  use  the  organs  of  touching,  the  more 
of  these  scales  are  formed,  and  the  skin  becomes 
the  thicker,  and  so  a  callousness  grows  upon  it. 

Cheyne. 

In  progress  of  time,  the  ulcers  became  sinuous  and 
callous,  with  induration  of  the  glands.  Wiseman. 

The  surgeon  ought  to  vary  the  diet  of  his  patient, 
as  he  finds  the  fibres  loosen  too  much,  are  too  flaccid, 
and  produce  funguses  ;  or  as  they  harden,  and  pro- 
duce callosities;  in  the  first  case,  wine  aud  spirituous 
liquors  are  useful,  in  the  last  hurtful. 

Arbulhrwt  on  Diet 


f  CAL 

If  they  let  go  their  hope  of  everlasting  life  with 
•willingness,  and  entertain  final  perdition  with  exulta- 
tion, ought  they  not  to  be  esteemed  destitute  of  com- 
mon sense,  and  abandoned  to  a  callousness  and  numb- 
ness of  soul.  Bentley. 

CAL'LOW.  Sax.  calu;  Swed.  kahl,  skallig, 
from  Lat.  ca/vt«,  unfledged  ;  naked.  By  Lye  it 
is  applied  to  the  smoothness  and  nakedness  of 
unfledged  birds ;  by  Drayton  to  the  smoothness 
or  softness  of  the  down;  and  by  Fletcher  (Met.) 
to  a  newly  fledged  wing.  The  '  soft  and  callow 
down '  of  the  elegant  Drayton,  is  clearly  in 
allusion  to  the  natural  state  of  the  wing  in  young 
birds;  in  which  at  the  same  time  the  down  is 
beautifully  '  soft.' 

And  through  his  soft  and  callow  down  doth  flow 
As  loth  so  soon  hia  presence  to  forego. 

The  Owl. 

Thy  love  no  time  began,  no  time  decays, 

But  still  increaseth  with  decreasing  days  : 
Where  then  may  we  begin,  where  may  we   end  thy 
praise  ? 

My  calluw  wing,  that  newly  left  the  nest, 

How  can  it  make  so  high  a  towering  flight  ? 

O  depth  without  a  depth !  in  humble  breast, 

With  praises  I  admire  so  wondrous  height. 

Fletcher's  Purple  Island,  can.  1. 

Bursting  with  kindly  rapture,  forth  disclosed 
Their  callow  young.  Milton. 

Then  as  an  eagle,  who  with  pious  care 
Was  beating  widely  on  the  wing  for  prey, 
To  her  now  silent  airy  does  repair. 
And  finds  her  callow  infants  forced  away. 

Dry  (fen. 

How  in  small  flights  they  know  to  try  their  young, 
And  teach  the  callow  child  her  parent's  song.  Prior. 

So  speeds  the  wily  fox,  all  armed  with  fear, 
Who  lately  filched  the  turkey's  callow  care.  Gay. 

And  oft  the  wily  dwarf  in  ambush  lay, 
And  often  made  the  callow  young  his  prey, 
With  slaughtered  victims  heaped  his  board,  and  smiled 
To  avenge  the  parents' trespass  on  the  child.  Beat  tie. 

CALLUS,  or  CALLOSITY,  in  a  general  sense, 
is  any  cutaneous,  corneous,  or  osseous  hardness, 
natural  or  preternatural ;  but  most  frequently  it 
signifies  the  callus  generated  about  the  edges  of  a 
fracture,  provided  by  nature  to  preserve  the 
fractured  bones,  in  the  situation  in  which  they 
are  replaced  by  the  surgeon.  A  callus,  in  this  sense, 
is  originally  a  sort  of  jelly,  or  liquid  viscous  matter, 
that  issues  from  the  small  arteries  and  bony  fibres 
of  the  divided  parts,  and  fills  up  the  cavities  be- 
tween them.  It  first  appears  of  a  cartilaginous 
substance ;  but  at  length  becomes  quite  bony, 
and  joins  the  fractured  part  so  firmly  together, 
that  the  limb  will  often  make  greater  resistance  to 
any  external  violence  with  this  part,  than  with 
those  which  were  never  broken.  It  is  not  always 
in  the  power  of  surgeons  to  restrain  or  command 
its  growth ;  for  sometimes  a  broken  bone,  for 
want  of  due  action  in  its  vessels,  will  remain 
several  months  disunited  ;  and,  at  other  times,  the 
callus  becomes  so  exuberant  as  to  cause  an  un- 
sightly enlargement  of  the  bone,  around  the  broken 
extremities.  That  preternatural  hard  and  thick- 
ened state  of  the  skin  which  constitutes  the  disease 
named  a  corn,  is  also  termed  callus,  and  to  the 
,  lamina  of  horny  cuticle  which  forms  on  the  hands 
of  hard-working  people,  the  same  name  is  applied. 
Surgeons  apply  the  term  callus  to  the  edges  of 
old  ulcers,  when  they  become  thickened  and  iu- 


44  CAL 

sensible.  This  kind  of  induration  is  unfavorable 
to  a  cure,  and  should  be  removed  by  the  knife  or 
caustic,  if  it  cannot  be  softened  by  emollient 
poultices,  &c. 

CALM',  v.  adj.  &  n.-\      Fr.  calme ;  Ital.   Sp. 
CALM'LY,  '  Port,  calrna,  ^oXaw ;  It. 

CALM'NESS,  i  cato,  signify  to  lower  ; 

CALMY',  adj.  J  allay ;  abate  ;  but  pos- 

sibly Lat.  quietum,  quietillum,  quillum,  tranquil- 
lum,  may  have  produced  calm  :  quiet ;  still ;  easy ; 
peaceable ;  fair ;  gentle ;  unmoved.  To  calm 
and  to  becalm  differ  in  some  degree ;  to  calm  is 
to  stop  motion,  and  to  becalm  is  to  withhold 
from  motion. 

So  shall  the  sea  be  calm  unto  us.  Jonah. 

And  now  they  nigh  approached  to  the  sted, 
Where  as  those  mermaides  dwelt :  it  was  a  still 
And  calmy  bay,  on  one  side  sheltered 
With  the  broad  shadow  of  an  hoary  hill. 

Faerie   Queene. 

It  seemeth  most  agreeable  to  reason,  that  the 
waters  rather  stood  in  a  quiet  calm,  than  that  they 
moved  with  any  raging  or  overbearing  violence. 

Raleigh. 
Sir,  'tis  fit 

You  have  strong  party,  or  defend  yourself 
By  calmness,  or  by  absence,  all's  in  anger. 

Shahspeare , 

I  see  thou  art  implacable,  more  deaf 
To  prayers  than  winds  or  seas ;  yet  winds  to  seas 
Are  reconciled  at  length,  and  sea  to  shore  ; 
Thy  anger  unappeasable  still  rages 
Eternal  tempest,  never  to  be  calmed.  Milton. 

Angling  was,  after  tedious  study,  a  rest  to  his 
mind,  a  cheererof  his  spirits,  a  di verier  of  sadness,  a 
calmer  of  unquiet  thoughts,  a  moderator  of  passions, 
a  procurer  of  contentedness.  Walton. 

But  against  that  thou  sittest  afloat, 
Like  Venus  in  her  pearly  boat  j 
The  halcyons  calming  all  that's  nigh, 
Betwixt  the  air  and  water  fly.  Marvell. 

O  help !  O  help  !  I  see  it  faint 
And  dye  as  calmly  as  a  saint.  Id 

Much  him  the  honour  of  his  ancient  race 
Inspired,  nor  would  he  his  own  deeds  deface, 
And  secret  joy  in  his  calm  soul  does  rise, 
That  Monk  looks  on  to  see  how  Douglas  dies.      Id. 
Great  and  strange  calms  usually  portend   the  most 
violent  storms  ;  and  therefore,  since  storms  and  calms 
do  always  follow  one  another,  certainly,  of  the  two,  it 
is  much  more  eligible  to  have  the  storm  first,  and  the 
calm  afterwards  :  since  a  calm  before  a  storm  is  com- 
monly a  peace  of  a   man's  own  making ;  but  a  calm 
after  a  storm,  a  peace  of  God's.  South. 

His  curled  brows 
Frown  on  the  gentle  stream,  which  calmly  flows. 

Denham. 
I  will  bear  it 

With  all  the  tender  sufferance  of  a  friend. 
As  calmly  as  the  wounded  patient  bears 
The  artist's  hand  that  ministers  his  cure. 

Otway's  Orphan. 

I  beg  the  grace, 

You  would  lay  by  those  terrours  of  your  face  ; 
Till  calmness  to  your  eyes  you  first  restore, 
I  am  afraid,  and  I  can  beg  no  more.  Dryden. 

Jesus,  whose  bare  word  checked  the  sea,  as  much 

exerts  himself  in  silencing  the  tempests,  and  calming 

the  intestine  storms,  within  our  breasts. 

Decay  of  Piety. 
The  queen  her  speech  with  calm  attention  hears, 

Her  eyes  restrain  the  silver-streaming  tears.        2'ojie. 


CAL  45 

He  willed  to  stay, 

The  sacred  rites  and  hecatombs  to  pay, 
And  calm  Minerva's  wrath.  Id. 

Religion's  cheerful  flame  her  bosom  warms, 
Calm*  all  her  hours,  and  brightens  all  her  charms. 


CAL 


Gay. 

Gradual  sinks  the  breeae 
Into  a  perfect  calm ;  that  not  a  breath 
Is  heard  to  quiver  through  the  closing  woods, 
Or  rustling  turn  the  many-twinkling  leaves 
Of  aspin  tall.  Thomson's  Seasons. 

Affliction  is  the  wholesome  soil  of  virtue, 
Where  patience,  honour,  sweet  humanity, 
Calm  fortitude  take  root,  and  strongly  flourish. 

Mallet  and  Thomson's  Alfred. 
Hail  awful  scenes,  that  cairn  the  troubled  breast, 
And  woo  the  weary  to  profound  repose  j 
Can  passion's  wildest  uproar  lay  to  rest, 
And  whisper  comfort  to  the  man  of  woei  ?       Seattle, 

Clear  as  its  current,  glide  the  sauntering  hours 
With  a  culm  languor,  which,  though  to  the  eye 
Idlesse  it  seem,  hath  its  morality.  Byron. 

CALM,  the  state  of  rest  which  appears  in  the 
air  and  sea  when  there  is  no  wind  stirring.  A 
calm  is  more  dreaded  by  a  sea-faring  man  than  a 
storm,  if  he  has  a  strong  ship  and  sea  room  ;  for 
under  the  line  excessive  heat  sometimes  produces 
such  dead  calms,  that  ships  are  obliged  to  stay 
two  or  three  months  without  being  able  to  stir. 
Two  opposite  winds  will  sometimes  produce  a 
calm.  This  frequently  occurs  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  at  no  great  distance  from  the  shore, 
where  some  gust  or  land  wind  will  so  poise  the 
general  easterly  wind,  as  to  produce  a  perfect 
calm.  Calms  are  never  so  great  on  the  Ocean  as 
on  the  Mediterranean,  as  the  flux  and  reflux  of 
the  former  keep  the  water  in  a  continual  agita- 
tion, even  where  there  is  no  wind  ;  whereas  there 
being  no  tides  in  the  latter,  the  calm  is  sometimes 
so  dead,  that  the  water  is  as  clear  as  a  looking- 
glass  ;  but  such  calms  are  almost  constant  pre- 
sages of  an  approaching  storm.  On  the  coasts 
about  Smyrna,  a  long  calm  is  reputed  a  prognos- 
tic of  an  earthquake.  It  is  not  uncommon  for 
vessels  to  be  becalmed,  in  the  road  of  the  constant 
Levantine  winds,  in  places  where  they  ride  near 
the  land.  Thus  between  the  two  capes  of  Car- 
tooche  toward  the  main,  and  Cape  Antonia  in 
Cuba,  the  sea  is  narrow,  and  there  is  often  a 
calm  produced  by  some  gust  of  a  land  wind  that 
poises  the  Levantine  wind,  and  renders  the  whole 
perfectly  still  for  two  or  three  days.  In  this  case 
the  current  that  runs  here  is  of  use  to  the  vessels, 
it  it  sets  right ;  when  it  sets  easterly,  a  ship  will 
have  a  passage  in  three  or  four  days  to  the  Ha- 
vannah  ;  but  if  otherwise,  it  is  often  a  fortnight 
or  three  weeks'  sail,  the  ship  being  embayed  in 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  When  the  weather  is  per- 
fectly calm,  the  sailors  try  which  way  the  current 
sets,  by  sending  out  a  boat,  which  will  ride  mo- 
tionless though  there  is  no  bottom  to  be  found,  as 
well  as  if  secured  by  the  strongest  anchor.  Their 
method  is  this  :  they  row  the  boat  to  a  little  dis- 
tance from  the  ship,  and  then  throw  over  their 
plummet,  which  is  about  forty  pounds  weight ; 
they  let  this  sink  to  about  200  fathoms  ;  and  then, 
though  it  never  reaches  the  bottom,  the  boat  will 
turn  head  against  the  current,  and  ride  as  firmly 
as  possible. 

CALM  LATITUDES,  in  sea  language,  are  situated 


in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  between  the  tropic  of  Can- 
cer and  the  latitude  of  29°  north,  or  they  denote 
the  space  that  lies  between  the  trade  and  variable 
winds,  because  it  is  frequently  subject  to  calms 
of  long  duration. 

CALMAR,  a  sea-port  of  Sweden,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Smaland,  150  miles  south-west  of  Stock- 
holm, and  forty  from  Carlscroon.  It  is  divided 
into  two  towns,  the  old  and  the  new.  The  new 
town  is  built  a  little  way  from  the  other,  and  is 
large  and  handsome. 

CALMET  (Augustine),  one  of  the  most  learned 
and  laborious  writers  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
was  born  at  Mesnil  le  Horgue,  in  France,  in 
1672,  and  took  the  habit  of  the  Benedictines  in 
1688.  Having  passed  through  the  usual  course 
of  philosophy  and  theology,  he  was  employed  in 
teaching  the  younger  part  of  the  community,  till, 
in  1704,  he  settled  as  sub-prior  in  the  abbey  of 
Munster,  in  Alsace,  where  he  presided  over  an 
academy  of  eight  or  ten  monks  devoted  to  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures.  There  he  composed 
his  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  published 
in  French  from  1707  to  1716.  In  1718  he  was 
appointed  to  the  abbacy  of  St.  Leopold  in  Nancy  ; 
and  in  1728  he  was  elected  abbot  of  Senones. 
The  title  of  a  bishop  in  partibus  was  offered  him, 
but  he  declined  accepting  it.  He  wrote,  1. 
Commentaire  Litteral  surtous  lesLivres  de  1'An- 
cien  et  du  Nouveau  Testament,  23  vols.  4to. 
1707-1716,  reprinted  in  26  vols.  4to.,  and  also  in 
9  vols.  fol. ;  abridged  in  14  vols.  4to.  by  Rondet, 
and  a  new  edition  of  the  abridgment  in  17  vols. 
4to.  Avignon,  1767-73.  2.  The  Dissertations 
and  Prefaces,  published  separately,  2  vols.  4to. 
Paris,  1720.  3.  Histoire  de  1'Ancien  et  du 
Nouveau  Testament,  intended  as  an  introduction 
to  Fleury's  Ecclesiastical  History,  2  and  4  vols. 
4to.,  and  5  and  7  vols.  12mo,  4.  Dictionnaire 
Historique,  Critique,  et  Chronologique,  de  la 
Bible,  4  vols.  fol.  Paris,  1730,  translated  into 
English  by  Samuel  D'Oyly,  3  vols.  fol.  London, 
1732,  and  a  new  edition  in  4to.  1793,  &c.  5. 
Histoire  Ecclesiastique  et  Civile  de  la  Lorraine, 
3  vols.  fol.  reprinted  in  5  vols.  fol.  1745.  6. 
Bibliotheque  des  Ecrivains  de  Lorraine,  fol. 
1751.  7.  Histoire  Universelle  Sacree  et  Profane. 
15  vols.  4to.  &c. 

CALMUCKS.     See  KALMUCKS. 

CALNE,  a  town  of  Wiltshire,  seated  on  the 
river  of  the  same  name.  It  had  a  palace  of  the 
West  Saxon  kings.  Its  chief  manufacture  is 
cloth.  It  sends  one  member  to  parliament ; 
and  lies  twelve  miles  west  of  Marlborough,  and 
eighty-eight  west  of  London. 

CALNE  A,  in  ancient  geography,  a  city  in  the 
land  of  Shinar,  built  by  Nimrod,  and  the  last 
city  mentioned  (Gen.  x.  10.)  as  belonging  to  his 
kingdom.  It  is  believed  to  be  the  same  with 
Calno  mentioned  in  Isaiah  x.  9,  and  with  Can- 
neh  in  Ezekiel  xxvii.  23.  It  is  observed  that  it 
must  have  been  situated  in  Mesopotamia,  since 
these  prophets  join  it  with  Haran,  Eden,  Assyria, 
and  Chilmad,  which  carried  on  a  trade  with 
Tyre.  It  is  said  by  Chaldee  interpreters,  as  well 
as  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  to  be  the  same  with 
Ctesiphon,  upon  the  Tigris,  about  three  miles  dis- 
tant from  Seleucia,  and  that  for  some  time  it  was 
the  capital  city  of  the  Parthiaus. 


CAL 


46 


CAL 


CALODENDRUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  class  pentandria,  order  digynia.  The  essen- 
tial characters  are  CAL.  five-parted :  COR.  petals 
five ;  nectaries  five  :  PER.  capsule  five-celled  and 
five-angled ;  but  the  corolla,  nectary,  and  sta- 
mens so  often  differ  in  the  number  of  their  parts, 
that  the  capsule  may  be  said  to  be  the  only  es- 
sential. There  is  but  one  species :  a  native  of 
the  Cape. 

ALOGERI,  KoXoyspoi,  in  church  history, 
mo  s  of  the  Greek  church,  divided  into  three 
degrees ;  viz.  the  archari,  or  novices  ;  the  micro- 
chemi,  or  the  ordinary  professed ;  and  the  mega- 
lochemi,  or  more  perfect ;  they  are  likewise  di- 
vided into  cacnobites,  anchorites,  and  recluses. 
The  caenobites  are  employed  in  reciting  their 
offices  from  midnight  to  sun-set ;  they  are  ob- 
liged to  make  three  genuflexions  at  the  door  of 
the  choir,  and  returning,  to  bow  to  the  right  and 
to  the  left,  to  their  brethren.  The  anchorites  re- 
tire from  the  world,  and  live  in  hermitages  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  monasteries  ;  they  cultivate 
a  little  spot  of  ground,  and  never  go  out  but  on 
Sundays  and  holidays,  to  perform  their  devotions 
at  the  next  monastery.  The  recluses  shut  them- 
selves up  in  grottoes  and  caverns  on  the  tops  of 
mountains,  which  they  never  leave,  abandoning 
themselves  entirely  to  Providence  :  they  live  on 
the  alms  sent  them  by  the  neighbouring  monas- 
teries. Some  reckon  the  Caloyers  a  branch  of 
the  Calogeri. 

CALOMEL,  chloride  of  mercury,  frequently 
called  mild  muriate,  or  dulcified  sublimate  of 
mercury. 

CALOPHYLLUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  and  polyandria  class  of  plants : 
COR.  tetrapetalous  :  CAL.  tetraphyllous  and  color- 
ed ;  the  fruit  a  globose  plum.  There  are  two 
species,  both  lofty  trees,  indigenous  to  India ; 
from  one  of  which,  C.  inophyllum,  upon  inci- 
sion of  its  bark,  exudes  the  resin  called  tacamahac. 

CALOPUS,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  the  class 
insecta,  order  coleoptera.  Antennas  filiform ; 
feelers  four,  the  fore-ones  clavate,  the  hind-ones 
filiform :  thorax  gibbous ;  wing-cases  linear. 
Three  species;  two  European,  one  American. 

CALORIMETER,  an  instrument  first  con- 
trived by  Lavoisier  and  Laplace,  to  measure  the 
heat  given  out  by  a  body  in  cooling.  It  consists 
of  three  vessels,  placed  one  within  the  other,  so 
as  to  leave  two  cavities  between  them ;  a  frame 
of  iron  net-work  being  suspended  in  the  middle 
of  the  innermost  vessel,  to  hold  the  heated  body. 
The  two  exterior  concentric  interstices  are  filled 
with  bruised  ice,  by  the  fusion  of  which  the  heat 
given  out  by  the  central  hot  body  is  measured. 
The  water  runs  off  through  the  bottom,  which 
terminates  in  the  shape  of  a  funnel,  with  a  stop- 
cock. 

CALOTE,  a  species  of  skull-cap  worn  under 
the  hat  by  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  French 
cavalry,  and  which  is  proof  against  a  sabre  or  a 
sword.  Calotes  are  usually  made  of  iron,  or 
dressed  leather.  Those  delivered  out  to  the 
troops  are  made  of  iron. 

CALOTE,  a  term  used  in  the  French  service  for 
the  lieutenant's  court,  at  which  the  first  lieute- 
nant of  the  regiment,  for  the  time  being,  always 
presided.  It  look  cognizance,  as  a  court  of  ho- 


nor, of  all  disputes  in  which  the  laws  of  honor 
or  of  good  breeding  had  been  violated.  Our  re- 
gimental committees  resemble  the  calote,  espe- 
cially with  regard  to  the  expulsion  of  an  officer, 
or  the  sending  of  him  to  Coventry. 

CALOTES,  in  zoology,  a  species  of  lacerta, 
with  a  round  long  tail ;  the  fore  part  of  the  back, 
and  hinder  part  of  the  head  being  dentated 
Found  in  the  island  of  Ceylon. 

CALOTTE',  n.  s.    French.    See  CALLET. 

CALO'YERS,  n.  s.  KoXoC.  Monks  of  the 
Greek  church. 

Temperate  as  caloyers  in  their  secret  cells. 

Madden  on  Boulter. 

CALOYERS  are  of  the  order  of  St.  Basil.  A 
numerous  body  of  them  live  on  Mount  Athos, 
and  never  marry,  though  others  of  that  church 
do.  They  abstain  from  flesh,  and  fare  very 
hardly,  their  ordinary  meals  being  olives  pickled 
when  they  are  ripe.  They  are  about  6000  in  all, 
and  inhabit  several  parts  of  the  mountain.  They 
are  so  respected  that  the  Turks  themselves  will 
often  send  them  alms.  These  monks  are  not  idle, 
but  labor  with  the  axe,  spade,  and  sickle,  dress- 
ing themselves  like  hermits.  Formerly  they  had 
fine  Greek  MSS.,  but  they  are  now  become  so 
illiterate,  that  they  can  scarcely  read  or  write. 
They  live  to  a  great  age.  See  CALOGERI. 

CALPE,  a  mountain  of  Andalusia  in  Spain ; 
at  the  foot  of  which,  towards  the  sea,  stands 
Gibraltar.  It  is  half  a  league  in  height  towards 
the  land,  and  so  steep  that  there  is  no  approach- 
ing it  on  that  side.  It  was  anciently  reckoned  one 
of  the  pillars  of  Hercules ;  Abyla  being  the  other. 

CALPHURNIA,  a  female  orator  of  ancient 
Rome,  who  pleaded  her  own  causes  before  the 
senate ;  but  is  said  to  have  proved  so  trouble- 
some, that  they  made  a  law,  that  thenceforward 
no  woman  should  be  allowed  to  plead. 

CALPHURNIUS  (Titus),  a  Latin  poet  of 
Sicily,  who  lived  under  the  emperor  Carus  and 
his  son.  Seven  of  his  eclogues  are  extant. 

CALTHA,  in  botany,  marsh  marigold,  a  genus 
of  the  monogynia  order,  in  the  polyandria  class 
of  plants,  No  calyx;  five  petals;  no  nectaria; 
capsules  many,  and  polyspermous.  There  are 
but  two  species  known;  viz.  1.  C.  palustris, 
with  stem  erect;  found  in  our  own  marshes :  2. 
C.  natans,  with  procumbent  floating  stem ;  a  na- 
tive of  Siberia.  The  flowers  gathered  before  they 
expand,  and  preserved  in  salted  vinegar,  are  a 
good  substitute  for  capers.  The  juice  of  the  ' 
petals,  boiled  with  alum,  stains  paper  yellow. 
Goats  and  sheep  eat  this  plant;  horses,  cows, 
and  swine,  refuse  it. 

CALTROP,  in  botany.    See  TRIBULUS. 

CALTROPS,  n.  s.  Sax.  colrnaeppe  ;  an  in- 
strument made  with  three  spikes,  so  that  which 
way  soever  it  falls  to  the  ground,  one  of  them 
points  upright,  to  wound  horses  feet. — A  plant 
common  in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  where  it 
grows  among  corn,  and  is  very  troublesome  ;  for 
the  fruit  being  armed  with  strong  prickles,  run 
into  the  feet  of  the  cattle.  This  is  certainly  the 
plant  mentioned  in  Virgil's  Georgics,  under  the 
name  of  tribulus. 

The  ground  about  was  thick  sown  with  caltrops, 
which  very  much  incommoded  the  shoeless  Moors. 

Dr.  Adduon'i  Account  of  Tangier *, 


CALVIN. 


47 


CALTROPS,  in  military  affairs,  an  instru- 
ment with  four  iron  points,  disposed  in  an  angu- 
lar form,  so  that  three  of  them  are  always  on  the 
ground,  and  the  fourth  pointing  upwards.  They 
are  scattered  over  the  ground  where  the  enemy's 
cavalry  is  to  pass,  in  order  to  embarrass  them. 

CALVA,  or  CALVARIA,  from  calvus,  bald; 
the  scalp  or  upper  part  of  the  cranium,  compre- 
hending all  above  the  eyes,  temples,  ears,  and 
occipital  eminence. 

CALVART  (Denis),  a  celebrated  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1552.  He  studied  painting 
under  Fontana  and  Sabbatini.  He  opened  a 
school  at  Bologna,  which  became  celebrated ; 
and  from  which  proceeded  Guido,  Albani,  and 
other  great  masters.  Calvart  was  well  skilled  in 
architecture,  perspective,  and  anatomy,  which  he 
considered  as  necessary  to  a  painter,  and  taught 
to  his  pupils.  His  principal  works  are  at  Bo- 
logna, Rome,  and  Reggio.  He  died  at  Bologna, 
in  1619. 

CALVARY,  from  calvaria,  i.  e.  the  place  of  a 
skull,  called  also  Golgotha,  which  signifies  the 
same,  a  hill  cf  Judea,  west  of  Jerusalem,  on  the 
outside  of  the  city,  where  our  Saviocrwas  cruci- 
fied, and  where  malefactors  were  commonly 
executed.  Some  derive  the  name  from  the  re- 
semblance of  the  hill  to  a  man's  head;  others 
from  its  baldness,  as  it  was  said  to  be  destitute 
of  verdure  ;  but  it  is  more  probable,  that  the 
hill  derived  its  name  from  the  many  skulls  of  those 
executed,  being  carelessly  tossed  about  upon  it. 
Tradition  says  Adam  was  buried  upon  it.  The 
British  Princess  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constan- 
tine  the  Great,  about  A.  D.  330,  erected  a  magnifi- 
cent church  over  our  Saviour's  sepulchre,  near 
it,  which  is  still  visited  by  superstitious  pilgrims. 

CALVARY,  in  heraldry,  a  cross,  so  called  be- 
cause it  resembles  the  cross  on  which  our  Saviour 
suffered.  It  is  always  set  upon  steps. 

CALVARY,  in  the  customs  of  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholic church,  is  a  term  sometimes  used  for  a 
kind  of  chapel  devotion,  raised  on  a  hillock 
near  a  city ;  in  memory  of  the  place  where 
Jesus  Christ  was  crucified  near  Jerusalem.  Such 
was  the  Calvary  of  St. Valerian,  near  Paris :  it  was 
accompained  with  several  little  chapels,  in  each 
of  which  was  represented  in  sculpture  one  of  the 
mysteries  of  the  passion.  The  Roman  Catholics 
vindicate  these  pictorial  exhibitions  of  the  mys- 
teries of  religion,  as  justifiable  upon  the  same 
principle  as  any  other  mode  of  bringing  the 
facts  memorialised  upon  the  eye  of  the  mind  ; 
and  as  particularly  useful  to  those  classes  of 
society  whose  inclinations  or  avocations  will  per- 
mit them  to  -ead  or  think  but  little. 

CALVERT,  a  county  of  the  United  States, 
in  the  Western  Shore  of  Maryland  ;  bounded  on 
the  east  by  the  Chesapeake ;  on  the  north  by 
Anne-Arundel  county;  and  on  the  south  and 
west  by  the  river  Patuxent.  It  is  thirty-three 
miles  and  a  half  long  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Patuxent  to  Lion's  Creek,  and  nineteen  and  a 
half  broad.  The  surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil 
sandy ;  but  it  produces  good  crops  of  Indian 
corn,  though  the  tobacco  is  of  an  inferior  quality. 

CAI.VERT,  George,  afterwards  Lord  Baltimore, 
was  born  at  Kipliu,  in  Yorkshire,  about  1582, 


and  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  B.  A.  He  was  made  secretary  to  Sir 
Robert  Cecil ;  he  was  afterwards  knighted,  and 
ia  1618  appointed  one  of  the  principal  secre- 
taries of  state.  But  after  he  had  enjoyed  that 
office  about  five  years,  he  resigned  it,  telling 
king  James,  that  he  was  become  a  Roman 
Catholic, — that  he  must  either  be  wanting  to  his 
trust,  or  violate  his  conscience  in  discharging  his 
office.  This  ingenuous  confession  so  affected  the 
king,  that  he  continued  him  privy  counsellor 
all  his  reign,  and  created  him  baron  Baltimore. 
He  afterwards  obtained  a  grant  of  a  country  on 
the  north  part  of  Virginia  from  Charles  I.  who 
called  it  Maryland,  in  honor  of  his  queen ;  but 
he  died  in  April,  1632,  aged  50,  before  the 
patent  was  made  out.  It  was,  however,  filled 
up  to  his  son  Cecil,  lord  Baltimore ;  and  bears 
date  June  20th,  1632.  It  was  held  from  the  crown 
as  part  of  the  manor  of  Windsor,  on  one  singular 
condition,  viz.  to  present  two  Indian  arrows 
yearly,  on  Easter  Tuesday,  at  the  castle,  where 
they  are  kept  and  shown  to  visitors.  His  lord- 
ship wrote,  1.  A  Latin  poem  on  the  death  of  Sir 
Henry  Upton.  2.  Speeches  in  Parliament. 
3.  Various  Letters  of  State.  4.  The  Answer  of 
Tom  Tell-Truth.  5.  The  Practice  of  Princes. 
And,  6.  The  Lamentation  of  the  Kirk. 

CALVI  (Lazzaro),  was  born  at  Genoa,  and 
was  one  of  the  scholars  of  Perino  del  Vaga,  as 
was  his  brother  Panteolo,  with  whom  he  worked. 
In  the  Palavicini  palace,  they  painted  the  cele- 
brated continence  of  Scipio.  Envy  worked  so 
strongly  in  the  breast  of  Lazzaro,  that  he  had 
recourse  to  the  foulest  arts  to  avenge  himself  of 
those  who  were  his  rivals.  Among  those  who 
fell  victims  to  his  unprincipled  spirit,  was  Gia- 
como  Bargone,  whom  he  poisoned ;  and  against 
other  artists  he  contrived  the  basest  machinations, 
in  order  to  effect  their  ruin.  At  length  he  was 
employed  to  paint,  in  connexion  with  Andrea 
Semini  and  Luca  Cambiasi,  a  picture  of  the  birth 
of  John  the  Baptist ;  but  though  Calvi  exercised 
Ki'S  best  powers,  he  fell  short  of  Cambiasi,  and 
Lazzaro,  in  a  fit  of  mortification,  went  to  sea.  He 
followed  that  occupation  twenty  years,  and 
then  returned  to  his  original  profession,  which 
he  practised  till  his  eighty-fifth  year.  He  died 
in  1606  aged  105. 

CALVILLE',  n.  s.    French  ;    a  sort  of  apple. 

CALVIN,  or  CAUVIX,  (John),  a  celebrated 
reformer  of  the  sixteenth  century,  whose  religi- 
ous tenets  have  given  rise  to  a  large  and  respect- 
able party  among  Protestants,  called  CALVINISTS, 
(which  see),  was  born  at  Noyon,  a  city  of  Pi- 
cardy,  July  10th,  1509.  His  father  was  a  cooper, 
in  respectable  but  not  affluent  circumstances, 
and  sufficiently  esteemed  in  the  neighbourhood 
to  be  able  to  introduce  his  son  into  the  Montmor 
family;  with  the  children  of  which  he  was  edu- 
cated at  his  father's  expense.  He  was  sent  with 
the  children  of  his  patron  to  the  College  de  la 
Marche,  at  Paris,  then  under  the  regency  of  Ma- 
turin  Cordier,  and  soon  became  distinguished  for 
his  application  to  study.  From  the  College  of 
La  Marche  he  was  removed  to  that  of  Mortaign, 
when  he  entered  upon  the  pursuit  of  dialectics 
and  philosophy,  under  the  tuition  of  a  learned 
Spaniard.  In  1529  his  father  had  sufficient  in- 


48 


CALVIN. 


terest  with  the  bishop  of  Noyon  to  procure  the 
young  student  a  benefice  in  the  cathedral  church 
of  that  city,  and  the  rectory  of  Pont  L'Eveque, 
the  parish  in  which  he  was  born.  Here,  though 
not  ordained,  he  is  said  to  have  preached  fre- 
quently ;  but  becoming  intimate  with  a  protes- 
tant  relative,  Pierre  Robert  Olivetan,  author  of 
a  French  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  he  felt 
dissatisfied  with  his  station,  and  gradually  re- 
solved to  quit  the  Romish  communion.  His  fa- 
ther, at  about  the  same  period,  began  to  apprehend 
that  he  could  better  ensure  his  advancement  in 
life  in  the  law  than  in  the  church.  He  now, 
therefore,  removed  to  Orleans,  and  applied  him- 
self, with  his  characteristic  ardor,  to  the  lectures  of 
Pierre  de  L'Etoile,  a  celebrated  civilian,  after- 
wards president  of  the  parliament  of  Paris. 
Here  he  received  a  doctor's  degree ;  studied  the 
Scriptures  as  well  as  the  law  very  closely,  and  is 
said  by  his  late  night  hours  to  have  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  weakness  in  his  stomach,  which 
finally  shortened  his  days.  His  legal  attainments 
were  so  universally  acknowledged  at  Orleans, 
that,  in  the  absence  of  the  professors,  he  frequently 
lectured  for  them  before  the  university.  Scaliger 
says,  that  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was  the 
most  learned  man  in  Europe. 

To  complete  his  education  for  the  law,  he  re- 
moved for  a  short  time  from  Orleans  to  Bourges, 
where,  while  attending  the  lectures  of  Andrii 
Alciat,  he  contracted  an  intimate  acquaintance 
with  Melchiar  Wolmar,  the  Greek  professor  of 
the  university.  In  acknowledgment  for  Wol- 
mar's  instruction  in  that  language,  Calvin  after- 
wards dedicated  to  him  his  Commentary  on  the 
Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians ;  and  in  this 
neighbourhood  he  is  said  to  have  been  occasion- 
ally engaged  in  village  preaching. 

His  father  died  while  he  was  in  his  twenty- 
fourth  year,  and  the  circumstance  compelled  him 
to  close  his  college  life,  and,  after  a  short  resi- 
dence at  Noyon,  to  proceed  to  Paris.  In  the 
title  page  of  his  first  work,  a  Commentary  on 
Seneca's  De  Clementia,  which  he  published  here 
in  1533,  we  first  find  that  slight  change  in  his 
name,  which  has  been  unfairly  adverted  to. 
'  In  reality,'  says  Mr.  Drelincourt,  '  it  is  very  in- 
considerable, or  rather  nothing  at  all :  for  being 
to  turn  Cauvin  (his  family  name)  into  Latin,  if 
one  would  give  it  an  air  and  termination  suita- 
ble to  the  genius  of  the  language,  how  can  one 
turn  it  otherwise  than  by  Calvinus  ?'  And  '  his 
first  work  being  written  in  Latin,  and  he  thereby 
known  by  the  name  of  Calvinus,  if  after  that, 
when  he  wrote  in  French,  he  had  used  any  other 
name  but  that  of  Calvin,the  work  might  have  been 
taken  for  another  man's.'  The  friends  of  the  re- 
formed religion  now  heard  of  his  attachment  to 
their  system,  and  induced  him  to  relinquish  all 
secular  pursuits.  His  zeal  and  sincerity  was 
soon  put  to  the  test.  Having  supplied  his  friend 
Nicholas  Cop,  rector  of  1'Acaaemie  de  Paris, 
with  hints  for  a  speech,  in  which  were  some  se- 
vere reflections  on  popery,  the  rector,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  the  Sorbonne,  was  summoned  before 
the  parliament,  and  only  eluded  punishment  by 
withdrawing  to  Basil.  Calvin  was  also  advised 
to  take  flight ;  and  had.  scarcely  quitted  Paris 
when  a  warrant  was  issued  for  his  apprehension, 


and  his  apartments  were  searched  by  the  bailiff 
Marin,  one  of  the  most  relentless  persecutors  of 
the  age.  His  papers  disclosed  a  number  of  the 
names  of  the  Protestants  who  were  about,  it  is  said, 
to  be  proscribed,  when  the  queen  of  Navarre 
interposed  in  their  favor,  allayed  the  storm  for  a 
time,  and  even  ventured  to  recal  Calvin.  Pru- 
dence, however,  dictated  his  retreat  from  the  eye 
of  the  hostile  authorities ;  and  he  chose  Saint- 
onge  for  his  place  of  retirement,  where  he  em- 
ployed himself  in  the  composition  of  homilies 
adapted  to  the  capacities  of  the  common  people. 
He  also  visited,  at  this  time,  the  aged  Jacques 
Le  Fevre  d'Estaples,  formerly  the  tutor  of  the 
children  of  Francis  I.  who  had  retired  under  the 
protection  of  the  queen  of  Navarre  to  Nerac. 
The  worthy  old  confessor  welcomed  him  heartily^ 
and  predicted  his  future  celebrity  as  an  instru- 
ment of  establishing  the  true  religion.  In  1534 
Calvin  visited  Paris,  partly  with  a  view  to  meet 
the  celebrated  Michael  Servetus,  whose  opinions 
respecting  the  Trinity  were  now  becoming 
known.  It  was  a  journey  of  some  danger,  as 
this  year  was  disgraced  by  many  cruelties  inflict- 
ed on  the  reformed  at  Paris ;  but  Servetus  did  not 
appear.  The  king,  it  is  said,  being  particularly 
exasperated  at  an  attack  on  the  mass,  which  was 
nailed  to  the  door  of  the  Louvre,  went  bare- 
headed with  his  sons  in  procession,  as  an  expia- 
tion of  the  crime,  ordered  eighty  of  the  reformers 
to  be  burnt  alive  in  the  most  conspicuous  parts 
of  the  capital,  and  declared  that  if  his  own  sons 
were  to  become  infected  with  their  detestable 
heresy,  they  should  suffer  the  same  fate. 

Calvin  now  determined  to  quit  France,  which 
he  did  ;  having  first  published  a  treatise,  called 
Psychopannychiam,  against  the  sentiments  of 
those  who  maintain  that  the  soul  sleeps  between 
death  and  the  resurrection.  He  followed  his 
friend  Cop  to  Basil,  where  he  studied  the  He- 
brew language,  and  brought  together  the  materials 
of  his  great  work,  the  Institutions  of  the  Christian 
Religion.  It  was  designed  as  an  apology  for  his 
persecuted  brethren;  openly  avowing  their  real 
differences  with  the  Church  of  Rome,  but  de- 
fending them  from  the  imputation  of  teaching  the 
levelling  doctrines  of  the  Anabaptists.  The  first 
edition,  which  it  is  probable  was  written  both  in 
French  and  Latin,  was  published  in  1535,  in  8vo. 
being  only  a  rough  sketch  or  outline  of  what  is 
known  at  present  as  this  work.  The  second 
edition  appeared  in  1536  at  Strasburgh,  in  folio, 
and  was  both  larger  and  more  correct  than  the 
first.  The  third  edition,  still  more  complete, 
was  printed  at  the  same  place  in  1543.  A 
fourth  edition  came  out,  with  considerable  im- 
provements ;  and  a  fifth  corrected  edition  in  4to 
was  printed  in  1550  at  Geneva,  having  two  in- 
dexes. In  1558  the  Latin  and  French  editions 
both  received  the  author's  final  revision. 

The  doctrinal  peculiarities  of  this  work,  we 
are  not  engaged,  as  encyclopaedists,  to  vindicate ; 
few  modern  Protestants  espouse  them  all:  but 
the  palm  of  erudite  learning,  profound  Scrip- 
ture knowledge,  and  superior  logical  arrange- 
ments was  universally  awarded  to  its  author.  Its 
Latinity  has  been  generally  admired,  and  especially 
the  introductory  address  to  Francis  I.  Bayle 
quotes  the  remarkable  testimony  of  two  cele- 


CALVIN. 


49 


brated  Catholics  in  its  favor : — Scultingius  said, 
4  In  England  Calvin's  Institutions  is  almost  pre- 
ferred to  the  Bible  itself.  The  pretended  Eng- 
lish bishops  enjoin  all  the  clergy  to  get  the  book 
almost  by  heart,  never  to  have  it  out  of  their 
hands,  to  lay  it  by  them  in  a  conspicuous  part 
of  their  pulpits  ;  in  a  word,  to  prize  it  and  keep 
it  as  carefully  as  the  old  Romans  are  said  to 
have  preserved  the  Sibylline  oracles.'  Staple- 
ton  says,  'The  Institutions  of  Calvin  are  so 
greatly  esteemed  in  England,  that  the  book  has 
been  most  accurately  translated  into  English, 
and  is  even  fixed  in  the  parish  churches  for  the 
people  to  read.  Moreover,  in  each  of  the  two 
universities,  after  the  students  have  finished 
their  circuit  in  philosophy,  as  many  of  them  as 
are  designed  for  the  ministry,  are  lectured  first  of 
all  in  that  book.' 

Dr.  Ileylin,  the  friend  of  Laud,  and  the 
avowed  adversary  of  Calvinism,  gives  a  similar 
testimony.  Referring  to  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
'  Predestination,  and  the  points  depending  there- 
upon,' says  he, '  were  received  as  the  established 
doctrines  of  the  Church  of  England.  The  books 
of  Calvin  were  the  rule  by  which  all  men  were  to 
square  their  writings :  his  only  word,  like  the  ipse 
dixit  of  Pythagoras,  was  admitted  for  the  sole 
canon  to  which  they  were  to  frame  and  conform 
their  judgments.  It  was  safer  for  any  man  in 
those  times  to  have  been  looked  upon  as  an 
heathen  or  publican,  than  an  Anti-Calvinist.' 

When  finishing  his  Institutes,  Calvin  heard 
that  many  parts  of  Italy  had  exhibited  consider- 
able symptoms  of  attachment  to  the  new  religion. 
He  hastened,  therefore,  to  the  court  of  the 
duchess  of  Ferrara,  the  accomplished  daughter 
of  Louis  XII.,  and  here,  while  he  confirmed  his 
distinguished  patroness  in  her  Protestant  princi- 
ples, he  secured  her  lasting  esteem,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  future  correspondence  with  her. 
At  this  period  also  he  visited  and  preached  in 
Piedmont:  a  pillar,  eight  feet  high,  commemo- 
rating his  arrival  and  departure,  was  lately  exist- 
ing at  Aost.  Its  inscription  was  '  llanc  Calvini 
fuga  erexit  anno  MDXLI.  Religionis  constan- 
tia  reparavit  anno  MDCCXLI.' 

Calvin  returned  from  Italy  to  France,  taking 
with  him  a  younger  brother  of  the  name  of 
Anthony,  but  finding  persecution  still  desolating 
his  native  countiy,  he  once  more  determined  to 
take  up  his  abode  at  Basil  or  Strasburgh  :  and, 
being  accidentally  diverted  from  the  main  road 
by  the  existing  war,  arrived  at  Geneva  in  August 
1536.  Here  the  courageous  and  decided  Farel 
entreated  him  to  stay  for  the  help  of  the  cause 
of  God  :  and  solemnly  warning  him,  in  the  name 
of  his  Maker  and  Redeemer,  that  he  would  pros- 
per in  nothing  if  he  declined  so  holy  a  work, 
and  sought  his  own  repose,  he  was  induced  to 
settle  himself  at  once.  The  consistory  and 
magistracy,  with  the  consent  of  the  whole  city, 
offered  him  a  ministerial  charge  in  the  course  of 
the  month ;  he  was  also  made  professor  of 
iivinity  in  the  academy. 

He  was  at  first  assailed  by  various  difficulties ; 
the  Anabaptists  had  obtained  some  footing  in  the 
city,  and  were  to  be  expelled  ;  he  was  accused 
by  one  Caroly  of  Arianism,  and  it  was  thought 
expedient  that  he  should  defend  himself  before 
VOL.  V. 


the  synod  of  Berne.  This  he  did  to  the  full 
satisfaction  of  that  body  ;  procured  in  less  than 
a  year  after  his  first  coining  to  Geneva  the  formal 
renunciation  of  popery,  by  the  public  authori- 
ties, and  proceeded  boldly  with  his  colleagues  in 
the  reform  of  the  public  morals.  He  thus 
aroused  the  enmity  of  many  influential  persons  ; 
and  an  unhappy  schism  arising  between  the 
church  of  Berne  and  that  of  Geneva,  as  to  the 
mode  of  celebrating  the  eucharist,  these  parties 
did  not  fail  to  inflame  it.  By  the  synod  of  Lau- 
sanne it  was  at  last  decreed  that  all  the  churches 
ought  to  use  unleavened  bread  at  the  Lord's  sup- 
per; Calvin  and  Farel  hesitated  to  yield  obe- 
dience to  this  decree :  the  result  was  an  order 
from  the  council  of  Geneva  for  these  faithful 
ministers  forthwith  to  leave  the  town.  'Ah  !' 
said  Calvin,  '  had  I  served  men,  I  should  have 
been  poorly  recompensed  ;  but  I  have  served  a 
master,  who,  far  from  forgetting  his  tme  servants, 
pays  them  where  he  has  no  obligation.' 

Our  reformer  retired  to  Strasburgh,  where,  by 
the  influence  of  Bucer,  he  was  immediately  ap- 
pointed pastor  of  a  church,  and  professor  of 
theology.  Here  he  composed  his  Treatise  on 
the  Lord's  Supper,  and  an  eloquent  reply  to 
Cardinal  Sadolet,  who  endeavoured  to  recal  the 
Genevese  to  the  Catholic  church.  He  also 
reclaimed  many  of  the  people  from  the  Anabap- 
tist errors.  In  1541  he  attended  the  diet,  con- 
voked to  meet  at  Worms,  and  afterwards  at 
Ratisbon :  and  here  he  was  introduced  to  Me- 
lancthon,  who  ever  after  spoke  of  him  as  '  the 
theologian'  of  the  day. 

The  same  year  the  Genevese  evinced  their 
regret  at  his  absence  by  publicly  voting  for  his 
recal :  and  the  inhabitants  of  Strasburgh,  though 
they  finally  relinquished  him  to  the  entreaties  of 
the  council  of  that  city,  bestowed  on  him  the 
freedom  of  their  own,  and  offered  to  continue  his 
emoluments  after  his  return  to  Geneva.  This 
took  place  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1541 ; 
and  his  system  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  called 
the  Consistory,  was  established  at  Geneva  by 
order  of  the  general  council,  dated  the  20th  of 
November  in  that  year.  Shortly  after  his  return, 
he  published  a  Catechism  in  Latin  and  French. 
'  During  a  fortnight  in  each  month,'  we  are  told, 
'  he  preached  every  day ;  gave  three  lectures  in 
theology  every  week ;  assisted  at  all  the  delibe- 
rations of  the  consistory,  and  at  the  meetings  of 
the  pastors ;  met  the  congregation  every  Friday  ; 
instructed  the  French  churches  by  the  frequent 
advices  which  they  solicited  from  him  ;  defend- 
ed the  Reformation  against  the  attacks  of  its 
enemies,  and  particularly  those  of  the  French 
priests ;  was  forced  to  repel  his  numerous  an- 
tagonists, by  various  books  which  he  composed 
for  that  purpose ;  and  found  time  to  publish 
several  other  works,  which,  by  their  solidity  and 
depth,  are  calculated  for  the  instruction  of 
every  age.' 

In  1543  he  composed  for  the  church  of  Ge- 
neva a  Liturgy,  accompanied  with  Directions 
for  Celebrating  the  Ordinances  of  Baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper.  His  personal  and  official 
character  were  now  held  in  such  high  esteem 
in  that  city,  that  its  entire  affairs,  civil  and  eccle- 
siastical, were  moulded  by  him  :  and  the  snares 

E 


50 


CALVIN. 


of  secular  influence  and  earthly  greatness  sur- 
rounded him  on  every  side.  The  learned  Cas- 
taiio  having  endeavoured  to  disseminate  some 
opinions  differing  from  those  of  our  reformer, 
on  the  descent  of  Christ  into  hell,  was  banished 
from  Geneva.  A  James  Grant  is  said  to  have 
been  condemned  to  death  in  1547  for  impiety, 
treason,  and  speaking  disrespectfully  of  Calvin ; 
and  in  1553  drew  on  the  memorable  persecution 
of  Servetus  by  the  public  authorities. 

Previously  to  this  last  event,  we  find  him  en- 
eugaged  in  controversy  with  the  decisions  of  the 
council  of  Trent,  in  a  work  called  The  Antidote: 
with  the  divines  of  Rouen,  who  had  renewed 
the  heresy  of  Carpocrates  on  that  church,  in 
composing  his  commentaries  in  the  epistle  of  St. 
Paul;  and  in  a  correspondence  with  Luther, 
Bucer,  and  all  the  principal  reformers.  In  1 548 
he  was  joined  in  the  public  affairs  by  the  cele- 
brated Beza.  He  also  had  a  long  controversy 
with  Jerome  Bolzec,  a  Carmelite  friar,  who  began 
to  teach  the  sentiments  afterwards  espoused  by 
Arminius.  The  celebrated  John  Knox  visited 
him  at  about  this  period.  'Calvin'  says  Dr. 
M*  Crie,  *  was  then  in  the  zenith  of  his  reputa- 
tion and  usefulness,  had  completed  the  eccle- 
siastical establishment  of  that  city  ;  and,  having 
surmounted  the  opposition  raised  by  those  who 
envied  his  authority,  or  disliked  his  system  of 
doctrine  aiid  discipline,  was  securely  seated  in 
the  affections  of  the  citizens.  His  writings  were 
already  translated  into  the  different  languages  of 
Europe ;  and  Geneva  was  thronged  with  strangers 
from  Germany,  France,  Poland,  Hungary,  and 
even  from  Spain  and  Italy,  who  came  to  consult 
him  about  the  advancement  of  the  Reformation, 
or  to  find  shelter  from  the  persecutions  to  which 
they  were  exposed  in  their  native  countries. 
Calvin  was  respected  by  none  more  than  by  the 
Protestants  of  England ;  and,  at  the  desire  of 
archbishop  Cranmer,  he  had  imparted  to  the 
protector  Somerset,  and  to  Edward  VI.  his  ad- 
vice as  to  the  best  method  of  advancing  the 
Reformation  in  that  kingdom.  Knox  was  af- 
fectionately received  by  him  as  a  refugee  from 
England  ;  and  an  intimate  friendship  was  soon 
formed  between  them,  which  subsisted  until  the 
death  of  Calvin  in  1564.  They  were  nearly  of 
the  same  age ;  and  there  was  a  striking  simi- 
larity in  their  sentiments  and  in  the  more  pro- 
minent features  of  their  character.  The  Ge- 
nevan Reformer  was  highly  pleased  with  the 
piety  and  talents  of  Knox,  who,  in  his  turn,  en- 
tertained a  greater  esteem  and  deference  for 
Calvin  than  for  any  other  of  the  Reformers. 

Servetus  was  a  Spanish  physician,  who  had  ac- 
quired a  respectable  professional  character  at 
Vienne  ;  his  works  Restitutio  Christianismi,  De 
Trinitatis  Erroribus ;  et  in  Ptolemeum  Com- 
Tnentarius  had  also  with  his  heretical  pravity 
established  his  undoubted  claims  to  considerable 
learning.  It  was  no  palliation  of  the  perse- 
cuting zeal  of  Calvin  that  the  Papists  had 
already  condemned  some  of  their  performances 
to  be  burnt  by  heresy.  Calvin  instigated  the 
council  of  Geneva  to  sieze,  imprison,  and  finally 
nut  the  author  to  a  cruel  death. 

This  disgraceful  tale  has  been  amplified  by  the 
assqrtion  that  Calvin  wrote  to  the  magistrates  of 


Vienne  to  procure  the  arrest  of  Servetus,  that  he 
had  thirsted  for  years  for  his  blood,  &c.  There 
is,  perhaps,  no  clear  evidence  of  this  r  the  fact  seems 
to  be  that  Servetus  was  passing  through  Geneva  to 
Naples,  with  a  view  to  find  a  retreat  from  per- 
secution, when  he  fell  thus  unhappily  into  its 
fangs.  Nor  do  we  know  that  the  matter  is  much 
extenuated  (excused  it  never  can  be)  by  the  fact 
that  Bucer,  and  even  Melancthon,  approved  of 
the  conduct  of  our  reformer  in  instigating  the 
sacrifice  of  Servetus.  The  plain  truth  is,  that 
Calvin  was  seduced  by  his  dangerous  worldly 
influence,  to  imagine  that  he  could  thus  serve 
the  cause  of  his  peaceful  and  benevolent  master: 
and  that  he  in  this  instance  must  stand  recorded 
to  posterity  in  the  unholy  character  of  a  per- 
secutor unto  blood.  '  He  acted  in  this  case,' 
say  his  apologists,  '  as  he  uniformly  did,  from  no 
party  view,  or  paltry  resentments,  but  from  a 
strong  sense  of  duty,  and  an  ardent  love  to  truth. 
What  he  did  in  it,  he  did  with  his  characteristic 
steadiness  and  zeal :  and  it  is  evident,  that  his 
chief  anxiety  was,  not  to  punish  Servetus,  but  to 
make  him  retract  his  error,  a  design  which  was 
frustrated  by  the  obstinacy,  the  violence,  and  the 
impious  language,  of  Servetus  himself.'  More- 
over, persecution  we  are  told  was  the  sin  of  the 
age.  No  part  of  this  apology  has,  we  confess, 
much  weight  with  us.  The  spirit  of  persecution  to 
which  the  reformers  at  any  time  lent  themselves 
was  in  them  the  more  inexcusable,  as  they  had 
been  themselves,  and  saw  their  brethren  daily, 
sufferers  from  this  very  spirit.  It  was  the  sin 
against  which  God  in  the  judgments  and  trials 
of  that  age  peculiarly  warned  them  ;  no  admi- 
ration of  what  they  effected  should  make  us 
palliate  the  enormity  of  their  thus  manifesting 
the  disposition  of  him  who  was  '  a  destroyer' 
from  the  beginning ;  and  it  must  have  been  the 
pride  of  the  zealot,  and  the  interests  of  the  party 
being  injured,  rather  than  any  pure  or  real  love 
of  truth,  that  ever  orompted  these  bloody  deeds: 
of  which  in  this  instance  we  speak  the  more 
freely,  because  we  honor  Calvin  much. 

After  this  event  Calvin's  life  is  chequered 
with  but  few  matters  of  public  importance. 
His  efforts  at  promoting  a  universal  Christian 
discipline  at  Geneva  were  often  impeded  ;  and 
his  extensive  projects  for  the  establishment  of  his 
own  views  of  ecclesiastical  government,  in  other 
countries,  not  very  successful.  He  was  deeply 
afflicted  by  the  frequent  persecution  of  his  bre- 
thren in  France,  and  by  the  disunion  among  the 
Protestants  of  various  parts  of  Europe :  the 
latter  he  earnestly  sought  to  heal ;  and  certainly, 
by  his  talents  and  remonstrances,  abated  the 
violence  of  the  former. 

In  February,  1564,  this  great  man  became  con- 
scious of  his  approaching  death  ;  and  on  the  2d 
of  that  month  preached  his  last  sermon,  and 
delivered  his  last  lecture  in  the  day.  Being 
visited  on  tke  10th  of  March  by  Beza  and  several 
private  friends,  he  spoke  of  his  expected  de- 
parture with  great  composure  and  solemnity  ; 
and  having  been  carried  to  the  council  on  the 
27th,  he  took  his  leave  of  them  with  much 
affection,  declaring  that  he  never  more  ex- 
pected to  appear  in  that  place.  On  the  2d  of 
April,  though  much  reduced,  he  attended  the 


CALVINISM. 


61 


public  services  of  his  church,  and  received  the 
sacrament  from  the  hands  of  Beza.  On  the  28th, 
all  the  clergy  of  the  town  and  neighbourhood 
being  assembled  in  the  room,  he  gave  them  a 
parting  address,  exhorting  them  to  steadfastness 
and  perseverance,  and  instancing  his  own  rernaik- 
able  success  as  an  encouragement  to  their  labors. 
His  remaining  days  were  devoted  to  private 
duties  and  meditation.  He  died  with  great 
calmness  on  the  24th  of  May. 

The  works  and  system  of  Calvin  will  ever 
claim  for  him  a  distinguished  place  in  the  history 
of  modern  Christianity.  No  writer  of  the  Re- 
formation made  so  many  converts  to  his  peculiar 
views ;  no  one  name  has  designated  the  religious 
system  of  such  multitudes.  His  treatises  when 
all  collected  in  1560  formed  nine  volumes  folio. 
For  an  abstract  of  his  views  see  below. 

CALVINISM,  in  modern  ecclesiastical  history, 
designates  certain  prominent  articles  of  belief, 
rather  than  the  entire  religious  creed  of  those 
who  avow  the  system,  and  it  is  not  strictly  the 
name  of  a  sect,  for  it  is  connected  with  no  pe- 
culiar form  of  church  government  or  discipline, 
but  prevails  among  Episcopalians,  Presbyterians, 
Independents,  and  Methodists.  The  Calvinistic 
Baptists  are  also  numerous. 

Many  writers,  with  Dr.  Evans  (Sketch  of  the 
Different  Denominations  of  the  Christian  World), 
speak  of  the  tenets  of  Calvinism  as,  predestina- 
tion, original  sin,  particular  redemption,  irre- 
sistible grace,  and  the  final  perseverance  of  the 
people  of  God  :  sometimes  called  by  theologians 
the  five  points.  But  the  doctrine  of  original 
sin  is  by  no  means  peculiar  to  the  Calvinists.  It 
is,  with  some  modifications,  a  sentiment  held  by 
most  protestant  sects.  This  author  adds,  as  the 
Calvinists  differ  among  themselves  in  the  expli- 
cation of  these  tenets,  it  would  be  difficult  to 
give  a  specific  account  of  them.  Generally 
speaking,  however,  they  comprehend  the  fol- 
lowing propositions.  1.  That  God  has  chosen 
a  certain  number  in  Christ  to  everlasting  glory, 
before  the  foundation  of  the  world,  according  to 
his  immutable  purpose,  and  of  his  free  grace 
and  love,  without  the  least  foresight  of  faith, 
good  works,  or  any  conditions  performed  by  the 
creature  ;  and  that  the  rest  of  mankind  he  was 
pleased  to  pass  by,  and  ordain  them  to  dishonor 
and  wrath  for  their  sins,  to  the  praise  of  his  vin- 
dictive justice.  2.  That  Jesus  Christ,  by  his 
death  and  sufferings,  made  an  atonement  only 
for  the  sins  of  the  elect.  3.  That  mankind  are 
totally  depraved  in  consequence  of  the  fall ;  and, 
by  virtue  of  Adam's  being  their  public  head,  the 
guilt  of  his  sin  was  imputed,  and  a  corrupt 
nature  conveyed  to  all  his  posterity,  from  which 
proceed  all  actual  transgressions ;  and  that  by 
sin  we  are  made  subject  to  death,  and  all  miseries, 
temporal,  spiritual,  and  eternal.  4.  That  all 
whom  God  has  predestined  to  life,  he  is  pleased, 
in  his  appointed  time,  effectually  to  call  by  his 
word  and  spirit  out  of  that  state  of  sin  and 
death,  in  which  they  are  by  nature,  to  grace  and 
salvation  by  Jesus  Christ.  And  5.  That  those 
whom  God  has  effectually  called  and  sanctified 
by  his  spirit  shall  never  finally  fall  from  a  state 
of  grace.  Some  have  supposed  that  the  trinity 
was  one  of  the  five  points  ;  but  this  is  a  mistake, 


since  both  the  Calvinists  arid  Arminians,  who 
formed  the  synod  of  Dort  (where  this  phrase, 
five  points,  originated)  were  on  the  article  of 
the  trinity  generally  agreed.  The  most  pro- 
minent feature  of  this  system  is,  the  election 
of  some,  and  reprobation  of  others,  from  all 
eternity. 

Calvin's  own  system  extended  to  the  discipline 
and  government  of  the  Christian  church,  the  na- 
ture of  the  Eucharist,  and  the  qualification  of 
those  who  were  entitled  to  the  participation  of  it. 
He  considered  every  church  as  a  separate  and  in- 
dependent body,  invested  with  the  power  of  legis- 
lating for  itself;  and  proposed  that  it  should  be 
governed  by  presbyteries  and  synods,  composed 
of  clergy  and  laity,  without  bishops  or  any  cleri- 
cal subordination;  maintaining, that  the  province 
of  the  civil  magistrate  extended  only  to  its  pro- 
tection and  outward  accommodation.  In  order 
to  facilitate  a  union  with  the  Lutheran  church, 
he  acknowledged  a  real,  though  spiritual,  pre- 
sence of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist;  that  true 
Christians  were  united  to  the  man  Christ  in  this 
ordinance ;  and  that  divine  grace  was  conferred 
upon  them,  and  sealed  to  them,  m  the  celebration 
of  it.  The  privilege  of  communion  he  confined 
to  pious  and  regenerate  believers.  Calvinism 
long  subsisted  in  its  most  complete  exhibition  in 
the  city  of  Geneva ;  whence  it  was  propagated 
into  Germany,  France,  the  United  Provinces, 
Scotland,  and  England.  In  France  it  was 
abolished  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantz, 
in  1685.  It  has  has  been  the  prevailing  religion 
in  the  United  Provinces  ever  since  the  year  1571 . 
In  Scotland  the  celebrated  John  Knox  not  only 
established  the  doctrinal  sentiments,  but  the  ce- 
remonies, rites,  and  discipline  of  the  Genevan 
church  as  nearly  as  possible. 

In  England  the  discipline  of  that  church,  if 
we  except  the  period  of  the  Commonwealth, 
never  prevailed  ;  but  the  degree  to  which,  with 
propriety,  the  articles  of  the  established  creed 
may  be  considered  as  Calvinistic,  has,  almost  from 
the  period  of  the  Reformation,  been  a  matter  of 
controversy.  The  majority  of  the  clergy  certainly 
have  not  in  general  been  Calvinists  :  but  num- 
bers of  respectable  and  learned  individuals 
among  them  are  and  have  been  so.  These  have 
contended  that  the  thirty-nine  articles  moderately 
but  decidedly  assert  the  peculiarities  of  their  creed. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  bishop  of  Winchester  has 
published  a  very  popular  work,  entitled  A  Refu- 
tation of  Calvinism,  in  which  he  insists  that 
neither  the  homilies  nor  any  of  the  formularies 
of  the  church  contain  any  thing  in  favor  of  that 
system. 

CALUMBA,  the  root  of  the  cocculus  palmatus. 
This  root  is  imported  from  Ceylon,  in  circular, 
brown  knobs,  wrinkled  on  the  outer  surface,  yel- 
lowish within,  and  consisting  of  woody,  and 
medullary  laminae.  Its  smell  is  aromatic,  its 
taste  pungent,  and  very  bitter.  Spirit  of  wine 
extracts  its  virtues  in  the  greatest  perfection,  its 
watery  infusion  being  more  perishable  than  that 
of  other  bitters.  The  extract  made  first  by 
spirit  and  then  by  water,  and  reduced  by  evapor 
ation  to  a  semi-tiuid  consistence,  is  found  to 
be  equal  if  not  superior  in  efficacy,  to  the  pow- 
der. As  an  antiseptic,  Calumbarootis  certainly 

i:  2 


CAL 


52 


CAL 


inferior  to  bark ;  but  as '  a  corrector  of  putrid 
bile  it  is  greatly  superior ;  whence  also  it  is  pro- 
bable, that  it  would  be  of  service  in  the  West 
India  yellow  fever.  It  does  not  appear  to  have 
the  least  heating  quality  ;  it  occasions  no  distur- 
bance, and  agrees  very  well  with  a  milk  diet,  as 
it  is  not  disposed  to  acidity.  The  dose  of  the 
powdered  root  is  half  a  drachm,  which,  in  urgent 
cases,  may  be  repeated  every  third  or  fourth 
hour. 

CALUMET,  a  symbolical  instrument  of  great 
importance  among  the  American  Indians.  It  is 
a  pipe,  whose  bowl  is  generally  made  of  a  soft 
red  marble ;  the  tube  of  a  very  long  reed,  orna- 
mented with  wings  and  feathers  of  birds.  No 
affair  of  consequence  is  transacted  without  the 
calumet.  It  appears  ia  meetings  of  commerce 
or  exchanges,  and  in  congresses  for  .determining 
peace  or  war.  The  acceptance  of  the  calumet 
is  a  mark  of  concurrence  with  the  terms  proposed, 
as  a  refusal  is  a  certain  mark  of  rejection.  Even 
in  the  rage  of  a  conflict  this  pipe  is  sometimes 
offered :  and,  if  accepted,  the  weapons  of  des- 
truction instantly  drop  from  their  hands,  and  a 
truce  ensues.  The  calumet  of  peace  is  different 
from  that  of  war.  They  make  use  of  the  former 
to  seal  their  alliances  and  treaties,  to  travel  with 
safety,  and  to  receive  strangers ;  but  of  the  latter 
to  proclaim  war.  It  consists  of  a  red  stone,  like 
marble,  formed  into  a  cavity  resembling  the  head 
of  a  tobacco  pipe,  and  fixed  to  a  hollow  reed. 
They  adorn  it  with  feathers  of  various  colors ; 
and  name  it  the  calumet  of  the  sun,  to  which 
luminary  they  present  it,  in  expectation  of  there- 
by obtaining  a  change  of  weather  as  often  as  they 
desire.  From  the  winged  ornaments  of  the  calu- 
met, and  its  conciliating  uses,  writers  compare  it 
to  the  caduceus  of  Mercury,  which  was  carried 
by  the  caduceatores  of  peace,  with  terms  to  the 
hostile  states. 

CALUMET,  DANCE  OF  THE,  is  a  solemn  rite 
among  the  Indians  on  various  occasions.  They 
dare  not  wash  themselves  in  rivers  in  the  begin- 
ning of  summer,  nor  taste  of  the  new  fruits, 
without  performing  it;  and  the  same  ceremony 
always  confirms  a  peace  or  precedes  a  war.  It 
is  performed  in  winter  in  their  cabins,  and  in 
summer  in  the  open  fields.  For  this  purpose 
they  choose  a  spot  among  trees  to  shade  them 
from  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  lay  in  the  middle 
a  large  mat,  as  a  carpet,  setting  upon  it  the  god 
of  the  chief  of  the  company.  On  the  right  hand 
of  this  image  they  place  the  calumet,  as  their 
great  deity,  erecting  around  it  a  kind  of  trophy 
with  their  arms.  The  hour  of  dancing  being 
come,  those  who  are  to  sing  take  the  most  honor- 
able seats  under  the  shade  of  the  trees. .  The 
company  is  then  ranged  round,  every  one,  before 
he  sits  down,  saluting  the  monitor,  which  is  done 
by  blowing  upon  it  the  smoke  of  their  tobacco. 
Each  person  next  receive?  the  calumet  in  rotation, 
and  holding  it  with  both  hands,  dances  to  the 
cadence  of  the  vocal  music,  which  is  accompanied 
with  the  beating;of  a  sort  of  drum.  During  this 
exercise,  he  gives  a  signal  to  one  of  their  warriors, 
who  takes  a  bow,  arrow,  and  axe,  from  the  tro- 
phies already  mentioned,  and  fights  him ;  the 
former  defending  himself  with  the  calumet  only, 
and  both  of  them  dancin,g  all  the  while.  This 


mock  engagement  being  over,  he  who  holds  the 
calumet  makes  a  speech,  in  which  he  gives  an 
account  of  the  battles  he  has  fought,  and  the 
prisoners  he  has  taken,  and  then  receives  a  cloak, 
or  some  other  present  from  the  chief  of  the  ball. 
He  then  resigns  the  calumet  to  another,  who, 
having  acted  a  similar  part,  delivers  it  to  a  third, 
and  he  to  a  fourth,  &c.  till  at  last  the  instrument 
returns  to  the  person  who  began  the  ceremony, 
and  who  presents  it  to  the  nation  invited  to  the 
feast,  as  a  mark  of  their  friendship,  and  a  confir- 
mation of  their  alliance. 

CALUMNI.ZE,  JUDICIITM,  was  an  action 
brought  against  the  plaintiff  in  a  court  for  a  false 
and  malicious  accusation.  When  an  accuser  did 
not  prove  his  charge,  nor  seemed  to  have  suffici- 
ent or  probable  grounds  for  bringing  any,  the 
judges  in  pronouncing  sentence  used  the  formula 
calumniosus  es  :  which  gave  the  defendant  a  right 
to  bring  an  action  of  calumny ;  the  penalty  of 
which  was  frontis  inustio,  or  burning  on  the  fore- 
head. 

Lat.  calumnior ;    Fr. 


CALUM'NIATE, 

CALUMNIA'TION, 

CALUM'NIATOR, 

CALUM'NIATORY, 

CALUM'NIOUS, 

CALUM'NIOUSLY, 

CALUM'NIOUSNESS, 

CALUM'NY. 


calomnier ;  to  accuse 
falsely  ;  to  charge  with- 
out just  ground  ;  a  false 
and  malicious  represen- 
tatioa  to  an  offensive 
purpose.  To  slander; 
to  impeach  the  credit, 


and  blemish   the  fame  of  another  by  injurious 

imputations  founded  in  falsehood. 

Beauty,  wit,  high  birth,  desert  in  service, 
Love,  friendship,  charity,  are  subject  all 
To  envious  and  calumniating  time.  Shakspeare. 

HAM.  If  thou  dost  marry,  I'll  give  thee  this  plague 
for  thy  dowry :  Be  thou  as  chaste  as  ice,  as  pure  as 
snow,  thou  shalt  not  escape  calumny.  Get  thee  to  a 
nunnery ;  farewell :  Or,  if  thou  wilt  needs  marry, 
marry  a  fool  j  for  wise  men  know  well  enough,  what 
monsters  you  make  of  them.  To  a  nunnery  go  ;  and 
quickly  too.  Id. 

No  might  nor  greatness  in  mortality, 
Can  censure  'scape,  back-wounding  calumny, 
The  whitest  virtue  strikes.  Id. 

He  that  would  live  clear  of  the  envy  and  hatred  of 
potent  calumniators,  must  lay  his  finger  on  his  mouth, 
and  keep  his  hand  out  of  the  ink-pot.  L'Eitranye. 

He  mixes  truth  with  falsehood,  and  has  not  forgot- 
ten the  rule  of  calumniating  strongly,  that  something 
may  remain.  Dryden't  Fables.  Pref. 

One  trade  or  art,  even  those  that  should  be  the 
most  liberal,  make  it  their  business  to  disdain  and 
calumniate  another.  Sprat. 

It  is  a  very  hard  calumny  upon  our  soil  or  climate, 
to  affirm,  that  so  excellent  a  fruit  will  not  grow  here. 

Temple. 

In  order  to  heal  this  infirmity,  which  is  natural  to 
the  best  and  wisest  of  men,  I  have  taken  a  particular 
pleasure  in  observing  the  conduct  of  the  old  philoso- 
phers, how  they  bore  themselves  up  against  the 
malice  and  detraction  of  their  enemies.  The  way  to 
silence  calumny,  says  Bias,  is  to  be  always  exercised 
in  such  things  as  are  praise-worthy.  Guardian. 

Do  I  calumniate  ?  thou  ungrateful  Vanoc.- — 
Perfidious  prince  ! — Is  it  a  calumny 
To  say  that  Gwendolen,  betrothed  to  Yver, 
Was  by  her  father  first  assured  to  Valens  1 

A.  Philips. 


CAL 


53 


CAL 


Behold  the  host !   delighting  to  deprave, 
Who  track  the  steps  of  glory  to  the  grave, 
Watch  every  fault  that  daring  genius  owes, 
Half  to  the  ardours  which  its  birth  bestows, 
Distort  the  truth,  accumulate  the  lie, 
And  pile  the  pyramid  of  Calumny!  Byru.t. 

CALUMNY  was  admirably  personified  by 
Apelles.  This  celebrated  painter,  having  been 
accused  of  conspiracy  against  Ptolemy,  king  of 
Egypt ;  determined  to  represent  calumny  in  a 
picture.  On  the  right  of  this  celebrated  piece 
was  seated  a  man  with  large  ears,  resembling 
Midas,  stretching  out  his  hand  to  Calumny,  who 
approached  him ;  and  near  him  were  placed  two 
female  figures,  of  Ignorance  and  Diffidence.  On 
the  other  side  stood  Calumny,  a  beautiful  female, 
appearing  agitated  and  enraged ;  she  held  in  her 
left  hand  a  flaming  torch,  and  with  her  right  she 
dragged  by  the  hair  a  youth,  who  was  lifting  his 
hands  towards  the  heavens,  and  calling  the  gods 
to  witness  in  his  favor.  Before  her  moved  a  pale 
and  deformed  man,  with  piercing  eyes,  who 
seemed  to  have  just  recovered  from  a  long  illness  : 
this  was  Envy.  Two  other  females  conversed 
with  Calumny :  these  were  Concealment  and 
Deceit.  Another  female  followed,  clothed  in 
black,  with  tattered  garments,  which  was  Repen- 
tance; she  turned  her  head  backward,  dissolved 
in  tears,  and  looked  with  shame  upon  Truth  who 
approached  her. 

CALUMNY,  OATH  OF,  Juramentum,  or  rather 
Jusjurandum,  Calumnies,  among  civilians  and 
canonists,  was  an  oath  which  both  parties  in  a 
cause  were  obliged  to  take  ;  the  plaintiff  that  he 
did  not  bring  his  charge,  and  the  defendant  that 
he  did  not  deny  it,  with  a  design  to  abuse  each 
other,  but  because  they  believed  their  cause  was 
just  and  good ;  that  they  would  not  deny  the 
truth,  nor  create  unnecessary  delays,  nor  offer  the 
judge  or  evidence  any  gifts  or  bribes.  If  the 
plaintiff  refused  this  oath,  the  complaint  was  dis- 
missed ;  if  the  defendant,  it  was  taken  pro  con- 
fesso.  The  Juramentum  calumnite  is  much  dis- 
used, as  a  great  occasion  of  perjury.  Anciently 
the  advocates  and  proctors  also  took  this  oath, 
but  of  late  it  is  dispensed  with,  and  thought  suffi- 
cient that  they  take  it  once  for  all.  at  their  first 
admission  to  practice. 

CALX  properly  signifies  lime,  but  is  used  by 
chemists  and  physicians  for  a  fine  powder  remain- 
ing after  the  calcination  or  corrosion  of  metals 
and  other  mineral  substances.  All  metalic  calces 
made  by  fire,  are  found  to  weigh  more  than  the 
metal  from  which  they  were  originally  produced. 
CALX  NATIVA,  in  natural  history,  a  kind  of 
marly  earth,  of  a  dead  whitish  color,  which,  if 
thrown  into  water,  makes  a  considerable  bubbling 
and  hissing  noise,  and  has,  without  previous 
burning,  the  quality  of  making  a  cement  like 
lime  or  plaster  of  Paris.  It  is  found  in  En- 
gland. 

CALX  VIVA,  or  quick-lime,  that  whereon  no 
water  has  been  cast,  in  contradistinction  to  lime 
which  has  been  slacked.  See  LIME. 

CALYCANTHUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
polygynia  order,  in  the  icosandria  class  of  plants : 
CAL.  is  monophyllous,  urceolate,  with  small 
colored  leaves :  COR.  consisting  of  the  leaves  on 
the  calyx ;  the  styles  are  numerous,  each  with  a 


glandula  stigma;  the  seeds  are  many,  each  with  n 
train,  within  a  succulent  calyx.  The  species  are 
all  shrubs,  the  chief  are,  1.  C.  floridus,  flower- 
ing calycanthus,  or  Carolina  allspice  tree,  a  na- 
tive of  Carolina,  It  is  of  a  brown  color,  and 
when  bruised  emits  a  most  agreeable  odor.  The 
leaves  that  garnish  this  delightful  aromatic  ar^of  • 
an  oval  figure,  pointed,  nearly  four  inches  long, 
and  at  least  two  and  a-half  broad,  placed  opposite 
by  pairs  on  the  branches.  At  the  end  of  these 
stand  the  flowers,  of  a  kind  of  chocolate  purple 
color,  and  possessed  of  the  opposite  qualities  of 
the  bark  on  the  branches.  They  stand  single 
on  their  short  foot-stalks,  come  out  in  May  and 
June,  and  are  succeeded  by  ripe  seeds  in  En- 
gland. The  propagation  of  this  shrub  is  not 
very  difficult. 

CALYCANTHUS  PRJECOX,  a  native  of  Japan. 
This  species  is  not  inured  to  the  climate  of  Bri- 
tain. 

CALYCERA,  from  KaXw?,  calyx,  and  Kepac, 
a  horn ;  a  genus  of  plants,  of  the  class  syngene- 
sia,  order  segregata  :  CAL.  common,  polyphyl- 
lous  proper,  five-toothed.  Florets  tubular,  male 
and  hermaphrodite,  seeds  naked.  There  is  but 
one  species,  C.  herbacea;  native  of  Chili. 

CALYCIFLORUS,  in  zoology,  a  species  of 
brachionus,  of  a  simple  form,  the  shell  being 
crenated  behind,  and  the  upper  lip  four-toothed. 
Found  iu  standing  waters,  but  invisible  to  the 
naked  eye. 

CALYCINA,  in  entomology,  a  Swedish 
species  of  aranea;  the  aranea  Kleynii  of  Scopoli. 
It  is  of  a  pale  yellowish  color,  and  derives  its 
name  from  its  habit  of  secreting  itself  in  the 
calyces  of  flowers  from  which  the  corolla  has 
fallen,  to  fasten  on  the  flies  that  are  tempted  thi- 
ther in  search  of  the  nectareous  juices. 

CALYCINA  METHODUS,  CALYCINE  METHOD, 
a  system  of  botanical  classification,  founded 
upon  the  calyx,  and  published  by  Linnaeus  at 
Ley  den,  in  1738,  in  his  Classes  Plantarum. 

CAL'YCLE,  7i.  s.  Lat.  calyculus ;  a  small 
bud  of  a  plant. 

CALYDON,  a  city  of  jEtolia,  where  (Eneus, 
the  father  of  Meleager  reigned.  The  Evenus 
flows  through  it,  and  it  receives  its  name  from 
Calydon  the  son  of  .ZEtolus.  During  the  reign 
of  (JEneus,  Diana  sent  a  wild  boar  to  ravage  the 
country,  on  account  of  the  neglect  which  had  been 
shown  to  her  divinity  by  the  king.  All  the  princes 
of  that  age  assembled  to  hunt  this  boar,  which 
event  was  greatly  celebrated  by  the  poets,  under 
the  name  of  the  chase  of  the  Calydonian  boar. 
Meleager  killed  the  animal  with  his  own  hand, 
and  gave  the  head  to  Atalanta,  of  whom  he  was 
enamoured.  The  skin  was  preserved,  and  was 
still  seen  in  the  time  of  Pausanias,  in  the  temple 
of  Minerva.  The  tusks  were  also  preserved  by 
the  Arcadians  in  Tegea,  and  Augustus  carried 
them  away  to  Rome,  because  the  people  of  Tegea 
had  followed  the  party  of  Antony.  These  tusks 
were  shown  for  a  long  time  at  Rome,  one  of  them 
was  about  half  an  ell  long,  and  the  other  was 
broken.  See  MELEAGER  and  ATALANTA. 

CALYPLECTUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants, 
of  the  class  icosandria,  order  monogynia :  CAL. 
bell-shaped,  perianth  leathery,  with  from  ten  to 
twelve  folds,  and  the  same  number  of  teeth :  COR. 


CAM 


54 


CAM 


ten  to  twelve  petals,  attached  to  the  folds  of  the 
calyx :  STAM.  about  thirty  :  PIST.  germ  supe- 
rior, striated :  PERIC.  capsule,  one  celled,  longi- 
tudinally striated  in  its  upper  part,  opening  irre- 
gularly. Seeds  numerous,  and  membranous. 

CALYPSO,  in  entomology,  an  African  species 
of  papilio,  distinguished  by  having  the  wings 
roundish  and  yellow  ;  a  dot,  the  tip  of  the  ante- 
rior pair,  and  the  margin  of  the  posterior  ones 
black. 

CALYPSO,  one  of  the  Oceanides,  or  a  daughter 
of  Atlas,  according  to  some  writers,  was  goddess 
of  silence,  and  reigned  in  the  island  of  Ogygia. 
But  the  situation,  and  even  the  existence,  of  this 
island  is  doubted.  When  Ulysses  was  ship- 
wrecked on  her  coasts,  she  received  him  with 
great  hospitality,  and  offered  him  immortality  if 
he  would  remain  with  her  as  a  husband.  The 
hero  refused,  and  after  seven  years'  delay,  he  was 
permitted  to  depart  from  the  island  by  order  of 
Mercury,  the  messenger  of  Jupiter.  During  his 
stay,  Ulysses  had  two  sons  by  Calypso,  Nausi- 
thous  and  Nausinous.  Calypso  was  inconsolable 
at  the  departure  of  Ulysses. 

CALYPTRA,  in  botany,  the  calyptre,  a  tender 
skin  that  loosely  covers  the  top  of  the  theca,  like 
a  cup.  The  calyptra  is  villose  or  hairy,  when 
composed  of  hairs ;  entire,  when  it  covers  the 
whole  top  of  the  theca,  dimidiate  when  it  half 
covers  the  theca,  and  dentated  when  the  rim  is  set 
with  teeth. 

CALYX,  in  botany.     See  BOTASY. 

CAM,  or  GRANTA,  a  river  of  England,  formed 
by  the  junction  of  the  Rhee  which  rises  in  Hert- 
fordshire, and  the  Granta  which  rises  in  Essex. 
This  takes  place  near  Cambridge,  to  which  the 
united  stream  gives  name,  and  afterwards  flows 
into  the  Ouse. 

CAM^EA,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of  the 
semi-pellucid  gems,  approaching  to  the  onyx 
structure,  being  composed  of  zones,  and  formed 
on  a  crystalline  basis;  but  having  the  zones 
very  broad  and  thick,  and  laid  alternately  one  on 
another,  usually  less  transparent  and  more  debased 
with  earth  than  the  onyxes.  There  are  four 
species ;  viz.  1.  the  dull-looking  onyx,  with 
broad  black  and  white  zones ;  the  camsea  of  the 
moderns,  and  the  Arabian  onyx.  It  is  found  in 
Egypt,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  the  East  Indies.  2. 
The  dull  broad-zoned,  green  and  white  camaea,  or 
the  jaspicameo  of  the  Italians ;  found  in  the  East 
indies,  and  some  parts  of  America.  3.  The  hard 
camaea,  with  broad  white  and  chestnut  colored 
veins.  4.  The  hard  camsca,  with  bluish,  white, 
and  flesh-colored  broad  veins,  being  the  sardonyx 
of  Pliny's  time,  brought  from  the  East  Indies. 

CAMAIIA,  in  the  materia  medica,  a  name 
given  by  Avicenna  and  others  to  the  large  mush- 
rooms found  in  the  deserts  of  Numidia,  and  many 
other  parts  of  Africa.  They  are  white  on  the 
outside  :  the  modern  Africans  call  them  terfon, 
and  are  very  fond  of  them ;  they  eat  them  with 
milk,  water,  and  spices,  and  account  them 
wholesome  and  nutritive. 

CAMA'IEU,  n.  s.  From  camehuia,  which 
name  is  given  by  the  orientals  to  the  onyx,  when, 
in  preparing  it,  they  find  another  color.  A 
stone  with  various  figures  and  representations  of 
landscapes,  formed  by  nature.  In  painting,  a 


term  used  when  there  is  only  one  color,  airl 
where  the  lights  and  shadows  are  of  gold,  wiou^Ut 
on  a  golden  or  azure  ground.  This  kind  of  work 
is  chiefly  used  to  represent  basso  relievos. 

CAMAIEU,  or  CAMAYEU,  in  mineralogy,  a 
word  used  to  express  a  peculiar  sort  of  onyx  : 
also  by  some  to  express  a  stone,  whereon  are 
found  various  figures  and  representations  of 
landscapes,  &c.  formed  by  a  kind  of  lusus  na- 
turae ;  so  as  to  exhibit  pictures  without  painting. 
The  word  comes  from  camehuia,  a  name  the 
Orientals  gave  to  the  onyx,  when  tb^v  find,  in 
preparing  it,  another  color.  It  is  now  used  to 
express  those  precious  stones,  as  onyxes,  cor- 
nelians, and  agates,  whereon  the  lapidaries  em- 
ploy their  art  to  aid  nature,  and  perfect  those 
representations ;  and  also  any  kind  of  gem, 
whereon  figures  maybe  engraven,  either  indented, 
or  in  relievo.  In  this  sense  the  lapidaries  of 
Paris  were  called  in  the  statutes,  cutters  of  ca- 
mayeux.  It  is  more  particularly  used  for  those 
stones  of  differently  colored  laminae.  These 
laminae  are  left  or  removed  with  much  art,  for 
the  head,  the  beard,  the  hair,  and  other  colors  of 
a  bust.  Some  antique  cameos  have  four  layers, 
as  the  fine  one  of  the  apotheosis  of  Augustus, 
and  that  of  Germanicus  in  the  Royal  Library  at 
Paris ;  one  of  the  same  subject  as  the  first  men- 
tioned, and  another  of  Rome  and  Augustus,  in 
the  cabinet  at  Vienna. 

CAMALDOLITES,  CAMALDULIANS,  or  CA- 
MALDUNIANS,  an  order  of  religious,  founded  by 
Romuald,  an  Italian  fanatic,  in  1023,  in  the  de- 
sert of  Camaldoli.  Their  rule  is  that  of  St. 
Benedict ;  and  their  houses,  by  the  statutes,  are 
never  to  be  less  than  five  leagues  from  cities. 
The  Camaldolites  have  not  borne  that  title  from 
the  beginning  of  their  order ;  till  the  close  of  the 
eleventh  century  they  were  called  Romualdins, 
from  the  name  of  their  founder.  Till  that  time, 
Camaldolite  was  a  particular  name  for  those  of 
the  desert  Camaldoli ;  and  D.  Grandi  observes, 
was  not  given  to  the  whole  order,  in  regard  it 
was  in  this  monastery  that  the  order  commenced, 
but  because  the  regulation  was  best  maintained 
here.  Guido  Grandi,  mathematician  to  the  grand 
duke  of  Tuscany,  and  a  monk  of  this  order, 
published  Camaldulian  Dissertations,  on  the 
origin  and  establishment  of  it.  They  were  dis- 
guislied  into  two  classes,  viz.  Coenobites  and 
Eremites. 

CAMALODUNUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
town  of  the  Trinobantes,  the  first  Roman  colony 
of  veterans  in  Britain.  From  the  Itineraries  it 
appears  to  have  stood  where  Maiden  now  stands. 
It  continued  to  be  an  open  place  under  the  Ro- 
mans ;  a  place  of  pleasure  rather  than  strength  ; 
adorned  with  splendid  works,  as  a  theatre,  and 
a  temple  of  Claudius :  which  the  Britons  con- 
sidered as  badges  of  slavery,  and  which  gave  rise 
to  several  commotions. 

CAMARGUE,  or  CAMABQUE,  LA,  a  tract  of 
Provence,  France,  insulated  by  the  two  principal 
mouths  of  the  Rhone.  It  is  sometimes  called 
the  Delta  of  France.  It  is  a  cluster  of  islands, 
spread  over  nearly  200  square  miles,  and  sepa- 
rated only  by  canals.  The  soil  is  fertile  in 
corn  and  pasture,  though  very  marshy  in  parti- 
cular places,  and  much  impregnated  with  salt. 


CAM 


55 


CAM 


3000  black  cattle  are  said  to  be  found  here,  a 
like  stock  of  horses,  and  40,000  sheep.  The 
island  is  the  property  of  the  town  of  Aries ;  and 
belongs  to  the  department  of  the  Mouths  of  the 
Rhone.  It  is  divided  into  nine  parishes,  and 
numerous  villages. 

CAMARINA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  city  of 
Sicily,  built  by  the  Syracusans  on  an  eminence 
near  the  sea,  in  the  south  of  Sicily,  to  the  west 
of  the  promontory  Pachynum,  between  the 
rivers  Hipparis  and  .Oanus.  Nothing  remains 
but  its  ancient  walls,  a  mile  and  a  half  in  com- 
pass ;  with  a  few  houses.  It  is  now  called  Ca- 
marana. 

CAMARINA  PALUS,  a  marsh  or  lake,  near  the 
city,  from  which  it  took  its  name.  In  a  time  of 
drought,  the  stench  of  the  lake  produced  a  pes- 
tilence ;  upon  which  the  inhabitants  consulted  the 
oracle,  whether  they  should  not  drain  it.  The 
oracle  dissuaded  them :  they  notwithstanding 
drained  it,  and  opened  a  way  for  their  enemies  to 
come  and  plunder  their  city :  hence  the  proverb, 
Ne  moveas  Camarinam,  that  is,  not  to  remove 
one  evil  to  bring  on  a  greater.  It  is  now  called 
Lago  di  Camarana. 

CAMARINES,  a  province  on  the  south  of 
Lucori,  one  of  the  Philippine  islands.  There 
are  several  hot  springs  here,  and  some  of  a  pe- 
trifying quality.  The  capital  is  Caceres. 

CAMARONES,  a  large  river  of  western 
Africa,  which  is,  however,  but  little  known  to 
Europeans.  It  forms  at  its  mouth  a  number 
of  alluvial  islands.  Long.  9°  0'  E.,  lat.  3° 
30' S. 

CAMARONES,  a  river  of  Patagonia,  which, 
forming  a  bay  of  that  name,  falls  into  the  At- 
lantic in  lat.  44°  45'  S. 

CAMAROSIS,  in  surgery,  denotes  a  fracture 
of  a  bone,  wherein  the  two  broken  ends  rise  and 
form  a  kind  of  arch.  It  is  chiefly  applied  to 
fractures  in  the  skull. 

CAMASSEI,  or  CAMACE,  (Andrew),  painter 
of  history  and  landscape,  was  born  at  Bevagna, 
and  studied  under  Dominichino  and  Sacchi. 
He  was  employed  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and 
at  St.  John  Lateran ;  and  his  works  are  much 
admired  for  sweetness  of  coloring,  and  de- 
licacy of  pencil.  He  died  in  the  bloom  of  life, 
when  his  reputation  was  daily  advancing,  A.  D. 
1657. 

CAMBAHEE,  a  considerable  river  of  South 
Carolina,  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  large 
streams  which  rise  in  Orangeburg,  and  after 
passing  into  Charleston  district,  unite,  and  run- 
ning south-east,  enter  St.  Helena  Sound,  a  little 
to  the  south-west  of  Ashepoo. 

CAMBAL,  a  fertile  and  hilly  district  of 
Southern  Abyssinia.  Its  inhabitants  are  inde- 
pendent, and  consist  of  Christians,  Mahom- 
medans,  and  Pagans. 

CAMBAY,  a  sea-port  town  of  Ahmedabad, 
Mindostan,  in  the  province  of  Gujerat,  the  Cu- 
manes  of  Ptolemy.  It  stands  at  the  top  of  a 
gulf  of  the  same  name,  and  was  formerly  a 
flourishing  commercial  port,  but  the  sea  has  re- 
nred  from  the  coast  considerably,  and  the  navi- 
gation of  the  gulf  is  dangerous.  Its  principal 
Jrade  now  is  in  corn,  cornelians,  and  cottons,  for 
Bombay ;  and  a  few  elephants'  teeth  and  cor- 


nelians for  the  China  markets.  There  are  three 
extensive  bazaars.  The  town  is  surrounded  by  i» 
brick  wall,  and  most  of  the  houses  are  of  brick 
or  stone.  The  wall  is  about  five  miles  in  circuit, 
enclosing  five  noble  reservoirs  of  water.  The 
inhabitants  are  considered  very  expert  plasterers. 
So  early  as  the  fifth  century  this  town  is  con- 
jectured to  have  been  the  capital  of  the  Baleyras 
and  of  the  western  Hindoo  emperors.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Mahommedans  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  in  the  sixteenth  presented  to  the 
Portuguese  the  magnificent  ruins  of  a  first-rate 
city  :  but  these  were  more  to  the  south  than  the 
site  of  the  present  town.  Here,  however,  are 
still  seen  Hindoo  subterranean  temples,  con- 
structed since  the  Mahommedan  invasion,  and 
the  houses  of  opulent  persons  contain  numerous 
apartments  under  ground.  In  a  subterranean 
Jain  temple  are  two  statues  of  deities  of  large 
size.  The  inscription  on  one,  which  is  white, 
intimates  that  it  is  an  image  of  Parswanatha, 
carved  and  consecrated  in  the  reign  of  the  em- 
peror Acber,  A.D.  1602.  That  on  the  other, 
the  black  one,  has  merely  the  date  1651,  with 
the  names  of  two  Banyans  who  brought  it  here. 
This  place  was  first  taken  possession  of  by  the 
British  in  1780,  but  restored  three  years  after- 
wards to  the  Mahrattas.  It  was  again  taken  in 
the  last  Mahratta  war,  and  confirmed  to  the  com- 
pany in  1803.  It  is  in  the  jurisdiction  of  Broach. 

CAMBAYES,  in  commerce,  cotton  cloths 
made  at  Bengal,  Madras,  and  some  other  places 
on  the  coast  of  Coromandel.  They  are  proper 
for  the  trade  of  Marseilles,  whither  the  English 
at  Madras  sent  great  numbers  of  them.  Many 
of  them  are  also  imported  to  Holland. 

CAM'BER,  n.  1       Lat.   cumwrus;    Fr.    cam- 

CAM'BERING.  5  bre ;  Per.  khami,  an  arch  or 
curve.  A  word  mentioned  by  Skinner  as  pecu- 
liar to  ship-builders,  who  say  that  a  place  is 
cambering,  when  they  mean  arched. 

Camber,  a  piece  of  timber  cut  arching,  so  as  a 
considerable  weight  being  set  upon  it,  it  may  in  length 
of  time  be  induced  to  a  straight. 

Moxon's  Mechanical  Exercises, 

CAMBERT,  a  French  musician  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  much  admired  for  the  manner  in 
which  he  touched  the  organ.  He  became  super- 
intendent of  music  to  Anne  of  Austria,  the 
queen-mother.  The  abbe  Perin  associated  him 
in  the  privilege  he  obtained  of  setting  up  an 
opera  in  1669.  Cambert  set  to  music  two  pas- 
torals, one  entitled  Pomona,  the  other  Ariadne, 
which  were  the  first  operas  given  in  France.  He 
also  wrote  a  piece  entitled  The  Pains  and  Plea- 
sures of  Love.  These  pieces  pleased  the  public ; 
yet,  in  1672,  Lully  obtained  the  privilege  of  the 
opera,  and  Cambert  came  to  England,  where  he  be- 
came superintendent  of  music  to  king  Charles  II. 
and  died  in  1677. 

CAMBODIA,  a  country  of  Asia,  in  the  East 
Indies,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  kingdom 
of  Laos,  on  the  east  by  Cochin-China  and 
Tsiampa,  and  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  gull 
and  kingdom  of  Siam.  It  extends  about  400 
miles  from  north  to  south,  and  150  in  breadth 
from  east  to  west,  being  watered  by  a  fine  stream, 
generally  known  by  the  name  of  the  country. 
The  coast  is  flat  and  woody ;  the  eastern  and 


CAMBRIDGE. 


Round  Church,  in  Bridge  Street,  is  a  curious    Charles  VI.  and  Philip  V.  of  Spain.    During  the 
western  parts  of  the  interior  mountainous,  in- '  -French  revolution  it  was  the  theatre  of  war,  and 
tersected   by   deep   ravines;    but   the    middle,    i— J™*»w*.-»— »— iw.fc— J^«*«.Ki-i>i-v« 
through  which  the  river  passes,  is  a  fine  plain. 
Here  are  found  precious  stones  of  several  species, 
and  gold  in  considerable  quantities.     The  soil  is 


lord  Wellington  had  his  head  quarters  here  in  1 81 5. 
It  was  afterwards  one  of  the  eighteen  fortresses 
placed  under  his  surveillance  for  five  years.  Six- 
teen miles  south-east  of  Douay,  seventeen  west 


fertile    producing  legumes,  rice,  and  fruits  in    of  Valenciennes,  and  110  N.N.  E.  of  Paris. 

abundance,  as  well  as  many  medicinal  plants,        ™™"  D^  -   -      * ^—1—  •>  ~ 

the  sandal  and  eagle-wood-tree,  and  many  other 
valuable  vegetables.  Lions,  elephants,  and 
tigers  are  found  here;  and  the  cattle  are  ex- 
tremely plentiful.  Silk  and  ivory  are  abundant 


CAM'BRIC,  n.  s.  From  Cambray,  a  city  in 
Flanders,  where  it  was  principally  made.  A  kind 
of  fine  linen,  used  for  handkerchiefs,  ruffles,  wo- 
men's sleeves  and  caps,  &c. 

He  hath  ribbons  ol  all  the  colours  ot  the  rainbow  , 


Confederate  in  the  cheat,  they  draw  the  throng, 
And  camMck  handkerchiefs  reward  the  song.       Gay. 

CAMBRICS  are  now  made  at  other  places  in 
This    manufacture 


V    f    . _i         i       •    i     i  •,     j  JCLC  inuu  riuuuus  ui  an  mu  LUIUUIS  ui  me  raiiiuow  , 

and  cheap.     This  country  is  said  to  be  inhabited    ink]e8)  caddises>  camMclu,  and  lawns.       Shakspenre 
by  a  mixed  race  of  1,000,000  Cochin -Chinese, 
Malays,  Japanese,  and  Portuguese.     The  men 
are  handsome,  with  long  hair  and  a  yellow  com- 
plexion.   The  women  are  said  to  be  licentious.    France   besides   Cambray- 
Both  sexes  dress  in  a  kind  of  robe.  -    has  long  prove<i  of  extraordinary  advantage  to 

ligion  is  that  of  the  Siamese.  Cambodia,  or  France  For  manv  years  it  appeared  that  Eng- 
Lowaic,  the  capital,  is  seated  on  the  westihoreot  the  iand  did  not  in  this  article  contribute  less  than 
river  Me-kon,  Cambu  Cha't,  or  Cambodia,  about  £200)000  per  annum  to  the  interest  of  France, 
150  miles  north  of  its  mouth.  Long.  104  15  whica  induced  the  British  parliament  to  enact 
E.,  lat.  13°  10'  N.  Its  inhabitants  carry  on  little  m  laws  to  prevent  it.  See  18  Geo.  II.  c.  36, 
traffic  with  other  nations,  and  never  cross  the  sea,  and  21  Geo  n  c  26  gee  also  32  Geo.  II.  c.  32, 
it  is  said,  for  commercial  objects.  Their  exports  and  4  Geo  m  c  37>  which  reguiates  the  cam- 
are  various  kinds  of  wood,  betel-nut,  mother-of  bric  manufactory.  Cambrics  now  allowed  in 
pearl-shells,  peltry,  silk  and  coarse  cloths.  In  tllis  country  are  manufactured  in  Scotland  and 
the  year  1670  the  English  attempted  to  traffic  ireiana.  Any  persons  convicted  of  wearing, 
here,  but  their  intercourse  was  short  and  un-  selling  (except  for  exportation),  or  making  up 
satisfactory.  Saigong  is  the  chief  port  of  for  njre  any  French  cambrics  or  lawns,  were  liable 
export.  to  a  penalty  of  £5  by  the  first  two  statutes  cited 

CAMBOGIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mo-  above ;  but  the  new  system  of  free  trade  has 
nogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  polyandria  class  ma(Je  a  change  with  respect  to  the  admission  of 
of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  French  manufactures. 

under  the  thirty-ninth  order,  tricoccae.  The  CAMBRIDGE  (CANTABRIGIA,  Latin),  a 
COR.  is  tetrapetalous ;  the  CAL.  tetraphyllous ;  county  town  of  England,  situated  on  the  river 
and  the  fruit  is  a  pome  with  eight  cells,  and  so-  Cam,  eleven  miles  east  of  Ely,  and  fifty-one  north 
litary  seeds.  The  principal  species  is  C.  gutta,  a  of  London.  It  was  the  Camboritum,  or  Granta, 
native  of  India ;  it  yields  the  gum  resin  known  of  the  Romans,  and  a  well  known  station  of  that 
by  the  name  of  gamboge.  people,  as  the  numerous  urns,  coins,  and  other 

CAMBRASINES,  in  commerce,  fine  linen  antiquities  dug  up  here  attest.  The  modern 
made  in  Egypt,  of  which  there  is  a  considerable  town  is  of  small  consideration,  except  for  its 
trade  at  Cairo,  Alexandria,  and  Raschit.  They  connexion  with  the  University,  being  only  about 
are  so  called  from  their  resemblance  to  cam-  a  mile  in  length,  and  half  a  mile  broad  ;  the 
brics.  best  streets  are  Trumpington  Street,  and  St.  An- 

CAMBRAY,  a  well-built  city  of  the  Nether-  drew's  Street,  united  with  Regent  Street  towards 
lands, on  the  banks  of  the  Scheldt.  It  is  an  arch-  Gogmagog  hills;  but  the  whole  is  well  paved, 
bishop's  see.  The  cathedral,  episcopal  palace,  Its  population  has  been  pretty  stationary  at 
and  several  of  the  public  buildings,  are  magnifi-  somewhat  more  than  10,000  for  many  years,  but 
cent,  and  the  streets  are  spacious.  The  popu-  has  since  reached  14,000,  and  is  still  increasing, 
lation  is  about  16,000,  but  the  once  flourishing  The  tradespeople  derive  their  support  principally 
manufactures  of  linen,  cambrick  (which  derives  from  the  learned  residents  and  visitors  of  the 
its  name  from  this  place),  lace,  tapestry,  and  colleges.  Butter  is  a  production  of  the  neigh- 
hosiery,  are  much  reduced.  A  considerable  busi-  bourhood  for  which  the  market  is  celebrated,  and 
ness,  however,  is  conducted  in  them,  and  in  the  which  it  sends  in  considerable  quantities  to  Lon- 
neighbourhood  are  some  noble  bleaching  grounds,  don.  That  which  is  sold  in  Cambridge  is  made 
A  citadel  and  regular  fortress  defend  the  place,  up  in  the  form  of  rolls,  a  yard  long,  and  weigh- 
It  was  the  Camaracum  of  the  ancients,  and  gave  ing  just  a  pound.  Here  is  also  a  trade  in  wool, 
the  title  of  archbishop  to  the  celebrated  Fenelon.  oil,  iron,  corn,  and  cheese.  Here  is  a  noble 
Charles  V.  garrisoned  and  fortified  this  city  :  the  foundation  called  Addenbrookes'  Hospital,  lately 
Spaniards  took  it  by  surprize  in  1595,  after  which  much  enlarged,  which,  as  a  general  infirmary,  is 
it  remained  in  their  possession  until  1677,  when  resorted  to  from  all  parts  of  the  county  ;  nume- 
it  was  taken  by  Ixmis  XIV.  to  whom  it  was  con-  rous  charity  schools  and  almshouses;  and  some 
firmed  by  the  peace  of  Nimeguen.  It  is  also  of  the  churches  of  the  town  are  remarkable, 
noted  in  history  for  the  famous  league  of  1507,  Great  St.  Mary's,  the  University  church,  is  a  fine 
against  the  republic  of  Venice ;  for  a  treaty  con-  Gothic  edifice,  having  a  lofty  tower  crowned  with 
eluded  here  in  1529  between  Francis  I.  of  France,  four  beautiful  pinnacles ;  that  of  St.  Sepulchre 
and  the  emperor  Charles  V;  and  for  negociations  was  built  in  imitation  of  the  church  of  the  Holy 
opened  here,  but  terminated  at  Vienna,  between  Sepulclire  at  Jerusalem.  Market  on  Saturday 


CAMBRIDGE. 


67 


Cambridge  Castle  was  built  by  William  the 
Conqueror,  but  much  dilapidated  in  the  suc- 
ceeding reigns  and  during  the  wars  of  the  barons; 
a  gate  house  of  the  original  edifice  is  still  stand- 
ing, and  is  now  the  county  gaol.  Richard  II. 
held  a  parliament  here,  and  the  audacious  Wat 
Tyler  burnt  the  University  records  in  the  market 
place.  It  was  often  molested  at  this  period  by 
outlaws  from  the  neighbouring  fens.  The  pa- 
rishes are  fourteen,  and  the  churches  thirteen,  in 
number;  and  the  dissenters  are  numerous  and 
respectable,  having  three  commodious  chapels, 
three  of  smaller  size,  and  a  Quaker's  meeting- 
house, though  none  of  that  persuasion  reside  in 
the  town.  Cambridge  is  governed  by  a  mayor, 
recorder,  thirteen  aldermen,  twenty-four  common 
council-men,  and  a  town-clerk,  and  the  town 
sends  two  members  to  parliament.  The  police 
is  under  the  joint  direction  of  the  university  and 
corporation,  the  vice-chancellor  being  always  a 
magistrate  ex  officio.  Fronting  the  shire-hall, 
in  the  market-place,  stands  Hobson's  conduit, 


the  gift  of  a  celebrated  horse  jockey  and  carrier,  ir» 
the  reign  of  James  1.,  whose  conduct  gave  rise  to 
the  expression  of  Ilobson's  choice,  'that  or  none;' 
for  in  letting  out  his  horses  he  strictly  followed 
that  rotation  which  gave  each  an  equal  share  of 
work ;  and  refused,  it  is  said,  to  let  any  other 
than  that  which  stood  next.  Near  the  gardens 
of  Bene't  College  is  a  botanic  garden  of  five 
acres,  with  a  large  house  for  the  use  of  the  go-' 
vernors,  curator,  &c.,  given  to  the  University  by 
the  late  Dr.  Walker,  and  augmented  by  the  be- 
nefaction of  the  late  Dr.  Betham. 

The  University  of  Cambridge  consists  of 
thirteen  colleges  and  four  halls,  the  latter  enjoy- 
ing; equal  privileges  with  the  former.  Th<j  re- 
mote antiquity  that  has  been  claimed  for  it  need 
not  here  engage  much  attention.  Sigebert,  king 
of  the  East  Angles  in  630,  was  the  first  founder 
of  whom  any  credible  account  remains;  but 
few,  or  none,  of  the  existing  colleges  were  built 
or  endowed  until  the  thirteenth  century.  The 
following  is  the  order  of  their  foundation  :— 


Colleges  or  Halls. 
St.  Peter's,  or  Peter  House 
Clare  Hall       .     .     . 
Pembroke  Hall    .     .     .    . 
Corpus  Christ!      .... 
Gonville  and  Caius  College 


Founders.  A.  D. 

Hugo  de  Balsham 1257 

.....     1326,1342 

Mary  de  St.  Paul 1343 

.     .     .                1356 


Edmund  Gonville  and  Dr.  Caius    1348,  1557 

Trinity  Hall    .     .     .     .     .     .  William  Bateman,  bishop  of  Norwich  .  1351 

King's  College Henry  VI.  VII.  and  VIII 1441 

Queen's  College  .     .   V    .     .  Margaret  of  Anjou 1448 

Catherine  Hall     .     .'...'.     .  Robert  Woodlark 1474 

Jesus  College John  Alcock,  bishop  of  Ely    ....  1496 

Christ  College Margaret,  countess  of  Richmond      .     .  1506 


St.  John's  College 
Trinity  College  .  .  . 
Magdalen  College  .  . 
Emanuel  College .  .  . 
Sidney  Sussex  College  . 
Downing  College 


The  same 1511 

Henry  VIII 1540 

Thomas,  lord  Audley 1542 

Sir  Walter  Mildmay 1584 

Frances,  countess  of  Sussex    ....  1593 

Sir  George  Downing 1800 

At  the  first  foundation  of  these  splendid  are  to  consider  and  determine  what  graces  are 
schools  there  was  no  public  provision  for  the  proper  to  be  brought  before  the  body  of  the 
accommodation  or  maintenance  of  the  scholars ;  university,  and  each  of  them  has  a  negative 
but  afterwards  inns  began  to  be  erected  by  pious  voice.  All  graces  must  first  pass  the  caput  be- 
persons  for  their  reception;  and  in  the  time  of  fore  they  can  be  produced  to  the  senate.  Each 
Edward  I.  colleges  were  regularly  endowed,  college  has  its  school  and  library,  as  at  Oxford, 
The  university  enjoys  great  privileges.  It  is  of  which  those  of  Trinity  and  St.  John  are  the 
governed  by  a  chancellor,  who  is  always  a  noble-  most  considerable.  The  senate  of  this  univer- 
man,  and  has  a  commissary  under  him,  but  may  sity  includes  all  the  doctors  and  masters  of  arts, 
be  changed  every  third  year;  a  high  steward,  and  is  divided  into  two  houses:  the  first  con- 
chosen  by  the  senate ;  a  vice-chancellor,  chosen  sisting  of  regents,  or  those  who  have  not  been 
annually  by  the  senate,  out  of  two  named  by  the  masters  of  arts  five  years,  called  white-hoods, 
heads  of  colleges  from  their  own  number ;  two  from  the  lining  of  their  hoods.  The  second  are 
proctors,  chosen  every  year;  and  two  taxers,  who,  non-regents,  or  those  who  have  taken  the  degree 
with  the  proctors,  regulate  the  weights  and  mea-  of  master  upwards  of  five  years,  but  have  not 
sures  ;  two  moderators,  and  two  scrutators.  The  advanced  to  the  degree  of  doctor;  these  are  called 
other  officers  are,  a  registrar  or  keeper  of  the  black-hoods.  The  doctors  under  two  years 
archives,  three  esquire  beadles,  one  yeoman  standing  can  vote  only  in  the  regent-house ;  but 
beadle,  the  library-keepers,  &c.  There  is  also  all  others  may  vote  in  which  house  they  please. 


a  commissary,  who  is  usually  appointed  an 
assistant,  or  accessor,  and  deputy  high-steward 
to  the  vice-chancellor  in  his  court;  and  a  public 
orator,  who  is  the  mouth  of  the  university  on 
public  occasions,  writes  their  letters,  'presents 


In  the  senate-house  the  rejection  of  all  officers, 
the  appointment  of  the  magistrates,  and  the  ad- 
mission to  degrees,  takes  place ;  and  no  lan- 
guage but  Latin  is  permitted  to  be  spoken  at  its 
meetings.  Besides  the  fellows  and  scholars, 


noblemen  to  their  degrees  with  a  speech,  &c.  there  are  two  other  orders,  called  pensioners,  the 
The  caput  (which  consists  of  the  vice-chancellor,  greater  and  the  less  ;  the  former  are  the  young 
a  doctor  of  divinity,  a  doctor  of  laws,  a  doctor  of  nobility,  and  gentlemen  of  fortune,  called  fellow- 
physic,  a  regent  and  non-regent  master  of  arts,  commoners,  because  they  dine  with  the  fellows . 
who  are  chosen  yearly  on  the  twelfth  of  October),  the  less  are  dieted  with  the  scholars.  There  is 


CAMBRIDGE. 


also  a  considerable  number  of  scholars  of  inferior 
fortune,  called  sizars :  these,  though  not  of  the 
foundation,  are  capable  of  receiving  many  bene- 
factions, called  exhibitions,  and  frequently  attain 
the  highest  honors.  To  particularise  the  build- 
ings, and  peculiar  privileges,  of  each  of  the  col- 
leges in  detail,  will  hardly  be  expected  from  us. 
We  can  only  furnish  the  reader  with  a  cursory 
glance  at  them. 

St.  Peter's  College,  or  Peter  House,  was  for- 
merly two  hostels,  or  hospitals,  and  appropriated 
in  1257,  by  Hugo  de  Balsbam,  prior  of  Ely,  to 
the  use  of  students.  He  endowed  this  founda- 
tion in  1214,  for  the  support  of  a  master,  four- 
teen fellows,  twenty-nine  Bible  clerks,  and  eight 
poor  scholars ;  the  number  to  be  afterwards  re^ 
gulated  by  the  fluctuation  of  the  revenues.  The 
fellowships  have  been  since  increased  by  nu- 
merous benefactions.  The  chapel  was  erected  in 
1632.  The  building  surrounds  two  courts  (the 
largest  cased  with  stone),  which  are  separated  by 
a  cloister  and  gallery.  A  lady  Mary  Ramsey 
is  said  to  have  once  offered  to  leave  a  consider- 
able property  to  St.  Peter's,  if  it  should  be 
agreed  to  be  called  afterwards '  Peter  and  Mary's 
College.'  Dr.  Soame,  the  master,  replied — , 
'  Peter  hath  been  too  long  a  bachelor  to  think  of 
a  companion  in  his  old  age.'  '  A  dear  bought  jest,' 
says  Fuller,  '  for  lady  Ramsey,  disgusted  at  the 
refusal,  turned  the  stream  of  her  benevolence 
into  a  different  channel.' 

Clare  Hall  was  erected  on  the  former  site  of 
University  Hall,  a  college  founded  in  1326  by 
Dr.  Richard  Baden.  This  being,  about  sixteen 
years  after  its  erection,  destroyed  by  fire,  it  was 
rebuilt  on  a  more  extended  scale  by  Elizabeth 
de  Burgh,  in  1344;  and  she,  being  last  heiress  of 
the  earls  of  Clare,  gave  to  it  its  present  name, 
with  endowment  for  a  master,  ten  fellows,  and 
ten  scholars.  Richard  III.,  Thomas  Cecil,  earl 
of  Exeter,  John  Freeman,  esq.,  William  Butler, 
esq.,  and  Samuel  Blythe,  esq.,  severally  augmented 
the  revenues,  which  now  maintain  seventeen  fel- 
lows, and  between  thirty  and  forty  scholars. 
This  college,  which  stands  near  the  north-west 
angle  of  King's  College  chapel,  is  more  uniform 
in  its  buildings  than  most  of  its  neighbours,  and 
as  pleasantly  situated  as  any  in  the  university. 
It  was  rebuilt  of  stone  in  1638,  except  the  cha- 
pel, which  was  erected  in  1703,  by  Sir  James 
Burroughs,  at  a  cost  of  £7000.  The  alcove  over 
the  altar  contains  a  fine  painting  of  the  Saluta- 
tion, from  the  hand  of  Cipriani. 

Pembroke  Hall  was  founded  in  1343,  by  Mary, 
Countess  of  Pembroke,  and  endowed  by  a  charter 
of  Edward  III.  for  a  master  and  six  fellows. 
Henry  VI.  greatly  enriched  it.  The  number  of 
fellowships  is  sixteen,  and  the  scholarships  about 
seventy.  The  chapel  was  built  by  bishop  Wren, 
from  a  design  of  his  nephew,  Sir  Christopher 
Wren.  Here  is  a  small  detached  building,  con- 
taining a  curious  astronomical  machine,  or 
sphere,  which  was  partly  made  by  Dr.*  Roger 
Long,  author  of  a  celebrated  treatise  on  astro- 
nomy, who,  at  his  death,  bequeathed  the  interest 
of  £200  bank  annuities,  to  keep  '  the  instrument 
and  place'  ingoou  repair.  The  college  consists 
of  twt  courts,  separated  by  a  hall,  having  at  one 
end  thje  combination  room.  Dr.  lyng's  spliere 
•s  eighteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  will  contain 


thir'y  persons  sitting  conveniently.  It  contains 
meridians,  a  zodiac,  several  of  the  constellations 
painted  on  the  ceiling,  is  penetrated  by  the  poles, 
&c.,  but  was  never  completed. 

Corpus  Christi,  or  Bene't  College,  was  esta- 
blished by  the  union  of  two  religious  guilds,  and 
patronised  largely  by  Henry  Plantagenet,  duke 
of  Lancaster,  whom  the  brethren  chose  their  first 
alderman.  Sir  John  Cambridge  and  his  son 
much  increased  its  revenues,  which  were  appro- 
priated in  1356  to  the  maintenance  of  a  master, 
eight  fellows,  six  scholars,  and  three  Bible  clerks. 
Since  that  period  the  endowments  have  supported 
twelve  fellows,  and  nearly  sixty  scholarships. 
The  name  of  Bene't,  or  Benedict  College,  arose 
from  its  proximity  to  the  church  of  that  saint.  Its 
greatest  single  benefactor  was  Matthew  Parker, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  founded  two  fel- 
lowships and  five  scholarships,  and  bestowed  on 
it  the  valuable  library  of  Stoke-clare  College, 
Suffolk,  besides  many  valuable  MSS.  The 
buildings  of  this  college  also  surround  a  square 
court.  Dr.  Herring,  some  years  since  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  left  £1000  towards  its  recent 
improvements,  which  consist  of  an  entire  new 
court,  with  a  handsome  Gothic  front  towards 
Trumpington  street. 

Gonville  and  Caius,  called  frequently  King's 
College,  was  founded  in  the  year  1348,  by 
Edmund  Gonville,  and  at  first  called  Gonville 
Hall;  but  in  1557  Dr.  John  Caius,  physician  to 
Queen  Mary,  built  a  new  court,  and  the  three 
remarkable  gates  inscribed  respectively,  '  Hu- 
militatis,'  the  gate  of  humility;  'Virttitis,'  the 
gate  of  virtue ;  '  Is  Caius  posuit  Sapientiae' 
(John  Caius  built  this  in  honour  of  wisdom) ; 
'  Honorisc,'  the  gate  of  honor.  Since  the  time  of 
Dr.  Caius  the  fellowships  have  increased  to 
twenty-nine,  and  the  scholarships  to  nearly  100, 
The  principal  court  has  been  cased  with  stone 
and  partly  rebuilt.  In  the  chapel  is  a  tomb  to 
the  memory  of  Dr.  Caius,  with  the  following 
terse  epitaph : — 

Fui  CAIUS 

VIVIT    POST    FUNERA    VIRTUS. 

Trinity  Hall  was  originally  one  of  those 
hostels  where  the  students  resided  at  their  own 
expense  ;  and  was  appropriated  by  Richard 
Crovyder,  prior  of  Ely,  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.  Bateman,  bishop  of  Norwich,  converted 
it  into  a  college  in  1351,  and  provided  for  a 
master,  three  fellows,  and  two  scholars  :  various 
benefactions  have  increased  the  fellowships  to 
twelve,  and  the  scholarships  to  fourteen.  The 
hall  is  faced  with  stone,  and  the  buildings  are 
very  neat  and  uniform.  Among  its  modern  be- 
nefactions is  one  of  £20,000,  left  in  1747,  by 
Dr.  John  Andrews,  for  the  erection  of  two  spa- 
cious wings. 

King's  College,  founded  by  Henry  VI.  in 
1441,  is  the  pride  of  Cambridge.  In  1443 
he  endowed  it  for  a  provost,  seventy  fellows  or 
scholars,  three  chaplains,  six  clerks,  sixteen 
choristers,  and  a  music  master,  sixteen  officers 
of  the  foundation,  twelve  servitors  for  the  senior 
follows,  and  six  poor  scholars.  All  the  designs 
of  this  munificent  monarch,  however  were  never 
completed,  and  but  a  small  part  of  the  intended 
buildings  were  erected  Henry  VII.  may  be 


CAMBRIDGE. 


called  its  second  founder.  Towards  the  latter 
end  of  liis  reign  he  expended  upwards  of  £'2000 
on  its  edifices,  besides  presenting  the  college 
with  £5000  separately,  for  furnishing  the  chapel 
and  provost's  residence.  In  the  chapel  library  is 
a  plan  of  the  college,  as  intended  to  be  built  by 
his  predecessor.  Some  splendid  additions  have 
.ately  been  made  to  this  noble  college. 

King's  College  Chapel  has  been  considered  the 
most  exact,  as  it  is  certainly  one  of  the  most 
oeautiful  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  in 
Europe.  The  whole  edifice  is  316  feet  in  length, 
and  eighty-four  in  breadth.  Eleven  immense 
buttresses  support  each  side,  and  terminate  in 
elegant  pinnacles.  On  each  corner  is  an  octan- 
gular tower,  146J  feet  high,  and  crowned  with  a 
noble  dome.  The  open  worked  battlements  give 
an  airiness  to  its  appearance,  in  fine  contrast 
with  the  massive  part  of  the  structure.  The  in- 
terior is  yet  more  striking  ;  and  its  vast  stone 
roof,  unsupported  by  a  single  pillar,  becomes  an 
object  of  astonishment  and  awe  to  all  who  see 
it  for  the  first  time.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  Gothic 
arch,  flattened  at  the  centre,  and  is  divided  into 
twelve  parts,  separated  by  the  eleven  principal 
arches,  which  spring  from  the  buttresses.  Each 
division  of  the  roof  is  formed  of  groined  arches, 
beautifully  carved,  and  in  the  centre  is  one 
massy  stone,  of  above  a  ton  weight,  ornamented 
with  roses  and  portcullisses.  The  inside  walls 
are  wholly  covered  with  numerous  sculptured 
ornaments  of  almost  inimitable  workmanship. 
These  represent  the  arms  of  the  houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster,  with  a  number  of  crowns,  roses, 
portcullisses,  &c. .  Some  of  the  supporters,  cut 
in  stone,  display  the  hand  of  a  master,  and  equal 
in  expression  almost  any  marble  sculpture.  On 
a  panel,  at  the  upper  part  of  the  screen  which 
separates  the  anti-chape,  from  the  choir,  is  a 
small  piece  in  very  bold  relief,  which  is  univer- 
sally admired,  representing  the  Almighty  hurling 
the  rebel  angels  from  heaven ;  and  on  the  altar- 
piece  is  a  fine  '  taking  down  from  the  cross,' 
which  was  presented  by  the  Earl  of  Carlisle,  and 
is  supposed  to  be  a  production  of  Raphael.  Its 
magnificent  and  exquisitely  painted  windows 
complete  the  enchantment  of  the  inner  scene. 
In  the  arrangement  of  the  paintings,  the  subjects 
from  the  New  Testament,  on  the  north  side,  are 
all  prior  to  the  crucifixion  of  our  Saviour;  while 
those  on  the  south  side  are  posterior  to  that 
event ;  and  the  east  window  is  devoted  entirely 
to  the  most  material  circumstances  immediately 
connected  with  that  awful  deed.  This  window 
i;>  fifty-three  feet  high,  and  twenty-eight  wide, 
and  is  separated  by  two  elegant  buttresses  and  a 
transom  into  six  compartments.  Each  compart- 
ment contains  one  subject,  and  is  divided  by 
muUions  into  three  lights. 

Queens  College  was  founded  in  1448,  by 
Margaret  of  Anjou,  consort  of  Henry  VI.,  and 
endowed  with  £200  per  annum  for  the  support 
of  a  principal,  and  four  fellows.  Elizabeth  Wood- 
ville,  queen  of  Edward  IV.  was  prevailed  on  by 
Andrew  Ducket,  the  master,  to  complete  its 
buildings,  and  establish  it  for  a  master,  nineteen 
fellows,  and  forty-five  scholars.  She  has  since 
been  celebrated  annually,  as  the  co-founder.  The 
buildings  surround  two  quadrangular  courts,  one 
of  which  has  a  cloister  of  about  330  feet.  This 


stands  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Cam,  over  which 
is  a  curious  wooden  bridge  of  one  arch,  sup- 
ported by  rustic  abutments  of  stone. 

Catharine  Hall  was  founded  by  Woodlark, 
chancellor  of  the  University,  in  1474,  and  en- 
dowed for  a  master  and  three  or  moie  fellows. 
The  number  is  now  increased  to  five;  and  eight 
bye-fellowships  with  ten  scholarships.  The  build- 
ings occupy  three  sides  of  a  square  court,  and  are 
separated  from  the  street  by  an  iron  palisade 
and  an  avenue  of  elms.  Its  west  front,  opposite 
Queen's,  has  a  noble  portico. 

Jesus  College,  erected  on  the  foundations  of  an 
ancient  Benedictine  nunnery,  was  founded  by 
Alcock,  Bishop  of  Ely,  in  1496,  for  a  master, 
six  fellows,  and  six  scholars.  The  endowments 
at  present  provide  for  sixteen  fellows  and  fifty 
scholars.  The  college  is  at  a  short  distance  from 
the  town,  and  the  chapel  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  ancient  conventual  church.  A  tomb 
of  one  of  the  nuns  is  still  remaining,  wun  the 
inscription, — 

MOKIBVS.  ORNATA.    JACET.     HIC.    BONA.    BERTHA. 
ROSATA. 

It  is  said  that  a  subterraneous  passage  exists 
from  this  college  to  Barnwell  priory,  about  a 
mile  distant. 

Christ's  College,  built  on  the  site  of  an  hostel, 
called  God's  House,  and  founded  by  Henry  VI., 
was  endowed,  in  1506,  by  Margaret,  countess  of 
Richmond  and  Derby.  The  establishment  now 
maintains  a  master,  fifteen  fellows,  and  seventy 
scholars.  The  buildings  enclose  a  small  quad- 
rangular court,  behind  which  is  a  modern  struc- 
ture by  Inigo  Jones.  In  the  gardens  is  shown 
a  mulberry  tree,  which  Milton  olanted  when  a 
student  here. 

:•  St.  John's  College,  built  en  the  site  of  the  hos- 
pital of  St.  John's,  in  1511,  and  finished  in  151 6, 
was  endowed  by  Margaret  countess  of  Richmond, 
for  a  master  and  thirty-one  fellows  ;  but  its  bene- 
factors have  raised  a  revenue  to  support  sixty-one 
fellows  and  114  scholars.  The  buildings  are  of 
brick,  and  surround  three  courts.  A  new  court, 
surrounded  by  magnificent  buildings,  in  the 
Gothic  style,  has  recently  been  formed  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river,  towards  the  fields; 
these  are  probably  the  most  splendid  of  the  new 
erections  in  the  University.  The  entrance  court 
from  the  town  has  a  magnificent  portal  and  four 
towers.  On  the  other  side  of  a  brook,  which 
bounds  the  walks  of  the  college,  are  the  remains 
of  an  ancient  and  spacious  building,  called  Py- 
thagoras'School,  belonging  with  some  houses  and 
several  acres  of  land  to  Merton  College,  Oxford. 
Its  walls  are  strengthened  with  buttresses,  sup- 
porting arches  of  the  Saxon  style ;  the  building 
is  otherwise  devoid  of  ornament,  except  one 
window  on  each  side,  which  has  a  pillar  in  the 
centre,  with  a  decorated  capital  with  a  round 
moulding.  This  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
place  where  the  first  tutors  of  the  university 
delivered  their  lectures. 

Magdalen  College. — This  foundation  of  Staf- 
ford, duke  of  Buckingham,  was  confiscated  at 
his  death;  and,  being  afterwards  obtained  from 
the  king,  was  endowed  by  Thomas,  lord  Audley, 
for  a  master  and  four  fellows.  The  latter  have 
since  been  increased  to  seventeen,  and  several 


60 


CAMBRIDGE 


scnolarships  have  been  added.  This  college  is 
of  brick,  and  surrounds  two  courts.  The  library 
contains  the  books  and  MSS.  of  Samuel  Pepys, 
esq.,  secretary  to  the  Admiralty,  in  the  reigns  of 
Charles  II.  and  his  successor.  The  chapel  has 
a  curious  plaster  of  Paris  altar-piece. 

Trinity,  the  largest  college  of  th«  university, 
surrounds  two  noble  quadrangular  courts,  whose 
gateways,  chapel,  and  library  are  fine  specimens 
of  architecture.  It  was  founded,  in  1546,  by 
Henry  VIII.,  on  the  site  of  two  other  colleges 
and  a  hostel,  and  originally  endowed  for  a  master, 
sixty  fellows,  sixty-seven  scholars,  four  conducts, 
three  public  professors,  thirteen  poor  scholars, 
twenty  beadsmen,  and  other  officers;  the  number 
on  the  establishment  has  amounted  to  upwards 
of  400,  of  late.  The  inner  court,  called  after 
the  name  of  Dr.  Thomas  Neville,  was  chiefly 
built  at  his  expense,  in  the  year  1009.  On  its 
west  side  is  the  library,  a  capacious  building,  200 
feet  in  length,  forty  in  breadth,  and  thirty-eight 
high.  Beneath  is  a  spacious  piazza,  which 
opens  to  the  river  and  gardens.  On  the  south 
side  of  this  court  another  has  been  lately  built, 
containing  numerous  sets  of  rooms  for  students. 
The  chapel  contains  a  fine  statue  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  by  Roubiliac.  He  is  represented  in  a 
loose  gown  of  a  master  of  arts,  with  a  prism  in 
his  hands.  His  countenance  is  turned  upwards, 
with  a  look  of  profound  meditation,  and  on  the 
pedestal  is  the  inscription,  Qui  genus  humanum 
ingenio  superavit.  The  drapery  and  features  are 
considered  extremely  beautiful.  No  object  in  the 
university  deserves  a  visitor's  notice  more  than 
the  library  of  this  college.  It  is  a  superb  apart- 
ment, occupying  one  side  of  the  quadrangle 
called  Neville's  court.  The  books  are  all  ranged 
on  either  side,  and  the  compartments  crowned 
with  busts  of  ancient  and  modern  authors. 

Emanuel  College,  founded  in  1584  by  Sir 
Walter  Mildmay,  on  the  site  of  a  Dominican 
convent,  was  endowed  for  a  master,  three  fellows, 
and  four  scholars.  Additional  donations  have 
provided  for  the  support  of  fifteen  fellows,  and 
nearly  100  scholars  and  exhibitionists.  The  hall 
is  thought  one  of  the  most  elegant  in  Cambridge ; 
and  the  altar-piece  in  the  chapel  is  very  fine. 

Sidney  Sussex  College  was  founded  by  Frances 
Sidney,  countess  of  Sussex,  who  by  will  be- 
queathed upwards  of  £5000  towards  a  college 
for  a  master,  ten  fellows,  and  twenty  scholars. 
The  first  stone  of  the  college  was  laid  on  the  20th 
of  May,  in  1596,  and  the  building  completed  in 
1599.  The  chapel  and  the  library  were  rebuilt 
recently.  The  foundation  now  provides  for 
seven  fellows,  ten  bye-fellows,  twenty  scholars, 
and  twenty-four  bye-scholars,  besides  a  mathe- 
matical lecturer,  and  the  exhibitioners. 

Downing  College,  the  last  of  these  noble  esta- 
blishments, was  originally  provided  for  by  the 
will  of  Sir  George  Downing,  who  died  in  1717  ; 
but,  the  bequest  being  disputed,  the  great  seal 
was  not  affixed  to  its  charter  unt.il  the  year  1800. 
This  provides  for  a  master,  a  professor  of  English 
law,  a  professor  of  medicine,  and  sixteen  fellows. 
The  latter  are  to  vacate  the  fellowships  at  the  ex- 
piration of  twelve  years,  unless  they  obtain  a 
licence  to  hold  them  longer. 

The  Senate-House,  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  is  a 
uoble  building  of  tin-  Corinthian  order,  designed 


by  Sir  James  Burrows.  It  forms  the  north  side 
of  the  quadrangle,  of  which  the  public  schools 
and  library  are  designed  to  be  the  western  side. 
The  gallery,  supported  by  fluted  columns,  is  said 
to  be  capable  of  containing  1100  persons;  and 
the  whole  room,  within,  is  considered  the  most 
superb  in  Europe.  It  contains  statues  of  George 
I.  and  II.,  the  duke  of  Somerset,  by  Itysbrach,  &c. 
The  schools  surround  a  small  court.  On  the  west 
are  the  philosophy  schools,  where  disputations 
are  held.  On  the  north  the  divinity  school ;  and 
on  the  left,  or  south  entrance  of  the  court,  that  of 
law  and  physic.  At  the  south-east  corner  of  the 
philosophy  schools  is  a  geometrical  staircase,  lead- 
ing to  the  university  library,  which  occupies  the 
quadrangular  apartments  above  the  schools.  The 
original  building  was  erected  about  the  year 
1480.  The  east  front,  containing  the  new  library, 
was  rebuilt  in  1775.  Members  of  the  senate, 
and  all  bachelors  of  law  and  physic,  are  entitled 
to  have  books  from  this  library  at  any  time  (not 
exceeding  ten  volumes).  The  statue  of  Ceres, 
brought  from  the  temple  at  Eleusis,  by  Dr.  Clarke, 
graces  the  vestibule.  The  pedestal  was  designed 
by  Flaxman,  from  the  original  in  the  temple  of 
Minerva  Polias  at  Athens.  Here  is  also  (brought 
from  Athens  by  the  same  gentleman)  the  column 
placed  on  the  tomb  of  Euclid  of  Megara,  the 
disciple  of  Socrates,  with  an  inscription  in  bas 
relief.  The  library  contains  upwards  of  90,OOO 
volumes,  besides  various  curious  MSS.  The 
libraries  of  the  several  colleges  are  also  rich  in 
MSS.,  missals,  pictures,  and  curious  natural 
productions  and  remains,  which  it  is  impossible 
here  to  particularise. 

The  University  of  Cambridge  is,  on  the  whole, 
elegant  rather  than  magnificent.  It  possesses 
princely  revenues,  and  many  fine  specimens  of 
the  arts.  Its  recent  improvements,  in  several  of 
the  colleges,  have  added  greatly  to  its  utility  and 
splendour.  Its  walks  and  gardens,  as  scenes  for 
retirement  and  study,  are  no  where  surpassed. 
But  it  forms  no  consistent  whole ;  it  has  grown 
under  the  separate  designs  of  its  architects  and 
founders  into  a  splendid  collection  of  disjointed 
buildings,  which  would  be  the  noble  ornaments 
of  separate  towns,  but  a  mind  that  can  compre- 
hend the  whole  always  regrets  that  there  was  no 
presiding  design  for  it.  The  best  apology  for 
this  is  the  plain  fact  of  the  case — like  every  thing 
characteristic  of  our  country,  it  has  been  the 
creature  of  necessity  and  utility  rather  than  of 
theory  and  art.  This  university  sends  two  mem- 
bers to  parliament,  independently  of  the  two  for 
the  town  of  Cambridge. 

CAMBRIDGE,  a  post  town  of  the  United  States, 
in  South  Carolina,  capital  of  the  district  of 
Ninety-Six.  It  is  situated  in  Abbeville  county, 
eighty  miles  W.N.W.  of  Columbia,  165  north- 
west of  Charlestown,  and  fifty  north  by  west  of 
Augusta  in  Georgia.  A  district  court  is  held  on 
the  26th  of  April  and  November,  and  a  county 
court  for  Abbeville  county  March  25th  and  Sep- 
tember 12lh.  It  is  745  miles  from  Philadelphia. 
CAMBRIDGE,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
flourishing  towns  of  Middlesex  County,  Massa- 
chusetts, is  agreeably  situated  on  the  north  side 
of  Chailes  River,  over  which  a  bridge  has  been 
erected,  connecting  it  with  Boston.  It  contains, 
esides  Harvard  university,  about  100  dwellings. 


CAMBRIDGESHIRE. 


congregational  and  episcopalian  churches,  and  a 
court  house.  The  university  which  is  considered 
the  most  respectable  in  the  united  States,  consists 
of  several  large,  spacious  brick  edifices.  Harvard 
hall  is  divided  into  six  apartments,  one  of  which 
is  appropriated  for  the  library,  two  for  the 
philosophical  apparatus,  one  for  the  museum,  a 
fifth  for  a  refectory,  and  the  other  for  a  chapel. 
The  library  contains  upwards  of  20,000  volumes. 
The  philosophical  apparatus  has  cost  nearly 
£1500,  and  is  one  of  the  completest  on  the 
American  continent.  This  university  was  first 
instituted  in  1636,  and  was  no  more  than  an 
academic  free-school ;  two  years  after,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  donation  left  it  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Harvard  of  Charlestown,  who  died  there,  it  was 
named  Harvard  College.  In  1650  its  first  char- 
ter was  obtained  from  the  government  of  Massa- 
chusetts; and  in  the  mean  time  it  received 
several  donations  from  learned  men  in  Europe. 
Dr.  Lettsom  of  London  was  amongst  the  most 
distinguished  and  liberal  of  these  contributors. 
The  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  the  council 
and  senate,  the  president  of  the  university,  and 
the  congregational  ministers  of  the  six  adjoining 
towns,  are,  during  office,  overseers  of  the  univer- 
sity. The  corporation  is  a  distinct  body,  in 
whom  is  vested  the  property  of  the  university.  The 
number  of  those  who  had  been  admitted  to  academi- 
cal degrees,  from  its  first  establishment,  to  July, 
1793,  was  3360.  The  usual  number  of  resident 
students,  is  from  200  to  250.  A  supreme  court 
is  held  here,  the  last  Tuesday  in  October,  and  a 
court  of  common  pleas  the  last  Tuesday  in 
November.  It  is  350  miles  from  Philadelphia. 
Long.  70°  45'  W.,  lat.  42°  25'  N. 

CAMBRIDGE,  the  chief  town  of  Dorchester 
county,  eastern  shore  of  Maryland.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  south  side  of  Choptank  river,  about 
fifteen  miles  from  its  mouth ;  the  river  is  here 
nearly  two  miles  wide.  It  contains  about  fifty 
houses,  a  church,  and  300  inhabitants.  The 
situation  of  the  town  is  healthy  and  agreeable. 
It  is  eighteen  miles  north-west  by  west  of 
Vienna,  thirty-seven  south  of  Easton,  and  152 
S.  S.  W.  of  Philadelphia.  Long.  0°  59'  W.,  lat. 
38°  34'  N. 

CAMBRIDGE  MANUSCRIPT,  a  copy  of  the 
Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles  in  Greek  and 
Latin.  Beza  found  it  in  the  monastery  of  Ire- 
naeus  at  Lyons  in  1562,  and  gave  it  to  the 
university  of  Cambridge  in  1582.  It  is  a  quarto, 
and  written  on  vellum ;  sixty-six  leaves  of  it  are 
much  torn  and  mutilated,  and  ten  of  these  are 
supplied  by  a  later  transcriber.  Beza  conjectures 
that  this  MS.  might  have  been  written  so  early  as 
the  time  of  Iraeneus.  Wetstein  apprehends  that 
it  either  returned  or  was  first  brought  from 
Egypt  into  France  ;  that  it  is  the  same  copy 
which  Druthmar,  an  ancient  expositor,  who 
lived  about  A.  D.  840,  had  seen,  and  which,  he 
observes,;  was  ascribed  to  St.  Hilary  ;  and  that 
It.  Stephens  had  given  a  particular  account  of  it 
in  his  edition  of  the  New  Testament  in  1550. 
It  is  sometimes  called  Stevens's  Second  Manu- 
script. Mill  agrees  with  F.  Simon,  that  it  was 
written  in  the  western  part  of  the  world  by  a 
Latin  scribe,  and  that  it  is  to  a  great  degree 


interpolated  and  corrupted  :  he  observes,  that  it 
agiees  so  much  with  the  Latin  Vulgate  as  to 
afford  reason  for  concluding  that  it  was  corrected 
or  formed  upon  a  corrupt  and  faulty  copy  of  that 
translation.  From  this  and  the  Clermont  copy 
of  St.  Paul's  epistles,  Beza  published  his  larger 
Annotations  in  1582. 

CAMBRIDGESHIRE  is  an  inland  county 
of  England,  about  fifty  miles  long  and  twenty- 
five  miles  broad,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Lin- 
colnshire, on  the  east  by  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  on 
the  south  by  Essex  and  Herts,  and  on  the  west 
by  Bedford  and  Huntingdonshire.  It  was  in- 
cluded in  the  ancient  territory  of  the  Iceni,  and 
after  the  Roman  conquest  was  the  third  province 
of  Flavia  Caesariensis.  During  the  Saxon  hep- 
tarchy it  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  the  East 
Angles.  Its  hundreds  are  Armingford,  Ches- 
terton, Cheveley,  Chilford,  Fiendish,  Longstow, 
Northstow,  Papworth,  Redfield,  Staine,  Staplow, 
Triplow,  Wetherley,  Whittlesford,  and  the  Isle 
of  Ely ;  the  latter  being  under  a  palatinate  ju- 
risdiction pertaining  to  the  see  of  Ely.  In  this 
see  is  the  whole  county,  with  the  exception  of 
a  small  part  belonging  to  that  of  Norwich, 
Cambridgeshire  contains  the  city  of  Ely,  nine 
market  towns,  viz.  Cambridge,  Caxton,  Linton, 
March,  Newmarket,  Soham,  Thorney,  Wisbeach, 
and  Royston,  and  164  parishes. 

The  county  is  in  general  flat  and  little  diver- 
sified with  engaging  prospects ;  the  whole  of  its 
northern  part  is  occupied  more  or  less  by  the 
fens  of  the  Isle  of  Ely,  penetrated  in  all  di- 
rections by  drains,  and  in  various  stages  of  re- 
demption from  their  former  swampy  state.  Here 
is  the  great  Bedford  Level,  as  it  is  called,  con- 
taining 400,000  acres  of  land ;  and  the  towns 
and  villages  that  are  scattered  over  the  surface 
of  the  country  present  their  spires  and  buildings 
like  the  towns  of  a  flat  island  on  the  ocean,  or 
of  an  oasis  in  the  African  desert ;  and  are  to  be 
seen  for  many  miles  around.  The  climate  is 
very  different  in  different  parts  ;  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  fens  it  is  considered  unhealthy 
and  aguish,  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  county 
it  is  dry  and  more  wholesome.  But  the  most 
foggy  parts  have  undergone  a  great  melioration 
of  climate  of  late  years,  and  the  same  persevering 
efforts  that  have  redeemed  a  most  promising  soil 
from  waste,  and  given  to  it  the  abundant  wheat- 
crops  with  which  it  is  now  crowned,  have  dissi- 
pated -the  damps  and  vapors  that  generated 
disease.  The  only  rivers  of  this  county  are  the 
Cam  or  Granta,  the  Nene  and  the  Ouse.  The 
Cambridgeshire  canal  begins  with  the  Ouse  at 
Harrimere,  and  runs  to  Cambridge;  theWisbeach 
canal  joins  the  Wisbeach  river  at  the  old  sluice  of 
that  town,  and  opens  a  communication  between 
this  county  and  Norfolk  and  Suffolk.  The 
Gogmagog  hills,  the  highest  in  the  county,  begin 
about  four  miles  to  the  south-east  of  Cambridge, 
and  form  one  of  the  terminations  of  the  range 
of  chalk  hills  that  commence  in  the  south-west 
of  England.  Along  the  district  from  hence  to 
Newmarket  the  country  is  bleak,  and  inhabited 
but  thinly.  Chalk,  chinch,  as  it  is  called,  silt, 
gault,  sand,  peat,  and  gravel,  are  the  substrata  of 
this  county.  The  chinch  is  a  species  of  lime- 


CAM 


CAM 


stone.     The  gault  is  a  blue  clay,  pertaining  to  has  been  much  improved  by  the  present  earl 

the  fenny  districts ;  where  also  the  silt,  a  fine  It  is  three  miles  from  Caxton. 
sea-sand,  and  peat,  are  found  in  great  abund-        CAMBYSES,  king  of  Persia,  son  of  Cyrus 

ance.  the  Great.      He  conquered   Egypt,   and,    after 

Cambridgeshire  is  chiefly  an  arable  county,  having  been  beaten  in  some  skirmish  with  the 

Wheat  and  oats  are  grown  largely  in  the  northern,  Ethiopians,  he  found,  on  returning  to  Memphis, 

and   barley  in  the   southern,  parts.     Coleseed  the  Egyptians  rejoicing  on  having  found  their  god 

also  occupies  a  considerable  portion,  it  has  been  Apis,  which   so  provoked  him,  that  he  killed 

said  a  fourth,  of  the  fen  lands.     It  is  generally  their  god,  and  plundered  their  temples.     When 

eaten  green  with  sheep.     Hemp,  flax,  mustard-  he  attacked  Pelusium,  he  placed  at  the  head  of 


seed,  and  osiers  are  also  grown  largely  in  this 
district.  The  turf  is  very  valuable  in  some  parts ; 


his  army  a  number  of  cats  and  dogs ;  and  the 
Egyptians  refusing  to  kill  animals  which  they 


and  the  garden  produce  on  the  borders  of  the  reverenced  as  divinities,  became  an  easy  prey, 
fens  is  abundant.  The  breeds  of  sheep  are  the  Cambyses  afterwards  sent  an  army  of  50,000 
Norfolk,  west  country,  and  Cambridgeshire ;  and  men  to  destroy  Jupiter  Ammon's  temple,  but  it 
a  cross  breed  of  the  Leicester  and  Lincoln.  The  was  overwhelmed  by  the  sands.  He  next  re- 
farrners  also  pride  them&elves  much  on  their  large  solved  to  attack  the  Carthaginians  and  ./Ethiopians. 
vi — i ». 1 jje  tilled  his  brother  Smerdis  from  mere  sus- 

picion, and  flayed  alive  a  partial  judge,  whose 
skin  he  nailed  on  the  judgment  seat,  and  ap- 
pointed his  son  to  succeed  him,  telling  him  to 
remember  where  he  sat.  He  died  of  a  small 


Cambridgeshire  is:.Jittle  distinguished  by  its 
manufactures.  Oil-mills,  for  crushing  seed  and 
making  oil-cake,  were  once  sour  -es  of  consider- 
able trade  at  Wisbeach,  and  still  are  found  at 
Whittlesford  and  Sawston ;  at  the  last  place  is 
also  a  respectable  paper  manufactory.  Malt  is 


wound  he  had  given  himself  with   his   sword 
as  he   mounted  on  horseback,  A.C.  521.;  and 


made  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  north-west  the  Egyptians  observed,  that  it  was  the  same 
of  the  county,  and  a  coarse  pottery,  together  with  place  on  which  he  had  wounded  their  god  Apis, 
excellent  white  bricks,  at  Ely,  Chatteris,  and  and  that  therefore  he  was  visited  by  the  hand  of 


Cambridge. 


the  gods.     A  short  time  before  his  death,  having 


One  of  the  oldest  and  most  complete  specimens  been  reproved  by  one  of  his   courtiers  in  the 

of  Saxon  architecture  in  this  kingdom  is  found  most  delicate  manner  for  his  intemperance,  he 

in  the  conventual  church  of  Ely.    It  was  erected  shot  the  censurer's  son  to  the  heart  with  an  arrow, 

in  king  Edgar's  reign.    The  two  transepts  of  and  then  asked  the  father  if  he  had  not  a  steady 

the  cathedral   are  celebrated  specimens  of  the  hand,  though  intoxicated. 


massy  Norman  style  ;  the  whole  of  that  edifice, 
indeed,  is  very  interesting  to  the  antiquary.    See 


CAMCHATKA.     See  KAMTSCHATKA. 
CAMDEN,  a  county  of  the  United  States, 


ELY.  Near  Chesterton  are  vestiges  of  a  square  in  Edenton  district,  North  Carolina ;  bounded 
Roman  camp,  called  Harborough,  or  Arbury.  north  by  the  state  of  Virginia,  south-west  and 
Three  parts  of  the  vallum  remain,  and  enclose  west  by  Pasquotank  river,  which  separates  it 
nearly  six  acres  of  ground,  in  which  various  from  Pasquotank  county,  and  east  by  Currituck. 
coins  have  been  discovered  ;  one  of  which  had  The  chief  town  is  Jonesborough- 
the  head  of  Rome  on  one  side,  and  Castor  and  CAMDEN,  a  district  of  South  Carolina, 
Pollux  on  horseback  on  the  other.  About  four  bounded  on  the  north-east  by  Cheraws,  south- 
miles  to  the  east  of  Cambridge,  on  the  Gog-  east  by  George-town,  north  by  the  state  of  North 
magog  hills,  are  the  remains  of  a  circular  fort  or  Carolina,  north-west  by  Pinkney,'  west  by 
camp,  which  has  three  ramparts  and  two  grafts.  Ninety-Six,  south-west  by  Orangeburgh,  and 
It  is  about  246  paces  in  diameter,  enclosing  south  by  Charleston  district.  It  is  eighty-two 
thirteen  acres  and  a  half  of  land.  Some  anti-  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  sixty  from  east  to 
quaries  have  supposed  that  it  was  erected  by  west,  and  is  divided  into  the  following  counties, 


*  _     . 

the  British  as  a  check  to  the  Romans  at  Har- 
borough.     Southward    is  a   Roman   highway. 


viz.  Fairfield,   Richland,    Lancaster,   Kershaw, 
Clermont,  Clarendon,  and  Salem.     It  is  watered 


When  a  road  was  making  from  March  to  by  the  Catabaw,  which  passes  nearly  through  the 
Wisbeach,  in  1730,  three  urns  were  discovered  middle  of  it.  In  the  north  part  of  the  district 
full  of  burnt  bones  and  ashes,  and  a  pot  con-  are  the  Catabaw  Indians ;  the  only  tribe  which 
taining  300  pieces  of  silver  coin,  of  all  the  em-  resides  in  the  state.  See  CATABAW.  The  upper 
perors  from  Vespasian  to  Antoninus  Pius. 

No  county  of   England  has  exhibited  more 
decided  improvements  in  its  general  appearance 


part  of  this  district  is  diversified  with  hills,  the 
soil  in  general  rich,  and  the  country  well  wa- 
tered. It  produces  good  crops  of  Indian  corn, 

than  some  parts  of  the  county  of  Cambridge,  of  wheat,  rye,  barley,  tobacco,  cotton,  &c. 
late  years  :  none,  on  the  other  hand,  has  expe-  CAMDEN,  a  post  town  of  South  Carolina,  and 
rienced  more  fluctuations  in  the  value  of  pro-  capital  of  the  district.  It  is  situated  in  Kershaw 
perty,  and  the  rise  and  fall  of  agricultural  county,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Wateree,  120 
produce.  The  only  mansion  in  the  county  worth  miles  north  by  west  of  Charleston.  It  has  a 
particular  notice  is  Wimpole,  the  seat  of  the  court  house,  jail,  and  Episcopalian  church.  It 
earl  of  Ilardwicke.  It  is  a  spacious  brick  is  situated  on  a  large  navigable  river,  and 
structure,  with  noble  wings,  that  have  been  added  carries  on  a  brisk  trade  with  the  back  counties 
since  its  erection ;  the  east  wing  is  connected  A  district  court  is  held  here  on  the  26th  of  April 
with  the  offices,  and  the  west  with  a  large  green-  and  November.  A  battle  was  fought  at  this 
hou?e.  The  entrance  is  by  a  double  flight  of  town  on  the  16th  August,  1780,  between  gen* 
steps.  ,  The  interior  of  the  fabric  is  elegant,  and  ral  Gates  and  lord  Cornwallis,  in  which  the  Ame- 


CAM 


<J3 


CAM 


ricarw  were  defeated.  Another  was  fought,  on 
the  25th  April,  1791,  between  lord  Rawdon  and 
general  Greene,  who  was  encamped  within  a  mile 
of  the  town.  The  Americans  had  126  killed, 
and  100  taken  prisoners.  The  English  had 
about  100  killed.  The  13th  of  May  following 
the  British  evacuated  and  burnt  the  town.  See 
AMERICA.  Jt  is  thirty-five  miles  north-east  of 
Columbia,  and  626  south-west  by  south  of  Phil- 
adelphia. Lon.  5°  23'  W.,  lat.  34°  17"  N. 

CAMDKN  (William),  the  great  antiquary,  was 
born  in  London  in  1551.  His  father  was  a  na- 
tive of  Litch field,  and  his  mother  was  of  the 
ancient  family  of  Curwens  in  Cumberland.  He 
was  educated  at  Christ's  hospital,  and  St.  Paul's 
school ;  and  from  thence  sent,  in  1566,  to  Oxford, 
and  entered  servitor  of  Magdalen  College ;  but, 
being  disappointed  of  a  demy's  place,  he  re- 
moved to  Broadgate  hall,  and  two  years  after,  to 
Christ  Church,  where  he  was  supported  by  his 
friend  Dr.  Thornton.  About  this  time  he  was  a 
candidate  for  the  fellowship  of  All-souls  College, 
but  lost  it  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Popish  party. 
In  1570,  lie  supplicated  the  regents  of  the 
university  to  be  admitted  B.  A.  but  in  this  also 
he  miscarried.  The  following  year  he  came  to 
London,  where  he  prosecuted  his  favorite  study 
of  antiquity,  under  Dr.  Goodman,  dean  of 
Westminster,  by  whose  interest  he  was  made 
second  master  of  Westminster  school,  in  1575. 
Between  his  leaving  the  university  and  this 
period,  he  took  several  journeys  to  different  parts 
of  England,  to  collect  materials  for  his  Britannia, 
in  which  he  was  now  deeply  engaged.  In  1581 
he  became  intimately  acquainted  with  the 
learned  president  Brisson,  who  was  then  in 
England;  and  in  1586  he  published  the  first 
edition  gf  his  Britannia,  dedicated  to  lord  Bur- 
leigh;  and  such  was  its  reception,  that  eight 
editions  of  it  were  published  in  four  years,  and 
another  in  1594.  The  title  is  Britannia,  sive 
Florentissimorum  Regnorum  Anglite,  Scotias, 
Ilibernioe,  et  Insularum  Adjacentium,  ex  intima 
Antiquitute,  Chorographica  Descriptio.  In  1593 
he  succeeded  to  the  head  master  of  Westminster 
school.  In  1597  he  published  his  Greek  gram- 
mar, and  was  appointed  Clarencieux  king  at 
arms.  In  1600  he  made  a  tour  as  far  as  Car- 
lisle, accompanied  by  his  friend,  Mr.  (afterwards 
Sir  Robert)  Cotton.  In  1600  he  began  his  cor- 
respondence with  De  Thou,  which  continued  to 
the  death  of  that  historian.  In  1607  he  pub- 
lished his  last  edition  of  the  Britannia,  which  is 
that  from  which  the  English  translations  have 
been  made;  and  in  1608  he  began  to  digest  his 
materials  for  a  history  of  the  reign  of  queen 
Elizabeth.  In  1609,  after  recovering  from  a 
dangerous  illness,  he  retired  to  Chislehurst  in 
Kent,  where  he  continued  to  spend  the  summer 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  The  first 
part  of  his  annals  of  the  queen  did  not  appear 
till  1615,  and  he  determined  that  the  second 
volume  should  not  appear  till  after  his  death. 
The  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth  was  so  recent 
when  his  first  volume  was  published,  that  many 
of  the  persons  concerned,  or  their  dependents, 
were  still  living.  It  is  no  wonder,  therefore, 
lhat  the  historian  should  offend  those  whose  ac- 
tions would  not  bear  enquiry.  Some  of  his 


enemies  were  clamorous  and  troublesome;  which 
determined  him  not  to  publish  the  second  volume 
during  his  life  ;  but  he  deposited  one  copy  in 
the  Cottonian  library,  and  transmitted  another 
to  his  friend  Dupuy  at  Paris.  It  was  first 
printed  at  Leyden  in  1625.  The  MS.  was 
entirely  finished  in  1617 ;  and  from  that  time  he 
was  principally  employed  in  collecting  more 
materials  for  the  further  improvement  of  his 
Britannia.  In  1622,  being  now  upwards  of 
seventy,  and  finding  his  health  declining,  he  de- 
termined to  execute  his  design  of  founding  an 
history  lecture  in  the  university  of  Oxford.  His 
deed  of  gift  was  accordingly  transmitted  by  his 
friend  Mr.  Heather,  to  Mr.  Wheare,  who  was, 
by  himself,  appointed  his  first  professor.  He 
died  at  Chislehurst,  in  1623,  in  the  seventy 
third  year  of  his  age ;  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  where  a  monument  of  white 
marble  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

CAM'EL,  ra.  ~\  Arab,  quinel,  boogume- 
CAM'EL-BACKED,  {Ion,  gimel;  Heb.  gamal, 
CAM'EL-DIUVER.  f  <ca/«jXoc ;  Lat.  camelus,  a 
CAMEL'OPARD.  J  large  animal ;  common  in 
Asia  and  Africa.  The  one  sort  is  large,  and  full 
of  flesh,  and  fit  to  carry  burdens  of  a  thousand 
pounds  weight,  having  one  bunch  upon  its  back. 
The  other  have  two  bundle's  upon  their  backs, 
like  a  natural  saddle,  and  are  fit  either  for  bur- 
dens, or  men  to  ride  on.}_  A  third  kind  is  leaner, 
and  of  a  smaller  size,  called  dromedaries,  because 
of  their  swiftness,  which  are  generally  used  for 
riding  by  men  of  quality.-  The  camelopard 
(Lat.  camtftus  zn&pardus)  is  an  Abyssinian  ani- 
mal, taller  than  an  elephant,  but  not  so  thick. 
He  is  so  named,  because  he  has  a  neck  and  head 
like  a  camel ;  he  is  spotted  like  a  pard,  but  his 
spots  are  white  upon  a  red  ground.  The  Ita- 
lians call  him  giraffa.  See  CAMELUS. 

Woo  to  you  scribis  and  fui-isces  ypocritis, — 
blyndc  lederis,  cleiisynge  a  gnattc,  but  swolowynge  a 
camel. 

WickUff't  New  Test.  Matt.  23. 
Camclt  have  large  solid  feet,  but  not  hard.      Camel* 
will  continue  ten   or  twelve   days  without  eating  or 
drinking,  and    keep  water  a   long  time   in  their  sto- 
mach, for  their  refreshment.  Calmet. 

In  silent  horrour  o'er  the  boundless  waste, 
The  driver,  Hassan,  with  his  camels  past: 
One  cruise  of  water  on  his  back  he  bore. 
And  his  light  scrip  contained  a  scanty  store  ; 
A  fan  of  painted  feathers  in  his  hand 
To  guard  his  shaded  face  from  scorching  sand. 

Collins'  Eclogue,  ii. 
Patient  of  thirst  and  toil, 
Son  of  the  desart !  even  the  camel  feels, 
Shot  through  his  withered  heart,  the  fiery  blast. 

Tfumison. 

The  stomach  of  the  camel  is  well  known  to  contain 
large  quantities  of  water,  and  to  retain  it  un- 
changed for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  This 
properly  qualifies  it  for  living  in  the  desert. 

Paley's  Natural  TJteology. 

CAMEL,  in  mechanics,  a  kind  of  machine 
used  in  Holland  for  lifting  ships,  in  order  to 
bring  them  over  the  Pampus,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Y,  where  the  shallowness  of  the  water 
hinders  large  ships  from  passing.  It  Is  also 
used  in  other  places,  particularly  at  the  dock  of 
Petersburgh,  the  vessels  built  there  being,  in 


C  A  M  E  L  t  S. 


their  passage  to  Cronstradt,  lifted  over  the  bar 
by  means  of  camels.  The^e  machines  were 
originally  invented  by  the  celebrated  De  Witt, 
and  were  introduced  into  Russia  by  Peter  the 
Great.  A  camel  is  composed  of  two  separate 
parts,  whose  outsides  are  perpendicular,  and 
whose  insides  are  concave,  shaped  so  as  to  em- 
brace the  hull  of  a  ship  on  both  sides.  Each 
part  has  a  small  cabin  with  sixteen  pumps  and 
ten  plugs,  and  contains  twenty  men.  They  are 
embraced  to  the  ship  underneath  by  means  of 
cables,  and  entirely  enclose  its  sides  and  bottom  ; 
being  then  towed  to  the  bar,  the  plugs  are  opened, 
and  the  water  admitted  until  the  camel  sinks 
with  the  ship  and  runs  a-ground.  Then,  the 
water  being  pumped  out,  the  camel  rises,  lifts  up 
the  vessel,  and  the  whole  is  towed  over  the  bar. 
This  is  on  the  same  principle  with  the  CAISSON, 
which  see. 

CAMEL,  in  zoology.     See  CAMELUS. 

CAMELEON.     See  CHAMELEON,  and  LA- 

CERTA. 

CAMELEON  MINERAL.  When  pure  potash  and 
black  oxide  of  manganese  are  fused  together  in 
a  crucible,  a  compound  is  formed,  whose  solu- 
tion in  water,  at  first  green,  passes  spontaneously 
through  the  whole  series  of  colored  rays  to  the 
red.  From  this  latter  tint,  the  solution  may  be 
made  to  retrograde  in  color  to  the  original  green, 
by  the  addition  of  potash ;  or  it  may  be  ren- 
dered altogether  colorless,  by  adding  either  sul- 
phurous acid  or  chlorine  to  the  solution.  It  is 
generally  regarded  as  a  manganeseate  of  potash, 
and  the  various  phenomena  attributed  to  the 
combination  of  oxygen. 

CAMELFORD,  a  borough  town  of  Cornwall, 
seated  on  the  Camel,  consisting  of  about  100 
houses,  badly  built ;  but  the  streets  are  broad  and 
well  paved.  It  has  a  great  market  for  yarn  on  Fri- 
day. It  was  here  that  king  Arthur  was  mortally 
wounded  by  his  nephew  Mordred,  who  was  killed 
on  the  spot.  It  was  made  a  borough,  by  char- 
ter from  Richard,  duke  of  Cornwall,  when  king 
of  the  Romans,  who  granted  it  a  market  and 
fair,  and  it  was  incorporated  by  Charles  I. 

CAMELLIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  poly- 
andria  order,  and  monadelphia  class  of  plants; 
natural  order  thirty-seventh,  columniferae  :  CAL. 
imbricated  and  polyphyllous,  with  the  interior 
leaves  larger  than  the  exterior.  There  are  seve- 
ral species,  natives  of  China  and  Japan.  The 
principal  is  C.  Japonica,  which  Thunburg,  in 
his  Flora  Japonica,  describes  as  growing  every 
where  in  the  groves  and  gardens  of  Japan, 
where  it  becomes  a  prodigiously  large  and  tall 
tree,  highly  esteemed  by  the  natives  for  the  ele- 
gance of  its  large  and  very  variable  blossoms,  and 
its  evergreen  leaves.  It  is  there  found  with  sin- 
gle and  double  flowers,  white,  red,  and  purple, 
produced  from  April  to  October.  With  us,  the 
camellia  is  generally  treated  as  a  stove  plant, 
and  propagated  by  layers. 

CAMELOPARDALIS,  in  zoology,  camelo- 
pard  or  giraffe,  a  genus  of  the  class  mam- 
malia, order  pecora.  The  essential  generic 
characters  are,  that  the  horns  are  simple,  and 
terminated  by  a  tuft  of  black  hair ;  lower  fore- 
teeth eight,  broad  and  thin ;  body  whitish, 
mixed  with  tawny,  and  speckled  with  rusty  spots. 


The  only  species  is  C.  giraffa.  The  giraffa  in- 
habits Ethiopia,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  is 
sometimes  seen  at  Sennaar.  It  feeds  on  leaves 
and  shoots  of  trees,  and  it  sometimes  grazes, 
b  t  then  its  fore  legs  are  stretched  asunder,  to 
allow  its  mouth  to  reach  the  ground ;  and  when 
about  to  lie  down,  it  kneels  like  the  camel.  Its 
fore  feet  are  longer  than  the  hind  ones,  and  it  is 
in  front  one  of  the  tallest  and  most  elegant 
animals  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  It  is 
generally  met  with  in  flocks  of  fifteen  or  twenty, 
which  on  being  alarmed  fly  in  every  direction. 
CAM'ELOT,  n.  s.  ^  From  camel.  A  kind 
CAM'LET,  >  of  stuff  originally  made 

CAM'ELIN.  j  by  a  mixture  of  silk  and 

camels'  hair;  it   is  now  made  with  wool  and 
silk. 

And  anon  Dame  Abstinence  strelned 
Toke  on  a  robe  of  cameiine, 
And  gan  her  gratche  as  a  begine. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

This  habit  was  not  of  camels'  skin,  nor  any  coarse 
texture  of  its  hair,  but  rather  some  finer  weave  of 
camelot,  grograin,  or  the  like  ;  inasmuch  as  these  staffs 
are  supposed  to  be  made  of  the  hair  of  that  animal. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

Meantime  the  pastor  shears  their  hoary  beards, 
And  eases  of  their  hair  the  loaden  herds  : 
Their  camelots  warm  in  tents  the  soldier  bold, 
And  shield  the  shivering  mariner  from  cold.  Dryden. 

Now  in  thy  trunk  thy  D'Oily  habit  fold, 
The  silken  drugget  ill  can  fence  the  cold, 
The  freezes  spongy  nap  is  soaked  with  rain. 
And  showers  soon  soak  the  camlet's  cockled  grain. 

Gay. 

CAMELOT,  or  CHAMBLET.     See  CAMLET. 

CAMELUS,  the  CAMEL,  in  zoology,  SoJ, 
ca/tijXoc,  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  belonging  to 
the  order  of  pecora.  The  characters  t  of  the 
camel  are  these :  it  has  no  horns ;  it  lias  six  fore- 
teeth in  the  under  jaw ;  the  laniarii  are  wide  set, 
three  in  the  upper,  and  two  in  the  lower  jaw ; 
and  there  is  a  fissure  in  the  upper  lip,  resembling 
a  cleft  in  the  lip  of  a  hare.  There  are  seven 
species.  1.  Camelus  bactrianus,  the  bactrian 
camel,  has  two  bunches  on  the  back,  but  is  in  ali 
other  respects  like  the  dromedarius,  of  which  it 
seems  to  be  a  mere  variety,  rather  than  a  dif- 
ferent species;  and  is  equally  adapted  for  riding 
or  carrying  loads.  It  is  still  found  wild  in  the 
deserts  of  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia,  particu- 
larly in  those  between  China  and  India.  These 
are  larger  and  more  generous  than  the  domesti- 
cated race.  The  Bactrian  camel  is  very  common 
in  Asia,  is  extremely  hardy,  and  in  great  use 
among  the  Tartars  and  Mongols,  as  a  beast  of 
burden,  from  the  Caspian  to  China.  It  bears 
even  so  severe  a  climate  as  that  of  Siberia,  being 
found  about  the  "lake  Baikal,  where  the  Burats 
and  Mongols  keep  great  numbers.  They  are  far 
less  than  those  of  Western  Tartary.  Here  they 
live  during  winter  on  willows  and  other  trees, 
and  become  very  lean  by  this  diet.  They  lose 
their  hair  in  April,  and  go  naked  all  May,  amidst 
the  frosts  of  that  severe  climate.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  this  species.  The  Turkman 
is  the  largest  and  strongest.  The  Arabian  is 
hardy.  The  common  sort  travel  about  thirty 
miles  a  day.  In  Arabia  they  are  trained  for 
running-matches  :  and  in  many  place*  for  car- 


C  A  M  E  L  U  S. 


65 


rying  couriers,  who  can  go  above  100  miles  a 
day  on  them  for  nine  days  together,  over  burning 
deserts,  uninhabitable  by  any  living  creature. 
The  African  camels  are  the  most  hardy,  having 
..nore  distant  and  more  dreadful  deserts  to  pass 
over  than  any  of  the  others,  from  Numidia  to 
Ethiopia.  In  Western  Tartary  there  is  a  white 
variety,  very  scarce,  and  sacred  to  the  idols  and 
priests.  The  Chinese  have  a  swift  variety,  which 
they  call  by  the  expressive  name  of  Fong-Kyo- 
Fo,  or  camels  with  feet  of  the  wind.  Fat 
drawn  from  them,  is  esteemed  in  many  dis- 
orders, such  as  ulcers,  numbness,  and  con- 
sumptions. This  species  of  camel  is  rare  in 
Arabia,  and  only  kept  by  great  men.  Camels 
have  constituted  the  riches  of  Arabia  from  the 
time  of  Job.  The  patriarch  reckoned  6000 
camels  among  his  pastoral  treasures,  and  the 
modern  Arabs  estimate  their  wealth  by  the 
number  of  these  animals ;  by  them  the  whole 
commerce  is  carred  on  through  burning  tracts, 
impassable  but  by  beasts  which  Providence 
formed  expressly  for  them.  Their  soles  are 
adapted  to  the  sands,  their  toughness  and  spungy 
softness  preventing  them  from  cracking.  Their 
great  powers  of  abstaining  from  drinking  enable 
them  to  pass  over  unwatered  tracts  for  many 
days,  without  requiring  the  least  liquid  ;  and 
their  patience  under  hunger  is  such  that  they 
will  travel  many  days  fed  only  with  a  few  dates, 
or  some  small  balls  of  bean  or  barley-meal,  or 
on  the  miserable  thorny  plants  they  meet  with  in 
the  deserts.  The  Arabians  regard  the  camel  as 
a  present  from  Heaven,  a  sacred  animal,  without 
whose  assistance  they  could  neither  carry  on 
trade,  nor  travel.  Camel's  milk  is  their  common 
food.  They  also  eat  its  flesh,  that  of  the  young 
camel  being  reckoned  highly  savory.  Of  the 
hair  of  those  animals,  which  is  fine  and  soft,  and 
which  is  completely  renewed  every  year,  the 
Arabians  make  stuffs  for  clothes,  and  other  fur- 
niture. With  their  camels,  they  not  only  want 
nothing,  but  have  nothing  to  fear.  In  one  day, 
they  can  perform  a  journey  of  fifty  leagues  into 
the  desert,  which  cuts  off  every  approach  from 
their  enemies.  With  a  view  to  his  predatory 
expeditions,  the  Arab  instructs,  rears,  and  ex- 
ercises his  camels.  A  few  days  after  their  birth, 
he  folds  their  limbs  under  their  belly,  forces  them 
to  remain  on  the  ground,  and,  in  this  situation, 
loads  them  with  a  pretty  heavy  weight,  which  is 
never  removed  but  for  the  purpose  of  replacing 
a  greater.  Instead  of  allowing  them  to  feed  at 
pleasure,  and  to  drink  when  they  are  dry,  he 
begins  with  regulating  their  meals,  and  makes 
them  gradually  travel  long  journeys,  diminishing, 
at  the  same  time,  the  quantity  of  their  aliment. 
\Vhen  they  acquire  some  strength,  they  are 
trained  to  the  course.  He  excites  their  emula- 
tion by  the  example  of  horses,  and,  in  time, 
renders  them  more  robust.  After  he  is  certain 
of  the  strength,  fleetness,  and  sobriety  of  his 
camels,  he  loads  them  with  his  own  and  their 
food,  sets  off  with  them,  reaches  unperceived 
the  confines  of  the  desert,  robs  the  first  pas- 
sengers he  meets,  pillages  the  solitary  houses, 
joads  his  camels  with  the  booty,  and,  if  pur- 
sued, accelerates  his  retreat.  On  these  oc- 
casions he  unfolds  his  own  talents  and  those 
Vol..  V. 


of  the  camels.     He  mounts  one  of  the  fleetest, 
conducts   the  troop,    and    makes    them    travel 
night  and   day,   almost  without  either  stopping, 
eating,   or  drinking ;  and,   in  this  manner,   he 
easily  performs  a  journey  of  900  miles  in  eight 
days.     During  this  period  of  fatigue,  they  are 
perpetually  loaded,  and  he  allows  them  each  day, 
one  hour  only  of  repose,  and  a  ball  of  paste. 
They  often  run  thus  nine  or  ten  days,  without 
drink ;  and  when,  by  chance,  there  is  a  pool  at 
some  distance,  they  scent  the  water  half  a  league 
off.      Thirst   makes   them   double    their    pace, 
and  they  drink  as  much  at  once  as  serves  them 
for   the   future   as  well  as  the  past;  for  their 
journeys  often  last  several  weeks,  and  their  absti- 
nence continues  an  equal  time.     Of  all  carriages, 
that  by  camels  is  the  cheapest  and  most  expe- 
ditious.    The   merchants   and  other  passengers 
unite  in  a  caravan,  to  prevent  the  insults  and 
robberies   of  the  Arabs.     These   caravans    are 
often  very  numerous,  and  are  always  composed 
of   more   camels   than   men.      Each    camel   is 
loaded  in  proportion  to  his  strength  ;  and,  when 
overloaded,  he  refuses  to  march,  and  continues 
lying  till  his  burden  is   lightened.      The  large 
camels  generally  carry  1000   or   1200   pounds 
weight,  and  the  smallest  from  600  to  700.     In 
these  commercial  travels,  their  march  is  not  has- 
tened ;  as  the  route  is  often  700  or  800  leagues, 
their  motions  and  journeys  are  regulated.     They 
walk  only,  and  perform  from  about  ten  to  twelve 
leagues   each  day.     Every  night  they  are  un~ 
loaded,    and   allowed   to    pasture   at    freedom. 
When  in  a  rich  country,  or  fertile  meadow,  they 
eat,  in  less  than  an  hour,  as  much  as  serves  them 
to  ruminate  the  whole  night,  and  to  nourish  them 
twenty-four  hours.     But  they  seldom  meet  with 
such  pastures  ;  neither  is  this  delicate  food  ne- 
cessary for   them.    They  even  seem  to  prefer 
wormwood,  thistles,  nettles,  broom  cassia,  and 
other  prickly  vegetables,  to  the  softest  herbage. 
As  long  as  they  find  plants  to  browse  they  easily 
dispense  with  drink.     This  facility  of  abstaining 
long  from   drink  proceeds  not,  however,  from 
habit  alone,  but  is  rather  an  effect  of  their  struc- 
ture.    Independent  of  the  four  stomachs,  which 
are  common  to  ruminating  animals,  the  camels 
have  a  fifth  bag,  which  serves  them  as  a  reser- 
voir for  water.     This  fifth  stomach  is  peculiar  to 
the  camel.     It  is  so  large  as  to  contain  a  vast 
quantity  of  fluid,  where  it  remains  without  cor- 
rupting, or  mixing  with  other  aliments.     When 
the  animal  is  pressed  with  thirst,  and  has  oc- 
casion for  water  to  macerate  his  dry  food  in  ru- 
minating, he   makes  part  of  this  water  mount 
into  his  paunch,  or  even  as  high  as  the  cesopha- 
gus,  by  a  simple  contraction  of  certain  muscles. 
It  is  by  this  singular  construction  that  the  camel 
is  enabled  to  pass  several  days  without  drinking, 
and  to  take  at  a  time  a  prodigious  quantity  of 
water.     Travellers,  when  much  oppressed  with 
drought,   are    sometimes   obliged  to   kill   their 
camels  in  order  to  have  a  supply  of  drink  from 
these   reservoirs.      These   inoffensive    creatures 
must  suffer  much  ;  for  they  utter  the  most  la- 
mentable   cries,    especially    when    overloaded. 
But  though  perpetually  oppressed,  their  fortitude 
is  equal  to  their  docility.     At  the  first  signal, 
they  bend  their  knees  and  lie  down  to  be  loaded. 

F 


66 


C  A  M  E  L  U  S. 


As  soon  as  they  are  loaded,  they  rise  sponta- 
neously, and  without  any  assistance.  One  of 
them  is  mounted  by  their  conductor,  who  goes 
before,  and  regulates  the  march  of  all  the  fol- 
lowers. They  require  neither  whip  nor  spur. 
But,  when  they  begin  to  be  tired,  their  courage 
is  said  to  be  supported,  or  rather  their  fatigue  is 
charmed,  by  singing,  or  by  the  sound  of  some 
instrument.  Their  conductors  relieve  each  other 
in  singing;  and,  when  they  want  to  prolong  the 
journey,  they  give  the  animals  but  one  hour's 
rest,  after  which,  resuming  their  song,  they  pro- 
ceed on  their  march  for  several  hours  more,  and 
the  singing  is  continued  till  they  arrive  at  another 
resting  place,  when  the  camels  again  lie  down  ; 
and  their  loads,  by  unloosing  the  ropes,  are  al- 
lowed to  glide  off  on  each  side  of  the  animals. 
Thus  they  sleep  on  their  bellies  in  the  middle  of 
their  baggage,  which,  next  morning,  is  fixed  on 
their  backs  with  equal  quickness  and  facility  as 
it  had  been  detached  the  evening  before.  One 
male  only  is  left  for  eight  or  ten  females ;  and 
the  laboring  camels  a;e  generally  geldings. 
They  are  unquestionably  weaker  than  unmuti- 
lated  males  ;  but  are  more  tractable,  and  always 
ready  for  service  ;  while  the  former  are  not  only 
unmanageable,  but  almost  furious,  during  the 
rutting  season,  which  lasts  forty  days,  and  returns 
annually  in  the  spring.  They  then  foam  con- 
tinually, and  one  or  two  red  vesicles,  as  large  as 
a  hog's  bladder,  issue  from  their  mouths.  In 
this  season  they  eat  little,  and  attack  and  bite 
animals,  and  even  their  own  masters,  to  whom 
at  all  other  times  they  are  very  submissive.  The 
time  of  gestation  is  near  twelve  months ;  and  like 
all  large  quadrupeds,  the  female  brings  forth  only 
one  at  a  birth.  Her  milk  is  copious  and  thick  ; 
and  when  mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  water, 
affords  an  excellent  nourishment  to  men.  The 
females  are  not  obliged  to  labor,  but  are  al- 
lowed to  pasture  and  produce  at  full  liberty. 
The  advantage  derived  from  their  produce 
and  their  milk  is  perhaps  superior  to  what 
could  be  drawn  from  their  working.  In  some 
places,  however,  most  of  the  females  are  cas- 
trated, to  fit  them  for  labor;  and  it  is  alle- 
ged, that  this  operation,  instead  of  diminishing 
augments  their  vigor  and  plumpness.  In  gene- 
ral, the  fatter  camels  are,  the  more  they  are  capa- 
ble of  enduring  fatigue.  During  long  journeys, 
in\vhich  their  conductor  is  obliged  to  husband 
their  food,  and  when  they  often  suffer  much 
hunger  and  thirst,  their  bunches  gradually  dimi- 
nish, and  become  so  flat,  that  the  place  where  they 
were  is  only  perceptible  by  the  length  of  the  hair, 
which  is  always  longer  on  these  parts  than  on  the 
rest  of  the  back.  The  meagreness  of  the  body 
augments  in  proportion  as  the  bunches  decrease. 
The  Moors,  who  transport  all  articles  of  mer- 
chandise from  Barbary  and  Numidia,  as  far  as 
Ethiopia,  set  out  with  their  camels  well  laden, 
which  are  very  fat  and  vigorous;  and  bring  back 
the  same  animals  so  meagre  that  they  commonly 
are  sold  at  a  low  price  to  the  Arabs  of  the  desert, 
10  be  again  fattened.  Ancient  authors  assert,  that 
camels  are  in  a  condition  for  propagating  at  the 
age  of  three  years ;  but  this  is  doubtful,  for,  in 
three  years,  they  have  not  acquired  one-half  their 
growth.  The  young  camel  sucks  twelve  months, 
but,  when  meant  to  be  trained,  to  render  him 


strong  and  robust  in  the  chase,  he  is  allowed  to 
suck  and  pasture  at  freedom  during  the  first 
year,  and  is  not  loaded  or  made  to  perform  any 
labor  till  he  is  four  year  old.  He  generally  lives 
forty  and  sometimes  fifty  years,  which  duration 
of  life  is  proportioned  to  the  time  of  his  growth. 
Considering,  under  one  point  of  view,  all  the 
qualities  of  this  animal,  and  all  the  advantages 
derived  from  him,  it  must  be  acknowleged,  thai 
he  is  the  most  useful  creature  subjected  to  the 
service  of  man.  Gold  and  silk  constitute  not  the 
true  riches  of  the  East.  The  camel  is  the  genuine 
treasure  of  Asia.  2.  Camelus  dromedarius,  the 
Arabian  camel,  with  one  bunch  or  protuberance 
on  the  back.  It  has  four  callous  protuberances 
on  the  fore  legs,  and  two  on  the  hind  ones. 
This  species  is  common  in  Africa,  and  the  warmer 
parts  of  Asia.  It  is  a  common  beast  of  burdjen 
in  Egypt,  and  along  the  countries  which  border 
on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  ;  in  Morocco,  Sahara, 
or  the  Desert,  and  Ethiopia ;  but  nowhere  south 
of  those  kingdoms.  In  Asia  it  is  equally  com- 
mon in  Turkey  or  Arabia ;  but  scarcely  seen 
farther  north  than  Persia,  being  too  tender  to 
bear  a  more  severe  climate.  India  is  destitute  of 
this  animal.  3.  Camelus  glama,  or  llama,  the 
South  American  camel  sheep,  has  an  almost 
even  black,  small  head,  fine  black  eyes,  and  very 
long  neck  bending  much,  and  very  protuberant 
near  the  junction  with  the  body ;  in  a  tame  state, 
with  smooth  short  hair ;  in  a  wild  state,  with 
long  coarse  hair,  white,  gray,  and  russet,  disposed 
in  spots ;  with  a  black  line  from  the  head  along 
the  top  of  the  back  to  the  tail,  and  belly  white. 
The  tail  is  short;  the  height  from  four  to  four 
feet  and  a  half;  the  length  from  the  neck  to  the 
tail,  six  feet.  In  general  the  shape  exactly  re- 
sembles a  camel,  only  it  wants  the  dorsal  bunch. 
It  is  the  camel  of  Peru  and  Chili ;  and,  before 
the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  was  the  only  beast  of 
burden  known  to  the  Indians.  It  is  very  mild, 
gentle,  and  tractable.  Before  the  introduction 
of  mules,  they  were  used  by  the  Indians  to 
plough  the  land  :  at  present  they  serve  to  carry 
burdens  of  about  lOOlbs.  They  lie  down  to  the 
burden ;  and  when  wearied  no  blows  can  pro- 
voke them  to  go  on,  and  nothing  but  caresses 
can  make  them  arise.  Their  flesh  is  eaten,  and 
is  said  to  be  as  good  as  mutton.  The  wool  has  a 
strong  disagreeable  scent.  They  are  very  sure- 
footed, and  are,  therefore,  used  to  carry  the  Pe- 
ruvian ores  over  the  ruggedest  hills  and  narrowest 
paths  of  the  Andes.  They  inhabit  that  vast  chain 
of  mountains  through  their  whole  length  to  the 
straits  of  Magellan ;  but,  except  where  these  hills 
approach  the  sea,  as  in  Patagonia,  never  appear 
on  the  coasts.  Like  the  camel,  they  have  powers 
of  abstaining  long  from  drink,  sometimes  for 
four  or  five  days  ;  like  that  animal,  their  food  is 
coarse.  In  a  wild  state  they  keep  in  great  herds 
in  the  highest  and  steepest  parts  of  the  hills ;  and 
while  they  are  feeding,  one  keeps  sentry  on  the 
pinnacle  of  some  rock  :  if  it  perceives  the  ap- 
proach of  any  one  it  neighs ;  the  herd  take  the 
alarm,  and  go  off  with  incredible  speed.  They 
outrun  all  dogs  :  there  is  no  way  of  killing  them 
but  with  the  gun.  They  are  killed  for  the  sake 
of  their  flesh  and  hair ;  for  the  Indians  weave 
the  last  into  cloth.  The  huanaco,  the  arcucanus, 
and  the  vicuna,  so  nearly  resemble  this  ani- 


CAMERA. 


67 


mal,  that  they  by  no  means  merit  a  separate 
description. 

4.  Camelus  pacos,  or  the  sheep  of  Chili,  has  no 
bunch  on  its  back.  It  is  covered  with  a  fine  va- 
luable wool,  which  is  of  a  rose  red  color  on  the 
back  of  the  animal,  and  white  on  the  belly. 
They  are  of  the  same  nature  with  the  llama,  in- 
habit the  same  places,  but  are  more  capable  of 
supporting  the  rigor  of  frost  and  snow;  they 
live  in  vast  herds,  are  very  timid,  and  exces- 
sively swift.  The  Indians  take  the  pacos  in  a 
strange  manner;  they  tie  cords  with  bits  of 
cloth  or  wool  hanging  on  them,  about  three  or 
four  feet  from  the  ground,  across  the  narrow 
passes  of  the  mountains,  then  drive  those  ani- 
mals towards  them,  which  are  so  terrified  by  the 
flutter  of  the  rags  that,  huddling  together,  they 
give  the  hunters  an  opportunity  to  kill  with  their 
slings  as  many  as  they  please.  The  tame  ones 
will  carry  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  pounds,  but 
are  kept  principally  for  the  sake  of  the  wool  and 
the  flesh,  the  latter  of  which  is  exceedingly  well 
tasted. 

CAMELUS,  in  zoology,  a  species  of  trichoda, 
found  in  vegetable  infusions.  This  is  thickish, 
hairy  before,  and  emarginate  on  each  side  in  the 
middle. 

CAMELUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  scara- 
bscus;  thorax  four-homed;  shield  bicornuted 
behind  ;  body  black.  Inhabits  Germany. 

CAMEO.    See  CAMAIEU. 

CAMERA  J^EOLIA,  a  contrivance  for  blowing 
the  fire  for  the  fusion  of  ores,  without  bellows, 
by  means  of  water  falling  through  a  funnel  into 
a  close  vessel,  which  sends  from  it  so  much  air 
as  continually  blows  the  fire  if  there  be  the 
space  of  another  vessel  for  it  to  expatiate  in  by 
the  way,  as  it  there  lets  fall  its  humidity.  See 
BLOWING  MACHINE. 

CAMERA  LUCIDA,  a  contrivance  of  Dr.  Hook 
for  making  the  image  of  any  thing  appear  on  a 
wall  in  a  light  room,  either  by  day  or  night. 
Opposite  to  the  place  or  wall  where  the  appear- 
ance is  to  be,  make  a  hole  of  at  least  a  foot  in 
diameter,  or  if  there  be  a  high  window  with  a 
casement  opened.  At  a  convenient  distance,  to 
prevent  its  being  perceived  by  the  company  in 
the  room,  place  the  object  or  picture  intended  to 
be  represented,  but  in  an  inverted  situation.  If 
the  picture  be  transparent,  reflect  the  sun's  rays 
by  means  of  a  looking-glass,  so  as  that  they  may 
pass  through  it  towards  the  place  of  representa- 
tion ;  and  to  prevent  any  rays  from  passing  aside 
it,  let  the  picture  be  encompassed  with  some 
board  or  cloth.  If  the  object  be  a  statue,  or  a 
living  creature,  it  must  be  much  enlightened  by 
casting  the  sun's  rays  on  it,  either  by  reflection, 
refraction,  or  both.  Between  this  object  and  the 
place  of  representation  put  a  broad  convex  glass, 
ground  to  such  a  convexity  as  that  it  may  repre- 
sent the  object  distinctly  in  such  place.  The 
nearer  this  is  situated  to  the  object  the  more  will 
the  image  be  magnified  on  the  wall,  and  the  fur- 
ther the  less ;  such  diversity  depending  on  the 
difference  of  the  spheres  of  the  glasses.  If  the 
object  cannot  be  conveniently  inverted,  there 
must  be  two  large  glasses  of  proper  spheres,  si- 
tuated at  suitable  distances,  easily  found  by  trial, 
to  make  the  representations  erect.  The  whole 


apparatus  of  object-glasses,  &c.  with  the  person 
employed  in  the  management  of  them,  are  to  be 
placed  without  the  window  or  hole,  so  that  they 
may  not  be  perceived  by  the  spectators  in  the 
room,  and  the  operation  itself  will  be  easily  per- 
formed. 

CAMERA  LUCIDA  is  also  the  name  of  an  instru- 
ment for  taking  views,  invented  by  Dr.  Wollas- 
ton  in  1807.  We  shall  copy  his  own  description 
of  this  ingenious  invention. 

'  While  I  look  directly  down  at  a  sheet  of 
paper  on  my  table,  if  I  hold  between  my  eye  and 
the  paper  a  piece  of  plane  glass,  inclined  from 
me  downwards  at  an  angle  of  45°,  I  see  by  re- 
flection the  view  that  is  before  me,  in  the  same 
direction  that  I  see  my  paper  through  the  glass. 
I  might  then  take  a  sketch  of  it;  but  the  position 
of  the  object  would  be  reversed. 

To  obtain  a  direct  view  it  is  necessary  to  have 
two  reflections.  The  transparent  glass  must  for 
this  purpose  be  inclined  to  the  perpendicular 
line  of  sight  only  the  half  of  45°,  that  it  may  re- 
flect t^~-  view  a  second  time  from  a  piece  of 
looking-glass  placed  beneath  it,  and  inclined  up- 
wards at  an  equal  angle.  The  objects  now  ap- 
pear as  if  seen  through  the  paper  in  the  same 
place  as  before ;  but  they  are  direct  instead  of 
being  inverted,  and  they  may  be  discerned  in  this 
manner  sufficiently  well  for  determining  the  prin- 
cipal positions. 

The  pencil,  however,  and  any  object  which  it 
is  to  trace,  cannot  both  be  seen  distinctly  in  the 
same  state  of  the  eye,  on  account  of  the  difference 
of  their  distances;  and  the  efforts  of  successive 
adaptation  of  the  eye,  to  one  or  the  other,  would 
become  painful  if  frequently  repeated.  In  order 
to  remedy  this  inconvenience,  the  paper  and 
pencil  may  be  viewed  through  a  convex  lens  of 
such  a  focus  as  to  require  no  more  effort  than  is 
necessary  for  seeing  the  distant  objects  distinctly. 
These  will  then  appear  to  correspond  with  the 
paper  in  distance  as  well  as  direction,  and  may 
be  drawn  with  facility,  and  with  any  desired  de- 
gree of  precision. 

This  arrangement  of  glasses  will  probably  be 
best  understood  from  inspection  of  plate  II.,  fig.  1., 
a  b  is  the  transparent  glass  ;  b  c  the  lower  re- 
flector ;  6  d  a  convex  lens  (of  twelve  inches  focus) ; 
e  the  position  of  the  eye ;  and  fg  h  e  the  course 
of  the  rays. 

In  some  cases  a  different  construction  will  be 
preferable.  Those  eyes,  which  without  assistance 
are  adapted  to  seeing  near  objects  alone,  will  not 
admit  the  use  of  a  convex  glass  ;  but  will,  on  the 
contrary,  require  one  that  is  concave  to  be  placed 
in  front,  to  render  the  distant  objects  distinct. 
The  frame  for  a  glass  of  this  construction  is  repre- 
sented at  i  k,  fig.  3,  turning  upon  the  same  hinge 
at  h,  with  a  convex  glass  in  the  frame  I  ?n,  and 
moving  in  such  a  manner,  that  either  of  the 
glasses  may  be  turned  alone  into  its  place,  as 
may  be  necessary  to  suit  an  eye  that  is  long  or 
short  sighted.  Those  persons,  however,  whose 
sight  is  nearly  perfect,  may  at  pleasure  use  either 
of  the  glasses. 

The  instrument  represented  in  that  figure  dif- 
fers, moreover,  in  other  respects  from  the  fore- 
going, which  I  have  chosen  to  describe  first,  be- 
cause the  action  of  the  reflectors  there  employed 

F  2 


68 


CAMERA. 


would  be  more  generally  understood.  But  those 
who  are  conversant  with  the  science  of  optics  will 
perceive  the  advantage  that  may  be  derived  in  this 
instance  from  prismatic  reflection ;  for  when  a  ray 
of  light  has  entered  a  solid  piece  of  glass,  and  falls 
from  within  upon  any  surface,  at  an  inclination 
of  only  twenty-two  or  twenty-three  degrees,  as 
above  supposed,  the  refractive  power  of  the  glass 
is  such  as  to  suffer  none  of  that  light  to  pass  out, 
and  the  surface  becomes  in  this  case  the  most 
brilliant  reflector  that  can  be  employed. 

Fig.  2.  represents  the  section  of  a  solid  pris- 
matic piece  of  glass,  within  which  both  the  reflec- 
tions requisite  are  effected  at  the  surfaces  ab,bc, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  ray  fg,  after  being  re- 
flected first  at  g,  and  again  at  h,  arrives  at  the 
eye  in  a  direction  h  e  at  right  angles  to  f  g. 

There  is  another  circumstance  in  this  construc- 
ion  necessary  to  be  attended  to,  and  which  re- 
nains  to  be  explained.    Where  the  reflection  was 
>roduced  by  a  piece  of  plane  glass,  it  is  obvious 
hat  any  objects  behind  the  glass,  if  sufficiently 
lluminated,  might  be  seen  through  the  glass  as 
•veil  as  the  reflected  image.     But  when  the  pris- 
matic reflector  is  employed,  since  no  light  can  be 
transmitted  directly  through  it,  the  eye  must  be 
so  placed  that  only  a  part  of  its  pupil  may  be  in- 
tercepted by  the  edge  of  the  prism,  as  at  e,  fig.  2. 
The  distant  objects  will  then  be  seen  by  this  por- 
tion of  the  eye,  while  the  paper  and  pencil  are 
seen  past  the  edge  of  the  prism  by  the  remainder 
of  the  pupil. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  inconvenience  that  might 
prise  from  an  unintentional  motion  of  the  eye,  the 
relative  quantities  of  light  to  be  received  from  the 
object,  and  from  the  paper,  are  regulated  by  a 
small  hole  in  a  piece  of  brass,  which  by  moving 
on  a  centre  at  r,  fig.  3.,  is  capable  of  adjustment 
to  every  inequality  of  light  that  is  likely  to  occur. 
Since  the  size  of  the  whole  instrument,  from 
being  so  near  the  eye,  does  not  require  to  be 
large,  I  have,  on  many  accounts,  preferred  the 
smallest  size  that  could  be  executed  with  correct- 
ness, and  have  had  it  constructed  on  such  a  scale, 
that  the  lenses  are  only  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter. 

Though  the  original  design  and  principal  use 
of  this  instrument  is  to  facilitate  the  delineation 
of  objects  in  true  perspective,  yet  this  is  by  no 
means  the  sole  purpose  to  which  it  is  adapted; 
for  the  same  arrangement  of  reflectors  may  be 
employed  with  equal  advantage  for  copying  what 
has  been  already  drawn,  and  may  thus  assist  a 
learner  in  acquiring  at  least  a  correct  outline  of 
any  subject. 

For  this  purpose,  the  drawing  to  be  copied 
should  be  placed  as  nearly  as  may  be  at  the  same 
distance  before  the  instrument  that  the  paper  is 
beneath  the  eye-hole ;  for  in  that  case  the  size  will 
be  the  same,  and  no  lens  will  be  necessary,  either 
to  the  object  or  to  the  pencil. 

By  a  proper  use  of  the  same  instrument,  every 
purpose  of  the  pentagraph  may  also  be  answered, 
as  a  painting  may  be  reduced  in  any  proportion 
required,  by  placing  it  at  a  distance  in  due  pro- 
portion, greater  than  that  of  the  paper  from  the 
instrument.  In  this  case  a  lens  becomes  requi- 
site for  enabling  the  .eye  to  see  at  two  unequal 
distances  with  equal  distinctness ;  and  in  order 


that  one  lens  may  suit  for  all  these  purposes,  there 
is  an  advantage  in  carrying  the  height  of  the 
stand  according  to  the  proportion  in  which  the 
reduction  is  to  be  effected. 

The  principles  upon  which  the  height  of  the 
stem  is  adjusted  will  be  readily  understood  by 
those  who  are  accustomed  to  optical  considera- 
tions. For  as  in  taking  a  perspective  view,  the 
rays  from  the  paper  are  rendered  parallel,  by 
placing  a  lens  at  the  distance  of  its  principal 
focus  from  the  paper,  because  the  rays  received 
from  the  distant  objects  are  parallel ;  so  alsn 
when  the  object  seen  by  reflection  is  at  so  shor1 
a  distance  that  the  rays  received  from  it  are,  in  a 
certain  degree,  divergent,  the  rays  from  the 
paper  should  be  made  to  have  the  same  degree 
of  divergency,  in  order  that  the  paper  may  1)9 
seen  distinctly  by  the  same  eye  ;  and  for  tha 
purpose,  the  lens  must  be  placed  at  a  distance 
less  than  its  principal  focus.  The  stem  of  the 
instrument  is  accordingly  marked  at  certain  dis- 
tances,  to  which  the  conjugate  foci  are  in  the 
several  proportions  of  two,  three,  four,  &,c.  to 
one;  so  that  distinct  vision  may  be  obtained  in 
all  cases,  by  placing  the  painting  proportionably 
more  distant. 

By  transposing  the  convex  lens  to  the  front  of 
the  instrument,  and  reversing  the  proportional 
distances,  the  artist  might  also  enlarge  his  smaller 
sketches  with  every  desirable  degree  of  correci- 
ness,  and  the  naturalist  might  delineate  minute 
objects  in  any  degree  magnified. 

Since  the  primary  intention  of  this  instrument 
is  already,  in  some  measure,  answered  by  the 
camera  obscura,  a  comparison  will  naturally  be 
made  between  them. 

The  objections  to  the  camera  obscura  are, 

1st.  That  it  is  too  large  to  be  carried  about 
with  convenience. 

The  camera  lucida  is  as  small  and  portable  as 
can  be  wished. 

2dly,  In  the  former,  all  objects  that  are  not 
situated  near  the  centre  of  view  are  more  or  less 
distorted. 

In  this  there  is  no  distortion ;  so  that  every 
line,  even  the  most  remote  from  the  centre  of 
view,  is  as  straight  as  those  through  the  centre. 

3dly,  In  that  the  field  of  view  does  not  extend 
beyond  30°,  or  at  most  35°  with  distinctness. 

But  in  the  camera  lucida  as  much  as  70°  or  80° 
might  be  included  in  one  view. 

It  is  obvious,  that  the  preceding  contrivance 
may  be  applied  to  a  telescope,  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  sketches  of  the  different  objects  that  may 
be  contained  within  the  field  of  view;  but  as  it 
is  only  a  small  portion  of  a  landscape,  or  of  any 
large  object,  that  can  be  seen  at  once  through  a 
telescope,  it  would  be  desirable  to  have  some 
contrivance  by  which  the  objects  seen  in  differem 
fields  ot  view,  and  sketched  upon  the  same  piece 
of  paper,  might  be  all  connected  with  each  other 
into  one  landscape.  This,  however,  can  be  done 
only  to  a  certain  extent,  as  will  appear  from 
plate  II.  fig.  4.  Let  A  B  be  the  direction  of  th<» 
telescope,  which,  when  placed  upon  a  suitable 
stand,  can  be  moved  round  the  axis  O  in  a  hori- 
zontal plane,  B  b  b';  B,  the  extremity  of  the  eye- 
tube  at  which  the  prism  of  the  camera  lucida  is 
fixed ;  M  N,  the  paper  lying  in  a  horizontal  po- 


CAMERA. 


sition ;  and  a  b,  a'  b',  successive  positions  of  tlie 
telescope  in  a  plane  parallel  to  M  N.  Let  EF 
be  the  field  of  view  of  the  telescope,  when  seen 
on  the  paper  by  reflection  from  the  prism ;  then 
the  instrument  must  be  so  constructed,  that 
when  the  telescope  is  in  the  position  a  b,  and  di- 
rected to  the  part  of  the  landscape  immediately 
adjacent  to  that  which  is  contained  in  the  field 
EF,  the  field  of  view  FG,  when  seen  by  reflec- 
tion from  the  prism,  must  be  in  contact  with 
E  F.  When  this  happens  we  have  B  b  rz  C  c, 
and  the  angle  B  F  b  —  E  B  F  the  angle  subtended 
by  the  field  of  view;  but  it  is  obvious,  that  when 
the  telescope  is  moved  from  the  position  A  B  into 
the  position  ab,  its  angular  motion  round  O, 
viz.  the  angle  B  O  b,  is  equal  to  an  angle  com- 
prehended by  the  field  of  view,  that  is,  to  the 
angle  BFE;  therefore,  in  the  triangles  OB£>, 
B  F  b,  we  have  the  angles  at  O  and  F  equal,  and 
the  side  B  6  common ;  and  consequently  the 
side  OB  is  equal  to  the  side  BC.  From  this  it 
follows,  that,  in  order  to  have  the  successive 
fields  of  view,  EF,  FG,  G  H,  all  joined  to  each 
other,  or  at  their  proper  relative  distances,  the 
distance  of  the  eye  from  the  paper  must  be  equal 
to  its  distance  from  the  centre  of  motion  O,  round 
which  the  telescope  revolves.  The  telescope 
should  therefore  be  placed  upon  a  stand,  so  con- 
structed that  the  centre  of  motion,  O,  may  be 
placed  in  different  positions  between  the  eye- 
piece and  the  object-glass ;  by  which  means,  the 
observer  may  vary  the  distance  of  the  paper  from 
his  eye,  according  as  he  wishes  to  have  his  draw- 
ing on  a  large  or  a  small  scale.  By  the  instru- 
ment, when  thus  constructed,  we  are  enabled  to 
take  a  connected  panoramic  view  of  any  hori- 
zontal zone  of  a  landscape,  whose  breadth  does 
not  exceed  the  field  of  view  of  the  telescope. 
The  objects  contained  in  the  different  fields  of 
view,  will  be  arranged  in  a  circle  whose  diameter 
is  equal  to  the  distance  of  the  eye  from  the  centre 
of  motion. 

This  instrument  is  admirably  fitted  for  taking 
a  correct  outline  of  the  visible  horizon,  with  all 
the  various  indentations  with  which  that  line  is 
generally  broken  by  the  intervention  of  valleys 
and  mountains.  Unless  the  horizon  is  extremely 
and  unusually  contracted,  the  field  of  view  of  a 
common  telescope  will  contain  a  zone  which  will 
easily  comprehend  every  depression  and  eleva- 
tion ;  and  even  when  the  place  of  the  observer 
is  embosomed  in  an  amphitheatre  of  mountains 
which  rise  around  him  with  various  elevations, 
the  field  of  view  may  be  enlarged  by  diminishing 
the  magnifying  power  of  the  telescope.  For  this 
purpose,  the  micrometrical  telescope,  invented 
by  Dr.  Brewster,  is  particularly  applicable,  as 
the  magnifying  power  can  be  increased  or  dimi- 
nished without  changing  any  of  the  lenses;  and 
as  the  distance  between  the  eye  and  the  centre 
of  motion,  O,  can  be  altered,  even  though  the 
telescope  is  fixed  to  its  stand.  The  microme- 
trical telescope  having  also  the  properties  of  a 
compound  microscope,  any  long  object  which 
cannot  be  contained  in  the  field  of  view,  in  the 
direction  of  its  length,  may  be  delineated  in  a 

milar  manner.  This  contrivance  cannot  be  ap- 
plied to  the  common  compound  microscope,  as 
it  has  not  a  motion  round  an  axis. 


The  camera  lucida  of  Dr.  Wollaston  might  br 
fitted  up  with  a  horizontal  motion,  and  without 
the  aid  of  a  telescope,  so  as  to  delineate  one  con- 
tinued zone  of  a  landscape  ;  but  when  the  objects 
are  small,  or  at  a  considerable  distance,  a  tele- 
scope becomes  indispensably  necessary.  See  the 
Philosophical  Magazine,  vol.  xxvii.  p.  343 ;  Ni- 
cholson's Journal,  vol.  xvii.  p.  1.,  vol.  xxiii.  p. 
372,  vol.  xxiv.  p.  146;  and  Brewster's  Treatise 
on  New  Philosophical  Instruments,  Edinb.  1812, 
book  i.  p.  11,  book  iii.  p.  133,  and  book  vi. 

CAMERA  OBSCURA,  Latin,  the  dark  chamber,  an 
optical  machine,  used  in  a  darkened  chamber,  so 
that  the  light  coming  only  through  a  double  con- 
vex glass,  objects  exposed  to  day-light,  and  op- 
posite to  the  glass,  are  represented  inverted  upon 
any  white  matter  placed  in  the  focus  of  the  glass. 
It  was  invented  by  Baptista  Porta.  It  affords 
very  diverting  spectacles,  both  by  exhibiting 
images  perfectly  like  their  objects,  and  each 
clothed  in  its  native  colors,  and  by  express- 
ing, at  the  same  time,  all  their  motions ;  which 
latter  no  other  art  can  imitate.  By  means  of 
this  instrument,  a  person  unacquainted  with  de- 
signing will  be  able  to  delineate  objects  with  the 
greatest  accuracy  and  justness.  See  OPTICS. 

CAM'ERADE,  n.  s.  Lat  from  camera,  a 
chamber.  One  that  lodges  in  the  same  cham- 
ber ;  a  bosom  companion.  By  corruption  we 
now  use  comrade. 

Camerades  with  him,  and  confederates  in  his  de- 
sign. Rymer. 

GAMER  ARIA,  in  botany :  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order,  thirtieth,  contortae  :  COR.  contorta ; 
two  horizontal  follicles  at  the  base  of  the  seed- 
case,  and  the  seeds  are  inserted  into  a  proper 
membrane.  There  are  four  species ;  the  princi- 
pal are  1  C.  angustifolia  has  an  irregular 
shrubby  stalk,  which  rises  about  eight  feet,  send- 
ing out  many  branches,  garnished  with  very 
narrow  thin  leaves,  placed  opposite,  at  each 
joint.  The  flowers  are  produced  scatteringly  at 
the  end  of  the  branches,  which  are  shaped  like 
those  of  the  latifolia,  but  smaller.  It  is  a  native 
of  Jamaica.  2.  C.  latifolia,  a  native  of  the 
island  of  Cuba.  It  rises  with  a  shrubby  stalk  to 
ten  or  twelve  feet,  dividing  into  several  branches, 
garnished  with  roundish  pointed  leaves  placed 
opposite.  The  flowers  are  produced  at  the  end 
of  branches  in  loose  clusters,  which  have  long 
tubes  enlarging  gradually  upward,  and  at  the  top 
are  cut  into  five  segments,  broad  at  the  base,  but 
ending  in  sharp  points ;  the  flower  is  of  a  yellow- 
ish white  color.  Both  these  plants  abound  with 
an  acrid  milky  juice  like  the  spurge.  They  are 
propagated  by  seeds,  which  must  be  procured 
from  the  places  of  their  growth.  They  may  also 
be  produced  by  cuttings  planted  in  a  hot-bed 
during  summer :  they  must  have  a  bark  stove 
for  they  are  very  tender,  but  in  warm  weather 
they  must  have  plenty  of  air. 

CAMERARIUS  (Joachim),  one  of  the  most 
learned  writers  of  his  time,  was  born  in  1500, 
at  Bamberg,  in  Franconia.  He  embraced  the 
reformation  very  early,  and  formed  a  close  friend- 
ship with  Melancthon,  whose  life  he  wrote.  On 
the  establishment  of  a  college  at  Nuremburg? 


CAM 


70 


CAM 


Camerarius  was  made  professor  of  belles  lettres. 
He  afterwards  removed  to  Leipsic  to  superin- 
tend the  university,  where  he  died  in  1575.  He 
translated  into  Latin,  Herodotus,  Demosthenes, 
Xenophon,  Euclid,  Homer,  Theocritus,  Sopho- 
cles, Lucian,  Theodoret,  Nicephorus,  &c.  He 
published  a  catalogue  of  the  bishops  of  the  prin- 
cipal sees;  Greek  Epistles;  Accounts  of  his 
Journeys,  in  Latin  verse ;  a  Commentary  on 
Plautus ;  the  Lives  of  Helius  Eobanus  Hessus, 
and  Philip  Melancthon,  &c. 

CA'MERATED,  adj.  Lat.  cameratus,  arched ; 
roofed  slopewise. 

CAM'ERATION,  n.  s.  Lat.  cameratio ;  a 
vaulting  or  arching. 

CAMERLINGO,  denotes  the  cardinal  who 
governs  the  ecclesiastical  state,  and  administers 
justice.  It  is  the  most  eminent  office  at  the  court 
of  Rome,  because  he  is  at  the  head  of  the  trea- 
sury. During  a  vacation  of  the  papal  chair,  the 
cardinal  camerlingo  publishes  edicts,  coins  mo- 
ney, and  exerts  every  other  prerogative  of  a  so- 
vereign prince;  he  has  under  him  a  treasurer- 
general,  auditor-general,  and  twelve  prelates, 
called  clerks  of  the  chamber. 

CAMERON  (John),  one  of  the  most  famous 
divines  among  the  Protestants  of  France,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  bom  at  Glasgow,  in 
1580,  where  he  taught  the  Greek  tongue ;  and 
having  read  lectures  upon  that  language  for 
about  a  year,  travelled,  and  became  professor 
and  minister  at  Bourdeaux,  Sedan,  and  Saumur, 
at  which  last  place  he  broached  his  doctrine  of 
grace  and  free  will,  which  was  framed  by  Amy- 
raut,  Cappel,  Bochart,  Daille,  and  others  of  the 
more  learned  among  the  reformed  ministers,  who 
judged  Calvin's  doctrines  on  these  points  too 
harsh.  He  published,  1.  Theological  Lectures; 
2.  Icon  Johannis  •Cameronis ;  and  some  miscel- 
laneous pieces.  He  died  in  1625,  aged  sixty. 

CAMERON  (Richard),  the  founder  of  the  Scots 
Cameronians,  was  a  famous  field-preacher, 
who,  refusing  to  accept  the  indulgence  to  tender 
consciences,  granted  by  king  Charles  II.,  think- 
ing such  an  acceptance  an  acknowledgment  of 
the  king's  supremacy,  and  that  he  had  before  a 
right  to  silence  them,  made  a  defection  from  his 
brethren,  and  even  headed  a  rebellion,  in  which 
he  was  killed. 

CAMERONIANS,  a  sect  in  Scotland,  who 
separated  from  the  Presbyterians  in  1666,  and 
continued  long  to  hold  their  religious  assemblies 
in  the  fields.  The  Cameronians  took  their  de- 
nomination from  Richard  Cameron.  They  were 
never  entirely  reduced  till  the  Revolution,  when 
they  voluntarily  submitted  to  king  William.  The 
Cameronians  adhere  rigidly  to  the  form  of 
government  established  in  1648.  They  are  also 
called  Cargillites,  from  another  of  their  preach- 
ers. There  are  not,  it  is  said,  above  fourteen  or 
fifteen  congregations  among  them,  and  those  not 
large. 

CAMERONITES,  a  party  of  Calvinists  in 
France,  who  asserted  that  the  will  of  man  is 
only  determined  by  the  practical  judgment  of 
the  mind  ;  that  the  cause  of  men's  doing  good 
or  evil  proceeds  from  the  knowledge  which  God 
infuses  into  them  ;  and  that  God  does  not  move 
the  will  physically,  but  only  morally,  in  virtue 


of  its  dependence  on  the  judgment  of  the  mind 
They  were  so  named  from  professor  John  Came- 
ron. They  are  a  sort  of  mitigated  Calvinists, 
and  approach  to  the  opinion  of  the  Arminians. 

GAMES,  a  name  given  to  the  small  slender 
rods  of  cast  lead,  of  which  the  glaziers  make 
their  turned  lead.  The  lead  being  cast  into 
slender  rods  of  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  long 
each,  is  called  the  came ;  sometimes  also  they 
call  each  of  these  rods  a  came,  which,  being  after- 
wards drawn  through  their  vice,  makes  their 
turned  lead. 

CAMILLA,  queen  of  the  Volsci,  daughter  of 
Metablus  and  Camilla,  was  educated  in  the 
woods,  inured  to  the  labors  of  hunting,  and  fed 
upon  the  milk  of  mares.  Her  father  devoted 
her,  when  young,  to  the  service  of  Diana.  When 
she  was  declared  queen,  she  marched  at  the  head 
of  an  army,  accompanied  by  three  youthful 
females  like  herself,  to  assist  Turnus  against 
./Eneas,  where  she  signalised  herself  by  the  num- 
bers that  perished  by  her  hand. 

CAMILLA,  in  entomology,  an  European  species 
of  papilio,  the  P.  rivularis  of  Scopoli,  and  P.  lucilla 
of  Esper.  The  wings  of  this  species  are  indent- 
eel,  black,  and  glossed  with  blue,  with  a  white 
band  and  spot  on  each  side ;  posterior  wings 
beneath  at  the  base  silvery  and  immaculate. 

CAMILLA,  and  CAMILLI,  in  antiquity,  girls 
and  boys  who  ministered  in  the  sacrifices  of  the 
gods;  and  especially  those  who  attended  the 
flamen  dialis,  or  priest  of  Jupiter.  The  word 
seems  borrowed  from  the  language  of  the  ancient 
Etrurians,  where  it  signified  minister,  and  was 
changed  from  casmillus. 

CAMILLUS  (Furius),  an  illustrious  hero  of 
the  Roman  republic.  He  triumphed  four  times 
was  five  times  dictator,  and  was  justly  honored 
with  the  title  of  the  second  founder  of  Rome. 
Lucius  Apuleius,  one  of  the  tribunes,  prosecuted 
him  to  make  him  give  an  account  of  the  spoils 
taken  at  Veii.  Camillus  anticipated  judgment, 
and  banished  himself  voluntarily.  During  his 
banishment,  the  Gauls  sacked  Rome;  but  instead 
of  rejoicing  at  the  punishment  of  his  ungrateful 
countrymen,  he  exerted  all  his  wisdom  and 
bravery  to  drive  away  ihe  enemy ;  and  yet  kept 
with  the  utmost  strictness  the  law  of  Rome,  in 
refusing  to  accept  the  command,  which  several 
private  persons  offered  him.  The  Romans,  who 
were  besieged  in  the  Capitol,  created  him  dic- 
tator, A.  A.  C.  363;  in  which  office  he  acted 
with  so  much  bravery  and  conduct,  that  he  en- 
tirely drove  the  Gauls  out  of  the  territories  of  the 
commonwealth.  He  died  A.  A.  C.  385,  aged  81. 
He  conquered  the  Hernici,  Volsci,  Latini,  and 
Etrurians,  and  dissuaded  his  countrymen  from 
their  intention  of  leaving  Rome  to  reside  at 
Veii.  When  he  besieged  Falisci,  he  rejected, 
with  proper  indignation,  the  offers  of  a  school- 
master, who  had  betrayed  into  his  hands  the 
sons  of  the  most  worthy  citizens. 

CAMINA,  or  YERVA  CAM  IN  A,  in  botany,  an 
American  herb,  the  same  with  what  is  otherwise 
called  Paraguay  tea,  or  yerva  conpallo.  See  ILEX. 

CAMINISTIQUIA,  in  geography,  a  river  of 
Upper  Canada,  which  discharges  itself  into  the 
lake  Superior,  thirty  miles  east  of  the  Grand 
Portage. 


C  A  M  O  E  N  S. 


71 


CAMION,  in  the  military  art,  a  small  cart 
with  three  wheels,  for  carrying  pullets,  &c. 
CAMISA'DO,  n.  )      From  camisa,  a  shirt.    A 
CAM'ISATED,  adj.  ]  nocturnal  assault,  wherein 
the  soldiers  wear  shirts  over  their    armour,  to 
know  their  own  company  from  the  enemy,  lest 
they  should  in  the  dark  kill  of  their  own  com- 
pany instead  of  the  enemy. 

For  I  this  day  will  lead  the  forlorn  hope, 
The  camisado  shall  be  given  by  me. 

Old  Play.     Four  Prentices  of  London. 

They  had  appointed  the  same  night,  whose  dark- 
ness would  have  encreased  the  fear,  to  have  given  a 
camisado  upon  the  English.  Hfiyward. 

CAMISARDS,  a  name  given  by  the  French 
to  the  Calvinists  of  the  Cevennes,  who  formed  a 
league,  and  took  up  arms  in  their  own  defence 
in  1688. 

CAMLET,  or  CAMBLF.T,  a  kind  of  stuff  made 
of  goats'  hair,  with  wool  or  silk :  in  some,  the 
warp  is  silk  and  wool  twisted  together,  and  the 
woof  hair.  The  true,  or  oriental  camlet  is  made 
of  the  pure  hair  of  a  sort  of  goat,  frequent  about 
Angora;  all  the  inhabitants  whereof  are  employed 
in  the  manufacture  and  commerce  of  camlets. 
Mention  is  made  in  writers  of  the  middle  age,  of 
stuffs  made  of  camels'  hair,  under  the  denomi- 
nations of  cameletum  and  camelinum,  whence 
probably  the  origin  of  the  term ;  but  these  are 
represented  as  strangely  coarse,  rough,  and 
prickly,  and  seem  to  have  been  chiefly  used 
among  the  monks  by  way  of  mortification,  as  the 
hair  shirt  of  later  times.  We  have  no  camlets 
made  in  Europe  of  the  goats'  hair  alone;  even 
at  Brussels,  they  add  a  mixture  of  woollen  thread. 
England,  France,  Holland,  and  Flanders,  are  the 
chief  places  of  this  manufacture.  Brussels  ex- 
ceeds them  all  in  the  beauty  and  quality  of  its 
camlets  :  those  of  England  are  reputed  the 
second. 

CAMLETS,  FIGURED,  are  those  of  one  color, 
whereon  are  stamped  various  figures,  flowers, 
foliage,  &c.,  by  means  of  hot  irons,  which  are 
a  kind  of  moulds,  passed  together  with  the  stuff, 
under  a  press.  These  are  chiefly  brought  from 
Amiens  and  Flanders;  the  commerce  of  these 
was  anciently  much  more  considerable  than  at 
present. 

CAMLETS,  WATERED,  those  which,  after 
weaving,  receive  a  certain  preparation  with  wa- 
ter ;  and  are  afterwards  passed  under  a  hot  press, 
which  gives  them  a  smoothness  and  lustre. 

CAMLETS,  WAVED,  are  those  whereon  waves 
are  impressed,  as  on  taobi nets  ;  by  means  of  a 
calender,  under  which  they  are  passed  and 
repassed  several  times.  The  manufacturers,  &c. 
of  camlets  ought  to  take  care  they  do  not  acquire 
any  needless  plaits  ;  it  being  almost  impossible 
to  get  them  out  again.  This  is  notorious,  even 
to  a  proverb:  we  say,  a  person  is  like  camlet, he 
has  taken  his  plait. 

GAMMA,  a  province  of  Loango  in  Africa,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  are  continually  at  war  with 
those  of  Gobbi,  another  province  of  Loango.  See 
GOBBI.  The  weapons  they  formerly  used  in 
heir  wars  were  the  short  pike,  bows  and  arrows, 
ord  and  dagger;  but  since  the  Europeans 


have  become  acquainted  with  that  coast,  they 
have  supplied  them  with  fire-arms. 

CAM'MOCK,  n.  s.  Sax.  cammoc;  Lat. 
ononis.  An  herb ;  the  same  with  petty  whin,  or 
rest-harrow,  as  this  herb  is  always  called,  though 
the  proper  name  seems  to  be  wrest-harrow,  from 
its  strong  roots  resting  the  harrow  aside. 

CAMOENS  (Lewis  De),  a  famous  Portuguese 
poet,  the  honor  of  whose  birth  is  claimed  by  dif- 
ferent cities.  But  according  to  N.  Antonia  and 
Manuel  Correa,  his  intimate  friend,  he  was  born 
at  Lisbon  in  1517.  His  family  was  of  conside- 
rable note,  and  originally  Spanish.  The  elder 
branch  of  it,  according  to  Castera,  intermarried 
with  the  blood  royal  of  Portugal.  But  the 
younger  branch  had  the  superior  honor  to  pro- 
duce the  author  of  the  Lusiad.  The  misfortunes 
of  the  poet  began  early.  In  his  infancy,  Simon 
Vaz  de  Camoens,  his  father,  being  commander 
of  a  vessel,  was  shipwrecked  at  Goa,  where,  with 
his  life,  the  greatest  part  of  his  fortune  was  lost. 
His  mother,  however,  Anne  de  Macedo  of  Sant- 
aren,  provided  for  the  education  of  her  son  Lewis 
at  the  university  of  Coimbra.  What  he  acquired 
there  his  works  discover;  an  intimacy  with  the 
classics,  equal  to  that  of  Scaliger,  but  directed 
by  the  taste  of  a  Milton  or  a  Pope.  When  he 
left  the  university,  he  appeared  at  court.  He  was 
handsome  ;  had  sparkling  eyes  ;  with  the  finest 
complexion ;  and  was  a  polished  scholar ;  which, 
added  to  the  natural  vivacity  of  his  disposition, 
rendered  him  an  accomplished  gentleman.  Courts 
are  the  scenes  of  intrigue  ;  and  intrigue  was  fa- 
shionable at  Lisbon.  But  the  particulars  of  the 
amours  of  Camoens  are  unknown.  Only  this 
appears ;  he  aspired  above  his  rank,  for  he  was 
banished  from  court ;  arid  in  several  of  his  son- 
nets he  ascribes  his  misfortunes  to  love.  He 
now  retired  to  his  mother's  friends  at  Santaren. 
Here  he  renewed  his  studies,  and  began  his  poem 
on  the  discovery  of  India.  John  III.  at  this  time 
prepared  an  armament  against  Africa.  Camoens, 
tired  of  his  inactive  obscure  life,  went  to  Ceuta  in 
this  expedition,  and  displayed  his  valor  in  se- 
veral rencounters.  In  a  naval  engagement  with 
the  Moors  in  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  in  the  con- 
flict of  boarding,  he  was  among  the  foremost,  and 
lost  his  right  eye.  Yet  neither  the  hurry  of  actual 
service  nor  the  dissipation  of  the  camp  could 
stifle  his  genius.  He  continued  his  Lusiad,  and 
several  of  his  most  beautiful  sonnets  were  written 
in  Africa,  while,  as  he  expressed  it, 
'  One  hand  the  pen,  and  one  the  sword,  employed.' 
The  fame  of  his  valor  had  now  reached  the  court, 
and  he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  Lisbon. 
But,  while  he  solicited  an  establishment  which  he 
had  merited  in  battle,  the  malignity  of  evil  tongues 
was  injuriously  poured  upon  him.  Though  the 
bloom  of  his  youth  was  effaced  by  long  residence 
under  the  scorching  sun-beams  of  Africa,  and 
disfigured  by  the  loss  of  an  eye,  his  presence 
gave  uneasiness  to  some  gentlemen  of  families  of 
the  first  rank,  where  he  had  formerly  visited. 
Jealousy  is  the  characteristic  of  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese;  its  resentment  knows  no  bounds, 
and  Camoens  now  found  it  prudent  to  banish 
himself  from  his  native  country.  Accordingly, 
in  1553,  he  sailed  for  India,  with  a  resolution 
never  to  return.  As  the  ship  left  the  Tagus,  he 


72 


C  A  M  O  E  N  S. 


exclaimed  in  the  words  of  the  sepulchral  monu- 
ment of  Scipio  Africanus,  Ingrata  patria,  non 
possedebis  ossa  mea  !  '  Ungrateful  country, 
thou  shall  not  possess  my  bones  '. '  But  he  knew 
not  what  evils  in  the  East  would  awake  the  re- 
membrance of  his  native  fields.  When  Camoens 
arrived  in  India,  a  fleet  was  ready  to  sail  to  re- 
venge the  king  of  Cochin  on  the  king  of  Pimenta. 
Without  any  rest  on  shore  after  his  long  voyage, 
he  joined  this  armament,  and  in  the  conquest  of 
the  Alagada  islands  displayed  his  usual  bravery. 
In  1554  he  attended  Vasconcello  in  an  expedition 
to  the  Red  Sea.  Here,  says  Faria,  as  Camoens 
had  no  use  for  his  sword,  he  employed  his  pen. 
Nor  was  his  activity  confined  to  the  fleet  or  camp. 
He  visited  Mount  Felix,  and  the  adjacent  inhos- 
pitable regions  of  Africa,  which  he  so  strongly 
pictures  in  the  Lusiad,  and  in  one  of  his  little 
pieces,  where  he  laments  the  absence  of  his  mis- 
tress. When  he  returned  to  Goa,  he  enjoyed  a 
tranquillity  which  enabled  him  to  bestow  his  at- 
tention on  his  Epic.  But  this  serenity  was  in- 
terrupted, perhaps  by  his  own  imprudence.  He 
wrote  some  satires  which  gave  offence ;  and,  by 
order  of  the  viceroy,  Francisco  Barreto,  he  was 
banished  to  China.  The  accomplishments  of 
Camoens  soon  found  him  friends,  even  under  the 
disgrace  of  banishment.  He  was  appointed 
commissary  of  the  defunct  in  the  island  of  Ma- 
cao. Here  he  continued  his  Lusiad ;  and  here 
also,  after  five  years  residence,  he  acquired  a  for- 
tune equal  to  his  wishes.  Don  Constantine  de 
Braganza  was  now  viceroy  of  India;  and  Ca- 
moens, desirous  to  return  to  Goa,  resigned  his 
charge.  In  a  ship,  freighted  by  himself,  he  set 
sail ;  but  was  shipwrecked  in  the  gulf  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Mehon  on  the  coast  of  China. 
All  he  had  acquired  was  lost ;  as  he  tells  us  in 
the  seventh  Lusiad : 

'  Now  blest  with  all  the  wealth  fond  hope  could 

crave, 
Soon  I  beheld  that  wealth  beneath  the  wave 

For  ever  lost ; 

My  life  like  Judah's  heaven-doom'd  king  of  yore, 
By  miracle  prolong'd.' 

His  poems,  which  he  held  in  one  hand,  while  he 
cut  the  waves  with  the  other,  were  all  that  he 

fossessed,  when  he  stood  friendless  on  the  un-> 
nown  shore.  But  the  natives  gave  him  a  most 
humane  reception;  which  he  has  immortalised 
•n  that  beautiful  prophetic  song  in  the  tenth  Lu- 
siad. On  the  banks  of  the  Mehon,  he  wrote  his 
beautiful  paraphrase  of  the  psalm,  where  the 
lews,  in  the  finest  strain  of  poetry,  are  repre- 
sented as  hanging  their  harps  on  the  willows  by 
the  rivers  of  Babylon,  and  weeping  their  exile 
from  their  native  country.  Here  Camoens  con- 
tinued some  time,  till  an  opportunity  offered  to 
cany  him  to  Goa.  When  he  arrived  at  that  city, 
Don  Constantine  de  Braganza,  the  viceroy,  ad- 
mitted him  into  intimate  friendship,  and  Camoens 
was  happy  till  count  Rodondo  assumed  the  go- 
vernment. But  now,  those  who  had  formerly 
procured  his  banishment,  exerted  all  their  arts 
against  him.  Rodondo,  when  he  entered  on  of- 
fice, pretended  to  be  the  friend  of  Camoens ,  yet, 
he  soon  after  suffered  him  to  be  thrown  into  the 
common  prison.  Camoens,  however,  in  a  pub- 


lic trial,  fully  refuted  every  accusation  of  his  con- 
duct while  commissary  at  Macao,  and  his  enemies 
were  loaded  with  ignominy.  But  Camoens  had 
some  creditors,  who  detained  him  in  prison  a 
considerable  time,  till  the  gentlemen  of  Goa, 
ashamed  that  a  man  of  his  singular  merit  should 
experience  such  treatment  among  them,  set  him 
at  liberty.  He  again  assumed  the  profession  of 
arms,  and  received  the  allowance  of  a  gentleman 
volunteer,  a  character  at  this  time  common  in 
Portuguese  India.  Soon  after,  Pedro  Barreto, 
who  was  appointed  governor  of  the  fort  at  Sofala, 
allured  the  poet  by  high  promises,  to  attend  him 
thither.  Though  the  only  motive  of  Barreto  was 
to  retain  the  conversation  of  Camoens  at  his  table, 
it  was  his  least  care  to  render  the  life  of  his  guest 
agreeable.  Chagrined  with  his  treatment,  and  a 
considerable  time  having  elapsed  in  vain  depen- 
dence upon  Barreto,  Camoens  resolved  to  return 
to  his  native  country.  A  ship,  on  the  homeward 
voyage,  at  this  time  touched  at  Sofala,  and  seve- 
ral gentlemen  who  were  on  board  were  desirous 
that  Camoens  should  accompany  them.  But  to 
prevent  this,  the  governor  ungenerously  charged 
him  with  a  debt  for  board.  Anthony  de  Cabra 
however,  and  Hector  de  Silveira,  paid  the  de- 
mand ;  and  '  Camoens,'  says  Faria,  '  and  the 
honor  of  Barreto  were  sold  together.'  After  an 
absence  of  sixteen  years,  Camoens,  in  1569,  re- 
turned to  Lisbon,  unhappy  even  in  his  arrival, 
for  the  pestilence  then  raged  in  that  city,  and 
prevented  his  publication  for  three  years.  At 
last,  in  1572,  he  printed  his  Lusiad,  which,  in 
the  opening  of  the  first  book,  in  a  most  elegant 
turn  of  compliment,  he  addressed  to  king  Sebas- 
tian, then  in  his  eighteenth  year.  The  king, 
says  the  French  translator,  was  so  pleased  with 
his  merit,  that  he  gave  the  author  a  pension  of 
4000  reals,  on  condition  that  he  should  reside  at 
court.  But  this  salary,  says  the  same  writer,  was 
withdrawn  by  cardinal  Henry,  who  succeeded  to 
the  crown  of  Portugal,  lost  by  Sebastian  at  the 
battle  of  Alcazar.  Though  Henry  was  the  great 
patron  of  one  species  of  literature,  yet  the  author 
of  the  Lusiad  was  utterly  neglected  by  him,  and 
under  his  inglorious  reign,  died  in  all  the  misery 
of  poverty.  By  some,  it  is  said,  he  died  in  an 
almshouse.  It  appears,  however,  that  he  had 
not  even  the  certainty  of  subsistence  which  these 
houses  provide.  He  had  a  black  servant,  who 
had  grown  old  witli  him,  who  had  long  expe- 
rienced his  master's  humanity.  This  grateful 
Indian,  a  native  of  Java,  who,  according  to  some 
writers,  saved  his  master's  life  in  the  shipwreck, 
begged  in  the  streets  of  Lisbon,  for  the  only  man 
in  Portugal  on  whom  God  had  bestowed  those 
talents,  which  tend  to  elevate  the  spirit  of  a  dege- 
nerate age.  To  the  eye  of  a  careful  observer,  the 
fate  of  Camoens  throws  great  light  on  that  of  his 
country,  and  will  appear  strictly  connected  witli 
it.  The  same  ignorance,  the  same  despicable 
spirit,  which  suffered  Camoens  to  depend  on 
alms,  sunk  the  kingdom  of  Portugal  into  the 
most  abject  vassalage  ever  experienced  by  a  con- 
quered nation.  While  the  grandees  were  blind 
to  the  ruin  which  impended  over  them,  Camoens 
beheld  it  with  a  pungency  of  grief  which  hasten- 
ed his  exit.  In  one  of  his  letters  he  has  these 
remarkable  words  :  '  Em  sim  accaberey  a  vida,' 


CAM 


73 


CAM 


&c.  'I  am  ending  the  course  of  my  life;  the 
world  will  witness  how  I  have  loved  my  coun- 
try. I  have  returned,  not  only  to  die  in  her 
bosom,  but  to  die  with  her.'  In  this  unhappy 
situation,  in  1579,  in  his  sixty-second  year,  the 
year  after  the  fatal  defeat  of  Don  Sebastian,  died 
Lewis  de  Camoens,  the  greatest  literary  genius 
ever  produced  in  Portugal ;  a  man  equal  in  mar- 
tial courage  and  honor  to  her  greatest  heroes. 
And  he  was  buried  in  a  manner  suitable  to  the 
poverty  in  which  he  died.  The  Lusiad  has  been 
translated  once  into  Latin,  twice  into  Italian,  once 
into  French,  four  times  into  Spanish,  and  once 
into  English,  by  Mr.  Mickle.  Some  of  his  minor 
poems  have  been  translated  into  English,  in  beau- 
tiful, if  not  very  faithful,  language,  by  lord 
Strangford. 

CAM'OMILE,  n.  s.  A  flower.  See  ANTHEMIS. 
CAMORTA,  one  of  the  Nicobar  isles,  in  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  on  which  the  Danes  had  a  settle- 
ment during  the  last  century.  It  is  about  twenty- 
nine  miles  in  length  from  north  to  south,  and 
five  miles  broad.  On.  the  south-east  coast  is  a 
good  harbour.  It  is  covered  in  parts  with  the 
poon  tree,  used  for  masts  in  India,  and  has  even 
fruitful  spots,  but  is  thinly  peopled.  See  NICO- 
BAR. 

CA'MOS,  or  -N  Fr.  eamuser;  Lat.  si- 
CA'MOYS,  or  /  mus ;  Ital.  camuso.  Flat 

CA'MOUS,  adj.  \nosed;  to  bend;  to  break; 
CA'MOUSED,  adj.  V  to  flatten  the  nose ;  from 
CA'MOUSLY.  J  sa/jTrrw,  I  bend.  Dr. 

Johnson  says,  that  camow-nosed  is  hook-nosed. 

Round  was  his  face,  and  camitse  was  his  nose  ; 
As  pilled  as  an  ape  was  his  skull. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

Many  Spaniards,  of  the  race  of  Barbary  Moors, 
though  after  frequent  commixture,  have  not  worn  out 
the  cumous  nose  unto  this  day. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errotirs, 

CAMOUFLET,  in  military  affairs,  a  kind  of 
stinking  combustible  blown  out  of  paper  cases 
into  the  miners'  faces,  when  they  are  at  work  in 
the  galleries  of  the  countermines.  They  are  to 
be  ranked  at  present,  not  only  among  the  disused, 
but  we  hope  among  the  never  to  be  renewed 
resources  of  a  weak  garrison. 

CAMP',  v.  &  n.  ~\  Sax.  camp,  corresponds 
CAMPAIGN',  ^with  Lat.  castrum,  from 

CAMP'-FIGHT,  i  Goth,  kiamp,  a  soldier ; 
CAMP'-MASTER.  JSwed.  kamp;  Sax.  camp; 
Arm.  kimp;  Welsh,  camp ;  Irish,  campa;  Ital. 
campo ;  Fr.  camp.  A  contest,  or  place  of  armies; 
a  military  station  in  the  field.  The  root  of  the 
Goth,  word  is  kapp,  a  contest ;  from  which  we 
have  our  word  cope,  to  contend.  Its  general 
acceptation  is  the  place  and  order  of  tents  for 
soldiers  in  the  field.  It  has  also  a  signification 
that  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  pomp  and  cir- 
cumstance of  glorious  war ;  it  often  means  no 
more  than  a  field,  plain,  or  open  country. 
Campaign  is  equally  applied  to  an  extensive 
level  country,  and  to  the  season  that  armies 
keep  the  field. 

From   ofimp   to  camp,  through  the    foul  womb  of 

night, 
The  hum  of  either  army  stilly  sounds.         Shukspeare. 

I,  his  despiteful  Juno,  sent  him  forth, 
From  courtly  friends,  with  camping  foes  to  live.       Id. 


For  their  trial  by  camp-fight,  the  accuser  was,  with 
fhe  peril  of  his  own  body,  to  prove  the  accused  guilty  ; 
and,  by  offering  him  his  glove  or  gantlet,  to  challenge 
him  to  this  trial.  Hahewell. 

This  might  have  hastened  his  march,  which  would 
have  made  a  fair  conclusion  of  the  campaign. 

Clarendon. 

In  countries  thinly  inhabited,  and  especially  in  vast 
campaniaS,  there  are  few  cities,  besides  what  grow  by 
the  residence  of  kings.  Temple. 

Command  the  children  of  Israel,  that  they  put  out 
of  the  camp  every  leper,  and  overy  one  that  hath  an 
issue,  and  whosoever  is  defiled  by  the  dead  :  Both 
male  and  female  shall  ye  put  out,  without  the  camp 
shall  ye  put  them ;  that  they  defile  not  their  campa 
in  the  midst  whereof  I  dwell.  Numb.  v.  2 — 4. 

What  hindered  me  from  going  into  Spain  ?  That 
was  my  province,  where  I  should  have  had  the  less 
dreaded  Asdrubal,  not  Hannibal,  to  deal  with.  •  But 
hearing,  as  I  passed  along  the  coast  of  Gaul,  of  this 
enemy's  march,  I  landed  my  troops,  sent  the  horse 
forward,  and  pitched  my  camp  upon  the  Rhone.  A 
part  of  my  cavalry  encountered,  and  defeated  that  of 
the  enemy.  Hooke's  Speech  of  Scipio. 

I  served  thee  fifteen  hard  campaigns, 
A  nd  pitched  thy  standard  in  these  foreign  fields  ; 
By  me  thy  greatness  grew  ;  thy  years  grew  with  it — 
But  thy  ingratitude  out-grew  them  both.  Drydjn. 

Those  grateful  groves  that  shade  the  plain, 

Where  Tiber  rolls  majestic  to  the  main, 

And  fattens,  as  he  runs,  the  fair  campaign.     Garth. 
An  Iliad  rising  out  of  one  campaign.        Add'tMn. 

Next,  to  secure  our  camp  and  naval  powers, 

Raise  an  embattled  wall  with  lofty  towers.       Pope. 
And  perfect  victor  had  the  duke  remained, 

But  that  Prince  Hubert  privately  retired, 

And  long  before  the  camp  at  Brescia  gained, 

Whence  he  returned  with  double  fury  fired.      Gay. 
On  Addison's  sweet  lays.  Attention  waits, 

And  Silence  guards  the  place  while  he  repeats  ; 

His  muse  alike  on  every  subject  charms, 

Whether  she  paints  the  god  of  love  or  anus  ; 

In  him  pathetic  Ovid  sings  again, 

And  Homer's  Iliad  shines  in  his  campaign.  Id. 

'  Not  far  from  hence/  said  he,  '  a  chosen  few 
Lie  camped,  my  trusty  followers  in  the  field.  Id. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Niester,  the  prudent  Athan- 
aric,  more  attentive  to  his  own  than  to  the  general 
safety,  had  fixed  the  camp  of  the  Visigoths,  with  the 
firm  resolution  of  opposing  the  victorious  barbarians, 
whom  he  thought  it  less  advisible  to  provoke. 

Gibbon. 

What  though  I  saw  with  steady  view 

Bath  spread  of  nymphs  her  proud  array ; 

And  faced,  with  anguish  well  concealed, 

The  shafts  that  frequent  round  me  flew  ; 
Think  not  that  from  the  fatal  field 

I  bore  a  heart  entire  away  ! 

Nor  yet,  believe  me,  thus  retired, 

Hill,  grove,  or  lawn,  my  plaint  resound  ; 

A  secret  pleasure  soothes  my  pain, 

And  with  heroic  ardour  fired 
I  cherish  each  illustrious  wound 

In  memory  of  that  bright  campaign.  Dr.  T.  Percy. 

And  for  his  tongue,  the  camp  is  full  of  licence, 
And  the  sharp  stinging  of  a  lively  rogue 
I*  to  my  mind  far  preferable  to 
The  gross,  dull,  heavy,  gloomy,  execrations 
Of  a  mere  famished,  sullen,  grumbling  slave. 

Byron,     Deformed  Transformed. 

CAMP  is  also  used  by  the  Siamese,  and  some 
other  nations  in  the  East  Indies,  as  the  name  of 
the  quarters  which  they  assign  to  foreigners  who 


"4 


come  to  trade.  In  these  every  nation  forms  a 
kind  of  town,  where  they  carry  on  their  trade,  not 
only  keeping  all  their  warehouses  and  shops,  but 
also  living  in  these  canaps  with  their  whole  fami- 
lies. The  Europeans,  however,  may  live  either 
in  the  cities  or  suburbs,  as  they  please. 

CAMPS,  in  respect  to  their  location,  ought  to  be 
planted  near  water,  in  a  country  of  forage,  where 
the  soldiers  may  find  wood  for  dressing  their 
victuals ;  flave  a  free  communication  with  gar- 
risons, and  with  a  country  from  whence  it  may 
be  supplied  with  provisions ;  and,  if  possible,  be 
situated  on  a  rising  ground,  in  a  dry  gravelly 
soil.  The  advantages  of  the  ground  ought  also 
to  be  considered,  as  marshes,  woods,  rivers,  and 
enclosures ;  and  if  the  camp  be  near  the  enemy, 
with  no  river  or  marsh  to  cover  it,  it  ought 
to  be  intrenched.  An  army  generally  encamps 
fronting  the  enemy  :  in  two  lines,  running  paral- 
lel, about  500  yards  distance;  the  horse  and 
dragoons  on  the  wings,  and  the  foot  in  the  centre : 
sometimes  a  body  of  two,  three,  or  four  brigades 
is  encamped  behind  the  two  lines,  and  is  called 
the  reserve.  The  artillery  and  bread  waggons 
are  generally  encamped  in  the  rear  of  the  two 
lines.  A  battalion  of  foot  is  allowed  eighty  or 
100  paces  for  its  camp ;  and  thirty  or  forty  for 
an  interval,  betwixt  one  battalion  and  another.  A 
squadron  of  horse  is  allowed  thirty  for  its  camp, 
thirty  for  an  interval,  and  more  if  the  ground 
will  allow  it.  Where  the  grounds  are  equally  dry, 
those  camps  are  always  the  most  healthful  that  are 
pitched  on  the  banks  of  large  rivers  :  because,  in 
the  hot  season,  situations  of  this  kind  have  a  stream 
of  fresh  air  from  the  water,  serving  to  carry  off 
noxious  exhalations.  On  the  other  hand,  next  to 
marshes,  the  worst  encampments  are  on  low 
grounds  close  beset  with  trees  :  for  then  the  air 
is  not  only  moist  and  hurtful,  but,  by  stagnating, 
becomes  more  susceptible  of  corruption.  How- 
ever, let  the  situation  of  camps  be  ever  so  good, 
they  are  frequently  rendered  infectious  by  putrid 
effluvia  of  various  kinds,  which  make  it  neces- 
sary to  leave  the  ground  with  all  the  filth  of  the 
camp  behind.  This  should  be  frequently  done, 
if  consistent  with  the  military  operations.  It 
may  also  be  a  proper  caution  to  order  the  privy- 
pits  to  be  made  at  a  distance,  either  in  the 
front  or  the  rear,  as  the  then  stationary  winds 
may  best  carry  off  the  effluvia  from  the  camp. 
It  will  also  be  necessary  to  change  the  straw  fre- 
quently, as  being  not  only  apt  to  rot,  but  to  re- 
tain the  infectious  steams  of  the  sick.  But  if 
fresh  straw  cannot  be  procured,  more  care  must 
be  taken  in  airing  the  tents,  as  well  as  the  old 
straw.  Several  modern  medical  writers  have 
considered  the  diseases  of  camps,  among  whom 
Drs.  Pringle  and  Monro  may  be  mentioned  as 
most  celebrated. 

CAMPS,  ANCIENT  FORMS  OF.  The  disposition 
of  the  Hebrew  encampment  was  at  first  laid  out 
by  God  himself.  Their  camp  was  of  a  quadrangu- 
lar form,  surrounded  with  an  enclosure  of  the 
height  of  ten  hand-breadths.  It  made  a  square 
of  twelve  miles  in  compass  about  the  tabernacle ; 
and  within  this  was  the  Levites'  camp.  The 
Greeks  had  also  their  camps,  fortified  with  gates 
and  ditches.  The  Lacedaemonians  made  their 


camp  of  a  round  figure,  looking  upon  that  as  the 
most  perfect  and  defensive  of  any  form ;  though 
they  doubtless  dispensed  with  it  when  circum- 
stances required.  In  the  other  Grecian  camps, 
the  most  valiant  of  the  soldiers  were  placed  at 
the  extremities,  the  rest  in  the  middle.  Thus 
Homer  tells  us  that  Achilles  arid  Ajax  were 
posted  at  the  ends  of  the  camp  before  Troy,  as 
bulwarks  on  each  side  of  the  other  princes.  The 
figure  of  the  Roman  camp  was  a  square  divided 
into  two  principal  parts :  in  the  upper  parts 
were  the  general's  pavilion,  or  praetorium,  and 
the  tent  of  the  chief  officers ;  in  the  lower,  those 
of  inferior  degree.  On  one  side  of  the  praetorium 
stood  the  quaestorium,  or  apartment  of  the  trea- 
surer ;  and  near  this  the  forum,  both  for  a  mar- 
ket-place and  the  assembling  of  councils.  On 
the  other  side  of  the  praetorium  were  lodged  the 
legati ;  and  below  it  the  tribunes  had  their  quar- 
ters, opposite  to  their  respective  legions.  Aside 
from  the  tribunes  were  the  praefecti  of  the  foreign 
troops,  over  against  their  respective  wings ;  and 
behind  these  were  the  lodgments  of  the  evocati ; 
then  those  of  the  extraordinarii  and  ablecti 
equites,  which  concluded  the  higher  part  of  the 
camp.  Between  the  two  partitions  was  a  spot  of 
ground  called  principia,  for  the  altars  and  images 
of  the  gods,  and  probably  also  for  the  chief  en- 
signs. The  middle  of  the  lower  partition  was 
assigned  to  the  Roman  horse ;  next  to  them  were 
quartered  the  triarii ;  then  the  principes,  and 
close  by  them  the  hastati ;  afterwards  the  foreign 
horse,  and  lastly  the  foreign  foot.  They  fortified 
their  camp  with  a  ditch  and  parapet,  which  they 
termed  fossa  and  vallum  ;  in  the  latter  some  dis- 
tinguish two  parts,  viz.  the  agger  or  earth,  and 
the  sudes  or  wooden  stakes  driven  in  to  secure  it. 
The  camps  were  sometimes  surrounded  by  walls 
made  of  hewn  stone ;  and  the  tents  themselves 
formed  of  the  same  matter. 

In  the  front  of  a  Turkish  camp  are  quartered 
the  janissaries  and  other  foot,  whose  tents  encom- 
pass their  aga :  in  the  rear  are  the  quarters  of  the 
spahis  and  other  horsemen.  The  body  of  the 
camp  is  possessed  by  the  stately  tents  or  pa- 
vilions of  the  vizier,  reis  effendi,  kahija,  the  tefter- 
dar  bashaw,  and  kapislar  kahiasee.  In  the  middle 
of  these  tents  is  a  spacious  field,  wherein  are 
erected  a  building  for  the  divan,  and  a  hafna  or 
treasury.  When  the  ground  is  marked  out  for 
a  camp,  all  wait  for  the  pitching  of  the  tent 
lailac,  the  place  where  the  courts  of  justice  are 
held ;  it  being  the  disposition  of  this,  that  regu- 
lates all  the  rest.  The  Arabs  still  live  in  camps, 
as  the  ancient  Scenites  did.  The  camp  of  the 
Assyne  Emir,  or  king  of  the  country  about  Tad- 
mor,  is  described  by  a  traveller  who  viewed  it, 
as  spread  over  a  very  large  plain,  and  possessing 
so  vast  a  space,  that,  though  he  had  the  advantage 
of  a  rising  ground,  he  could  not  see  the  utmost 
extent  of  it.  The  king's  tent  was  near  the  mid- 
dle ;  scarce  distinguishable  from  the  rest,  except 
that  it  was  bigger,  being  made,  like  the  others, 
of  a  sort  of  hair-cloth. 

The  CAMPAGNA  DI  ROMA,  or  Territory  of 
Rome,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  II  Patrimonio 
di  St.  Pietro  and  Sabina,  on  the  north-east  and 
east  by  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  on  the  south 


CAM 


75 


CAM 


and  west  by  the  Tuscan  Sea.  It  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  States  of  the  Church,  having  Rome 
for  its  capital,  and  comprehending  the  greater 
part  of  ancient  Latium.  It  is  from  fifty  to 
seventy  miles  long,  and  from  forty  to  sixty 
broad.  Its  formation  is  entirely  volcanic.  Here 
are>  now  many  waste  and  unhealthy  tracts,  thinly 
peopled.  The  ruins  of  temples  and  tombs  are 
the  only  conspicuous  objects.  The  Pontine 
marshes  cover  a  large  district  in  the  south-east, 
and  fill  the  atmosphere  with  the  most  noxious 
vapors.  But  a  good  road  has  lately  been  cut 
through  them.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile,  and 
wants  only  an  intelligent  and  healthy  population 
to  render  it  productive.  The  towns  of  note, 
oesides  Rome,  are  Velletri,  Frascati,  Palestrina, 
Terracina,  Tivoli,  Ardea,  Veroli,  Albano,  Net- 
tuno,  Ostia,  Castel-Gandolfo,  and  Marino.  The 
chief  river  is  the  Tiber,  which  separates  this  pro- 
vince from  St.  Peter's  Patrimony. 

CAM  PAN,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Upper  Pyrenees,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Adour.  Population  4200.  This  is  one  of 
the  most  romantic  parts  of  France;  the  hills 
abound  in  red,  white,  and  gray  marble.  The 
inhabitants  rear  cattle,  and  travel  for  employment 
into  Spain.  Two  miles  and  a  half  south  of 
Bagneres. 

CAMPANELLA  (Thomas),  a  celebrated 
Italian  philosopher,  born  at  Stilo,  in  Calabria,  in 
1568.  He  distinguished  himself  very  early,  for 
at  the  age  of  thirteen  he  was  a  perfect  master  of 
the  ancient  orators  and  poets.  His  peculiar  in- 
clination was  to  philosophy,  to  which  he  at  last 
confined  his  whole  time  and  study.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-two  he  formed  a  new  system  of  philo- 
sophy, which  raised  him  many  enemies  among 
the  partizans  of  Aristotle.  This  induced  him  to 
go  to  Rome,  whence  he  proceeded  to  Florence 
and  Padua.  In  1598  he  returned  to  Calabria, 
where  he  was  seized  and  carried  to  Naples,  put 
seven  times  to  the  rack,  and  finally  imprisoned 
for  twenty- four  years.  During  his  confinement, 
he  wrote  his  famous  work,  entitled  Atheismus 
Triumphatus.  Being  at  length  set  at  liberty,  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  graciously  received 
by  Louis  XIII.  and  cardinal  Richelieu ;  the 
latter  procured  him  a  pension  of  2000  livres. 
Campanella  passed  the  remainder  of  his  days  in 
a  monastery  at  Paris,  and  died  in  1639. 

CAMPANIA.  See  CAMPAGNA  DI  ROMA. 

CAMPAN'IFORM,  adj.  Lat.  campana,  a  bell, 
and  forma.  A  term  used  of  flowers,  which  are  in 
the  shape  of  a  bell. 

CAMPANILE,  a  bell  tower,  a  detached 
tower  in  some  parts  of  Italy,  erected  for  the  pur- 
pose of  containing  bells.  The  narrowness  of  the 
base,  combined  with  the  great  elevation  of  these 
towers,  has  occasioned  several  of  them  to  settle, 
as  it  is  called,  and  to  deviate  considerably  from 
their  original  perpendicular. 

The  campanile  of  Pisa,  called  Torre  Pendente, 
or  the  hanging  tower,  is  the  most  remarkable  of 
these.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  cylinder  surrounded 
with  eight  stories  of  columns  placed  over  each 
other ;  the  last  story,  which  forms  the  belfry,  re- 
tiring a  little  from  the  general  line  of  elevation. 
All  the  columns  are  of  marble:  from  each  column 
springs  two  arches,  and  between  the  columns 


and  the  circular  wall  of  the  tower  is  an  open 
gallery.  The  height  to  the  platform  is  150  feet, 
and  the  building  inclines  nearly  thirteen  feet 
from  the  perpendicular. 

CAMPANULA,  the  bell-flower,  a  genus  of 
the  monogynia  order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of 
plants ;  natural  order,  twenty-ninth,  campa- 
naceae :  COR.  campanulated,  with  its  fundus 
closed  up  by  the  valves  that  support  the  stamina: 
STIG.  trifid :  CAP.  inferior,  or  below  the  recep- 
tacle of  the  flower,  opening  and  emitting  the 
seeds  by  lateral  pores.  Of  this  genus  there  are 
no  fewer  than  eighty-five  species,  but  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  worthy  of  attention  : — 

1.  C.  Canariensis,  with  an  orach  leaf  and  tube- 
rous root,  is  a  native  of  the  Canary  Islands.    The 
flowers  are  produced  from  the  joints  of  the  stalk, 
which  are  the  perfect  bell  shape,  and  hang  down- 
ward, they  are  of  a  flame  color,  marked  with 
stripes  of  a  brownish  red  ;  the  flower  is  divided 
into  five  parts ;  at  the  bottom  of  each  is  seated  a 
nectarium,  covered  with  a  white  transparent  skin, 
much  resembling  those  of  the  crown  imperial, 
but  smaller.     The  flowers  begin  to  open  in  the 
beginning  of  October,  and  there  is  often  a  suc- 
cession of  them  till  March.     The  stalks  decay  to 
the  root  in  June,  and  new  ones  spring  up  in 
August. 

2.  C.  decurrens,  the  peach-leaved  bell-flower, 
is  a  native  of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe;  of 
this  there  are  some  with  white,  and  some  with 
blue  flowers,  and  some  with  double  flowers  of 
both  colors.     These  last  have  of  late  been  propa- 
gated   in    such   abundance   as   to  have   almost 
banished  from   the  gardens  those  with   single 
flowers. 

3.  C.  hybrida,  or  common  Venus's  looking- 
glass,  seldom  rises  more  than  six  inches,  with  a 
stalk  branching  from  the  bottom  upwards.    This 
was   formerly    cultivated   in  the   gardens;   but 
since  the  speculum  has  been  introduced,  whose 
flowers  are  very  similar,  it  has  almost  supplanted 
this;  for  the  other  is  a  much  taller  plant,  and  the 
flowers  larger. 

4.  C.latifolia,  or  great  bell-flower.  The  flowers 
come  out  singly  upon  short   foot-stalks;    their 
colors  are  blue,  purple  and  white. 

5.  C.  medium,  the  Canterbury  bell-flower,  is 
a   biennial  plant,    perishing   soon   after  it  has 
ripened  its  seeds.  It  grows  naturally  in  the  woods 
of  Italy  and  Austria;  but  is  cultivated  in  the  Bri- 
tish gardens  for  the  beauty  of  its  flowers,  which 
are  blue,  purple,  white,  and  striped,  with  double 
flowers  of  all  the  colors.      From  the  setting  on 
of  the   leaves   proceed  the   foot-stalks    of    the 
flowers;  those  which  are  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
stalk    and   branches   diminishing   gradually   in 
their  length  upward,  and  thereby  forming  a  sort  of 
pyramid.   The  flowers  of  this  kind  are  very  large, 
and  make  a  fine  appearance.     The  seeds  ripen 
in  September,  and  the  plants  decay  soon  after. 

6.  C.  ranunculus,  the  rampion,  the  roundish 
fleshy  roots  of  which  are  eatable,  and  much  cul- 
tivated in  France  for  sallads;  it  was  formerly 
cultivated  in  the  English  gardens  for  the  same 
purpose,  but  is  now  generally  neglected.    It  is  a 
native  of  Britain ;  but  the  roots  of  the  wild  sort 
never  grow  to  half  the  size  of  those  which  are 
cultivated. 


76 


CAMPBELL. 


7.  C.  speculum  with  yellow  eye-bright  leaves. 
From  the  wings  of  the  leaves   come   out  the 
flowers  sitting  close  to  the  stalks,  which  are  of  a 
beautiful  purple,  inclining  to  a  violet  color.     In 
the  evening,  they  contract  and  fold  into  a  penta- 
gonal figure ;  from  whence  ii  is  by  some  called 
viola  pentagonia,  or  five-cornered  violet. 

8.  C.  trachelium,  with  nettle  leaves,  and  a  pe- 
-ennial  root.  Towards  the  upper  part  of  the  stalks, 
the  flowers  come  out  alternately  Upon  short  tri- 
fid  foot-stalks  having  hairy  empalements.     The 
colors  of  the  flowers  are  a  deep  and  pale  blue 
and  white,  with  double  flowers  of  the  same;  only 
the  double  flowered  kind  merits  a  place  in  gardens. 

The  first  species  is  propagated  by  parting  the 
roots,  which  must  be  done  with  caution :  for  if 
they  are  broken  or  wounded,  the  milky  juice  will 
flow  plentifully ;  and  if  planted  before  the  wounds 
are  skinned  over,  they  rot :  when  any  of  them  are 
broken,  they  should  be  laid  in  the  green-house  a 
few  days  to  heal.  They  must  not  be  too  often 
parted,  if  they  are  expected  to  flower  well ;  for 
they  are  thus  weakened.  The  best  time  for 
transplanting  and  parting  them  is  in  July,  soon 
after  the  stalks  are  decayed.  They  succeed  best 
in  light  sandy  loam,  mixed  with  a  fourth  part  of 
screened  lime-rubbish :  when  the  roots  are  first 
planted,  the  pots  should  be  placed  in  the  shade, 
and  unless  the  season  is  very  dry  they  should 
not  be  watered.  About  mid-August  the  roots 
will  begin  to  put  out  fibres ;  at  which  time,  if 
the  pots  are  placed  under  a  hot-bed  frame, 
opened  every  day  to  enjoy  the  free  air,  it  will 
greatly  forward  them  for  flowering,  and  increase 
their  strength.  The  plants  thus  managed,  by  the 
middle  of  September  will  have  grown  so  tall  as 
not  to  be  kept  any  longer  under  the  glass  frame ; 
they  must,  therefore,  be  removed  into  a  dry  airy 
glass  case,  where  they  may  enjoy  the  air  in  free 
mild  weather,  but  screened  from  the  cold.  The 
second,  fourth,  fifth,  and  eighth  species  are  so 
easily  propagated  by  parting  the  roots,  or  by 
seeds,  that  no  particular  directions  for  the  cul- 
ture need  be  given.  The  third  and  seventh 
species  are  easily  propagated  by  seeds,  which 
they  produce  in  plenty.  If  the  seeds  are  sown 
in  autumn,  the  plants  will  flower  early  in  the 
spring;  but,  if  sown  in  spring,  they  will  not 
flower  till  mid-June;  and,  if  a  third  sowing  is 
performed  about  the  middle  of  May,  the  plants 
will  flower  in  August;  but  good  seeds  must  not 
be  expected  from  these.  The  ranunculus,  which 
is  cultivated  for  its  esculent  roots,  may  be  pro- 
pagated by  seeds,  which  are  to  be  sown  in  a 
shady  border,  and  the  ground  to  be  well  hoed. 
The  roots  ought  to  be  taken  up,  in  winter, 
as  they  are  wanted.  They  will  continue  good 
till  April,  at  which  time  they  send  out  their  stalks, 
when  the  roots  become  hard. 

CAM  PAS  PE,  a  most  beautiful  concubine  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  ordered  Apelles  to 
draw  her  picture  naked.  But  the  painter,  dur- 
ing the  operation,  falling  in  love  with  her,  the 
conqueror  of  the  world  conquered  his  own  pas- 
sion so  far,  as  to  give  her  up  to  him. 

CAMPBELL  (George),  D.  D.  the  son  of  the 
Rev.  C.  Campbell,  was  born  in  1719  at  Aber- 
deen, where  he  was  educated.  He  was  at  first 
articled  to  a  writer  of  Ihe  signet,  but  turned  his 


attention  to  divinity,  and  obtained  in  1748  the 
church  of  Banchory  Ternan.  In  1756  he  became 
one  of  the  ministers  of  Aberdeen;  and  in  1759 
was  chosen  principal  of  Marischal  College.  He 
now  began  his  celebrated  Essay  on  Miracles,  in 
answer  to  Hume,  and  on  the  publication  of  it 
received  his  diploma  from  King's  College,  Aber- 
deen. In  1771  he  was  elected  divinity  professor. 
This  professorship  he  resigned  some  years  before 
his  death,  and  the  king  settled  on  him  a  pension 
of  £300  a  year.  He  died  in  1796.  His  other  prin- 
cipal works  are  :  The  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  in 
2  vols.  8vo.  1776 ;  A  Sermon,  on  Allegiance, 
preached  on  the  king's  fast  day,  1777,  4to. ;  An 
Address  to  the  People  of  Scotland,  on  the  Alarms 
raised  by  what  is  called  the  Popish  Bill,  8vo. 
1780;  A  Translation  of  the  Gospels,  with  Pre- 
liminary Dissertations,  2  vols.  8vo.,  1793.  This 
was  his  last  and  greatest  work ;  the  fruit  of 
copious  erudition  and  unwearied  application,  for 
about  thirty  years ;  and  will  lead  the  attentive 
reader  to  regret  that  the  other  books  of  the  New' 
Testament  had  not  been  elucidated  by  the  same 
judicious  author. 

CAMPBELL  (John),  second  duke  of  Argyle  and 
Greenwich,  was  born  October  10th,  1680.  At 
the  age  of  fifteen  he  had  made  a  considerable 
progress  in  classical  learning.  His  father  then 
perceived  and  encouraged  his  military  disposition, 
and  introduced  him  to  king  William,  who  in  1694 
gave  him  the  command  of  a  regiment.  In  this 
situation  he  remained  till  the  death  of  his  father 
in  1 703  ;  when,  becoming  duke  of  Argyle,  he 
was  sworn  of  queen  Anne's  privy  council,  made 
captain  of  the  Scotch  horse  guards,  and  appointed 
one  of  the  extraordinary  lords  of  session.  In 
1704  the  queen,  reviving  the  Scottish  order  of 
the  thistle,  installed  the  duke  one  of  the  knights, 
and  soon  after  appointed  him  high  commissioner 
to  the  Scotch  parliament;  where,  being  of  great 
service  in  promoting  the  Union,  he  was  on  his 
return  created  a  peer  of  England,  and  in  1710 
knight  of  the  garter.  He  first  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  battle  of  Oudenard ;  where  he  com- 
manded as  brigadier-general.  He  was  also 
present  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough  at  the 
siege  of  Ghent,  and  took  possession  of  the  town. 
He  had  a  share  likewise  in  the  victory  of  Mal- 
plaquet,  by  dislodging  the  French  from  the 
wood  of  Sart,  and  gaining  a  post  of  great  conse- 
quence. Soon  after,  he  was  sent  to  take  the  com- 
mand in  Spain  ;  and,  after  the  reduction  of  Port 
Mahon,  returned  to  England.  Having  now  a 
seat  in  the  house  of  lords,  he  censured  the  mea- 
sures of  the  ministry  with  such  freedom,  that  he 
was  deprived  of  all  his  places  :  but  at  the  acces- 
sion of  George  I.  he  recovered  his  influence. 
At  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  in  1715  he 
was  made  commander-in-chief  in  North  Britain. 
In  direct  opposition  to  that  part  of  the  army  he 
commanded,  at  the  head  of  all  his  Campbells 
was  placed  Campbell  earl  of  Braidalbin,  a  noble- 
man of  the  same  family  and  kindred.  The  con- 
sequence was,  that  both  sets  of  Campbells,  from 
family  affection,  refused  to  strike  a  stroke,  and 
retired  out  of  the  battle.  He  arrived  in  London 
March  6th,  1716,  and  was  in  high  favor ;  but,  to 
the  surprise  of  people  of  all  ranks,  he  was  in  a 
few  months  divested  of  all  his  employments ;  and 


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from  this  period  to  1718  signalised  himself  in  a 
civil  capacity.  In  the  beginning  of  1719  he  was 
again  admitted  into  favor,  appointed  lord  steward 
of  the  household,  and,  in  April  following,  created 
duke  of  Greenwich.  He  continued  in  the  ad- 
ministration during  the  remaining  part  of  that 
reign;  and,  after  the  accession  of  king  George  II, 
till  April  1740  ;  when  he  delivered  a  speech  with 
which  the  ministry  being  highly  offended,  he 
was  again  dismissed.  He  was  soon  however 
restored ;  but  not  approving  of  the  measures  of 
the  new  ministry,  gave  up  all  his  posts  for  the 
last  time,  and  died  in  privacy,  of  a  paralytic 
disorder,  on  the  4th  of  October,  1743.  A  noble 
monument,  by  Roubilliac,  was  erected  in  West- 
minster Abbey  to  his  memory.  The  titles  of 
duke  and  earl  of  Greenwich,  and  baron  of 
Chatham,  became  extinct  at  his  death ;  but  in  his 
other  titles  he  was  succeeded  by  his  younger 
brother  Archibald,  earl  of  Hay. 

CAMPBELL  (John),  an  historical,  biographical, 
and  political  writer,  was  born  at  Edinburgh, 
March  8th,  1708;  and  was  the  fourth  son  of 
Robert  Campbell  of  Glenlyon,  by  a  Miss  Smith 
of  Windsor  in  Berkshire,  a  descendant  of  the 
poet  Waller.  At  five  years  of  age  he  was  brought 
from  Scotland  to  Windsor,  where  he  received  his 
education ;  and  was  placed  as  clerk  to  an  attorney. 
This  profession,  however,  he  never  followed ;  but, 
by  a  close  application  to  science,  qualified  him- 
self to  appear  with  great  advantage  in  the  literary 
world.  In  1736  he  gave  to  the  public,  in  2  vols. 
folio,  The  Military  History  of  Prince  Eugene 
and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  enriched  with 
maps,  plans,  and  cuts.  The  reputation  he  ac- 
quired occasioned  him  soon  after  to  be  solicited 
to  take  a  part  in  the  Ancient  Universal  History. 
Whilst  employed  in  this  work,  Mr.  Campbell 
found  leisure  to  undertake  several  other  pieces. 
In  1739  he  published  the  Travels  and  Adventures 
of  Edward  Brown,  Esq.,  8vo. ;  and  Memoirs  of 
the  Bashaw  Duke  de  Ripperda,  8vo. ;  reprinted, 
with  improvements,  in  1740.  These  were  fol- 
lowed, in  1741,  by  the  Concise  History  of 
Spanish  America,  8vo.  In  1742  he  published 
A  Letter  to  a  Friend  in  the  Country,  on  the  Pub- 
lication of  Thurloe's  State  Papers ;  and  the  first 
and  second  vols.  of  his  Lives  of  the  English  Ad- 
mirals, and  other  eminent  British  Seamen.  The 
two  remaining  vols.  were  completed  in  1744; 
and  the  whole,  not  long  after,  was  translated  into 
German.  This  was  the  first  of  Mr.  Campbell's 
works  to  which  he  prefixed  his  name.  In  1743 
he  published  Ilermippus  Redivivus ;  a  second 
edition  of  which,  much  improved  and  enlarged, 
came  out  in  1749.  In  1744  he  gave  to  the  pub- 
lic, in  2  vols.  folio,  his  Voyages  and  Travels,  on 
Dr.  Harris's  plan.  The  time  and  care  employed 
by  Mr.  Campbell  in  this  important  undertaking, 
did  not  prevent  his  engaging  in  another  great 
work,  the  Biographia  Britannica,  which  began  to 
be  published  in  weekly  numbers  in  1745,  and 
extended  to  7  vols.  folio ;  but  his  articles  were 
only  in  the  first  4  vols.  When  the  late  Mr. 
Dodsley  formed  the  design  of  the  Preceptor, 
which  appeared  in  1748,  Mr.  Campbell  was  en- 
gaged to  assist  in  it.  The  parts  written  by  him 
were  the  Introduction  to  Chronology,  and  the 
Discourse  on  Trade  and  Commerce.  In  1750 


he  published  the  first  separate  edition  of  his 
Present  State  of  Europe  ;  a  work  which  had 
been  originally  begun  in  1746  in  the  Museum, 
a  valuable  periodical  work  printed  for  Dodsley. 
The  next  great  undertaking  which  called  for  the 
exertion  of  his  abilities  and  learning,  was  The 
Modern  Universal  History.  This  extensive 
work  was  published,  in  detached  parts,  till  it 
amounted  to  16  vols.  folio;  and  a  second  edition 
of  it,  in  8vo.,  began  to  appear  in  1759.  The 
parts  written  by  Mr.  Campbell  were,  the  his- 
tories of  the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  Spanish,  French, 
Swedish,  Danish,  atid  Ostend  Settlements  in  the 
East  Indies ;  and  the  Histories  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Spain,  Portugal,  Algarve,  and  Navarre  ;  and  of 
France,  from  Clovis  to  1656.  The  degree  of 
LL.  D.  was  conferred  upon  him  June  18th,  1754, 
by  the  university  of  Glasgow.  His  favorite  work 
was,  A  Political  Survey  of  Great  Britain,  2  vols. 
4to.,  published  a  short  time  before  his  death  ;  in 
which  the  extent  of  his  knowledge,  and  hi? 
patriotic  spirrt,  are  equally  conspicuous.  He 
was,  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  agent  for 
the  province  of  Georgia  in  North  America ;  and 
died  in  1775,  aged  sixty -seven. 

CAMPBELL,  a  county  of  Virginia,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Fluvanna,  which  divides  it  from 
Amherst  •  east  by  Charlotte  and  Prince  Edward 
counties ;  north-east  by  Buckingham ;  west  by 
Franklin  and  Bedford  counties ;  and  south  by 
Pittsylvania.  It  is  forty-five  miles  in  length,  and 
thirty  in  breadth. 

CAMPBELTOVVN,  a  royal  burgh  and  post 
town  in  the  parish  of  the  same  name,  in  the  county 
of  Argyle,  seated  on  the  lake  of  Kilkerran,  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  district  of  Kintyre,  of 
which  It  is  the  chief  town.  It  has  a  good  har- 
bour; and  is  now  a  very  considerable  place, 
though  within  these  sixty  years  only  a  petty  fish- 
ing town.  It  has  in  fact  been  created  by  the 
fishery;  having  been  apppointed  the  place  of 
rendezvous  for  the  busses ;  and  above  300  have 
been  seen  in  the  harbour  at  once.  Its  vicinity  to 
the  markets  of  Ireland  and  the  Clyde,  are  advan- 
tages which  very  few  sea-ports  enjoy.  The  har- 
bour is  about  two  miles  long  and  one  broad,  in 
the  form  of  a  crescent,  with  from  six  to  ten  fa- 
thoms water,  and  excellent  anchorage,  surrounded 
by  high  hills  on  each  side,  and  an  island  to  shel- 
ter the  entrance.  Two  public  libraries  are  also 
established,  and  a  good  school.  This  town  was 
erected  into  a  royal  burgh  in  1701,  and  is  go- 
verned by  a  provost,  two  bailies,  a  dean  of  guild, 
treasurer,  and  twelve  counsellors.  It  joins  with 
Ayr,  Irvine,  Inverary,  and  Rothsay,  in  sending 
a  member  to  parliament.  It  lies  thirty  miles 
west  of  Ayr,  and  176  miles  west  by  south  from 
Edinburgh. 

CAMPDEN,  a  market  town  of  Gloucester- 
shire, famous  for  its  stocking  manufactures.  The 
church  is  a  fine  gothic  building,  said  to  be  as  old 
as  William  II.  Here  is  also  a  grammar  school 
and  two  charity  schools.  In  the  neighbourhood 
is  a  silk  mill  and  manufactory.  Market  on  Wed- 
nesday. Seven  miles  east  from  Evesham,  and 
ninety  W.NAV.  from  London. 

CAMPEACHY,  a  town  of  Mexico,  seated 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  bay  of  this  name,  and 
defended  by  a  good  wall  and  strong  forts  :  but  it 


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78 


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>s  not  so  rich  as  formerly ;  having  been  once  the 
principal  port  for  the  sale  of  logwood.  It  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1596;  by  the  buccaneers 
in  1650  and  1678 ;  and  by  the  Flibusters  of  St. 
Domingo  in  1685,  who  set  it  on  fire. and  blew 
up  the  citadel.  It  was  once  a  considerable  native 
town,  and  the  Spaniards  afterwards  found  many 
curious  Indian  antiquities  here.  The  port  is  large, 
but  the  water  shallow.  The  houses  are  of  stone, 
and  generally  well  built.  Population  about  6000. 
Its  principal  trade  is  in  wax  and 'cotton  cloth, 
which  is  manufactured  here. 

CAMPEACHY.  WOOD,  in  botany.  See  HJEMA- 
TOXYLUM. 

CAM  PEN,  a  fortified  town  of  the  Nether- 
lands, has  a  citadel  and  harbour ;  but  the  latter 
is  almost  choked  up  with  sand.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Dutch  in  1578,  and  by  the  French  in 
1672  ;  they  abandoned  it  in  1673.  It  is  seated 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Yssel,  on  the  Zuider 
Zee.  The  most  remarkable  edifices  are  the  two 
churches,  the  town-house,  and  the  wooden  bridge 
across  the  Yssel,  which  is  720  feet  long,  and  20 
broad  The  country  around  can  readily  be  laid 
under  water.  Population  6200.  Thirteen  miles 
north  of  Arnheim,  and  forty-five  north-east  of 
Amsterdam. 

CAMPESTRAL,  adj.  Latin,  campestris; 
growing  in  fields. 

The  mountain  beech  is  the  whitest ;  but  the  cam- 
pettral,  or  wild  beech,  is  blacker  and  more  durable. 

Mortimer. 

CAMPESTRE,  in  antiquity,  a  cover  for  the 
body,  worn  by  the  Roman  soldiers  in  their 
field  exercises ;  being  girt  under  the  navel,  and 
hanging  down  to  the  knees.  The  name  is  formed 
from  campus,  the  field,  where  they  performed 
these  exercises. 

CAMP  FIGHT,  among  old  law  writers,  is  spelt 
KAMP  FIGHT.  We  therefore  refer  the  reader, 
for  an  account  of  this  obsolete  mode  of  legal 
duelling  to  that  article. 

CAM'PHIRE,  v.  &  n.-\      Ka0«pa ;  Ar.  Heb. 

CAM'PHIRE-TREE,          (Per.    kafoor ;    Sans. 

CAM'PHORATE,  n.  tkupoor ;  Fr.camphre; 

CAM'PHORATED.  )  Lat.    camphora.      A 

white  resinous  gum. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  this  tree  ;  one  is  a  native  of 
the  isle  of  Borneo,  from  which  the  best  camphire  is 
taken,  which  is  supposed  to  be  a  natural  exudation 
from  the  tree,  produced  in  such  places  where  the  bark 
of  the  tree  has  been  wounded  or  cut.  The  other  sort 
is  a  native  of  Japan,  which  Dr.  Kempfer  describes  to 
be  a  kind  of  bay,  bearing  black  or  purple  berries, 
from  whence  the  inhabitants  prepare  their  camphire, 
by  making  a  simple  decoction  of  the  root  and  wood  of 
this  tree,  cut  into  small  pieces  ;  but  this  sort  of  cam- 
phire is  in  value  eighty  or  an  hundred  times  less 
than  the  true  Bornean  camphire.  Miller. 

Spirit  of  wine  camphorated,  is  a  remedy  frequently 
applied  externally  in  cases  of  inflammations,  &c. 

Dr.  A.  Reet. 

CAMPHIRE,  CAMPHOR,  or  CAMPHORA,  a  solid 
concrete  juice  extracted  from  the  wood  of  the 
laurus  camphora.  See  LAURUS  CAMPHORS.. 

CAMPHOROSMA,  in  botany,  stinking  ground 
pine,  a  genus  of  the  tetrandria  order  and  mono- 
gynia  class  of  plants  :  natural  order  twelfth,  ho- 
loraceae :  CAL.  is  pitcher-shaped  and  indented, 


there  is  no  corolla ;  and  the  capsule  contains  a 
single  seed.  It  is  reputed  cephalic  and  nervine  ; 
though  little  used  in  modern  practice.  It  takes 
the  name  from  its  smell,  which  bears  some  re- 
semblance to  that  of  camphor.  There  aie  five 
species.  Of  these  the  principal  is,  C.  Monspe- 
liensis,  which  grows  especially  about  Montpelier 
It  has  been  produced  as  a  specific  for  the  dropsy 
and  asthma. 

CAMPHUYSEN  (Dirk  Theodore  Raphael), 
an  eminent  painter,  born  at  Gorcum  in  1586. 
He  learned  the  art  from  Govertze,  but  soon  far 
surpassed  his  master.  His  subjects  were  land- 
scapes, mostly  small,  with  ruinous  buildings, 
huts  of  peasants,  or  views  of  villages  on  the 
banks  of  rivers.  He  generally  represented  them 
by  moon  light.  His  pencil  is  remarkably  soft ; 
his  coloring  very  transparent,  and  his  expert- 
ness  in  perspective  is  seen  in  the  proportional 
distances  of  his  objects.  Few  of  his  works  are 
to  be  met  with,  and  they  bring  considerable 
prices. 

CAMPIAN  (Edmund),  ah  English  Jesuit, 
born  in  London,  of  indigent  parents,  in  1540; 
and  educated  at  Christ's  Hospital,  where  he  had 
the  honor  to  deliver  an  oration  before  queen 
Mary  on  her  accession  to  the  throne.  He  was 
admitted  a  scholar  of  St.  John's  College  in  Ox- 
ford on  its  foundation,  and  took  the  degree  of 
M.A.  in  1564.  About  the  same  time  he  was 
ordained,  and  became  an  eloquent  Protestant 
preacher.  In  1566,  when  queen  Elizabeth  was 
entertained  by  the  yniversity  of  Oxford,  he  spoke 
an  elegant  oration  before  her  majesty,  and  was 
also  respondent  in  the  philosophy  act  in  St. 
Mary's  church.  In  1568  he  was  junior  proctor  of 
the  University.  In  1569  he  went  over  to  Ireland, 
where  he  wrote  a  history  of  that  kingdom,  and 
became  papist,  and  being  assiduous  in  persuad- 
ing others  to  follow  his  example,  was  committed 
to  prison.  He  soon,  however,  made  his  escape, 
and  in  1571  proceeded  to  Douay  in  Flanders, 
where  he  publicly  recanted  his  former  opinions, 
and  was  created  B.  D.  He  went  soon  after  to 
Rome,  where,  in  1573,  he  was  admitted  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  and  was  sent  by  the  general  to 
Vienna,  where  he  wrote  his  tragedy,  called  Nec- 
tar et  Ambrosia,  which  was  acted  before  the  em- 
peror with  great  applause.  He  went  next  to 
Prague,  where  he  resided  in  the  Jesuits'  college^ 
about  six  years,  and  then  returned  to  Rome. 
From  thence,  in  1580,  he  was  sent  by  pope  Gre- 
gory XIII.  with  father  Parsons,  to  convert  the 
people  of  England.  They  were  joyfully  received 
by  their  friends ;  but  had  not  been  long  in  Eng- 
land before  Campian  was  apprehended,  and 
conducted  in  triumph  to  London.  He  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  tower ;  where,  says  Wood,  '  he 
did  undergo  many  examinations,  abuses,  wrack- 
ings,  tortures.'  He  was  finally  condemned  on 
the  statute  25  Edward  III.  for  high  treason; 
and  butchered  at  Tyburn,  with  two  or  three  of 
his  fraternity.  '  All  writers,  whether  Protestant 
or  Popish,  say,  that  he  was  a  man  of  admirable 
parts ;  an  elegant  orator,  a  subtle  philosopher 
and  disputant,  and  an  exact  preacher,  whether 
in  English  or  Latin,  of  a  sweet  disposition,  and 
a  well  polished  man.'  His  History  of  Ireland, 
in  two  books,  was  published  by  Sir  James  Ware, 


CAM 

from  a  MS.  in  the  Cotton  library,  Dublin,  1633, 
folio.  He  wrote  also  Chronologia  Universalis, 
a  very  learned  work  ;  and  various  other  tracts. 

CAMPICURSIO,  in  the  ancient  military  art, 
a  march  of  armed  men  for  several  miles,  from 
and  back  again  to  the  camp,  to  instruct  them  in 
the  military  pace. 

CAMPIDOCTORES,  or  CAMPIDUCTORES,  in 
the  Roman  army,  officers  who  instructed  the 
soldiery  in  the  discipline  and  exercises  of  war, 
and  the  art  of  handling  their  weapons  to  advan- 
tage. These  are  also  sometimes  called  campigeni 
and  armidoctores. 

CAM'PION,  n.  s.  Lat.  lychnis ;  a  plant.  See 
LYCHNIS. 

CAMPIOX,  Viscous.     See  SILENE. 
CAMPION,  WILD.     See  AGROSTEMA. 
CAMPIT/E,  in  church  history,  an  appellation 
given  to  the  donatists,  on  account  of  their  as- 
sembling in  the  fields  for  want  of  churches. 
CAMPIUSA,  in  botany.     See  SCABIOSA. 
CAMPOIDES,  in  botany.    See  SCORPIURUS. 
CAMPO  MAYOR,  a  barrier  town  and  fortress 
of  Portugal,  in  the  province  of  Alentejo,  district 
of  Elvas.     It  contains  about  5300  inhabitants, 
and  is  well  fortified.     The  explosion  of  a  pow- 
der magazine  in  1712,  which  was  struck  by  light- 
ning, laid  the  town  in  ruins.     It  was  taken  in 
the  war  between  Spain  and  Portugal  in  1801, 
but  restored  at  the  peace.    It  is  eight  miles  north 
of  Elvas,  ten  north-west  of  Badajoz  (in  Spain), 
and  100  east  of  Lisbon. 

CAMPS  (Francis  De),  abbot  of  Notre  Dame 
at  Signy,  was  born  at  Amiens  in  1643 ;  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  knowledge  of  medals, 
by  writing  a  History  of  France,  and  several 
other  works.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1723. 

CAMPUS,  in  antiquity,  a  field  or  vacant 
plain  in  a  city,  not  built  upon,  left  vacant  on 
account  of  shows,  combats,  exercises,  or  other 
uses  of  the  citizens. 

CAMPUS  MARTIUS,  in  ancient  history,  a  large 
plain  in  the  suburbs  of  ancient  Rome,  lying  be- 
tween the  Quirinal  and  Capitoline  mounts  and 
the  Tiber;  thus  called  because  consecrated  to 
the  god  Mars,  and  set  apart  for  military  sports 
and  exercises,  to  which  the  Roman  youth  were 
trained  ;  such  as  the  use  of  arms,  and  all  manner 
of  feats  of  activity.  Here  the  races  were  run, 
either  with  chariots  or  single  horses ;  here  also 
stood  the  villa  publica  or  palace  for  the  reception 
of  ambassadors,  who  were  not  permitted  to  enter 
the  city.  Many  of  the  public  comitia  were  held 
in  the  same  field,  part  of  which  was  for  that  pur- 
pose cantoned  out.  The  place  was  also  nobly 
decorated  with  statues,  arches,  columns,  porti- 
coes, and  the  like  structures.  It  was  given  to 
the  Roman  people  by  a  vestal  virgin ;  but  they 
were  deprived  of  it  by  Tarquin  the  Proud,  who 
made  it  a  private  field,  and  sowed  corn  in  it. 
\\  hen  Tarquin  was  driven  from  Rome  the  people 
recovered  it,  and  threw  away  into  the  Tiber  the 
corn  which  had  grown  there,  deeming  it  unlawful 
for  any  man  to  eat  of  the  produce  of  that  land. 
The  sheaves  which  were  thrown  into  the  river 
stopped  in  a  shallow  ford,  and  by  the  accumu- 
lated collection  of  mud  became  firm  ground,  and 
formed  an  island,  which  was  called  the  Holy 
Island,  or  the  island  of  jEsculapius. 


CA1S 

CAMPUS  SCELERATUS,  a  place  without  the 
walls  of  ancient  Rome,  where  the  Vestals  who 
had  violated  their  vows  of  virginity  were  buried 
alive. 

CAMUS  (Charles  Stephen  Lews),  a  cele- 
brated French  mathematician,  born  at  Cressy  in 
1699.  His  early  ingenuity  in  mechanics  induced 
his  parents  to  send  him  to  a  college  at  Paris,  at 
ten  years  of  age ;  where  within  two  years  he 
made  such  rapid  progress,  that  he  gave  lectures 
on  mathematics  and  defrayed  his  own  expenses, 
without  farther  charge  to  them.  In  1727  he 
gained  the  prize  given  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  '  to  determine  the  most  advantageous 
way  of  masting  ships ;'  in  consequence  of  which, 
he  was  made  adjoint  mechanician  to  the  aca- 
demy; and,  in  1730,  professor  of  architecture. 
In  1 733  he  became  secretary  and  associate ;  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  Memoirs  on  Moving 
Forces ;  on  the  Figure  of  the  Teeth  of  Wheels 
and  Pinions;  and  on  Pumps.  In  1736  he  was 
sent  with  Messrs.  Clairaut,  Maupertius,  and 
Monnier,  on  the  celebrated  expedition  to  measure 
a  degree  at  the  North  Polar  circle ;  in  which  he 
proved  highly  useful,  both  as  a  mathematician 
and  mechanic.  In  1741  he  was  appointed  geo- 
metrician in  the  academy,  and  invented  a  gauging 
rod,  to  measure  all  kinds  of  casks  and  calculate 
their  contents.  In  1 747  he  was  examiner  of  the 
schools  of  artillery,  and  in  1765  elected  F.  R.  S. 
of  London.  He  died,  May  the  4th,  1768,  after 
having  published  many  mathematical  works ; 
the  principal  of  which  are,  Elements  of  Me- 
chanics, 8vo.  and  a  Course  of  Mathematics  for 
the  Use  of  Engineers,  4  vols.  8vo. 

CAN',  v.  Goth,  kunnan  ;  Ang.  Sax.  can,  cunnan  ; 
Swed.G./c<£7ina;  Icelandic,  /cu»na,DutchandGer. 
kennen.  In  Wicklif's  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  we  constantly  find  may  used  for  can : 
as  in  the  remarkable  passages,  John  iii.  4, 
Nycodeme  seide  to  him,  how  may  a  man  be  borun 
whanne  he  is  olde  ?  when  he  may  entre  agen 
into  his  modir  wombe  ?  John  vi.  52,  How  may 
this  geve  to  us  his  fleich  to  ete  ?  and  sometimes, 
'  moun,'  as  in  John  xiv.  5,  '  Thomas  seith  to 
him,  Lord,  we  witen  not  winder  thou  goist,  and 
how  moun  we  wite  the  weye  ?'  Johnson  says,  it 
is  sometimes,  though  rarely,  used  alone ;  but  is 
in  constant  use  as  an  expression  of  the  potential 
mood ;  as,  I  can  do,  thou  canst  do,  I  could  do, 
thon  couldst  do.  It  has  no  other  terminations. 
Dr.  Johnson  also  further  remarks,  that  it  is  dis- 
tinguished from  may,  as  power  from  permission  ; 
I  can  do  it,  it  is  in  my  power  ;  I  may  do  it,  it  is 
allowed  me  :  but  in  poetry  they  are  confounded. 
Can  is  used  of  the  person  with  the  verb  active, 
where  may  is  used  of  the  thing  with  the  verb 
passive;  as,  I  can  do  it,  it  may  or  can  be  done. 

But  Chaucer  (though  he  can  but  lewdely 
On  metres  and  on  riming  craftily) 
Hath  sayd  hem,  in  swiche  English  as  he  can, 
Of  olde  time,  as  knoweth  many  a  man  ; 
And  if  he  have  not  sayd  hem,  leve  brother, 
In  a  book  he  hath  sayd  hem  in  another. 

Chaucer.    The  Man  of  Lowes'  Prologue. 

Estward  there  stood  a  gate  of  marble  white, 
Westward  right  swiche  another  in  th'  opposite. 
For  in  the  land  there's  no  craftles  man, 
That  geometric,  or  arsmetrike  can. 

Id.  Knight's  Tali. 


CAN  80 

But  ah !  who  can  deceive  his  destiny, 

Or  weene  by  warning  to  avoyd  his  fate.        Spenser. 

It  (original  sin)  makes  God  to  be  all  that  for  which 

any  thing  or  person  is  or  can  be  hated  ;  for  it  makes 

nim  neither  to  be  good,  nor  just,  nor  reasonable  ;  but 

an  enemy  to  a  great  part  of  mankind.       Jer.  Taylor. 

for  nothing  lovelier  can  be  found 

In  woman,  than  to  study  houshold  good. 

And  good  works  in  her  husband  to  promote.     Milton. 

In  place  there  is  licence  to  do  good  and  evil, 
whereof  the  latter  is  a  curse  ;  for,  in  evil,  the  best 
condition  is  not  to  will ;  the  second,  not  to  can. 

Bacon. 

O,  there's  the  wonder ! 
Mecsnas  and  Agrippa,  who  can  most 
With  Csesar,  are  his  foes.  Dryden. 

If  she  can  make  me  blest !  she  only  can  : 
Empire  and  wealth,  and  all  she  brings  beside, 
Are  but  the  train  and  trappings  of  her  love.         /./. 

Simplicity  alone  can  grace 
The  manners  of  the  rural  race.  Swift. 

Fortune  !  fury  !  rage  !  despair ! 
I  cannot,  cannot,  cannot  bear.  Gay. 

And  be  it  so.     Let  those  deplore  their  doom 
Whose  hope  still  grovels  in  this  dark  sojourn, 

But  lofty  souls,  who  look  beyond  the  tomb, 
Can  smile  at  fate,  and  wonder  how  they  mourn. 

Beat  lie. 

Can  mortal  strength  presume  to  soar  so  high, 
Can  mortal  sight  so  oft  bedim'd  with  tears, 

Such  glory  bear ! — for  lo  !  the  shadows  fly 
From  nature's  face  •  Confusion  disappears, 
And  order  charms  the  eye,  and  harmony  the  ears. 

Id. 

Can  glittering  plume,  or  can  the  imperial  wreath 
Redeem  from  unrelenting  fate  the  brave  ? 

What  note  of  triumph  can  her  clarion  breathe 
To  alarm  the  eternal  midnight  of  the  grave  ?       Id. 

If  from  society  we  learn  to  live, 
'Tis  solitude  should  teach  us  how  to  die  ; 

It  hath  no  flatterers  ;  vanity  can  give 
No  hollow  aid ;  alone — man  with  his  God  must 
strive.  Byron's  Childe  Harold. 

May  and  might  express  the  possibility  or  liberty  of 
doing  a  thing;  can  and  could,  the  power,  as  it  may 
rain  ;  I  may  write  or  read  ;  He  might  have  improved 
more  than  he  has  j  He  can  write  much  better  than,  he 
could  last  year. 

Lindley  Murray. 

CAN,  re.  )  Swed.  kann;  Teut.  karma ; 
CAN'AKIN,  jSax.  canne;  Dutch,  kan;  Arm. 
can ;  Fr.  canette ;  Lat.  cantharus.  A  drinking 
vessel;  a  cup,  originally,  perhaps,  formed  of 
reeds  or  canes  ;  anything  hollow,  with  some  de- 
gree of  length,  easily  converted  into  a  vessel 
for  drinking. 

Oh  !  whether  thee  I  closely  hug 
In  honest  can,  or  nut-brown  jug, 

Or  in  a  tankard  hail ; 
In  barrel  or  in  bettle  pent, 
I  give  the  generous  spirit  vent, 

Still  may  1  feast  on  ale.  Gay. 

A  pump's  can  is  a  sort  of  wooden  jug  or  pitcher, 
wherewith  seamen  pour  water  into  pumps  to  make 
them  work.  Can-hook,  an  instrument  used  to  sling  a 
cask  by  the  ends  of  the  staves  .  it  consists  of  a  broad 
and  flat  hook  fixed  to  each  end  of  a  short  rope,  and 
the  tackle  which  serves  to  hoist  or  lower  it,  is  fastened 
to  the  middle  of  the  rope.  Vt.  A .  Reet. 


CAN 


One  tree,  the  coco,  affordeth  stuff  for  housing, 
clothing,  shipping,  meat,  drink,  and  can.  Grew. 

His  empty  can,  with  ears  half  worn  away, 
Was  hung  on  high,  to  boast  the  triumph  of  the  day. 

Dryden. 

CANA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  on  the 
confines  of  Galilee ;  memorable  for  our  Saviour's 
first  miracle  of  turning  water  into  wine. 

CANAAN,  TWO,  Heb.  i.  e.  a  merchant;  the 
fourth  son  of  Ham.  The  prophecy  of  Noah, 
that  he  '  should  be  a  servant  of  servants  to  his 
brethren,'  seems  to  have  been  fulfilled  in  his 
descendants.  It  was  completed  with  regard  to 
Shem,  not  only  in  that  a  considerable  part  of  the 
seven  nations  of  the  Canaanites  were  made  slaves 
to  the  Israelites,  when  they  took  possession  of 
their  land,  as  part  of  the  remainder  of  them  were 
afterwards  enslaved  by  Solomon ;  but  also  by  the 
subsequent  expeditions  of  the  Assyrians  and  Per- 
sians, who  were  both  descended  from  Shem;  and 
under  whom  the  Canaanites  suffered  subjection, 
as  well  as  the  Israelites ;  not  to  mention  the  con- 
quest of  part  of  Canaan  by  the  Elamites,  or  Per- 
sians, under  Chedorlaomer,  prior  to  them  all. 
With  regard  to  Japhet,  we  find  a  completion  of 
the  prophecy,  in  the  successive  conquests  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  in  Palestine  and  Phoenicia, 
where  the  Canaanites  were  settled ;  but  especially 
in  the  total  subversion  of  the  Carthaginian  power 
by  the  Romans ;  besides  some  invasions  of  the 
northern  nations,  as  the  posterity  of  Thogarma 
and  Magog;  wherein  many  of  them,  probably, 
were  carried  away  captive.  The  posterity  of 
Canaan  were  very  numerous.  His  eldest  son 
was  Sidon,  who  at  least  founded  and  peopled  the 
city  of  Sidon,  and  was  the  father  of  the  Sidonians 
and  Phoenicians.  Canaan  had  besides  ten  sons, 
who  were  the  fathers  of  people  dwelling  in  Pa- 
lestine, and  in  part  of  Syria ;  namely,  the  Hit- 
tites,  the  Jebusites,  the  Amorites,  the  Girgasites, 
the  Hivites,  the  Arkites,  the  Sinites,  the  Arva- 
dites,  the  Semarites,  and  Hamathites. 

CANAAN,  the  tract  of  country  which  lies  be- 
tween the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  mountains 
of  Arabia,  and  extends  from  Egypt  to  Phoenicia, 
was  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  mountains  of 
Arabia ;  on  the  south  by  the  wilderness  of  Paran, 
Iduma;a,  and  Egypt;  on  the  west  by  the  Medi- 
terranean, called  in  Hebrew  the  Great  Sea;  on 
the  north  by  the  mountains  of  Libanus.  Its 
length  from  the  city  of  Dan  to  Beersheba,  was 
about  seventy  leagues ;  and  its  breadth  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  to  the  eastern  borders,  in 
some  places  thirty.  This  country,  afterwards 
called  Palestine,  from  the  Philistines,  who  inha- 
bited the  sea  coasts,  was  also  denominated  the 
Land  of  Promise,  from  the  promise  God  made 
Abraham  of  giving  it  to  him ;  the  Land  of  Israel, 
from  the  Israelites  having  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  it;  of  Judah,  from  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
which  was  the  most  considerable  of  the  twelve  ; 
and  the  Holy  Land,  from  its  having  been  sanc- 
tified by  the  presence,  actions,  miracles,  and 
death  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  first  inhabitants  of  ' 
were  the  Canaanites,  who  were  descended  frora 
Canaan,  and  the  eleven  sons  of  that  patriarch. 
Here  they  multiplied  extremely ;  trade  and  war 
were  their  first  occupations ;  these  gave  rise  to 


CAN 


81 


CAN 


their  riches,  and  several  colonies  were  planted 
oy  them  over  the  islands  and  maritime  provinces 
of  the  Mediterranean.  The  measure  of  their 
xlolatry  and  abominations  was  completed,  when 
God  delivered  their  country  into  the  hands  of  the 
Israelites.  In  St.  Athanasius's  time,  the  African, 
still  said  they  were  descended  from  the  Canaan- 
ites  ;  and  the  Punic  tongue  was  almost  entirely 
the  same  with  the  Canaanitish  and  Hebrew  lan- 
guages. The  colonies  which  Cadmus  carried 
into  Thebes  in  Boeotia,  and  his  brother  Cilix  into 
Cilicia,  came  from  the  stock  of  Canaan.  The 
isles  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Malta,  Cyprus,  Corfu, 
Majorca  and  Minorca,  Gades  and  Ebusus,  are 
thought  to  have  been  peopled  by  them.  Bochart, 
in  his  large  work,  entitled  Canaan,  has  set  this 
matter  in  a  clear  light.  Many  of  the  old  inhabi- 
tants of  the  north-west  of  Canaan,  however,  par- 
ticularly on  the  coast  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  were 
not  driven  out  by  the  children  of  Israel,  whence 
this  tract  seems  to  have  retained  the  name  of 
Canaan  long  after  those  other  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, which  were  better  inhabited  by  the  Israelites, 
had  lost  the  name.  The  Greeks  called  this  tract, 
inhabited  by  the  old  Canaanites,  Phoenicia;  the 
more  inland  parts,  being  inhabited  partly  by  Ca- 
naanites, and  partly  by  Syrians,  Syrophcenicia : 
and  hence  the  woman,  said  by  St.  Matthew  (xv. 
22.)  to  be  a  woman  of  Canaan,  whose  daughter 
Jesus  cured,  is  said  by  St.  Mark  (vii.  26.)  to  be 
a  Syrophcenician  by  nation,  as  she  was  a  Greek 
by  religion  and  language. 

CANADA.  See  AMERICA,  BRITISH,  vol.  ii. 
p-  46 — 49,  where  is  a  full  account  of  this  inter- 
esting colony. 

CANAILLE',  n.  s.  French.  The  lowest 
people ;  the  dregs ;  the  lees ;  the  offscouring  of 
the  people  :  a  French  term  of  reproach. 

CANAL',  Lat.  canalis.  Virgil  uses  canalis 
for  a  trough.  It  literally  means  the  hollow  of 
any  thing,  like  the  hollow  of  a  cane.  Thus  nar- 
row pieces  of  water  in  a  garden,  which  are  drawn 
out  to  any  considerable  length,  are  called  canals. 
And  the  term  is  now  appropriated  to  any  tract 
or  course  of  water  made  by  art.  It  is  used  in 
its  primitive  sense,  in  anatomy,  to  designate  any 
conduit  or  passage  through  which  the  juices  of 
the  body  flow. 

But  soche  a  fairenesse  of  a  necke 
Yhad  that  swete,  that  bone  nor  brecke, 
"N'as  there  none  seen  that  missesatte, 
It  was  white,  smothe,  streight,  and  pure  flatte, 
Withouten  hole  or  canel  bone, 
And  by  seming  she  had  none. 

Chaucer's  Boke  of  the  Duchesse. 
The  walks  and  long  canals  reply.  Pope. 

So  with  strong  arm  immortal  Brindley  leads 
His  long  canals,  and  parts  the  velvet  meads  ; 
Winding  in  lucid  lines,  the  watery  mass 
Mines  the  firm  rock,  or  loads  the  deep  morass.     Dur 

The  rushing  flood  from  sloping  pavements  pours, 
And  blackens  the  canals  with  dirty  showers.          Gay. 
CANALS.     See  INLAND  NAVIGATION. 
CANAL'-COAL,  n.  s.    A  fine  kind  of  coal,  du<r 
up  m  England. 

Even  our  canal-coal  nearly  equals  the  foreign  jet. 

Woodward. 

CANALES  SEMICIRCULARIES,  three  semi- 
circular canals  placed  in  the  posterior  part  of  the 


labyrinth  of  the  ear.  They  open  by  five  orifices 
into  the  vestibulum.  See  EAR  and  PHYSIOLOGY. 
CANALIC'ULATED,  adj.  from  Lat.  cana- 
liculatus ;  channelled ;  made  like  a  pipe  or 
gutter. 

CANALIS  ARTERIOSUS,  canaliculus  arterio- 
sus ;  canalis  botalii.  A  blood-vessel  peculiar 
to  the  foetus,  disappearing  after  birth ;  through 
which  the  blood  passes  from  the  pulmonary  ar- 
tery into  the  aorta. 

CANALIS  NASALIS,  a  canal  going  from  the 
internal  canthus  of  the  eye  downwards  into  the 
nose  :  it  is  situated  in  the  superior  maxillary  bone, 
and  is  lined  with  the  pituitary  membrane  conti- 
nued from  the  nose. 

CANALIS  PETITIANUS,  a  triangular  cavity, 
naturally  containing  a  moisture,  between  the  two 
laminae  of  the  hyaloid  membrane  of  the  eye,  in 
the  anterior  part,  formed  by  the  separation  of  the 
anterior  lamina  from  the  posterior.  It  is  named 
after  its  discoverer,  M.  Petit. 

CANALIS  VENOSUS,  a  canal  peculiar  to  the 
fetus,  disappearing  after  birth,  that  conveys  the 
maternal  blood  from  the  porta  of  the  liver  to  the 
ascending  vena  cava. 

CANANDAQUA,  a  post  town,  the  capital  of 
Ontario  county,  seated  near  the  lake,  thirty  miles 
from  Jerusalem,  and  434  N.  N.  W.  of  Philadel- 
phia. Courts  of  sessions  and  common  pleas  are 
held  in  it,  first  Tuesday  of  June  and  November. 
CANANORE,  a  town  and  district  on  the 
coast  of  Malabar,  once  a  separate  kingdom.  The 
natives  are  generally  Mahommedans ;  and  tho 
country  produces  pepper,  cardamoms,  ginger,  mi 
robolans,  and  tamarinds,  in  which  they  drive  p 
considerable  trade.  The  town  has  a  safe  bar 
bour.  It  formerly  belonged  to  the  Portuguese, 
and  had  a  strong  fort  to  guard  it;  but  in  1683 
the  Dutch,  together  with  the  natives,  drove  them 
out,  and  enlarged  the  fortifications.  It  was  af- 
terwards taken  by  Tippoo  Saib,  and  finally  by  the 
English  in  1790.  It  is  under  a  native  sovereign, 
tributary  to  the  East  India  Company.  Distant 
fifteen  miles  north-east  of  Tellicherry,  and  100 
W.  S.  W.  of  Seringapatam. 

CANARA,  or  CAN  ATA,  a  province  of  Hindos- 
tan,  on  the  coast  of  Malabar.  Here  is  a  pagoda, 
called  Ramtrut,  which  is  visited  every  year  by  a 
great  number  of  pilgrims,  and  the  custom 
of  burning  the  wives  with  their  husbands  is 
much  practised.  The  lower  grounds  yield 
every  year  two  crops  of  corn  or  rice ;  and  the 
higher  produce  pepper,  betel-nuts,  sanders  wood, 
iron  and  steel.  The  whole  province  is  about 
180  miles  in  length,  and  from  thirty  to  seventy 
broad  :  the  climate  fine,  and  the  teak  wood 
abundant.  The  principal  towns  are  Barcelore, 
Batecola,  Carwar,  Mangalore,  and  Onore.  It 
was  ceded  by  Tippoo  Saib  to  the  English  in 
1799. 

CANARIA,  in  ancient  geography,  one  of  the 
Fortunate  Islands,  a  proof  that  these  are  what 
we  now  call  the  Canaries.  Canaria  had  its  name 
from  abounding  with  dogs  of  an  enormous  size. 

CANARIA,  or  the  GRAND  CANARY,  an  island 
in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  about  180  miles  from  the 
coast  of  Africa.  It  is  forty-two  miles  long, 
twenty-seven  broad,  about  100  in  circumference, 
and  thirty-three  in  diameter.  It  is  fruitful,  and 


CAN  82 

famous  for  its  wine.  It  also  abounds  with  apples, 
melons,  oranges,  citrons,  pomegranates,  figs, 
olives,  peaches,  and  plantations.  The  fir  and 
palm-trees  are  the  most  common.  The  towns 
are,  Canary  the  capital,  Gualdera,  and  Geria. 

CANARINA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  class  hexandria,  and  order  monogynia  :  CAL. 
six-leaved  :  COR.  six-cleft,  and  campanulate ; 
STic.six:  CAPS,  inferior,  six-celled,  many-seeded. 
Species  one  only,  a  native  of  the  Canaries. 

CANARIUM,  in  antiquity,  from  canis,  a 
dog,  a  lloman  sacrifice,  wherein  dogs  of  a  red 
color  were  sacrificed,  for  a  security  of  the  fruits 
of  the  earth  against  the  raging  heats  of  Sirius  in 
the  dog-days. 

CANARIUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  dioecia 
order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants.  Its  cha- 
racters are,  that  it  has  male  and  female  flowers ; 
that  in  both  the  calyx  has  three  leaves,  and  the 
corolla  consists  of  three  petals ;  the  fruit  is  a 
drupa  with  a  three-cornered  nut.  There  is  but 
one  species,  an  East  Indian  tree. 

CANA'RY,  a  kind  of  linnet,  a  dance,  and  a 
peculiar  wine,  are  imported  from  the  Canary 
Isles,  and  thence  deriving  their  name. 

I  will  to  my  honest  knight  Falstaff,  and  drink 
canary  with  him. — I  think  I  shall  drink  pipe,  wine 
first  with  him  ;  I'll  make  him  dance.  Shakspeare. 

Master,  will  you  win  your  love  with  a  French 
brawl  ? — How  mean'st  thou,  brawling  in  French  ? — 
No,  my  compleat  master  ;  but  to  jigg  off  a  tune  at  the 
tongue's  end,  canary  to  it  with  your  feet,  humour  it 
with  turning  up  your  eyelids.  Id. 

Of  singing  birds,  they  have  linnets,  goldfinches, 
ruddocks,  canary-birds,  blackbirds,  thrushes,  and 
divers  others.  Carew. 

CANARY,  or  CIVIDAD  DE  PALMAS,  the  capital 
of  the  island  of  Canaria.  It  has  an  indifferent 
castle,  a  court  of  inquisition,  and  the  supreme 
council  of  the  rest  of  the  Canary  Islands.  It  is  a 
bishop's  see,  and  has  four  convents,  two  for  men 
and  two  for  women.  It  is  about  three  miles  in 
compass,  and  contains  12,000  inhabitants.  The 
houses  are  only  one  story  high,  and  flat  at  the 
top ;  but  they  are  well  built.  The  cathedral  is 
a  handsome  structure. 

CANARY  BIRDS,  in  ornithology.  See  FRIN- 
CILLA. 

CANARY  GRASS.     See  PHALARIS. 

CANARY  ISLANDS,  or  CANARIES,  are  situated 
in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  over  against  Morocco. 
They  were  formerly  called  the  Fortunate  Islands, 
on  account  of  the  temperate  healthy  air,  and  ex- 
cellent fruits.  The  land  is  very  fruitful  both  in 
wheat  and  barley.  The  cattle  thrive  well,  and  the 
woods  are  full  of  all  sorts  of  game.  The  birds  are 
well  known  throughout  Europe.  Sugar  canes 
abound  greatly,  but  the  Spaniards  first  planted 
vines  here,  whence  we  have  the  wine  called 
Canary.  These  islands  were  not  unknown  to 
the  ancients  ;  but  they  were  forgotten  till  John 
de  Betencourt  discovered  them,  in  1402.  It  is 
said  they  were  first  inhabited  by  the  Phoenicians, 
or  Carthaginians,  but  the  inhabitants  could  not 
tell  from  whence  they  were  derived ;  on  the  con- 
trary they  did  not  know  there  was  any  other 
country  in  the  world.  Their  language,  manners, 
and  customs,  had  no  resemblance  to  those  of  their 
neighbours.  They  had  no.  iron.  The  Spaniards 


CAN 


obtained  possession  of  them  all,  except  Madeira, 
which  belongs  to  the  Portuguese ;  and  they  still 
retain  them.  The  settlers  are  chiefly  Spaniards, 
though  there  are  some  of  the  original  natives  re- 
maining, whom  they  call  Guanches.  These  are 
somewhat  civilised  by  their  intercourse  with  the 
Spaniards  ;  and  are  a  hardy,  active,  bold  people-. 
They  live  on  the  mountains,  and  their  chief  food 
is  goats'  milk.  Their  complexion  is  tawny  and 
their  noses  flat.  ••  The  Spanish  vessels,  when  they 
sailed  for  the  West  Indies,  always  called  at  these 
islands,  going  and  coming.  Their  names  are 
ALLEGRANZA,  CANARIA,  FERRO,  FUERTAVEN- 
TURA,  GOMERA,  GRACIOSA,  INSIERNO,  LiANCE- 

ROTTA,  LOBOS,    MADEIRA,    PALMA,    RoCCA,    ST. 

CLARE,  SALVAGES,  and  TENERIFFE.  See  those 
articles.'  Long,  from  12°  to  31°  W.  Lat.  from 
27°  30'  to  29°  30'  N. 

CANCALLE,  a  sea-port  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  the  Morbihan,  and  ci-devant 
province  of  Upper  Britanny.  Here  the  British 
landed  in  1 758,  in  their  way  to  St.  Malo,  where 
they  burned  a  great  number  of  ships  in  the 
harbour,  and  then  retired  without  loss.  It  is 
eight  miles  from  St.  Malo. 

CANCAMUM,  among  ancient  Greek  physi- 
cians, a  gum     resin,    supposed  to  be  gum  lac. 
CAN'CEL,  v.  &  n.  ~)      From   Lat.  cancelli ; 
CANCELLATED,  adj.  >  lattices  ;    the   mode   of 
CANCELLATION.       ^obliteration,     by     lines 
crossing  each  other.     Hence  to  cross  out,  is  to 
cancel  by  wiping  out  or  expunging  the  contents 
of  an  instrument  by  two  lines  drawn  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  cross.     Blackstone  uses  the  word  in  its 
technical  and  proper  sense.     To  blot  out;  to 
supersede ;  to  destroy ;  in  reference  to  any  thins 
written.     To  cancel  a  debt  is,  to  cross  the  bill." 

Now  welcome  night,  thou  night  so  long  expected, 
That  long  day's  labour  doth  at  last  defray, 
And  all  my  cares  which  cruel  love  collected 
Has  summed  in  one,  and  cancelled  for  aye.      Spenser. 

Know  then,  I  here  forget  all  former  griefs, 
Cancel  all  grudge  ;  repeal  thee  home  again. 

SJiakspeare. 

but  those  elect 

Angels,  contented  with  their  fame  in  heaven, 
Seek  not  the  praise  of  men  :  the  other  sort, 
In  might  though  wondrous,  and  in  acts  of  war, 
Nor  of  renown  less  eager,  yet  by  doom 
Cancelled  from  heaven  and  sacred  memory, 
Nameless  in  dark  oblivion  let  them  dwell.     Milton. 

Such  a  plot  was  layed, 

Had  not  Ashley  betrayed, 

As  had  cancelled  all  former  disasters, 

And  your  wives  had  been  strumpets 
To  his  highness's  trumpets, 
And  foot-boys  had  all  been  your  masters. 

Marvell. 

My  warm  assistance  gave  thee  birth, 
Or  thou  hadst  perished  low  in  earth  ; 
But  upstarts,  to  support  their  station, 
Cancel  at  once  all  obligation.  Gay. 

The  tail  of  the  castor  is  almost  bald,  though  the 
beast  is  very  hairy ;  and  cancellated,  with  some  re- 
semblance to  the  scales  of  fishes.  Grew. 

.  Thou,  whom  avenging  powers  obey, 
Cancel  my  debt,  too  great  to  pay, 
Before  the  sad  accounting  day.  Roscommun. 

I  pass  the  bills,  my  lords, 

For  cancelling  your  debts.  Southerns. 

In  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  to  cancel  is  to 
deface  an  obligation,  bv  passing  the  pen  from  top  to 


CAN 

bottom,  or  across  it ;  -which  makes  a  kind  of  chequer 
lattice,  called  by  the  Latins  cancelli.         Dr.  A .  Rees. 

CAN'CELEER,  s.  or  )      From   Fr.  cfiancel- 
CAN'CELIER.  \  lor ;    the    turn    of  a 

light-flown  hawk  upon  the  wing  to  recover  her 
self,  when  she  misses  her  aim  in  the  stoop.  Dr 
Rees  (Cyclopedia)  says,  '  It  is  when  a  light- 
flown  hawk,  in  her  stooping,  turns  two  or  three 
times  upon  the  wing,  to  recover  herself  before 
she  seizes.' 

Nor  with  the  falcon  fetch  a  cancelleer. 

T.  Weever's  Epigram. 
Also  as  a  verb,  to  cancelier,  to  turn  in  flight. 

the  partridge  sprung, 

He  makes  his  stoop  ;  but  wanting  breath,  is  forced 
To  cancelier ;  then  with  such  speed  as  if 
He  carried  lightning  in  his  wings,  he  strikes 
The  trembling  bird.  Mass.  Guard. 

CANCELLATA,  in  conchology,  a  species  of 
area,  inhabiting  the  American  Ocean,  the  shell  of 
which  is  marked  with  the  cancellated  striae,  and 
bearded  ;  the  margin  gaping  in  the  middle. 

CANCELLI,  in  building,  lattice  windows,  or 
those  made  of  cross  bars  disposed  latticewise.  It 
is  also  used  for  rails  or  balusters  enclosing  the 
communion  table,  a  court  of  justice,  or  the  like  ; 
and  for  the  net-work  in  the  inside  of  hollow 
bones. 

CANCELLING,  in  the  civil  law,  an  act 
whereby  a  person  consents  that  some  former 
deed  be  rendered  null  and  void ;  otherwise  called 
recision. 

CAN'CER,  n.  "^      Sax.  cancere  ;  Fr.  cancre  ; 

CAN'CERATE,  v.  Sltal.  cancro ;  Span,  cancer; 

CAN'CEROUS.  3  Dutch,  kancker.  A  viru- 
lent swelling,  which  generally  suppurates,  pro- 
ducing a  hard,  uneven,  obstinate  sore,  which 
spreads  and  deepens  by  fibres  which  appear  like 
the  legs  and  claws  of  a  crab ;  while  its  general 
appearance  resembles  the  creature  after  which  it 
is  named. 

But  striking  his  fist  upon  the  point  of  a  nail  in  the 
•wall,  his  hand  cancerated,  he  fell  into  a  fever,  and 
soon  after  died  on't.  L'  Estrange. 

How  they  are  to  be  treated  when  they  are  stru- 
mous,  schirrus,  or  cancerous,  you  may  see  in  their 
proper  places.  Wiseman. 

Any  of  these  three  may  degenerate  into  a  schirrus, 
and  that  schirrus  into  a  cancer.  Id. 

As  when  a  cancer  on  the  body  feeds, 

And  gradual  death  from  limb  to  limb  proceeds  ; 

So  does  the  chilness  to  each  vital  part 

Spread  by  degrees,  and  creeps  into  the  heart. 

Addison. 

CAN'CER,  n.  s.  Lat.  cancer.  A  crabfish;  the 
sign  of  the  summer  solstice. 

When  now  no  more  the  alternate  twins  are  fired, 
And  Cancer  reddens  with  the  solar  blaze, 
Short  is  the  doubtful  empire  of  the  night.      Thomson. 

CANCER,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the  twelve  signs, 
represented  on  the  globe  in  the  form  of  a  crab, 
and  thus  marked  (03).  It  is  the  fourth  constel- 
lation in  the  starry  zodiac.  See  ASTRONOMY. 
The  reason  generally  assigned  for  its  name  as 
well  as  figure,  is  a  supposed  resemblance  which 
the  sun's  motion  in  this  sign  bears  to  the  crab. 
As  the  latter  walks  backwards,  so  the  former,  in 
this  part  of  his  course,  begins  to  go  backwards, 


CAN 


or  recede  from  us.  By  others,  the  disposition  of 
stars  in  this  sign  is  supposed  to  have  giveu  the 
first  hint  to  the  representation  of  a  crab.  It 
gives  name  to  a  quadrant  of  the  ecliptic,  viz. 

CANCER,  TROPIC  OF,  in  astronomy,  a  lesser 
circle  of  the  sphere,  parallel  to  the  equator,  and 
passing  through  the  sign  Cancer.  See  ASTRO- 
NOMY. 

CANCER,  in  medicine,  a  roundish, unequal,  hard, 
and  livid  tumor,  generally  seated  in  the  glandulous 
part  of  the  body,  supposed  to  be  so  called,  because 
it  appears  at  length  with  turgid  veins,  shooting 
out  from  it,  so  as  to  resemble,  as  it  is  thought,  the 
figure  of  a  crab-fish.  See  MEDICINE.  The  mat- 
ter of  cancer  was  found  by  Dr.  Crawford  to  give 
a  green  color  to  syrup  of  violets,  and  treated 
with  sulphuric  acid,  to  emit  a  gas  resembling 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  he  supposes  to 
have  existed  in  combination  with  ammonia  in  the 
ulcer.  Hence  the  action  of  virulent  pus  on  me- 
tallic salts.  He  likewise  observed,  that  its  odor 
was  destroyed  by  aqueous  chlorine,  which  he 
therefore  recommends  for  washing  cancerous 
sores.  But  although  several  medicines,  both  in- 
ternal and  external  have  been  tried,  and  in  some 
instances  partially  succeeded,  the  only  method  of 
cure  on  which  reliance  may  be  placed  is  that  by 
extirpating  the  part  affected. 

CANCER,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the 
order  of  aptera.  The  generic  characters  are 
these  :  they  have  eight  legs  (seldom  ten  or  six), 
besides  the  two  large  claws  which  answer  the 
purpose  of  hands.  They  have  two  eyes  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  each  other,  and  for  the 
most  part  supported  by  a  kind  of  pedunculi  or 
foot-stalks ;  the  eyes  are  likewise  elongated  and 
moveable ;  they  have  two  clawed  palpi,  and  the 
tail  is  jointed.  The  species  have  been  well  di- 
vided into  these  classes : 

1.  The  crab,  properly  so  called,  having  four 
filiform  antennae.  See  CRAB.  2.  Pagarus  an- 
tennas, pedunculate,  inhabiting  cast-off  shells. 
3.  Galathaea,  antennae  unequal.  4.  Astacus,  or 
the  lobster,  with  foliaceous  tail.  See  LOBSTER. 
6.  Squilla,  with  a  very  short  thorax.  6.  Gam- 
marus,  antennas  pedunculate  and  simple.  7. 
Scyllarus,  having  two  biarticulate  plates  instead 
of  the  hinder  antennas.  See  also  SHRIMP. 

CANCROMA,  or  boat-bill,  in  ornithology, 
a  genus  of  birds  belonging  to  the  order  of  grallae : 
the  characters  of  which  are, — the  bill  is  broad, 
with  a  keel  along  the  middle ;  the  nostrils  are 
small,  and  lodged  in  a  furrow;  the  tongue  is 
small,  and  the  toes  are  divided.  There  are  two 
species:  1.  C.  cancrophaga,  or  the  brown  boat- 
bill.  In  this  species  the  under  parts,  instead  of 
ash  color,  are  of  a  pale  rufous  brown ;  the  tail 
rufous  ash ;  and  the  upper  parts  wholly  of  a 
cream  color  ;  the  bill  and  legs  of  a  yellow  brown. 
It  inhabits  Cayenne,  Guiana,  and  Brasil,  and 
chiefly  frequents  such  parts  as  are  near  the 
water :  in  such  places  it  perches  on  the  trees 
which  hang  over  the  streams,  and  like  the  king's- 
fisher,  drops  down  on  the  fish  which  swim  be- 
neath. It  has  been  thought  to  live  on  crabs  like- 
wise, whence  the  Linnaaan  name.  2.  C.  coch- 
leari,  the  crested  boat-bill,  is  of  the  size  of  a 
fowl ;  the  length  twenty-two  inches.  The  bill  is 
four  inches  long,  and  of  singular  form,  not  un- 

G2 


84 


C  A  N  D  I  A. 


like  a  boat  with  the  keel  uppermost ;  the  upper 
mandible  has  a  prominent  ridge  at  the  top,  and 
on  each  side  of  this  a  channel,  at  the  bottom  of 
which  the  nostrils  are  placed ;  these  are  oval, 
and  situated  obliquely ;  the  general  color  of  the 
bill  is  dusky  ;  from  the  hind  head  springs  a  long 
black  crest,  the  feathers  which  compose  it  narrow, 
and  end  in  a  point. 

CANDAHAR.     See  KANDAHAR. 

CANDELA  FUMALIS,  the  smoking  candle, 
is  an  odoriferous  mass,  shaped  like  a  candle,  the 
use  of  which  is  to  fumigate  rooms  where  there  is 
any  contagion  or  noxious  smell.  The  candela  fu- 
malis,  or  candela  pro  suffitu  odorata,  as  it  is  also 
called,  consists  of  aromatic  powders,  mixed  up 
with  a  third  or  more  of  the  charcoal  of  willow  or 
lime  tree,  and  reduced  to  a  proper  consistence 
with  a  mucilage  of  gum  tragacanth,  labdanum, 
or  turpentine.  It  excites  a  grateful  smell  with- 
out any  flame,  and  corrects  the  state  of  the  air. 

CAN'DENT,  adj.  Lat.  candens.  Hot;  in  the 
highest  degree  of  heat,  next  to  fusion. 

If  a  wire  be  heated  only  at  one  end,  according  as 
that  end  is  cooled  upward  or  downward,  it  respec- 
tively acquires  a  verticity,  as  we  have  declared  in 
wires  totally  candent.  Brown. 

CANDEROS,  in  the  materia  medica,  an  East 
Indian  gum,  not  much  known  among  us,  though 
sometimes  imported.  It  has  much  the  appear- 
ance of  amber,  only  it  is  white  and  pellucid. 
Garcias  and  others  tell  us  that  the  people  of 
Borneo  have  the  art  of  adulterating  the  crude 
camphor  with  large  quantities  of  this  gum. 

CANDIA,  the  ancient  Crete,  one  of  the 
largest  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  situate 
south  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  is  about  180 
miles  long,  and  twenty-five  to  thirty  broad. 
The  island  abounds  with  mountains,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  are  the  Psilorite  or  Ida  of 
the  ancients,  and  the  mountains  of  Sphachia  or 
the  white  mountains,  the  summits  of  which  are 
covered  with  snow  nearly  half  the  year.  The 
fertile  valleys  abound  with  springs  of  excellent 
water.  Of  the  natural  advantages  and  salubri- 
ous climate  of  this  island,  travellers  speak  with 
raptures.  The  heat  is  never  excessive ;  and  in 
the  plains  violent  cold  is  never  felt.  In  the 
warmest  days  of  summer  the  atmosphere  is 
cooled  by  breezes  from  the  sea.  December 
and  January  are  their  only  winter  months,  and 
then  there  is  a  copious  fall  of  rain  ;  the  sky  is 
obscured  with  clouds,  and  the  north  winds  blow 
violently  ;  but  in  February  the  ground  is  again 
overspread  with  flowers  and  rising  crops  ;  and 
the  rest  of  the  year  is  almost  one  continued  fine 
day.  Thus  the  air  here  is  always  found  ex- 
tremely congenial  to  delicate  constitutions,  and 
epidemical  diseases  are  almost  unknown.  Fevers 
prevail  here  in  the  summer,  but  are  not  gene- 
rally dangerous.  This  fine  country  is,  however, 
infested  with  one  dreadful  disorder,  the  leprosy, 
which  is  infectious,  and  said  to  be  instantaneously 
communicated  by  contact.  The  victims  who 
are  attacked  by  it,  are  driven  from  society,  and 
confined  to  little  ruinous  houses  on  the  way  side. 
They  are  strictly  forbidden  to  leave  these  dwell- 
ings, or  hold  intercourse  with  any  person. 
Having  generally  beside  their  huts  a  small  garden 
producing  pulse,  they. feed  poultry;  and  with 


what  they  obtain  from  passengers,  find  means  in 
drag  out  a  painful  life  in  circumstances  of  shock- 
ing bodily  distress.  The  disorder  appears  to  be 
chiefly  confined  to  the  poor  Greeks. 

The  coast  of  Candia  abounds  with  excellent 
harbours,  the  principal  of  which  are  Grabusa 
on  the  west,  the  bay  of  Suda  on  the  north, 
and  Paleo  Castro  on  the  east.  The  south  is 
almost  inaccessible. 

But  little  labor  is  here  required  to  produce 
the  necessaries  or  the  luxuries  of  life.  But  the 
insecurity  of  property,  under  the  tyranny  of  the 
Turks,  prevents  all  attempts  at  extensive  cultiva- 
tion. It  yields,  however,  abundance  of  oil, 
silk,  honey,  wax,  saffron,  figs,  walnuts,  apricots, 
almonds,  oranges,  'citrons,  olives,  melons,  and 
grapes,  which  grow  very  large,  and  produce 
wine  of  an  excellent  flavor.  Shrubs  and-flowers 
also  abound  in  this  salubrious  spot.  Its  princi- 
pal manufacture  is  soap,  which,  though  not  so 
good  as  French  soap,  is  still  preferred  by  the 
Turks  for  its  cheapness. 

Candia  is  at  present  governed  by  three  pachas, 
who  reside  respectively  at  Candia,  Canea,  and 
Retimo.  For  the  earlier  history  of  this  island 
see  CRETE.  It  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Venetians  by  purchase,  in  the  year  1194,  and 
soon  began  to  flourish  under  the  laws  of  that 
republic.  The  inhabitants,  encouraged  by  their 
masters,  engaged  in  commerce  and  agriculture. 
The  Venetian  commandants  readily  afforded  to 
those  travellers  who  visited  the  island,  every 
assistance  necessary  to  enable  them  to  extend 
and  improve  useful  knowledge.  Belon,  the 
naturalist,  is  lavish  in  praise  of  their  good  offices, 
and  describes,  in  an  interesting  manner,  the 
flourishing  state  of  that  part  of  the  island  which 
he  visited.  The  seat  of  government  was  esta- 
blished at  Candia,  the  magistrates  and  officers, 
who  composed  the  council,  resided  there.  The 
provisor  general  was  president.  He  possessed 
the  chief  authority;  and  his  power  extended 
over  the  whole  principality.  It  continued  in 
the  possession  of  the  Venetians  for  five  cen- 
turies and  a  half.  Cornaro  held  the  chief  com- 
mand when  it  was  threatened  with  a  storm,  on 
the  side  of  Constantinople.  The  Turks,  for  a 
whole  year,  had  been  employed  in  preparing  a 
vast  armament.  They  deceived  Coruaro,  by  as- 
suring him  that  it  was  intended  against  Malta. 
In  1645,  in  the  midst  of  a  solemn  peace,  they 
appeared  unexpectedly  before  Crete  with  a  fleet 
of  400  sail,  having  on  board  60,000  land  forces, 
under  the  command  of  four  pachas.  The  em- 
peror Ibrahim,  under  whom  this  expedition 
was  undertaken,  had  no  fair  pretext  in  offer  in 
justification  of  the  enterprise.  He  made  use  of 
all  that  perfidy  which  characterises  the  people  of 
the  east,  to  impose  on  the  Venetian  senate.  He 
loaded  their  ambassadors  with  presents;  directed 
his  fleet  to  bear  for  Cape  Matapan,  as  if  they 
had  been  going  beyond  the  Archipelago  ;  and 
caused  the  governors  of  Tina  and  Cerigna  to  be 
solemnly  assured,  that  the  republic  had  nothing 
to  fear  for  her  possessions.  At  the  very  instant 
when  he  was  making  those  assurances,  his  nava. 
armament  entered  the  gulf  of  Canea ;  and,  pas- 
sing between  that  city  and  St.  Theodore,  anchor, 
ed  at  the  mouth  of  Platania.  Tre  Venetians 


C  A  N  D  I  A. 


not  expecting  this  sudden  attack,  had  made  no 
preparations  to  repel  it.  The  Turks  landed 
without  opposition.  The  isle  of  St.  Theodore 
is  but  a  league  and  a  half  from  Canea,  and  is 
only  three  quarters  of  a  league  in  compass.  The 
Venetians  had  erected  two  forts  there;  one  of 
which,  standing  on  the  summit  of  the  highest 
eminence,  on  the  coast  of  that  little  isle,  was 
called  Turluru ;  the  other  on  a  lower  situation, 
was  named  St.  Theodore.  It  was  an  important 
object  to  the  Mussulmans  to  make  themselves 
masters  of  that  rock,  which  might  annoy  their 
ships.  They  immediately  attacked  it  with  ardor. 
The  first  of  those  fortresses,  being  destitute  of 
soldiers  and  cannon,  was  taken  without  striking 
a  blow.  The  garrison  of  the  other  consisted  of 
no  more  than  sixty  men.  They  made  a  gallant 
defence  and  stood  out  till  the  last  extremity ; 
and,  when  the  Turks  at  last  prevailed,  their  num- 
ber was  diminished  to  ten,  whom  the  captain 
pacha  cruelly  caused  to  be  beheaded.  Being 
now  masters  of  that  important  post,  as  well  as  of 
Lazaret,  an  elevated  rock,  standing  above  half  a 
league  from  Canea,  the  Turks  invested  the  city 
by  sea  and  land.  General  Cornaro  was  struck, 
as  with  a  thunder-clap,  when  he  learned  the 
descent  of  the  enemy.  In  the  whole  island  there 
were  no  more  than  a  body  of  3500  infantry,  and 
a  small  number  of  cavalry.  The  besieged  city 
was  defended  only  by  1000  regular  troops,  and 
a  few  citizens,  who  were  able  to  bear  arms.  He 
made  haste  to  give  the  republic  notice  of  his 
distress;  and  posted  himself  off  the  road,  that 
he  might  the  more  readily  succour  the  besieged 
city.  He  threw  a  body  of  250  men  into  the 
town,  before  the  lines  of  the  enemy  were  com- 
pleted. He  afterwards  made  several  attempts 
to  strengthen  the  besieged  with  other  reinforce- 
ments ;  but  in  vain.  The  Turks  had  advanced 
in  bodies  close  to  the  town,  had  carried  a  half- 
moon  battery,  which  covered  the  gate  of  Retimo ; 
and  were  battering  the  walls  night  and  day  with 
their  numerous  artillery.  The  besieged  defended 
themselves  with  resolute  valor,  and  the  smallest 
advantage  which  the  besiegers  gained  cost  them 
dear.  Cornaro  made  an  attempt  to  arm  the 
Greeks,  particularly  the  Spachiots,  who  boasted 
loudly  of  their  valor.  He  formed  a  battalion  of 
these.  But  the  sera  of  their  valor  was  long  past. 
When  they  beheld  the  enemy,  and  heard  the 
thunder  of  the  cannon,  they  took  to  flight ;  not 
one  of  them  would  stand  fire.  While  the  senate 
of  Venice  were  deliberating  on  the  means  to  be 
used  for  relieving  Canea,  and  endeavouring  to 
equip  a  fleet,  the  Mahommedan  generals  were 
sacrificing  the  lives  of  their  soldiers  to  bring 
their  enterprise  to  a  glorious  termination.  In 
different  engagements  they  had  already  lost 
20,000  warriors  ;  but,  descending  into  the  ditches, 
they  had  undermined  the  walls,  and  blown  up 
the  most  impregnable  forts  with  explosions  of 
powder.  They  sprung  one  of  those  mines  be- 
neath the  bastion  of  St.  Demetri.  It  overturned 
a  considerable  part  of  the  wall,  which  crushed 
all  the  defenders  of  the  bastion.  That  instant 
the  besiegers  sprung  up  with  their  sabres  in  their 
hands,  and  taking  advantage  of  the  general  con- 
sternation of  the  besieged  in  that  quarter,  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  post.  The  besieged, 


recovering  from  their  terror,  attacked  them  with 
unequalled  intrepidity.  About  400  men  assailed 
2000  Turks  already  firmly  posted  on  the  wall, 
and  pressed  upon  them  with  such  obstinate  and 
dauntless  valor,  that  they  killed  a  great  number, 
and  drove  the  rest  down  into  the  ditch.  In  this 
extremity,  every  person  in  the  city  was  in  arms. 
The  Greek  monks  took  up  muskets  ;  and  the 
women,  forgetting  the  delicacy  of  their  sex,  ap- 
peared on  the  walls  among  the  defenders,  either 
supplying  the  men  with  ammunition  and  arms, 
or  fighting  themselves ;  and  several  of  those 
daring  heroines  lost  their  lives.  For  fifty  days 
the  city  held  out  against  all  the  forces  of  the 
Turks.  If  even  at  the  end  of  that  time,  the  Ve- 
netians had  sent  a  naval  armament  to  its  reliefr 
the  kingdom  of  Candia  might  have  been  saved. 
Doubtless,  they  were  not  ignorant  of  this  well- 
known  fact.  The  north  wind  blows  straight 
into  the  harbour  of  Canea.  When  it  blows  a 
little  briskly,  the  sea  rages.  It  is  then  impossible 
for  any  squadron  of  ships,  however  numerous,  to 
form  in  line  of  battle  in  the  harbour,  and  to 
meet  an  enemy.  If  the  Venetians  had  set  out 
from  Cerigo  with  a  fair  wind,  they  might  have 
reached  Canea  in  five  hours,  and  might  have  en- 
tered the  harbour  with  full  sails,  without  being 
exposed  to  one  cannon  shot;  while  none  of  the 
Turkish  ships  would  have  dared  to  appear  before 
them  ;  or,  if  they  had  ventured,  must  have  been 
driven  back  on  the  shore,  and  dashed  in  pieces 
among  the  rocks.  But,  instead  of  thus  taking 
advantage  of  the  natural  circumstances  of  the 
place,  they  sent  a  few  galleys,  which,  not  daring 
to  double  Cape  Spada,  coasted  along  the  southern 
shore  of  the  island,  and  failed  of  accomplishing 
the  design  of  their  expedition.  At  last,  the  Ca- 
neans,  despairing  of  relief  from  Venice,  seeing 
three  breaches  made  in  their  walls,  through  which 
the  infidels  might  easily  advance  upon  them,  ex- 
hausted with  fatigue  and  covered  with  wounds, 
and  reduced  to  the  number  of  500  men,  who 
were  obliged  to  scatter  themselves  round  the 
walls,  which  were  half  a  league  in  extent,  and 
undermined  in  all  quarters,  demanded  a  parley, 
and  offered  to  capitulate.  They  obtained  very 
honorable  conditions ;  and  after  a  glorious  defence 
of  two  months,  which  cost  the  Turks  more  than 
20,000  men,  marched  out  of  the  city  with  the 
honors  of  war.  Those  citizens  who  did  not  choose 
to  continue  in  the  city  were  permitted  to  remove ; 
and  the  Ottomans  faithfully  observed  their  stipu- 
lations. 

The  Venetians,  after  the  loss  of  Canea,  retired 
to  Retimo.  The  captain  pacha  laid  siege  to  the 
citadel  of  Suda,  situated  in  the  entrance  of 
the  bay,  on  a  high  rock,  of  about  a  quarter  of  a 
league  in  circumference.  He  raised  earthen 
batteries,  and  made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to 
level  its  ramparts.  At  last,  despairing  of  taking 
it  by  assault,  he  left  some  forces  to  block  it  up 
from  all  communication,  and  advanced  toward.' 
Retimo.  That  city,  being  unwalled,  was  de 
fended  by  a  citadel,  standing  on  an  eminence 
which  overlooks  the  harbour.  General  Cornaro 
had  retired  thither.  At  the  approach  of  the 
enemy,  he  advanced  from  the  city,  and  waited 
for  them  in  the  open  field.  During  the  action, 
he  encouraged  his  soldiers,  by  fighting  in  the 


C  A  N  D  I  A. 


ranks.  A  glorious  death  was  the  reward  of  his 
valor ;  but  his  fall  determined  the  fate  of  Re- 
timo.  The  Turks  having  landed  additional 
forces,  they  introduced  the  plague,  which  was 
almost  a  constant  attendant  on  their  armies. 
This  dreadful  pest  destroyed  most  part  oT  the 
inhabitants.  The  rest  escaped  into  the  Venetian 
territories,  and  the  island  was  left  almost  deso- 
late. The  siege  of  the  capital  commenced  in 
1646,  and  was  protracted  much  longer  than  that 
of  Troy.  For  two  years  the  Turks  scarce 
gained  any  advantages  before  that  city.  They 
were  often  routed  by  the  Venetians,  and  some- 
times compelled  to  retire  to  Retimo.  In  1649 
Ussein  Pacha,  who  blockaded  Candia,  receiving 
no  supplies,  owing  to  the  revolutions  at  Constan- 
tinople by  the  deposition  and  death  of  Ibrahim, 
and  accession  of  Mahomet  IV.  was  compelled 
to  raise  the  siege,  and  retreat  to  Canea.  The 
Venetians  were  then  on  the  sea  with  a  strong 
squadron.  They  attacked  the  Turkish  fleet  in 
the  bay  of  Smyrna,  burnt  twelve  of  their  ships 
and  two  galleys,  and  killed  6000  of  their  men. 
Some  time  after,  the  Mahommedans  having  lan- 
ded an  army  on  Candia,  renewed  the  siege  of  the 
city  with  greater  vigor,  and  made  themselves 
masters  of  an  advanced  fort  that  was  very 
troublesome  to  the  besieged ;  which  obliged  them 
to  blow  it  up.  From  1650  to  1658,  the  Ve- 
netians, continuing  masters  of  the  sea,  intercep- 
ted the  Turks  every  year  in  the  straits  of  the 
Dardanelles,  and  fought  them  in  four  naval 
engagements ;  in  which  they  defeated  their 
numerous  fleets,  sunk  a  number  of  their  caravels, 
took  others,  and  extended  the  terror  of  their  arms 
even  to  the  walls  of  Constantinople.  That 
capital  became  a  scene  of  tumult  and  disorder. 
The  grand  seignior,  alarmed,  left  the  city  with 
precipitation.  These  great  successes  revived  the 
hopes  of  the  Venetians  and  depressed  the  courage 
of  the  Turks.  The  latter  converted  the  siege  of 
Candia  into  a  blockade,  and  suffered  consider- 
able losses.  The  Sultan,  to  exclude  the  Ve- 
netian fleet  from  the  Dardanelles,  caused  two  for- 
tresses to  be  built  at  the  entrance  of  the  straits. 
He  ordered  the  pacha  of  Canea  to  appear  again 
before  the  walls  of  Candia,  and  to  make  every 
possible  effort  to  gain  the  city.  In  the  mean- 
time the  Venetians  made  several  attempts  on 
Canea.  In  1 660  the  city  was  about  to  surren- 
der, when  the  pacha  of  Rhodes'  reinforced  it 
with  a  body  of  2000  men.  He  doubled  the 
extremity  of  Cape  Melee,  within  sight  of  the 
Venetian  fleet,'  which  was  becalmed  off  Cape 
Spada,  and  could  not  advance  one  fathom 
to  oppose  an  enemy  considerably  weaker  than 
themselves.  Kiopruli,  knowing  that  the  mur- 
murs of  the  people  against  the  long  con- 
tinuance of  the  siege  of  Candia  were  rising  to 
a  height,  and  fearing  a  general  revolt,  set  out 
from  Constantinople  about  the  end  of  1666, 
at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army.  Having 
escaped  the  Venetian  fleet,  which  was  lying  off 
Canea,  he  landed  at  Palio  Castro,  and  formed 
the  lines  around  Candia.  Under  his  command 
were  four  pachas,  and  the  flower  of  the  Ottoman 
forces.  Those  troops,  being  encouraged  by  their 
chiefs,  and  supported  by  a  great  quantity  of 
aitillery,  performed  prodigies  of  valor.  All  the 


exterior  forts  were  destroyed.  Nothing  now  re- 
mained to  the  besieged  but  the  bare  line  of  the 
walls,  unprotected  by  fortresses;  and  these  being 
battered,  by  an  incessant  discharge  of  artillery, 
soon  gave  way  on  all  quarters.  Still,  however, 
(incredible  as  it  may  apppear)  the  Candians  held 
out  three  years  against  all  the  forces  of  the 
Ottoman  empire.  At  last  they  were  about  to 
capitulate,  when  the  hope  of  assistance  from 
France  re-animated  their  valor.  The  expected 
succours  arrived  on  the  26th  of  June,  1669. 
They  were  conducted  by  the  duke  of  Noailles. 
Next  day  the  ardor  of  the  French  prompted 
them  to  make  a  general  sally.  The  duke  of 
Beaufort,  admiral  of  France,  assumed  the  com- 
mand. He  was  the  first  to  advance  against  the 
Mussulmans,  and  was  followed  by  a  numerous 
body  of  infantry  and  cavalry.  They  rushed 
furiously  upon  the  enemy,  forced  the  trenches, 
and  would  have  compelled  them  to  abandon  their 
lines  and  artillery,  had  not  an  unforeseen  accident 
damped  their  courage.  In  the  midst  of  the  en- 
gagement a  powder  magazine  blew  up ;  the  duke 
of  Beaufort  and  the  foremost  of  the  combatants 
lost  their  lives ;  the  French  ranks  were  broken, 
and  fled  in  disorder ;  and  the  duke  of  Noailles- 
with  difficulty  effected  a  retreat  within  the  walls 
of  Candia.  The  French  accused  the  Italians  of 
having  betrayed  them ;  and  on  that  pretext  pre- 
pared to  set  off  sooner  than  the  time  agreed 
upon.  No  intreaties  of  the  commandant  could 
prevail  with  them  to  delay  their  departure.  This 
determined  the  fate  of  the  city,  which  had  only 
500  men  left  to  defend  it.  Morosoni  Capitulated 
with  Kiopruli,  to  whom  he  surrendered  the  king- 
dom of  Crete,  excepting  only  the  Suda,  Grabusa, 
and  Spina-Longa.  The  grand  vizier  made  his 
entrance  into  Candia,  Oct.  4th,  1670 ;  and  stayed 
eight  months  in  it,  inspecting  the  reparation  of 
its  walls  and  fortresses.  The  three  fortresses  left 
in  the  hands  of  the  Venetians  continued  long  in 
their  possession,  but  were  all  taken  at  last.  In 
short,  after  a  war  of  30  years  continuance,  in  the 
course  of  which  more  than  200,000  men  fell, 
Candia  was  entirely  subdued  by  the  Turks,  in 
whose  hands  it  still  continues. 

CANDIA,  the  capital  of  the  above  island,  is  a 
fortified  town,  containing  from  12,000  to  15,000 
inhabitants,  by  far  the  greater  part  of  whom  are 
Turks.  The  houses  are  mean  and  irregular. 
The  manufacture  of  soap  is  carried  on  very  ex- 
tensively here.  The  harbour,  once  large  and 
commodious,  is  now  very  much  choked  with 
sand  and  will  not  admit  more  than  ten  merchant- 
men. The  Governor  is  a  pacha  of  three  tails,  and 
seraskier  or  military  commandant  of  the  whole 
island.  Long  25°  4'  E.,  lat.  35°  16'  N. 

CANDIDATE,  v.  adj.  &  n.-j      Fr.  candide ; 

CAN'DID,  adj.  I  Ital.     Candida  ; 

CAN'DIDLY,  \Span.  Candida; 

CAN'DIDNESS,  i  Lat.    Candidas; 

CAN'DOUR.  }  candidus  is  from 

candeo,  as  lucidus  is  from  luceo.  Thus,  in  ad- 
dition to  white,  it  is  applied  to  any  thing  that  is 
bright  and  glowing,  as  to  snow  recently  fallen ; 
to  polished  silver;  to  the  light  of  a  candle.  In 
this  sense,  however,  it  is  rare  in  English.  IB 
process  of  time  it  was  employed  to  designate  all 
persons,  who  arc  expectants  of  any  office,  in  ob- 


CAN 


Jaining  which  the  suffrages  of  others  are  required, 
because  among  the  Romans  such  persons,  on 
such  occasions,  wore  a  garment  more  white  than 
ordinary  ( Candida  toga).  It  is  metaphorically 
applied  to  ingenuousness,  openness  of  temper, 
purity  of  mind  ;  without  prejudice  or  malice ; 
or  sincere  and  unpretending  goodness. 

It  presently  sees  the  guilt  of  a  sinful  action;  and, 
on  the  other  side,  observes  the  candidncss  of  a  man's 
very  principles,  and  the  sincerity  of  his  intentions. 

South. 
The   box    receives     all   back ;  but,    poured    from 

thence, 
The  stoucs  came  candid  forth,  the  hue  of  innocence. 

Dry  den. 

Thy  first-fruits  of  poesy  were  given 
To  make  thyself  a  welcome  inmate  there, 
While  yet  a  youug  probationer, 
And  candidate  of  heaven.  Id. 

We  have  often  desired  they  would  deal  candidly 
with  us  ;  for,  if  the  matter  stuck  only  there,  we  would 
propose  that  every  one  should  swear,  that  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  church  of  Ireland.  Swift. 
The  import  of  the  discourse  will,  for'the  most  part, 
if  there  be  no  designed  fallacy,  sufficiently  lead  candid 
aud  intelligent  readers  into  the  true  meaning  of  it. 

Locke. 

A  candid  judge  will  read  each  piece  of  wit, 
With  the  same  spirit  that  its  author  writ.         Pope. 
What  could  thus  high  thy  rash  ambition  raise  ? 
Art  thou,  fond  youth,  a  candidate  for  praise  ?  Id. 

So  many  candidates  there  stand  for  wit, 
A  place  at  court  is  scarce  so  hard  to  get.     Anonymous. 
One  would  be  surprised  to  see  so  many  candidates 
for  glory.  Addison. 

But  let  untender  thoughts  afar  be  driven, 

Nor  venture  to  arraign  the  dread  decree, 
For  know  to  man,  as  candidate  for  heaven, 

The  voice  of  the  Eternal  said,  Be  free  !    Seattle. 
Yet  are  the  darkened  eye,  the  withered  face, 

Or  hoary  hair,  I  never  will  repine  ; 
But  spare,  O  time,  whate'er  of  mental  grace, 

Of  candour,  love,  or  sympathy  divine, 
Whate'er  of  fancy's  ray  or  friendship's  flame  is 
mine.  Id. 

CANDIDATES,  in  the  college  of  physicians, 
London,  is  the  order  of  members,  out  of  whom 
the  fellows  are  chosen.  They  must  be  natives  of 
England,  doctors  of  physic,  admitted  to  the  de- 
grees in  our  own  universities,  and  ought  to  have 
practised  four  years  before  they  are  admitted  into 
the  order. 

CANDIDATI  MILITES,  an  order  of  soldiers, 
among  the  Romans,  who  served  as  the  emperor's 
body-guards  to  defend  him  in  battle.  They  were 
the  tallest  and  strongest  of  the  whole  troops,  and 
most  proper  to  inspire  terror.  They  were  called 
candidati,  because  clothed  in  white,  either  that 
they  might  be  more  conspicuous,  or  because  they 
were  considered  in  the  way  of  preferment. 

CANDIDATI  PRINCIPIS,  were  those  who  were 
recommended  to  any  offices  by  the  emperors. 
The  candidatus  principis  was  also  an  office  in 
the  court  of  the  emperor  of  Constantinople,  an- 
swering to  a  secretary  of  state  among  us. 

CANDIDUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of 
cerambyx ;  color  white,  thorax  and  body  fuscous, 
with  two  white  stripes  :  its  country  unknown. 

CAN'DIFY,  v.  a.  Lat.  candifico.  To  make 
white;  to  whiten. 


87  CAN 

CANDISH,  a  considerable  province  of  Asia, 
in  the  dominions  of  the  Great  Mogul,  bounded 
by  Chytor  and  Malvo  on  the  north,  Orixa  on  the 
east,  Deccan  on  the  south,  and  Guzarat  on  the 
west.  It  is  populous  and  rich  ;  and  abounds  in 
cotton,  rice,  and  Indigo.  Brampore  is  the 
capital  town.  It  is  subject  to  the  Poonah 
Mahrattas. 

CANDITEERS,  in  fortification,  frames  to  lay 
brushwood  on  to  cover  the  workmen. 

C AN'DLE,  n.  ~\  Lat.  candela ;  Ara.  qun- 
CAN'DLE-BEAM,  del ;  Per.candel;  Yr.chan- 
CAN'DLE-CASE,  delle  ;  supposed  from  can- 

CAN'DLE-HOLDER,      dldus,  white ;  but  Goth. 
CAN'DLE-LIGHT,        k^ndcl,  from  kyndael,  is  a 
CAN'DLE-MINE,       (  fire-match ;    and    kyndil, 
CAN'DLE-SNUFF,     (Sax.   candel,   a   torch,   a 
CAN'DLE-STICK,        light ;  icaiw,  to  bum.     See 
CAN'DLE-STUFF,        KINDLE.    The  metaphori- 
CAN'DLE-TREES,        cal  beam  of  light  is  cha- 
CAN'DLE-WASTER,     racterised  according  to  the 
CAN'DLES'-ENDS.  J  luminous  body  by  or  from 
which  it  is  supposed  to  be  protruded.      It  is 
hence  that  we  speak  of  sun-beams  and  of  moon- 
beams.    Our  ancestors  spoke  of  candle-beams  ; 
and  the  sonneteer  still  sings  of  the  lustre  that 
beamed  from  the  eye  of  his  mistress.     Candle- 
stick, Sax.  condelsticca ;  condletreow  is  a  stock 
or  tree  for  a  candle  ;  that  which  holds  the  candle. 
Candles'-ends,   to   drink   off.      A    piece    of 
romantic  extravagance  long  practised  by  amorous 
gallants.     It  perhaps  may  be  asked,  why  drink- 
ing offcandles'-ends,  for  flap-dragons,  should  be 
esteemed  an  agreeable  qualification?     The  an- 
swer is,  that,  as  a  feat  of  gallantry,  to  swallow  a 
candles'-end  formed  a  more  formidable  and  dis- 
agreeable flap-dragon  than  any  other  substance, 
and  therefore  afforded  a  stronger  testimony  of 
zeal  for  the  lady  to  whose  health  it  was  drank. 
See  FLAP-DRAGON  and  DAGGERED  ARMS. 

Why  doth  the  prince  love  him  so  then  ?  Because 
he  eats  conger  and  fennel ;  and  drinks  off  candles'-ends 
for  flap-dragons.  Shahspeare. 

CANDLE-WASTERS;  rakes  who  sit  up  all  night, 
and  therefore  waste  much  candle.  It  certainly 
does  not,  as  some  have  supposed,  relate  to  the 
custom  explained  under  the  words  candles'-ends ; 
for  a  book-worm  is  called  a  candle-waster.  See 
TODD. 

Let  wantons,  light  of  heart 
Tickle  the  senseless  rushes  with  their  heels  ; 
For  I  am  propertied  with  a  grandsire  phrase, 
To  be  a  candle-holder,  and  look  on.  Shahtpeare. 

How  far  that  little  candle  throws  his  beams  ! 
So  shines  a  good  deed  in  a  naughty  world.  Id. 

The  horsemen  sit  like  fixed  candlesticks, 
With  torch-staves  in  their  hands  ;  and  their  poor  jades 
Lob  down  their  heads.  Id, 

By  these  blessed  candles  of  the  night, 
Had  you  been  there,  I  think  you  would  have  begged 
The  ring  of  me,  to  give  the  worthy  doctor.  Id. 

Why,  Petruchio  is  coming,  in  a  new  hat,  and  an 
old  jerkin  ;  a  pair  of  old  breeches,  thrice  turned  ;  a 
pair  of  boots  that  had  been  candle-cnsei  ;  an  old  rusty 
sword  taken  out  of  the  town  armory,  with  a  broken 
hilt,  and  chapcless,  with  two  broken  points.  Id. 


CAN 


88 


CAN 


Here  burns  my  candle  out,  ay,  here  it  dies, 
Which,  while  it  lasted ,  gave  king  Henry  light.        Id. 

We  see  the  wax  candies  last  longer  than  tallow 
cardies f  because  wax  is  more  firm  and  hard. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

In  darkness  candlelight  may  serve  to  guide  men's 
steps,  which  to  use  in  the  day  were  madness. 

Hookei: 

By  the  help  of  oil,  and  wax,  and  other  candlestuff, 
the  flame  may  continue,  and  the  y  ick  not  burn. 

Bacon. 

These  countries  were  once  Christian,  and  members 

of  the  church,  and  where  the  golden  candlesticks  did 

stand.  Bacon. 

Carouse  her  health  in  cans 

And  candles' -ends.  Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 

But  none  that  will  hung  themselves  for  love,  or  eat 
candles' -ends,  &c.  as  the  sublunary  lovers  do. 

Ben  Jonson's  Masque  of  the  Moon. 

Before  the  day  was  done,  her  work  she  sped, 
And  never  went  by  candlelight  to  bed.         Dryd.  Fab. 
The  boding  owl 

Steals  from  her  private  cell  by  night, 

And  flies  about  the  candlelight.  Swift. 

Such  as  are  adapted  to  meals,  will  indifferently 
serve  for  dinners  or  suppers,  only  distinguishing 
between  daylight  and  candle-light.  Id. 

Take  a  child,  and,  setting  a  candle  before  him,  you 
shall  find  his  pupil  to  contract  very  much,  to  exclude 
the  light,  with  the  brightness  whereof  it  would  other- 
wise be  dazzled.  Ray. 

I  know  a  friend,  who  has  converted  the  essays  of  a 
man  of  quality  into  a  kind  of  fringe  for  his  candlesticks. 

Addison. 

I  shall  find  him  coals  and  candlelight. 

Molineux  to  Locke. 

CANDLE.  A  tallow  candle,  to  be  good,  must 
be  part  sheeps'  and  part  bullocks'  tallow.  Hogs' 
tallow  makes  the  caadle  gutter,  and  always  gives 
an  offensive  smell,  with  a  thick  black  smoke. 
The  wick  ought  to  be  pure,  sufficiently  dry,  and 
properly  twisted ;  otherwise  the  candle  will  emit 
an  inconstant  vibratory  flame,  which  is  both  pre- 
judicial to  the  eyes  and  insufficient  for  the  dis- 
tinct illumination  of  objects.  There  are  two 
sorts  of  tallow  candles;  the  one  dipped,  the 
other  moulded :  the  former  are  the  common 
candles ;  the  others  the  invention  of  the  sieur  le 
Brege  at  Paris.  Candles  are  also  made  of  sper- 
maceti and  wax. 

CANDLE,  MEDICATED.     See  BOUGIE. 

CANDLE,  SALE,  or  AUCTION  BY  INCH  OF,  is 
when  a  small  piece  of  candle,  being  lighted,  the 
bystanders  are  allowed  to  bid  for  the  merchan- 
dise that  is  selling ;  but  the  moment  the  candle 
is  out,  the  commodity  is  adjudged  to  the  highest 
bidder.  This  mode  of  sale  seems  to  have  been 
borrowed  from  the  church  of  Rome,  where  there 
is  an  excommunication  by  inch  of  candle,  when 
the  sinner  is  allowed  to  come  to  repentance 
while  the  candle  continues  burning ;  but  after  it 
is  consumed  he  remains  finally  excommunicated. 

CANDLES.    See  CHANDLERY. 

CANDLE  BOMBS,  a  name  given  to  small  glass 
bubbles,  having  a  neck  about  an  inch  long,  with 
a  very  slender  bore,  by  means  of  which  a  small 
quantity  of  water  is  introduced  into  them,  and 
the  orifice  afterwards  closed  up.  The  stalk  being 
put  through  the  wick  of  a  burning  candle,  the 
flame  soon  rarifies  the  water  into  steam,  by  the 


elasticity  of  which  the  glass  is  burst  with  a  loud 
crack.     They  are  of  dangerous  use. 

CANDLEMAS,  n.  s.  from  candle  and  mass. 
The  feast  of  the  Purification  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin, which  was  formerly  celebrated  with  many 
lights  in  churches. 

The  harvest  dinners  are  held  by  every  wealthy  man , 
or,  as  we  term  it,  by  every  good  liver,  between 
Michaelmas  and  candlemuss. 

Carew's  Survey  of  Cornwall. 

There  is  a  general  tradition  in  most  parts  of  Europe, 
that  inferreth  the  coldness  of  the  succeeding  winter, 
upon  shining  of  the  sun  upon  candlemas  day. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

Come  candlemas  nine  years  ago  she  died, 
And  now  lies  bury'd  by  the  yew-tree  side.  Gay. 

CANDLEMAS,  a  feast  in  honor  of  the  puri- 
fication of  the  Virgin  Mary,  held  on  the  2d  of 
February.  The  ancient  Christians  on  that  day 
used  lights  in  their  churches  and  processions,  in 
memory,  it  is  said,  of  our  Saviour's  being  on 
that  day  declared  by  Simon  '  to  be  a  light  to 
lighten  the  Gentiles.'  In  imitation  of  this  custom, 
the  Roman  Catholics  on  this  day  consecrate  aL 
the  tapers  and  candles  which  they  use  in  their 
churches  during  the  whole  year.  At  Rome,  the 
pope  performs  that  ceremony  himself,  and  dis- 
tributes wax-candles  to  the  cardinals  and  others, 
who  carry  them  in  procession  through  the  great 
hall  of  the  pope's  palace.  This  ceremony  was 
prohibited  in  England  by  an  order  of  council  in 
1548.  Candlemas  is  one  of  the  four  terms  of  the 
year  for  paying  and  receiving  rents,  or  borrowed 
money,  &c.  In  the  courts  of  law  Candlemas 
term  begins  1 5th  January,  and  ends  3d  February. 

CANDLESTICK,  GOLDEN,  one  of  the  sacred 
utensils  made  by  Moses  to  be  placed  in  the 
Jewish  tabernacle.  See  Exod.  xxv.  31,  Sec.  and 
1  Kings  vii.  49.  This  sacred  utensil,  upon  the 
destruction  of  the  temple  by  the  Romans,  was 
lodged  in  the  temple  of  peace  built  by  Vespa- 
sian ;  and  the  representation  of  it  is  still  to  be 
seen  on  the  triumphal  arch  at  the  foot  of  mount 
Palatine,  on  which  this  triumph  is  delineated. 

CAN'DOCK,  n.  s..     Aweed  that  grows  in  rivers. 

Let  the  pond  lie  dry  six  or  twelve  months,  both  to 
kill  the  water-weeds,  as  water-lilies,  candocks,  reate, 
and  bullruRhes  ;  and  also,  that  as  these  die  for  want 
of  water,  so  grass  may  grow  on  the  pond's  bottom. 

Walton. 

CAN'DY,  from  Sans,  khand;  Per.  cande;  Ara. 
alkende.  To  conserve  with  sugar;  to  incrust 
with  congelations;  to  give  certain  appearances 
resembling  those  of  sugarcandy ;  to  form  or  con- 
geal into  glistening  substances ;  into  icicles.  The 
word  is  sometimes  used  to  whiten,  to  give  the 
appearance  of  purity  and  innocence. 

Will  the  cold  brook, 

Candied  with  ice,  cawdle  thy  morning  toast, 
To  cure  thy  o'er-night's  surfeit  ?  Shakspeare. 

Should  the  poor  be  flatterM  ? 
?Jo,  let  the  candy'd  tongue  lick  absurd  pomp, 
And  crook  the  pregnant  hinges  of  the  knee, 
Where  thrift  may  follow  fawning.  Shakspeare 

Since  when  those  frosts  that  winter  brings, 

Which  candy  ever  green, 
Renew  us  like  the  teeming  springs, 

And  we  thus  fresh  are  seen.  Draytoi.. 


CAN 


89 


CAN 


Now  that  the  •winter  's  gone,  the  earth  hath  lost 
Her  snow-white  robes,  and  now  no  more  the  frost 
Candies  the  grass,  or  casts  an  icy  cream 
Upon  the  silver  lake  or  chrystal  stream. 
But  the  warm  sun  thaws  the  benumbed  earth. 
And  makes  it  tender,  gives  a  record  birth 
To  the  dead  swallow,  wakes  in  hollow  tree 
The  drowsy  cuckoo  and  the  humble  bee. 

Carew.      The  Spring. 

They  have  in  Turkey  confections  like  to  candied  son- 
serves,  made  of  sugar  and  lemon,  or  sugar  and  citrons, 
or  sugar  and  violets,  and  some  other  flowers,  and  mix. 
ture  of  amber.  Bacon. 

With  candy'd  plantanes,  and  the  juicy  pine, 
On  choicest  melons  and  sweet  grapes  they  dine. 

Waller. 

CAN'DY;  LION'S  FOOT.  See  CATANANCHE. 
CANDY,  or  SUGAR  CANDY,  a  preparation  of 
sugar  made  by  melting  and  crystallising  it  six  or 
seven  times  over,  to  render  it  hard  or  transpa- 
rent. It  is  of  three  kinds,  white,  yellow,  and 
red.  The  white  comes  from  the  loaf-sugar,  the 
yellow  from  the  cassonado,  the  brown  from  the 
muscavado. 

CANDY,  a  kingdom  of  Asia,  in  the  centre  of 
the  island  of  Ceylon,  is  separated  from  the 
country  possessed  by  Europeans  on  the  coast  by 
almost  impenetrable  woods  and  mountains.  The 
passes  are  extremely  steep  and  difficult,  and  so 
little  known,  even  to  the  natives,  that  the  exact 
dimensions  of  these  dominions  have  nerer  been 
ascertained.  The  climate  is  particularly  un- 
healthy to  Europeans  on  account  of  the  heavy 
fogs  which  prevail. 

The  country  is  divided  into  provinces  and 
districts.  A  high  range  of  mountains  extends 
across  the  whole  country,  and  divides  the  island 
into  two  different  climates.  On  one  side  the 
rains  are  incessant,  and  on  the  other  there  has 
been  a  continued  drought  for  several  years. 
Several  rivers  intersect  this  country  >  but  they  are 
rendered  unnavigable  by  the  very  rapid  current 
during  the  rainy  season,  and  they  are  almost 
dried  up  during  the  summer  months.  The 
Candians  are  divided  into  castes ;  the  nobles 
form  the  first  or  highest  rank, — the  second  in- 
cludes the  better  artificers,  such  as  goldsmiths, 
painters,  &c. — the  third  the  meaner  kind  of  arti- 
ficers, as  barbers,  weavers,  and  the  common 
soldiers ;  the  laborers  of  all  descriptions  and  the 
peasantry  are  included  in  the  fourth  caste.  They 
worship  the  idol  Buddha. 

The  government  is  despotic,  and  supported  by 
presents  or  contributions  brought  by  the  peo- 
ple, or  rather  enforced  by  the  king's  officers. 
They  consist  of  money,  corn,  fruit,  precious 
stones,  and  all  articles  of  their  own  manufacture. 
The  submission  of  the  subject  to  the  sovereign 
is  almost  unbounded.  The  former  never  dares 
appear  on  horseback ;  indeed  this  animal  is  only 
kept  in  the  royal  stud. 

The  capital  (see  below)  has  been  frequently 
attacked  by  Europeans  and  again  given  up.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Dutch  in  1796,  but  they  only 
kept  possession  about  nine  months.  In  1 802  a  war 
again  broke  out,  and  the  Candians  submitted  to  the 
English  army  of  3000  men,  under  the  command  of 
Major  Mendarval,  who  left  here  Major  Davie, 
with  a  garrison.  The  garrison,  however,  being 
small,  they  soon  suffered  very  materially  from 


the  climate,  and  were  obliged  to  surrender,  on 
condition  of  being  allowed  to  march  to 
Trincomalee.  This  treacherous  people,  however, 
felt  no  repugnance  at  misleading  and  cruelly 
murdering  the  greater  part  of  them  in  cold 
blood.  Another  expedition  failed  in  1804,  but  a 
third  was  resolved  upon  in  1815,  and  an  army  of 
3000  men  took  possession  of  the  capital.  ID 
March,  1816,  the  monarch,  Wikremc  R^jaSinha, 
was  finally  deposed,  and  the  'kingdom  annexed 
to  the  British  dominions. 

CANDY,  the  capital  of  the  Candian  dominions, 
about  142  miles  from  Trincomalee,  and  108 
from  Columbo,  stands  on  a  plain,  surrounded  by 
mountains  covered  with  thick  jungle  and  almost 
impenetrable  woods.  The  town  is,  as  it  were, 
fortified  by  a  thick  thorn  hedge,  and  is  ap- 
proached by  difficult  narrow  passes,  guarded  by 
gates  of  the  same  materials.  The  town  stands 
near  the  banks  of  the  river  Maha-villa-gonga,  and 
is  formed  of  one  principal  street,  about  two  miles 
long,  with  narrow  lanes  branching  from  it.  At 
the  extremity  of  the  street  is  the  palace,  containing 
a  great  number  of  apartments,  some  of  them 
curiously  painted,  and  others  ornamented  with 
plate  glasses.  The  principal  building  consists  of 
two  squares,  one  within  the  other ;  the  interior  is 
the  royal  residence.  The  houses  of  the  town  are 
very  mean.  Long.  80°  47'  E.,  lat.  7°  23'  N.  See 
CEYLON. 

CANE,  n.  &  v.    )      TLavva;    Lat.  canna.     A 

CA'KY.  J  kind    of    strong    reed,    of 

which  walking  staffs  are  made  ;  a  walking-staff. 
A  lance;  a  dart  made  of  cane:  whence  the 
Spanish  inego  de  cannas.  The  plant  which  yields 
the  sugar.  To  beat  with  a  walking-stick.  Cany 
signifies  full  of  canes,  or  consisting  of  canes. 

Shall  I  to  please  another  wine-sprung  mind 
Lose  all  mine  own ;  God  hath  given  me  a  measure 
Short  of  his  cane  and  body  :  must  I  find 
A  pain  in  that  wherein  he  finds  a  pleasure.    Herbert. 

But  in  his  way  lights  on  the  barren  plains 
Of  Sericana,  where  Chineses  drive, 
With  sails  and  wind,  their  cany  waggons  light.  Milton. 

The  king  thrust  the  captain  from  him  with  his  cane  ; 
whereupon  he  took  his  leave  and  went  home.  Harvey. 

Abenamar,  thy  youth  these  sports  has  known, 
Of  which  thy  age  is  now  spectator  grown  ; 
Judge-like  thou  sitt'st,  to  praise  or  to  arraign 
The  flying  skirmish  of  the  darted  cane.  Dryden. 

If  the  poker  be  out  of  the  way,  or  broken,  stir  the 
fire  with  your  master's  cane.  Swift. 

If  the  strong  cane  support  thy  walking  hand, 
Chairmen  no  longer  shall  the  wall  command. 

Gay's  Trivia. 

This  cane  or  reed,  grows  plentifully  both  in  the  East 
and  West  Indies.  Other  reeds  have  their  skin  hard  and 
dry,  and  their  pulp  void  of  juice  ;  but  the  skin  of  the  su- 
gar cane  is  soft.  It  usually  grows  four  or  five  feet  high, 
and  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  stem  or 
stalk  is  divided  by  knots  a  foot  and  a  half  apart.  At 
the  top  it  puts  forth  long  green  tufted  leaves,  from  the 
middle  of  which  arise  the  flower  and  the  seed.  They 
usually  plant  them  in  pieces  a  foot  and  a  half  below 
the  top  of  the  flower  ;  and  they  are  ordinarily  ripe  in 
ten  months,  at  which  time  they  are  found  quite  full 
of  a  white  succulent  marrow,  whence  is  expressed  the 
liquor  of  which  sugar  is  made.  Chambers. 

And  the  sweet  liquor  on  the  cane  bestow 
From  which  prepared  the  luscious  sugars  flow. 

Blackmcre. 


CAN 


90 


CAN 


Ambition '.  does  ambition  there  reside  ? 
Yes  !  when  the  boy  in  manly  mood  astride, 
Of  headstrong  prowess  innocently  vain, 
Canters,  the  jockey  of  his  father's  cane.     Biihop. 

CANE,  GROTTO  DEL,  i.  e.  the  dog's  grotto, 
a  cave  of  Naples,  seven  miles  from  Puzzoii, 
where  many  dogs  have  been  suffocated  to  show 
the  effect  of  a  mephitic  vapgr,  which  rises  a  foot 
above  the  bottom  of  this  grotto. 
CANE,  in  botany.  See  ARUNDO. 
CANE,  SUGAR.  See  SACCHARUM 
CANELLA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  dodecandria  class  of  plants, 
natural  order  twelfth,  holoraceae :  CAL.  three- 
lobed;  the  petals  five;  the  anthera  twelve  to 
twenty-one,  growing  on  an  urceolated  or  bladder- 
shaped  nectarium ;  and  the  fruit  is  a  trilocular 
berry  with  two  seeds.  There  is  but  one  known 
species,  C.  alba.  It  grows  usually  about  twenty 
feet  high,  and  eight  or  ten  inches  in  thickness, 
in  most  of  the  Bahama  islands.  The  leaves  are 
narrow  at  the  stalk,  growing  wider  at  their  ends, 
which  are  broad  and  rounding,  having  a  middle 
rib  only ;  they  are  very  smooth,  and  of  a  light 
shining  green.  The  whole  plant  is  very  aromatic, 
the  bark  particularly,  being  used  in  distilling, 
and  in  greater  esteem  in  the  more  northern  parts 
of  the  world  than  in  Britain.  The  bark  is  the 
canella  alba  of  the  shops.  It  is  brought  to  us 
rolled  up  into  long  quills,  thicker  than  the  cin- 
namon, and  both  outwardly  and  inwardly  of  a 
whitish  color,  lightly  inclining  to  yellow.  Infu- 
sions of  it  in  water  are  of  a  yellowish  color,  and 
smell  of  the  canella :  but  they  are  rather  bitter 
than  aromatic.  Tinctures  in  rectified  spirit  have 
the  warmth  of  the  bark,  but  little  of  its  smell. 
Proof  spirit  dissolves  the  aromatic  as  well  as  the 
bitter  matter  of  the  canella,  and  is  therefore  the 
best  menstruum.  This  bark  is  a  warm  pungent 
aromatic,  though  not  of  the  most  agreeable  kind : 
nor  are  any  of  the  preparations  of  it  very  grate- 
ful. Canella  alba  is  often  employed  where  a 
warm  stimulant  to  the  stomach  is  necessary,  and 
as  a  corrigent  of  other  articles.  It  is  now,  how- 
ever, little  used  in  composition  by  the  London 
College ;  the  only  officinal  formula  which  it  enters 
being  the  pulvis  aloeticus ;  but  with  the  Edin- 
burgh College  it  is  an  ingredient  in  the  tinctura 
amaro,  vinum  amarum,  vinum  rhei,  as  it  is  use- 
ful as  covering  the  taste  of  some  other  articles. 

CANEPHORIA,  a  ceremony  celebrated  by 
the  Athenian  virgins  on  the  eve  of  their  marriage 
day,  in  which  the  maid,  conducted  by  her  father 
,and  mother,  went  to  the  temple  of  Minerva,  car- 
rying with  her  a  basket  full  of  little  curiosities,  as 
presents  to  Diana,  to  engage  her  to  make  the 
marriage  state  happy;  or,  as  the  scholiast  of 
Theocritus  has  it,  the  basket  was  intended  as  a 
kind  of  honorable  amends  made  to  that  goddess, 
the  protectrix  of  virginity,  for  abandoning  her 
party ;  or  as  a  ceremony  to  appease  her  wrath. 
Suidas  calls  it  a  festival  in  honor  of  Diana.  Ca- 
nephoria  was  also  a  festival  in  honor  of  Bacchus, 
celebrated  particularly  by  the  Athenians,  in  which 
the  young  maids  carried  golden  baskets  full  of 
fruit,  covered  to  conceal  the  mystery  from  the 
uninitiated. 

CANES,  in  Egypt  and  other  eastern  countries, 
a  poor  sort  of  buildings  for  the  receolion  of 


strangers  and  travellers,  who  are  accommodated 
with  a  room  at  a  small  price,  but  with  no  other 
necessaries ;  so  that,  excepting  the  room,  there 
are  no  greater  accommodations  in  these  nouses 
than  in  the  deserts  except  that  there  is  a  market 
near. 

CANES  VF.NATICI,  m  astronomy,  the  grey- 
hounds, two  new  constellations  first  established 
by  Hevelius,  between  the  tail  of  the  Great  Bear 
and  the  arms  of  Bootes,  above  the  Coma  Berenices. 
The  first  is  called  asterion,  being  next  the  Bear's 
tail ;  the  other  chara 

CANGA,  in  the  Chinese  affairs,  a  wooden 
clog  borne  on  the  neck  by  way  of  punishment 
for  divers  offences  -The  canga  is  composed  of 
two  pieces  of  wood  notched,  to  receive  the  cri- 
minal's neck ;  the  load  lies  on  his  shoulders, 
and  is  more  or  less  heavy  according  to  the  qua- 
lity of  his  offence.  Some  cangas  weigh  200lbs. ; 
the  generality  from  fifty  to  sixty.  The  manda- 
rins condemn  to  the  punishment  of  the  canga, 
Sentence  of  death  is  sometimes  changed  for  this 
kind  of  punishment. 

CANGE  (Sieu  Du).     See  FRESNE  Du. 

CANGIAGIO,  or  CAMBIASI,  (Lewis),  one  of 
the  most  eminent  of  the  Genoese  painters,  was 
born  in  1527.  His  works  at  Genoa  are  very  nu- 
merous ;  and  he  was  employed  by  the  king  of 
Spain  to  adorn  part  of  the  Escurial.  He  was 
not  only  expeditious,  but  worked  equally  well 
with  both  hands ;  and,  by  that  unusual  power, 
executed  more  designs,  and  finished  grand  works 
with  his  own  pencil,  in  a  much  shorter  time, 
than  most  other  artists  could  do  with  several  as- 
sistants. At  the  age  of  seventeen,  being  employed 
in  painting  the  front  of  an  elegant  house,  in  fresco, 
on  his  entering  on  the  scaffold  the  other  artists 
concluded  from  his  youth  that  he  could  be  no- 
thing more  than  a  grinder  of  colors,  and,  there- 
fore, when  he  took  up  the  pallet,  they  attempted 
to  prevent  him,  being  apprehensive  that  he  would 
spoil  the  work,  but  after  a  few  strokes  of  his 
pencil  they  acknowledged  their  mistake,  and 
allowed  him  to  proceed.  He  died  in  1585. 

CANICULA,  in  astronomy,  a  star  in  the  con- 
stellation canis  major,  called  also  the  dog-star ; 
by  the  Greeks  Sapioc,  Sirius.  It  is  the  tenth  in 
order  in  the  Britannic  catalogue;  in  Tycho's 
and  Ptolemy's  it  is  the  second,  It  is  situated  in 
the  mouth  of  the  constellation,  and  is  of  the  first 
magnitude,  being  the  largest  and  brightest  star  in 
the  heavens.  From  the  rising  of  this  star  not 
cosmically,  or  with  the  sun,  but  heliacally,  that 
is,  its  emersion  from  the,  sun's  rays,  the  ancients 
reckoned  their  dies  caniculares,  canicular  days, 
or  dog  days.  The  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians 
began  their  year  at  the  rising  of  the  canicula, 
reckoning  to  its  rise  again  the  next  year.  The 
reason  of  their  choice  of  the  canicula,  before  the 
other  stars,  to  compute  their  time  by,  was  not 
only  the  superior  brightness  of  that  star,  but  be- 
cause its  heliacal  rising  was  in  Egypt  a  time  of 
singular  note,  as  falling  on  the  greatest  augmen- 
tation of  the  Nile.  Ephestion  adds,  that  from  the 
aspect  and  color  of  canicula  the  Egyptians  drew 
prognostics  concerning  the  rise  of  the  Nile  ;  and, 
according  to  Florus,  predicted  the  future  state  of 
the  year ;  so  that  the  first  rising  of  this  star  was 
annually  observed  with  great  attention. 


f age  366, Vol.7  • 


HIST0B3T 

Order  Can  is 


Dalmatian  .Dct, 


J.Slmrv.  Si 


1WTO1RA1L 

Order  Ctinis 

C.Lupus.TK-Z/1 


C.Yulpus.  Fox 


C .  Lao-opus  .Arctic  Fox 


C.ttjaena.  Striped  Hy 


C.  Aivreiis    .Tnckall 


C  A  N  I  S. 


91 


CANICULAR,  adj.  Lat.  canicularis.  Belong- 
ing to  the  dog-star;  as  canicular,  or  dog  days. 

In  regard  to  different  latitudes,  unto  some  the  cani- 
cular days  are  in  the  winter,  as  unto  such  as  are  un- 
der the  equinoctial  line  ;  for  unto  them  the  dog-star 
ariseth,  when  the  sun  is  about  the  tropick  of  Cancer, 
which  season  unto  them  is  winter.  Browne's  Vul.  Err. 

CANICULUM,  or  CANICULUS,  in  the  Byzan- 
tine antiquities,  a  golden  standish  or  ink  vessel, 
decorated  with  precious  stones,  wherein  was 
kept  the  sacred  encaustum,  or  red  ink,  where- 
with the  emperors  signed  their  decrees,  letters, 
&c.  The  name  alludes  to  the  figure  of  a  dog 
which  it  represented,  or  rather  because  it  was 
supported  by  the  figures  of  dogs.  The  caniculum 
was  under  the  care  of  a  particular  officer  of  state. 

CANINANA,  in  zoology,  a  species  of  serpent 
found  in  America,  and  esteemed  one  of  the  less 
poisonous  kinds.  It  grows  to  about  two  feet 
long ;  and  is  green  on  the  back,  and  yellow  on 
the  belly.  It  feeds  on  eggs  and  small  birds : 
the  natives  cut  off  the  head  and  tail,  and  eat  the 
body  as  a  delicate  fish. 

CANINE',  adj.  Lat.  caninus.  Having  the  pro- 
perties of  a  dog.  Canine  hunger,  or  bulimia,  in 
medicine,  is  an  appetite  that  cannot  be  satisfied. 

A  kind  of  women  are  made  up  of  canine  particles  : 
these  are  scolds,  who  imitate  the  animals  out  of  which 
they  were  taken,  always  busy  and  barking,  and  snarl 
at  every  one  that  come*  in  their  way.  Addison. 

It  may  occasion  an  exorbitant  appetite  of  usual 
things,  which  they  will  take  in  such  quantities,  till 
they  vomit  them  up  like  dogs  ;  from  whence  it  is 
called  canine.  Arbuthnot. 

CANINE  MADNESS.     See  MEDCINE. 

CANINE  TEETH,  are  two  sharp  edged  teeth  in 
each  jaw :  one  on  each  side,  placed  between  the 
incisores  and  molares. 

CANINI  (John  Angelo  and  Mark  Anthony), 
two  brothers,  natives  of  Rome,  celebrated  for 
their  love  of  antiquities.  John  excelled  in  de- 
signs for  engraving  on  stones,  particularly  heads ; 
Mark  engraved  them.  They  were  encouraged 
by  Colbert  to  publish  a  succession  of  heads  of 
the  heroes  and  great  men  of  antiquity,  designed 
from  medals,  antique  stones,  and  other  ancient 
remains  ;  but  John  died  at  Rome  soon  after  the 
work  was  begun  :  Mark  Anthony,  however,  pro- 
cured assistance,  finished  and  published  it  in 
Italian,  in  1669.  The  cuts  of  this  edition  were 
engraved  by  Canini,  Picard,  and  Valet;  and  a 
curious  explanation  is  given,  which  discovers  the 
skill  of  the  Caninis  in  history  and  mythology. 
The  French  edition  of  Amsterdam,  1731,  is  spu- 
rious. 

CANIS,  in  zoology,  the  dog,  a  genus  of  qua- 
drupeds, belonging  to  the  order  of  ferae.  The 
characters  of  the  dog  are  these :  six  fore-teeth  in 
the  upper  jaw,  those  in  the  sides  longer  than  the 
intermediate  ones,  which  are  lobated ;  in  the 
under  jaw  there  are  also  six  fore-teeth,  those  on 
the  sides  being  lobated.  He  has  six  grinders  in 
the  upper,  and  seven  in  the  lower  jaw.  The 
teeth  called  dog-teeth  are  four,  one  on  each  side, 
both  in  the  lower  and  upper  jaw,  sharp-pointed, 
bent  a  little  inward,  and  at  a  distance  from  any 
of  the  rest.  Zoologists  commonly  reckon  four- 
teen species  of  this  genus.  Mr.  Kerr,  in  his  Ani- 
mal kingdom, -enumerates  seventeen  :  but  zoolo- 


gical arrangement  seems  not  yet  to  have  arrived 
at  its  perfection.  Mr.  Pennant,  with  consider- 
able propriety  (as  Mr.  Kerr  remarks),  excludes 
all  the  hyenae  from  this  genus.  Indeed  to  ordi- 
nary readers  it  must  appear  somewhat  strange, 
to  class  animals  of  such  very  opposite  natures  as 
the  fox,  the  wolf,  and  the  hyenae,  under  the  same 
genus  with  the  dog.  Adopting  Mr.  Kerr's  ar- 
rangement in  general,  we  state  the  different  spe- 
cies and  varieties  as  follows  : — 

I.  CANIS  ADIVE,  the  barbary  fox,  or  chacal  of 
Buffon,  the  jackal  adive,  has  a  long  and  slender 
nose,  sharp  upright  ears,  long  bushy  tail ;  color, 
a  very  pale  brown ;  space  above  and  below  the 
eyes   black ;   from  behind   each  ear  there  is  a 
black  line,  which  soon  divides  into  two,  which 
extend  to  the  lower  part  of  the  neck ;  and  the 
tail  is  surrounded  with  three  broad  rings.     This 
species  is  of  the  size  of  the  common  fox,  but  the 
limbs  are  shorter,  and  the  nose  is  more  slender. 

II.  CANIS  ANTABCTICUS,   the  new   Holland 
dog,  or  dog  of  New  South  Wales,  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Kerr : — '  the  tail  is  bushy  and 
hangs  downwards;  the  ears  are  short  and  erect; 
and  the   muzzle  is  pointed.     It  inhabits   New 
Holland ;  is  rather  less  than  two  feet  high ;  and 
about  two  feet  and  a  half  in  length.     His  head 
resembles  that  of  a  fox,  having  a  pointed  muzzle, 
garnished  with  whiskers,  and  short  erect  ears ; 
the  body  and  tail  light  brown;  paler  towards  the 
belly,  on  the  sides  of  the  face  and  throat.     The 
hind  parts   of  the  fore-legs,  the  fore  parts  of 
the  hind-legs,  and  all  the  feet,  are  white.   On  the 
whole  it  is  a  very  elegant,  but  fierce  and  cruel, 
animal ;   from  which,  with  its  figure,  the  total 
want  of  the  common  voice  of  the  dog,  and  from 
general  resemblance  in  other  respects,  it  seems 
more  properly  to  belong  to  the  wolf  kind.' 

III.  CANIS  AUREVS,  the  schackal,  or  jackal, 
as  described  by  Pennant,  has  yellowish  brown 
irides;  ears  erect,  formed  like  those  of  a  fox,  but 
shorter   and   less    pointed ;    hairy,   with   white 
within  ;  brown  without,  tinged  and  dusky  :  head 
shorter  than  that  of  a  fox,  and  nose  blunter: 
lips  black,  and  somewhat  loose  :   neck  and  body 
very  much  resembling  those  of  that  animal,  but 
the  body  more  compressed ;  the  legs  have  the 
same  resemblance,  but  are  longer :  tail  thickest 
in  the  middle,  tapering  to  the  point :  five  toes  on 
the  fore-feet,  the  inner  toe  very  short,  and  placed 
high  :  four  toes  on  the  hind  feet,  all  covered 
with  hair  even  to  the  claws.    The  hairs  are  much 
stifFer  than  those  of  a  fox,  but  scarcely  so  stiff  as 
those  of  a  wolf ;  short  about  the  nose;  on  the 
back  three  inches  long ;   on  the  belly  shorter : 
those  at  the  end  of  the  tail  four  inches  long: 
color  of  the  upper  part   of  the  body  a  dirty 
tawny ;  on  the  back,  mixed  with  black :   lower 
part  of  the  body  of  a  yellowish  white:  tail  tipt 
with  black  ;  the  rest  of  ihe  same  color  with  the 
back  :  the  legs  of  an  unmixed  tawny  brown  :  the 
fore-legs  marked  (but  not  always)  with  a  black 
spot  on  the  knees;   but  on  no  part  are  those 
vivid  colors  which  could  merit  the  title  of  golden, 
bestowed  on  it  by  Ksempfer.     The  length  from 
the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail  is  little  more  than 
twenty-nine  inches  English  :  the  tail,  to  the  ends 
of  the  hairs,  ten  inches  and  three  quarters,  the 
tip  reaching  to  the  top  of  the  hind  legs:   the 


9*2 


C  A  N  1  S. 


height,  from  the  space  between  the  shoulders  to 
the  ground,  rather  more  than  eighteen  inches  and 
a  half;  the  hind  parts  a  little  higher.  This  spe- 
c.es  inhabits  all  the  hot  and  temperate  parts  of 
Asia,  India,  Persia,  Arabia,  Great  Tartary,  and 
about  Mount  Caucasus,  Syria,  and  the  Holy 
Land.  It  is  found  in  most  parts  of  Africa,  from 
Barbary  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

IV.  CANIS   CERDO,   the  zerda,   has  a  very 
pointed  visage;    large  bright  black  eyes;    very 
large  ears,  of  a  bright  rose  color,  internally  lined 
with  long  hairs ;  the  orifice  so  small  as  not  to  be 
risible,  probably  covered  with  a  valve  or  mem- 
brane ;  the  legs  and  feet  are  like  those  of  a  dog ; 
the  tail  is  taper ;  color  between  a  straw  and  pale 
brown :  length  from  nose  to  tail  ten  inches ;  ears 
three  inches  and  a  half  long ;  tail  six ;   height 
not  five.     It  inhabits  the  vast  desert  of  Sahara, 
which  extends  beyond  mount  Atlas.    It  burrows 
in  the  sandy  ground,  which  shows  the  necessity 
of  the  valves  to  the  ears ;  and  is  so  exceedingly 
swift  that  it  is  very  rarely  taken  alive.     It  feeds 
on  insects,  especially  locusts,  sits  on  its  rump, 
is  very  vigilant,   barks   like  a  dog,  but  much 
shiiller,  and  that  chiefly  in  the  night:  is  never 
observed   to  be  sportive.     We  are  indebted  to 
Mr.  Eric  Skioldebrand,  formerly  Swedish  con- 
sul at  Algiers,  for  our  knowledge  of  this  singular 
animal.     He  never  could  procure  but  one  alive, 
which  escaped  before  he  examined  its  teeth :  the 
genus  is  very  uncertain  :  the  form  of  its  head 
and  legs,  and  some  of  its  manners,  determined 
Mr.  Pennant  to  rank  it  in  this  genus.      That 
which  was  in  possession  of  Mr.  Skioldebrand 
fed  freely  from  the  hand,  and  would  eat  bread  or 
boiled  meat.     Buffon  has  given  a  figure  of  this 
animal;  but  from  the  authority  of  Mr.  Bruce 
ascribes  to  it  a  different   place,  and  different 
manners.     He  says  that  it  is  found  to  the  south 
of  the  Palus  Tritonides,  in  Lybia;  that  it  has 
something  of  the  nature  of  the  hare,  and  some- 
thing of  the  squirrel;  and  that  it  lives  on  the 
palm-trees,  and  feeds  on  the  fruits. 

V.  CANIS  CINEREO-ARGENTEUS,  the  silvery 
fox  of  Louisiana,  resembles  the  common  fox  in 
form,  but  has  a  most  beautiful  coat.     The  short 
hairs  are  of  a  deep  brown  ;  and  over  them  spring 
long  silvery  hairs,  which  give  the  animal  a  very 
elegant  appearance.   They  live  in  forests  abound- 
ing  in    game,  and  never  attempt  the   poultry 
which  run  at  large.     The  woody  eminences  in 
Louisiana  are   everywhere   pierced    with   their 
holes. 

VI.  CANIS  FAMILIARIS,  the  domestic  or  faith- 
ful dog,  is  distinguished  from  the  other  species 
by  having  its  tail  bent  to  the  left  side,  which 
mark  is  so  singular,  that  perhaps  the  tail  of  no 
other  quadruped  is  bent  in  this  manner.     Of 
this  species  there  are  a  great  number  of  varieties. 
Linnaeus  enumerates  eleven ;  Buffon  gives  figures 
of  twenty-seven ;  and  Mr.  Kerr  enumerates  no 
fewer  than  forty.     He  is  so  important  an  animal 
that  we  shall  resume  the  consideration  of  the 
species  under  the  article  Doc. 

VII.  CANIS  HYJENA  has  a   straight  jointed 
tail,  with  the  hair  of  its  neck  erect,  small  naked 
ears,  and  four  toes  on  each  foot.     See  HYJENA. 

VIII.  CANIS  INDICIIS,  or  AUSTIIALIS,  the  an- 
Urctic  fox,  the  coyotl  of  Fernandez,  and  the 


loup-renard  of  Bougainville,  has  short  pointed 
ears ;  irides  hazel ;  head  and  body  cinereous 
brown  ;  hair  more  woolly  than  that  of  the  com- 
mon fox,  resembling  much  that  of  the  arctic ; 
legs  dashed  with  rust  color;  tail  dusky,  tipped 
with  white,  shorter  and  more  bushy  than  that  of 
the  common  fox,  than  which  it  is  about  one-third 
larger.  It  has  much  the  habit  of  the  wolf,  in 
ears,  tail,  and  strength  of  limbs.  Hence  the 
French  name  loup-renard,  or  wolf-fox.  It  may 
be  a  wolf  degenerated  by  climate.  The  largest 
are  those  of  Senegal :  the  next  are  the  European : 
those  of  North  America  are  still  smaller.  The 
Mexican  wolves,  which  Mr.  Pennant  apprehends 
to  be  this  species,  are  again  less  ;  and  this,  which 
inhabits  the  Falkland  Isles,  near  the  extremity  of 
South  America,  is  dwindled  to  the  size  described. 

IX.  CANIS  LACOPUS,  the  arctic  fox,  has  a  sharp 
nose ;  short  rounded  ears,  almost  hid  in  the  fur ; 
long  and  soft  hair,  somewhat  woolly ;  short  legs ; 
toes  covered  on  all  parts,  like  that  of  a  common 
hare,  with  fur ;  tail  short  and  more  bushy  than 
that  of  the  common  fox,  of  a  bluish  gray  or  ash 
color,  sometimes  white :  the  young  of  the  gray 
are  black  before  they  come  to  maturity :  the  hair 
much  longer  in  winter  than  summer,  as  is  usual 
with  animals  of  cold  climates.     It  inhabits  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  Frozen  Sea ;  Kams- 
chatka ;  the  isles  between  it  and  America,  and 
the  opposite  parts  of  America  discovered  in  Beh- 
ring's  expedition  in  1741 ;  and  is  found  in  Green- 
land, Iceland,  Spitzbergen,  Nova  Zembla,  and 
Lapland.     It  burrows  under  ground,  forms  holes 
many  feet  in  length,  and  strews  the  bottom  with 
moss.     In  Greenland  and  Spitzbergen  it  lives  in 
the  clefts  of  recks,  not  being  able  to  burrow  by 
reason  of  the  frost :  two  or  three  pair  inhabit  the 
same  hole.    They  are  in  heat  about  Lady-day ; 
and  during  that  time  they  continue  in  the  open 
air,   but  afterwards  take  to  their  holes.    The 
Greenlanders  take  them  either  in  pitfalls  dug  in 
the  snow,  and  baited  with  the  capelin  fish ;  or  in 
springes  made  with  whalebone,  laid  over  a  hole 
made  in  the  snow,  strewed  over  at  bottom  with 
the  same  kind  of  fish ;  or  in  traps  made  like  little 
huts,  with  flat  stones,  with  a  broad  one  by  way 
of  door,  which  falls  down,  by  means  of  a  string 
baited  on  the  inside  with  a  piece  of  flesh,  when- 
ever the  fox  enters  and  pulls  at  it.     The  Green- 
landers  preserve  the  skins  for  traffic ;  and  in  cases 
of  necessity  eat  the  flesh.     They  also  make  but- 
tons of  the  skins ;  and  split  the  tendons,  and  make 
use  of  them  instead  of  thread.     Mr.  Kerr  men- 
tions two  varieties  :  viz.  1.  C.  lagopus  albus,  the 
isatis,  or  white  arctic  fox;  and  2.  C.  lagopus 
caerulescens,  the  bluish  arctic  fox.     The  furs  of 
these  are  more  esteemed  than  those  of  the  white. 

X.  CANIS  LUPUS,  the  wolf,  has  a  long  head, 
pointed  nose,  ears  erect  and\sharp,  long  legs  well 
clothed  with  hair;  tail  bushy  and  bending  down, 
with  the  tip  black  ;  head  and  neck  ash  colored ; 
body  generally  pale  brown  tinged  with  yellow  : 
sometimes  found  white,  and  sometimes  entirely 
black.    He  is  larger  and  fiercer  than  a  dog.    His 
eyes  sparkle,  and  there  is  a  great  degree  of  fury 
and  wildness  in  his  looks.     When  he  walks  he 
draws  up  his  claws,  to  prevent  his  tread  from 
being  heard.     His  neck  is  short,  but  admits  of 
quick  motion  to  either  side.     His  teeth  are  large 


C  A  N  I  S. 


93 


and  sharp ;  ancWiis  bite  is  terrible,  as  his  strength 
is  great.     Cruel,  cowardly,  and  suspicious,  the 
wolf  flies  from  man  ;  and  seldom  ventures  out  of 
the  woods,  except  pressed  by  hunger :  but  when 
this  becomes  extreme,  he  braves  danger,  and  will 
attack  men,  horses,  dogs,  and  cattle  of  all  kinds; 
even  the  graves  of  the  dead  are  not  proof  against 
his  rapacity.    Unlike  the  dog,  he  is  ar  enemy  to 
all  society,  and  keeps  no  company  even  with  those 
of  his  own  species.    When  several  wolves  appear 
together,  it  is  not  a  society  of  peace,  but  of  war; 
it  is  attended  with  tumult  and  dreadful  bowlings, 
and  indicates  an  attack  upon  some  large  animal, 
as  a  stag,  an  ox,  or  a  formidable  mastiff.     This 
military  expedition  is  no  sooner  finished  than 
they  separate,  and  each  returns  in  silence  to  his 
solitude.    There  is  even  little  intercourse  between 
the  males  and  females :  they  feel  the  mutual  at- 
tractions of  love  but  once  a  year,  and  never  re- 
main long  together.    The  females  come  in  season 
iu  winter  :  many  males  follow  the  same  female ; 
and  this  association  is  more  bloody  than  the  for- 
mer ;  for  they  growl,  chase,  fight,  and  tear  one 
another,  and  often  sacrifice  him  that  is  preferred 
by,  the  female.     The   female  commonly  flies  a 
long  time,  fatigues  her  admirers,  and  retires  while 
they  sleep,  with  the  most  alert  or  most  favorite 
male.   They  begin  with  the  old  females  about  the 
end  of  December,  and  finish  with  the  young  ones 
in  February  or  beginning  of  March.     The  time 
of  gestation  is  about  four  months  and  a  half;  and 
young  whelps  are  found  from  the  end  of  April  to 
the  month  of  July.    When  the  females  are  about 
to  bring  forth  they  search  for  a  concealed  place 
in  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  forest.     After  fixing 
on  the  spot,  they  make  it  smooth  and  plain  for 
a  considerable  space,  by  cutting  and  tearing  up 
with  their  teeth  all  the  brambles  and  brush-wood. 
They  then  bring  great  quantities  of  moss,  and 
prepare   a   commodious   bed    for   their   young, 
which  are  generally  five  or  six,  though  sometimes 
they  bring  forth  seven,  eight,  and  even  nine,  but 
never  less  than  three.    They  come  into  the  world 
blind,  like  dogs ;  the  mother  suckles  them  some 
weeks,  and  soon  learns  them  to  eat  flesh,  which 
she  prepares  for  them  by  tearing  it  into  small 
pieces.     Some  time  after  she  brings  them  field 
mice,  young  hares,  partridges,  and  other  fowls. 
The  young  wolves  begin  by  playing  with  these 
animals,  and  at  last  worry  them ;  then  the  mother 
pulls  off  the  feathers,  tears  them  in  pieces,  and 
gives  a  part  to  each  of  her  young.     They  never 
leave  their  den  till  the  end  of  six  weeks  or  two 
months.     They  then  follow  their  mother,  who 
leads  them  to  drink.    She  conducts  them  back  to 
the  den,  or,  when  any  danger  is  apprehended, 
obliges  them  to  conceal  themselves  elsewhere. 
Though,    like   other   females,   the   she   wolf  is 
naturally  more  timid  than  the  male  ;  yet,  when 
her  young  are  attacked,  she  defends  them  with 
intrepidity,  loses  all  sense  of  danger,  and  becomes 
perfectly  furious.    She  never  leaves  them  till  their 
education  is  finished,  till  they  are  so  strong  as  to 
need  no  assistance  or  protection,  and  have  ac- 
quired talents  for  rapine,  which  generally  hap- 
pens in  ten  or  twelve  months  after  their  first  teeth 
(which  commonly  fall  out  in  the  first  month)  are 
replaced.     Wolves  are  full  grown  at  the  end  of 
two  or  three  years,  and  live  fifteen  or  twenty 
years.     When  old,  they  turn  whitish,  and  their 


teeth  are  much  worn.     They  sleep,   but  more 
during  the  day  than  the  night,  and  it  is  always  a 
slight  slumber.     They  drink  often  ;  and,  in  the 
time  of  drought,  when  there  is  no  water  in  the 
hollows,  or  in  the  trunks  of  old  trees,  they  repair, 
several  times  in  a  day,  to  the  brooks  or  rivulets. 
Though   extremely  voracious,  if  supplied  with 
water,  they  can  pass  four  or  five  days  without 
meat.    The  wolf  has  great  strength,  especially  in 
the  anterior  parts  of  the  body,  in  the  muscles  of 
the  neck  and  jaws.     He  carries  a  sheep  in  his 
mouth,  and,  at  the  same  time,  outruns  the  shep- 
herds ;  so  that  he  can  only  be  stopped  or  de- 
prived of  his  prey  by  dogs.    His  bite  is  cruel,  and 
always  more  obstinate  in  proportion  to  the  small- 
ness  of  the  resistance  ;  for,  when  an  animal  can 
defend  itself,  he  is  cautious  and  circumspect. 
He    never   fights   but   from   necessity.      When 
wounded  with  a  ball,  he  cries;  and  yet,  when 
despatching  him  with  bludgeons,  he  complains 
not.     When  he  falls  into  a  snare,  he  is  so  over- 
come with  terror,  that  he  may  either  be  killed 
or  taken  alive  without  resistance  :  he  allows  him- 
self to  be  chained,  muzzled,  and  led  any  where, 
without  exhibiting  the  least  symptom  of  resent- 
ment or  discontent.     The  senses  of  the  wolf  are 
excellent,  but  particularly  that  of  smelling,  which 
often  extends  farther  than  his  eye.      The  odor 
of  carrion  strikes  him  at  the  distance  of  more  than 
a  league.     He  likewise  scents  live  animals  very 
far,  and  hunts  them  a  long  time  by  following 
their  track.     When  he  issues  from  the  wood,  he 
never  loses  the  wind.  He  stops  upon  the  borders 
of  the  forest,  smells  on  all  sides,  and  receives 
the  emanations  of  living  or  dead  animals ;  brought 
to  him  from  a  distance  by  the  wind.    Though  he 
gives  the  preference  to  living  animals ;  yet  he  de- 
vours the  most  putrid  carcases.     He  is  fond  of 
human  flesh ;  and,  if  stronger,  he  would  perhaps 
eat  no  other.  Wolves  have  been  known  to  follow 
armies,  to  come  in  troops  to  the  field  of  battle, 
where  bodies  are  carelessly  interred,  to  tear  them 
up,  and  to  devour  them  with  an  insatiable  avi- 
dity.   And,  when  once  accustomed  to  human 
flesh,  are  said  ever  after  to  attack  men.   Wolves 
of  this  vicious  disposition  are  called  loups  ga- 
roux  by  the  French  peasants,  who  suppose  them 
to  be  possessed  with  some  evil  spirits;  and  of 
this  nature  were  the  were- wulfs  of  the  old  Saxons. 
The   wolf  inhabits   the   continents   of  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America;    Kamtschatka,  and 
even  as  high  as  the  arctic  circle.  Those  of  North 
America  are  the  smallest ;  and,  when  reclaimed, 
are  the  dogs  of  the  natives  :  the  wolves  of  Sene- 
gal are  the  largest  and  fiercest;  they  prey  in 
company  with  the  lion.  They  are  found  in  Africa 
as  low  as  the  Cape.     In  the  east,  and  particu- 
larly in  Persia,  wolves  are  exhibited  as  spectacles 
to  the  people.    When  young,  they  are  learned  to 
dance,  or  rather  to  perform  a  kind  of  wrestling 
with  a  number  of  men.     Buffon  brought  up  se- 
veral of  them :  '  When  young,  or  during  the  first 
year,'  he  informs  us,  '  they  are  very  docile,  and 
even  caressing;  and,  if  well  fed,  neither  disturb 
the  poultry  nor  any  other  animal :  but  at  the  age 
of  eighteen  months  or  two  years,  their  natural 
ferocity  appears,  and  they  must  be  chained  to 
prevent  them  from  running  off  and  doing  mis- 
chief.    I  brought  up  one  till  the  age  of  eighteen 
or  nineteen  months,  in  a  court  along  with  fowls 


94 


C  A  N  I  S. 


none  of  which  he  ever  attacked;  but,  for  his  first 
essay,  he  killed  the  whole  in  one  night,  without 
eating  any  of  them.  Another,  having  broken  his 
chain,  ran  off,  after  killing  a  dog  with  whom  he 
had  lived  in  great  familiarity.'  In  England  king 
Edgar  is  said  first  to  have  attempted  the  extirpa- 
tion of  wolves,  by  commuting  the  punishments 
of  certain  crimes  into  the  acceptance  of  a  certain 
number  of  wolves'  tongues  from  the  criminal ; 
and  in  Wales,  by  converting  the  tax  of  gold  and 
silver  into  an  annual  tax  of  300  wolves'  heads. 
We  find,  however,  that  some  centuries  after  the 
reign  of  this  monarch,  these  animals  were  in- 
creased to  such  a  degree  as  to  become  again  the 
object  of  royal  attention  :  accordingly  Edward  I. 
issued  his  royal  mandate  to  Peter  Corbet  to  su- 
perintend and  assist  in  the  destruction  of  them 
m  the  several  counties  of  Gloucester,  Worcester, 
Hereford,  Salop,  and  Stafford ;  and  in  the  adja- 
cent county  of  Derby,  certain  persons  at  Worm- 
hill,  says  Camden,  held  their  lands  by  the  duty 
of  hunting  and  taking  the  wolves  that  infested  the 
country, whence  they  were  styled  wolvehunt.  Far- 
ther back,  in  Athelstan's  reign,  wolves  abounded 
so  much  in  Yorkshire,  that  a  retreat  was  built  at 
Flixton,  in  that  county,  '  to  defend  passengers 
from  the  wolves,  that  they  should  not  be  devour- 
ed by  them :'  and  such  ravages  did  those  animals 
make  during  winter,  particularly  in  January, 
when  the  cold  was  severest,  that  the  Saxons  dis- 
tinguished that  month  by  the  name  of  the  wolf 
month.  They  also  called  an  outlaw  wolf's-head, 
as  being  out  of  the  protection  of  the  law,  pro- 
scribed, and  as  liable  to  be  killed  as  that  de- 
structive beast. 

Ireland  was  infested  by  wolves  for  many  cen- 
turies after  their  extinction  in  England;  for  there 
are  accounts  of  some  being  found  there  as  late  as 
1710,  the  last  presentment  for  killing  of  wolves 
being  made  in  the  county  of  Cork  about  that 
time.  In  many  parts  of  Sweden  the  number  of 
wolves  has  been  considerably  diminished  by 
placing  poisoned  carcases  in  their  way :  but  in 
other  places  they  are  found  in  great  multitudes. 
Hunger  sometimes  compels  them  to  eat  lichens : 
these  vegetables  were  found  in  the  body  of  one 
killed  by  a  soldier;  but  it  was  so  weak,  that  it 
could  scarcely  move.  It  probably  had  fed  on 
the  lichen  vulpinus,  which  is  a  known  poison  to 
these  animals.  Madness,  in  certain  years,  is  apt 
to  seize  the  wolf.  The  consequences  are  often 
very  melancholy.  Mad  wolves  will  bite  hogs 
and  dogs,  and  the  last  again  the  human  species. 
The  symptoms  are  the  same  with  those  attendant 
on  the  bite  of  a  mad  dog.  Fury  sparkles  in 
their  eyes;  a  glutinous  saliva  distils  from  their 
mouths;  they  carry  their  tails  low,  and  bite  in- 
differently men  and  beasts.  It  is  remarkable 
that  this  disease  happens  in  the  depth  of  winter. 
Often,  towards  spring,  wolves  get  upon  the  ice 
of  the  sea,  to  prey  on  the  young  seals,  which 
they  catch  asleep :  but  this  repast  often  proves 
fatal  to  them;  for  the  ice,  detached  from  the 
shore,  carries  them  to  a  great  distance  from  land, 
before  they  are  sensible  of  it.  In  some  years  a 
large  district  is  by  this  means  delivered  from 
these  pernicious  beasts;  which  are  heard  howl- 
ing in  a  most  dreadful  manner,  far  in  the  sea. 
When  wolves  come  to  make  their  attack  on 
cattle,  they  never  fail  attempting  to  frighten  away 


the  men  by  their  loud  cries  ;  but  the  sound  of 
the  horn  makes  them  fly.  Then}  is  nothing  va- 
luable in  the  wolf  but  "his  skin,  which  makes  a 
warm  durable  fur.  His  flesh  is  so  bad,  that  it  is 
rejected  with  abhorrence  by  all  other  quadrupeds ; 
no  animal  but  a  wolf  will  voluntarily  eat  a  wolf. 
The  smell  of  his  breath  is  exceedingly  offensive, 
As,  to  appease  hunger,  he  swallows  indiscrimi- 
nately •everything  he  can  find,  corrupted  flesh 
bones,  hair,  skins  half  tanned  and  covered  with 
lime,  he  vomits  frequently.  In  fine,  the  wolf  is 
consummately  disagreeable ;  his  aspect  is  base 
and  savage,  his  voice  dreadful,  his  odor  insup- 
portable, his  disposition  perverse,  his  manners 
ferocious ;  odious  and  destructive  when  living, 
and,  when  dead,  perfectly  useless,  except  for  his 
fur.  Mr.  Kerr  enumerates  four  other  varieties 
of  this  species,  viz.  2.  C.  lupus  albus,  the  white 
wolf,- found  near  the  Jenisea,  in  the  eastern  parts 
of  Asiatic  Russia,  much  valued  on  account  of  its 
fur.  3.  C.  lupus  fasciatus,  the  striped  wolf.  It 
is  of  a  gray  color  striped  with  black,  and  inha- 
bits the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  4.  C.  lupus  flavus, 
the  yellow  wolf,  found  in  France  and  Germany, 
having  a  thicker  fur,  and  more  yellow  color  than 
the  common  kind.  It  is  more  wild,  but  less 
destructive,  as  it  never  troubles  the  flocks,  or 
the  habitations  of  men.  5.  C.  lupus  niger,  the 
black  wolf.  This  variety  inhabits  Canada,  and 
is  of  a  uniform  black  color.  It  is  not  so  long  as 
the  common  kind;  the  ears  are  larger,  more 
erect  and  more  distant,  but  in  every  other  cir- 
cumstance it  resembles  the  common  European 
wolf. 

XI.  CANIS  MESOMELAS,  the  capesch  of  Schre- 
ber,  the  tenlie,  or  kenlie,  of  the  Hottentots,  the 
Cape  jackal,  has  erect  yellowish  brown  ears, 
mixed  with  a  few  scattered  black  hairs :  the  head 
is  of  a  yellowish  brown,  mixed  with  black  and 
white,  growing  darker  towards  the  hind  part ; 
the  sides  are  of  a  light  brown,  varied  with  dusky 
hairs :  the  body  and  also  the  back  part  of  the 
legs  are  of  a  yellowish  brown,  lightest  on  the 
body  ;  the  throat,  breast,  and  belly  white.     On 
the  neck,  shoulders,    and  back,    is   a  band   01 
black.     The  tail  is  bushy,  of  a  yellowish  brown : 
marked  on  the  upper  part  with  a  longitudinal 
stripe  of  black,  and   towards  the  end  encircled 
with  two  rings  of  black,  and  is  tipt  with  white. 
In  length,   the  animal    is  two  feet  and    three 
quarters,  to   the  the  origin  of  the  tail :  the  tail 
is  one  foot.      It  inhabits  the   countries  about 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  is  found  as  high 
as  the  line. 

XII.  CANIS  MEXICANUS,  has  a  smooth  tail, 
bent  downwards.     The  body  is  ash  colored,  va- 
riegated with   dusky  stripes  and  tawny   spots, 
on  the  forehead,  neck,  breast,  belly,   and  tail. 
Its  head  is  large,  and  neck  thick.     It  has  great 
jaws  and  strong  teeth.     Above  its   mouth  are 
bristles  as  large,  but  not  so  hard,  as  the  spines 
of  a  hedgehog.     Seba  calls  it  the  quauhpecolti, 
or  mountain  cat;  and  Hernandes  stiles  it  the 
xoloitcuintli,  or  Mexican  wolf.     It  inhabits  the 
warm  parts  of  Mexico  and  New  Spain,   and 
agrees  with  the  European  wolf  in  its  manners ; 
whence  it  is  also  called  lupus,  though  ranked  as 
a  different  species.    There  is  also  a  white  Mexi 
can  wolf. 

XIII.  CANIS   THOUS,  or  the   Surinam  wolf, 


C  A  N  I  S. 


95 


has  a  smooth  tail  bent  downwaids.  The  body 
is  gray  on  the  upper  and  white  on  the  under 
parts.  Its  face  has  a  wart  over  each  eye,  on  each 
cheek,  and  under  the  throat.  It  is  about  the 
size  of  a  large  cat ;  and,  according  to  Linnaeus, 
is  found  at  Surinam.  It  is  mentioned  also  by 
Pennant. 

XIV.  CA.NIS  VtRGiNiANUs,  the  gray   fox  of 
Catesby,  Sec.  has  a  sharp  nose  ;  sharp,  long,  up- 
right ears ;  legs  long  ;  color  gray,  except  a  little 
redness  about  the  ears.     It  inhabits  Carolina, 
and  the  warmer  parts  of  North  America,  and 
differs  from  the  arctic  fox  in  form,  and  the  nature 
of  its  dwelling  :  agreeing  with  the  common  fox 
in  the  first,  but  not  in  the  last.     It  never  bur- 
rows, but   lives    in  hollow  trees;    it   gives   no 
diversion  to  the  sportsman ;  for  after  a  mile's 
chase,  it  takes  to  its  retreat;  it  has  no  strong 
smell ;  it  feeds  on  poultry,  birds,   &c.     These 
foxes  are  easily  made  tame ;  their  skins,  when  in 
season,  are  used  for  muffs. 

XV.  1.  CANisVuLPES,  the  common  fox,  has  a 
straight  tail,  white  at  the  point.     His  body  is 
yellowish,  or  rather  straw-colored  ;  his  ears  are 
small  and  erect ;  his  lips  are  whitish,  and  his 
fore  feet  black.     From  the  base  of  the  tail  a 
strong  scent  is  emitted,  which  to  some  people  is 
very  fragrant,  and  to  others  extremely  disagree- 
able. The  fox  is  a  native  of  almost  every  quarter 
of  the  globe,  and  is  of  such  a  wild  and  savage 
nature,  that  it  is  impossible  fully  to  tame  him. 
He  is  esteemed  the  most  sagacious  and  crafty  of 
all  beasts  of  prey.     The  former  quality  he  shows 
in  his  method  of  providing  himself  with  an  asy- 
lum, where   he   retires  from  pressing  dangers, 
dwells,  and  brings  up  his  young :  and  his  crafti- 
ness is  chiefly  discovered  by  the  schemes  he  falls 
upon  to  catch  lambs,  geese,  hens,  and  all  kinds 
of  small  birds.     The  fox  fixes  his  abode  on  the 
border  of  the  wood,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  cot- 
tages :  he  listens  to  the  crowing  of  the  cocks  and 
the  cries  of  the  poultry.     He  scents  them  at  a 
distance;  he  chooses  his  time  with  judgment; 
he  conceals  his  road  as  well  as  his  design  :  he 
slips  forward  with  caution,  sometimes  even  trail- 
ing his   body,   and  seldom  makes   a   fruitless 
expedition.     If  he  can  leap  the  wall,  or  get  in 
underneath,  he  ravages  the  poultry  yard,  puts  all 
to  death,  and  then  retires  softly  with  his  prey, 
which  he  either  hides  under  the  herbage,  or  car- 
ries  off  to   his  kennel.     He  returns   in  a  few 
minutes  for  another,  which  he  carries  off,  or  con- 
ceals in   the  same   manner,  but  in  a  different 
plaice.     In  this  way  he  proceeds  till  the  progress 
of  the  sun,  or  some  movements  in  the  house,  ad- 
vertise him  that  it  is  time  to  retire  to  his  den. 
He  plays  the  same  game  with  the  catchers  of 
thrushes,  woodcocks,  &c.  He  visits  the  nets  and 
bird-lime  very  early  in  the  morning,  carries  off 
successively  the  birds  which  are  entangled,  and 
lays  them  in  different  places,  especially  near  the 
sides  of  highways,   in  the   furrows,  under   the 
herbage  or  brushwood,  where  they  sometimes  lie 
two  or  three  days ;  but  he  knows  perfectly  where 
to  find  them  when  he  is  in  need.     He  hunts  the 
young  hares  in  the  plains,  seizes  old  ones  in  their 
seats,  never  misses  those  which  are  wounded, 
digs  out  the  rabbits  in  the  warrens,  discovers  the 
nests  of  partridges  and  quails,  seizes  the  mothers 


on  the  eggs,  and  destroys-  a  vast  quantity  of 
game.  The  fox  is  exceedingly  voracious  ;  be- 
sides flesh  of  all  kinds,  he  eats,  with  equal 
avidity,  eggs,  milk,  cheese,  fruits,  and  particu- 
larly grapes.  When  the  young  hares  and  par- 
tridges fail  him,  he  makes  war  against  rats,  field 
mice,  serpents,  lizards,  toads,  &c.  Of  these  he 
destroys  vast  numbers ;  and  this  is  the  only 
service  he  does  to  mankind.  He  is  so  fond  of 
honey,  that  he  attacks  the  wild  bees,  wasps,  and 
hornets.  They  at  first  put  him  to  flight  by  a 
thousand  stings;  but  he  retires  only  for  the  put- 
pose  of  rolling  himself  on  the  ground  to  crush 
them ;  and  he  returns  so  often  to  the  charge,  that 
he  obliges  them  to  abandon  the  hive,  which  he 
soon  uncovers,  and  devours  both  the  honey,  and 
wax.  In  a  word  he  eats  fish,  lobsters,  grass- 
hoppers, &c.  The  fox  is  not  easily,  and  never 
fully  tamed :  he  languishes  when  deprived  of 
liberty ;  and,  if  kept  too  long  in  a  domestic 
state,  he  dies  of  chagrin.  Foxes  produce  but 
once  a  year;  and  the  litter  Commonly  consists  of 
four  or  five,  seldom  six,  and  never  less  than 
three.  When  the  female  is  full,  she  retires,  and 
seldom  goes  out  of  her  hole,  where  she  prepares 
a  bed  for  her  young.  She  comes  in  season  in 
the  winter ;  and  young  foxes  are  found  in  the 
month  of  April.  When  she  perceives  that  her 
retreat  is  discovered,  and  that  her  young  have 
been  disturbed,  she  carries  them  off  one  by  one, 
and  goes  in  search  of  another  habitation.  The 
young  are  brought  forth  blind;  like  the  dog's, 
they  grow  eighteen  months  or  two  years,  and 
live  thirteen  or  fourteen  years.  The  senses  of  the 
fox  are  as  good  as  those  of  the  wolf ;  the  organs 
of  his  voice  are  more  pliant  and  perfect.  The 
wolf  sends  forth  only  frightful  bowlings ;  but  the 
fox  barks,  yelps,  and  utters  a  mournful  cry  like 
that  of  the  peacock.  He  varies  his  tones  accord- 
ing to  the  different  sentiments  with  which  he  is 
affected  :  he  has  an  accent  peculiar  to  the  chase, 
and  tones  of  desire,  of  complaint,  and  of  sorrow. 
He  has  another  cry  expressive  of  acute  pain, 
which  he  utters  only  when  he  is  shot,  or  has 
some  of  his  members  broken;  for  he  never 
mourns  over  any  other  wound;  and,  like  the 
wolf,  may  be  beat  till  he  is  killed  with  a  blud- 
geon without  complaining :  but  he  always  defends 
himself  to  the  last  with  great  courage  and 
bravery.  His  bite  is  obstinate  and  dangerous  ; 
and  the  severest  blows  will  hardly  make  him  quit 
his  hold.  In  winter,  particularly  during  frost, 
he  yelps  perpetually;  but,  in  summer,  he  is 
almost  entirely  silent,  and,  during  this  season, 
casts  his  hair.  He  sleeps  sound,  in  a  round 
form,  and  may  be  easily  approached  without 
wakening ;  but,  when  he  only  reposes  himself, 
he  extends  his  hind  legs,  and  lies  on  his  belly. 
It  is  in  this  situation  that  he  spies  the  birds  along 
the  hedges,  and  meditates  schemes  for  their  sur- 
prise. The  fox  flies  when  he  hears  the  explosion 
of  a  gun,  or  smells  gunpowder.  He  is  exceed- 
ingly fond  of  grapes,  and  does  much  mischief  in 
vineyards.  Various  methods  are  daily  employed 
to  destroy  foxes :  they  are  hunted  with  dogs; 
iron  traps  are  frequently  set  at  their  holes ;  which 
are  sometimes  smoked  to  make  them  rim  out, 
that  they  may  fall  into  the  snares,  or  be  killed  by 
dogs  or  fire-arms.  The  chase  of  the  fox  requiies 


CAN  S 

less  apparatus,  and  is  more  amusing  than  that  of 
the  wolf.  To  the  latter  every  dog  has  great 
reluctance ;  but  all  dogs  hunt  the  fox  spontane- 
ously and  with  pleasure ;  for,  though  his  odor 
be  strong,  they  often  prefer  him  to  the  stag  or 
the  hare. 

Of  all  animals  the  fox  has  the  most  significant 
eye,  by  which  it  expresses  every  passion  of  love, 
fear,  hatred,  &c.  He  is  remarkably  playful ; 
but,  like  all  savage  creatures,  half  reclaimed, 
will  on  the  least  offence  bite  those  he  is  most 
familiar  with.  He  is  a  great  admirer  of  his 
bushy  tail,  with  which  he  frequently  amuses 
and  exercises  himself,  by  running  in  circles  to 
catch  it :  and  in  cold  weather,  wraps  it  round 
his  nose.  The  smell  of  this  animal  is  in  general 
very  strong,  and  that  of  his  urine  remarkably 
fetid.  It  is  so  obnoxious,  that  it  has  often 
proved  the  means  of  his  escape  from  the  dogs. 
In  warm  weather  it  will  quit  its  habitation  for 
the  sake  of  basking  in  the  sun,  or  to  enjoy  the 
free  air;  but  then  it  rarely  lies  exposed,  but 
chooses  some  thick  brake,  that  it  may  rest  secure 
from  surprise.  Crows,  magpies,  and  other  birds 
who  consider  the  fox  as  their  common  enemy, 
will  often,  by  their  notes  of  anger  point  out  its 
retreat.  The  skin  of  this  animal  is  furnished 
with  a  warm  soft  fur,  which  in  many  parts  of 
Europe  is  used  to  make  muffs,  and  to  line 
clothes.  Vast  numbers  are  taken  in  the  Valais, 
and  the  Alpine  parts  of  Switzerland.  At  Lau- 
sanne there  are  furriers  who  are  often  in  posses- 
sion of  between  2000  and  3000  skins,  all  taken 
in  one  winter.  There  are  several  varieties  of  the 
fox,  differing  either  in  color  or  form,  viz. :  2 — 
4.  C.  vulpes  alopex,  the  brant  fox,  or  field  fox 
of  Linnaeus,  considered  by  him  as  a  distinct  spe- 
cies, has  a  straight  tail,  with  a  black  tip,  and  a 
blackish  fur,  thicker  than  that  of  the  common 
kind.  Mr.  Kerr  says,  it '  inhabits  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Chili,  and  is  less  frequent,  smaller,  and  of  a 
darker  color  than  the  common  fox,  to  which  it 
is  very  similar  in  all  other  respects.  That 
described  by  Mr.  Pennant  came  from  Pennsyl- 
vania. Authors  do  not  seem  properly  agreed 
about  the  animal  to  which  this  name  is  given : 
at  least  the  coal  fox,  of  Buffbn,  and  the  brant 
fox,  of  Pennant,  are  considerably  different, 
though  quoted  by  Gmelin  as  synonymous.' 
They  are  therefore  added  as  sub-varieties,  a. 
C.  vulpes  alopex  Americanus,  the  brant  fox,  as 
described  by  Gesner  and  Linnaeus,  is  of  a  fiery 
redness;  and  called  by  the  first  brand-fuchs, 
by  the  last  brandraef ;  it  is  scarcely  half  the  size 
of  the  common  fox :  the  nose  is  black,  and  much 
sharper ;  the  space  round  the  ears  ferruginous ; 
the  forehead,  back,  shoulders,  thighs,  and  sides, 
black,  mixed  with  red,  ash-co'or,  and  black;  the 
belly  yellowish  ;  the  tail  black  above,  red 
beneath,  and  cinereous  on  its  side.  It  is  a  native 
of  Pennsylvania,  b.  C.  vulpes  alopex  Euro- 
paeus,  the  charbonnier,  or  coal  fox  of  Buffon,  has 
remarkably  black  feet  and  legs,  and  inhabits  that 
part  of  France  formerly  called  Burgundy.  It  is  of 
a  silvery  gray  color,  and  has  the  tail  tipt with  white. 
C.  lycaon,  the  black  fox,  is  the  most  cunning  of 
the  genus,  and  its  skin  the  most  valuable  ;  a  lin- 
ing of  it  is,  in  Russia,  esteemed  preferable  to  the 
finest  sables  :  a  single  skin  will  sell  for  400  ru- 


C  CAN 

bles.     It  inhabits  the  northern  parts  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  North  America. 

CANIS  MAJOR,  the  great  dog,  in  astronomy, 
a  constellation  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  below 
Orion's  feet,  somewhat  to  the  westward.  See 
ASTRONOMY. 

CANIS  MINOR,  the  little  dog,  in  astronomy, 
a  constellation  of  the  northern  hemisphere ;  called 
also  by  the  Greeks  Procyon,  and  by  the  Latins 
Antecanis  and  Canicula.  See  ASTRONOMY. 

CANISIUS  (Henry),  a  native  of  Nimeguen, 
whose  real  name  was  De  Hondt,  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  his  time,  was  professor  of  canon 
law  at  Ingolstadt.  His  principal  works  are,  1 . 
Summa  Juris  Canonici.  2.  Antiquae  Lexicones, 
7  vols.  4to,  a  very  valuable  work.  He  died  in 
1609. 

CANISTER,  n.  s.  Lat.  canistrum.  A  small 
basket.  A  small  vessel  in  which  any  thing,  such 
as  tea  or  coffee,  is  laid  up. 

White  lilies  in  full  canisters  they  bring, 

With  all  the  glories  of  the  purple  spring.      Dryden. 

CAN'KER,  v.  a.  &  n.  }  Lat.  cancer.  It 
CAN'KERBIT,  part.  adj.  (seems  to  have  the 
same  meaning  and  original  with  cancer,  but  to 
be  accidentally  written  with  a  ft,  when  it  denotes 
bad  qualities  in  a  less  degree;  or  canker  might 
come  from,  Fr.  chancre,  Ital.  canchero,  and  can- 
cer from  the  Latin.  A  worm,  that  preys  upon 
and  destroys  fruits.  A  fly  that  commits  the  same 
species  of  depredation.  Any  thing  that  corrupts 
or  consumes.  An  eating  or  corroding  humor. 
Corrosion  :  virulence.  A  kind  of  wild  worthless 
rose;  the  dog  rose.  To  grow  corrupt:  implying 
something  venomous  and  malignant.  To  cor- 
rupt ;  to  corrode.  To  infect ;  to  pollute. 

His  chamber  all  was  Banged  about  with  rolls 

And  old  records  from  ancient  times  derived 
Some  made  in  books,  some  in  long  parchment  scrolls, 
That  were  all  worm-eaten  and  full  of  canlter  holes. 

Spenter. 

And  loathfull  idlenes  he  doth  detest, 
The  canfer-worme  of  everie  gentle  brest ; 
The  which  to  banish  with  faire  exercise 
Of  knightly  feates,  he  daylie  doth  devise. 

Spenser.     Mother  Hubberd's  Tale. 
I  am  not  glad,  that  such  a  sore  of  time 
Should  seek  a  plaister  by  a  contemn'd  revolt, 
And  heal  the  inveterate  canker  of  one  wound 
By  making  many.  SJiakfpcart. 

As  with  age  his  body  uglier  grows, 
So  his  mind  with  cankers.  Id. 

Yet  writers  say,  as  in  the  sweetest  bud 
The  eating  canker  dwells  ;  so  eating  love 
Inhabits  in  the  finest  wits  of  all.  Id. 

Know,  my  name  is  lost, 
By  treason's  tooth  baregnawn  and  cankerbit.  Id. 

Or  if  these  cankered  foes,  as  most  men  say, 
So  mighty  be,  that  gird  this  wall  of  clay, 
What  makes  it  hold  so  long,  and  threatened  ruin  stay. 
Fletc/ier'i  Purple  Island. 
Restore  to  God  his  due  in  tithe  and  time  : 
A  tithe  purloined  cankers  the  whole  estate.     Herbert. 
It  is  the  canker  and  ruin  of  many  inons*  estates, 
which,  in  process  of  time,  breeds  a  public  poverty. 

Bacon. 

There  be  of  flies,  eaterpillers,  canker  flies,  and  bear 
flies.  Walton' t  Angler. 

As  the  Jesscan  hero  did  appease 
Saul's  stormy  rage  aud  stopped  his  black  disease. 


CAN 


97 


CAN 


So  the  learn'J  bard  with  artful  song  suppressed 

The  swelling  passion  of  his  canker'd  breast ; 

And  in  his  heart  kind  influences  shed 

(if  country's  love,  by  truth  and  justice  bred.   Marvell. 

Draw  a  cherry  with  the  leaf,  the  shaft  of  a  steeple, 
single  or  canker  rose.  Peacham. 

A  huffing,  shining,  nattering,  cringing  coward, 
A  canker  worm  of  peace,  was  raised  above  him. 

Otway. 

To  some  new  clime,  or  to  thy  native  sky, 
Oh  friendless  and  forsaken  virtue  !  fly  : 
The  Indian  air  is  deadly  to  thee  grown ; 
Deceit  and  cankered  malice  rule  thy  throne.     Dryden. 

That  eating  canker,  grief,  and  wasteful  spite, 
Preys  on  the  rosy  bloom  of  youth  and  beauty.    Rowe. 

An  honest  man  will  enjoy  himself  better  in  a 
moderate  fortune,  that  is  gained  with  honour  and 
reputation,  than  in  an  overgrown  estate,  that  is  can- 
kered with  the  acquisitions  of  rapine  and  exaction. 

A  ddison. 

No  longer  live  the  cankers  of  my  court ; 
All  to  your  several  states  with  speed  resort ; 
Waste  in  wild  riot  what  your  land  allows, 
There  ply  the  early  feast  and  late  carouse.          Pope. 

Thus,  when  a  villain  crams  his  chest. 
Gold  is  the  canker  of  the  breast : 
'Tis  avarice,  insolence,  and  pride. 
And  every  shocking  vice  beside.  Gay. 

Beyond  the  lowly  vale  of  shepherd's  life 

They  never  roam'd  :  secure  beneath  the  storm 
Which  in  ambition's  lofty  land  is  rife  ; 

Where  peace  and  love  are  canker'd  by  the  worm 
Of  pride,  each  bud  of  joy  industrious  to  deform. 

Seattle. 

How  hideous  and  forlorn  !  where  ruthless  Care, 
With  cankering  tooth  osrrodes  the  seeds  of  life ; 

And  deaf  with  passions'  storms  when  pines  Despair, 
And  howling  furies  rouse  the  eternal  strife.  Id. 

CANKER,  in  farriery,  a  disease  incident  to 
horses,  consisting  of  a  kind  of  fungous  excres- 
cence in  their  feet,  which  sometimes  destroys,  the 
whole  hoo  ,  and  so  the  horse.  See  FARRIERY. 

CANKER,  in  gardening,  a  disease  incident  to 
trees,  proceeding  chiefly  from  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  which  makes  the  bark  rot  and  fall.  If  the 
canker  be  in  a  bough,  cut  it  off;  in  a  large 
bough,  at  some  distance  from  the  stem  ;  in  a  small 
one,  close  to  it ;  but,  for  over-hot  strong  ground, 
the  ground  is  to  be  cooled  about  the  roots  with 
pond  mud  and  cow  dung. 

CANNA,  in  botany,  Indian  flowering  reed ;  a 
genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and  monandria 
class  of  plants,  natural  order  eighth,  scitaminsg  : 
CAL.triphyllous  :  COR.  erect,  divided  into  six  parts, 
with  a  distinct  lip,  bipartite  and  rolled  back ;  the 
style  lanceolate,  and  growing  to  the  corolla :  CAPS. 
crowned  with  the  calyx.  There  are  five  species, 
viz.  1.  C.  coccinea,  hath  larger  leaves  than  any 
of  the  other  four  species,  and  the  stalks  rise  much 
higher.  The  flowers  are  produced  in  large  spikes  ; 
and  are  of  a  bright  crimson,  or  rather  scarlet 
color.  2.  C.  glauca,  with  a  very  large  yellow 
flower,  is  a  native  of  South  America.  3.  C.  In- 
dica,  or  common  broad-leaved  flowering  cane, 
is  a  native  of  both  Indies;  the  inhabitants  of  the 
British  islands  in  America  call  it  Indian  shot, 
from  the  roundness  and  hardness  of  the  seeds. 
It  has  a  thick  fleshy  tuberous  root:  which  di- 
Voi,  V. 


vides  into  many  irregular  knobs;  it  sends  out 
many  large  oval  leaves,  without  order.  4.  C. 
angustifolia,  a  plant  common  to  the  tropical  parts 
of  America.  5.  C.  juncea,  a  Chinese  plant, 
with  a  small  rufous  flower  and  grassy  leaves. 

CANNA  likewise  denotes  a  sort  of  long  mea- 
sure, otherwise  called  by  modern  authors  a  cane, 
by  the  Latins  calamus,  and  in  scripture  a  reed. 

CAN'NABINE,a$.  Lat.  cannobinus.  Hempen. 

CANN ABIS,  in  botany,  hemp ;  a  genus  of  the 
pentandria  order,  and  dioecia  class,  natural  order 
fifty-third,  scabridae :  CAL.  of  the  male  quin- 
quepartite,  of  the  female  monophyllous,  entire, 
and  gaping  at  the  side  :  COR.  none,  styles  two  : 
the  fruit  is  a  nut,  bivalved,  within  the  closed  ca- 
lyx. Of  this  there  is  but  one  species,  viz.  C. 
saliva.  It  is  propagated  in  the  rich  fenny  parts 
of  Lincolnshire  in  great  quantities,  for  its  bark, 
which  is  useful  for  cordage,  cloth,  &c.  and  the 
seeds  abound  with  oil.  Hemp  is  always  sown 
on  a  deep,  moist,  rich,  soil  such  as  is  found  in 
Holland,  Lincolnshire,  and  the  fens  of  the  island 
of  Ely,  where  it  is  cultivated  to  great  advantage 
as  it  might  be  in  many  other  parts  of  England, 
where  there  is  a  soil  of  the  same  kind ;  but  it 
will  not  thrive  on  clayey  or  stiff  cold  land.  The 
ground  on  which  hemp  is  to  be  sown,  should  be 
well  ploughed,  and  made  very  fine  by  harrowing. 
When  the  plants  are  come  up,  they  should  be 
hoed  out  as  turnips  are,  leaving  them  two  feet 
apart ;  observe  also  to  cut  down  all  weeds, 
which,  if  well  performed  in  dry  weather,  will 
destroy  them.  This  crop,  however,  will  require 
a  second  hoeing,  in  about  six  weeks  after  the 
first;  and,  if  this  is  well  performed,  the  crop 
will  require  no  further  care.  The  first  season 
for  pulling  hemp  is  usually  about  the  middle  of 
August,  when  they  begin  to  pull  what  they  call 
the  simble  hemp,  being  that  which  is  composed 
of  the  male  plants  ;  but  it  would  be  much  better 
to  defer  this  for  a  fortnight  or  threeweeks  longer, 
until  those  male  plants  have  fully  shed  their  fa- 
rina or  dust,  without  which  the  seeds  will  prove 
only  empty  husks.  These  decay  soon  after  they 
have  shed  their  farina.  The  second  pulling  is  a 
little  after  Michaelmas,  when  the  seeds  are  ripe. 
This  is  usually  called  karle  hemp,  and  consists  of 
the  female  plants  which  were  left.  This  karle 
hemp  is  bound  in  bundles  of  a  yard  compass, 
statute  measure,  which  are  laid  in  the  sun  for  a 
few  days  to  dry;  and  then  it  is  stacked  up,  or 
housed,  to  keep  it  dry  till  the  seed  can  be  threshed 
out.  An  acre  of  hemp,  on  a  rich  soil,  will  produce 
nearly  three  quarters  of  seed,  which,  together  with 
the  unwrought  hemp,  is  worth  £6  to  £8.  Hemp 
is  esteemed  very  effectual  for  destroying  weeds  ; 
but  this  it  accomplishes  by  impoverishing  the 
ground,  and  thus  robbing  them  of  their  nou- 
rishment ;  so  that  a  crop  of  it  must  not  be  re- 
peated on  the  same  spot.  Some  seeds  of  a  large 
kind  of  hemp,  growing  in  China,  were  some  years 
ago  sent  by  the  East  India  Company  to  the  So- 
ciety for  the  encouragement  of  Arts,  Manufac- 
tures, and  Commerce.  From  the  leaves  of  hemp 
pounded  and  boiled  in  water,  the  natives  of  the 
East  Indies  prepare  an  intoxicating  liquor,  of 
which  they  are  very  fond.  The  plant  when  fresh, 
has  a  rank  narcotic  smell ;  the  water  in  which 
the  stalks  are  soaked,  in  order  to  separate  the 

H 


CAN 


08 


CAN 


tongh  rind  for  mechanic  uses,  is  said  to  be  vio- 
lently poisonous,  and  to  produce  its  effects  almost 
as  soon  as  drank.  The  seeds  also  have  some 
smell  of  the  herb,  and  their  taste  is  unctuous  and 
sweetish :  they  are  recommended,  boiled  in  milk, 
or  triturated  with  water  into  an  emulsion,  against 
coughs,  heat  of  urine,  and  the  like. 

CANR/E,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of 
Apulia,  in  the  Adriatic,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Aufidus,  rendered  famous  by  a  terrible  overthrow 
which  the  Romans  received  from  the  Carthaginians 
under  Hannibal.  The  Roman  consuls,  ./Emilius 
Paulus  and  Terentius  Varro,  being  authorised  by 
the  Senate  to  quit  the  defensive  plan,  and  take  the 
chance  of  a  battle,  inarched  from  Canusium,  and 
eucamped  a  few  miles  east,  in  two  unequal  divi- 
sions, with  the  Aufidus  between  them.  In  this 
position  they  meant  to  wait  for  an  opportunity  of 
engaging  to  advantage;  but  Hannibal,  whose 
critical  situation,  in  a  desolate  country  without 
refuge  or  allies,  could  admit  of  no  delay,  found 
means  to  inflame  the  vanity  of  Varro  by  some 
trivial  advantages  in  skirmishes  between  the  light 
horse.  Varro,  elated  with  this  success,  deter- 
mined to  bring  matters  to  a  speedy  conclusion. 
The  Romans  were  more  numerous  than  the  Car- 
thaginians ;  but  the  latter  were  superior  in  ca- 
valry. The  army  of  the  former  consisted  of 
87,000  men  ;  that  of  the  latter  of  40,000  foot 
and  1000  horse.  Without  entering  into  the  par- 
ticulars of  the  battle,  which  is  fully  narrated  by 
the  Roman  historians,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that 
the  most  moderate  computation  makes  the  num- 
ber of  Romans  killed  to  amount  to  45,000, 
among  whom  were  TEmilius  Paulus  the  consul, 
and  the  pro-consuls  Servilius  and  Attilius.  The 
scene  of  action  is  marked  by  the  name  of  Pezzo  di 
Sangue,  the  Field  of  Blood.  In  1201  the  arch- 
bishop of  Palermo  and  his  rebellious  associates, 
who  had  taken  advantage  of  the  nonage  of  Fre- 
derick of  Suabia,  were  cut  to  pieces  at  Cannae 
by  Walter  de  Brienne,  sent  by  the  pope  to  defend 
the  young  king's  dominions.  The  traces  of  this 
town  are  very  faint,  consisting  of  fragments  of 
altars,  cornices,  gates,  walls,  vaults,  and  under- 
ground granaries.  It  was  destroyed  the  year 
before  the  battle  ;  but,  being  rebuilt,  became  an 
episcopal  see  in  the  infancy  of  Christianity.  It 
was  again  ruined  in  the  sixth  century,  but  seems 
to  have  subsisted  many  ages  later ;  for  we  read 
of  its  contending  witli  Barletta  for  the  territory, 
which  till  then  had  been  enjoyed  in  common 
by  them  ;  and  in  1284  Charles  I.  issued  an  edict 
for  dividing  the  lands,  to  prevent  future  litiga- 
tion. The  prosperity  of  the  towns  along  the 
coast,  which  increased  in  wealth  and  population 
by  embarkations  for  the  crusades  and  by  traffic, 
proved  the  annihilation  of  the  great  inland  cities; 
and  Cannae  was  probably  abandoned  entirely  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

CANNAY,  one  of  the  Western  Isles  of  Scot- 
land, south-west  of  Sky.  It  is  fertile  and  verdant, 
and  has  vast  ranges  of  basaltic  pillars,  rising 
above  each  other,  from  the  sea,  somewhat  resem- 
bling the  Giant's  Causeway  in  Ireland.  See 
BASALTES. 

CANNEL  COAL.    See  AMPELITF.S  and  COAL. 

CANNEQUINS,  in  commerce,  white  cotton 
cloths  brought  from  the  East  Indies.  They  are 


much  used  in  trading  on  the  coast  of  Guinea, 
particularly  about  the  rivers  Senegal  and  Gambia. 
They  are  folded  square,  and  are  about  eight  ells 
long. 

CANNES,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Var,  and  ci-devant  province  of  Pro- 
vence, on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  with  a 
harbour  and  a  castle.  There  is  an  excellent  fishery 
for  pilchards,  and  good  fruit  is  grown  in  the 
environs.  Napoleon  Buonaparte  landed  here  on 
his  return  from  Elba,  1st  March,  1815. 

CAN'NIBAL,  n.     i      An     anthropophagite, 
CAN'NIBALLY,  adj.  ^a    man-eater.   '    In    the 
CAN'NIBALISM,        *  manner   of   a    cannibal. 
The  practice  of  man-eating. 

CANNIBALS.  See  ANTHROPOPHAGI. 
CANNING  (George),  was  born  in  London, 
April  11,  1770.  His  father,  a  man  of  consider- 
able abilities  and  literary  cultivation,  had  of- 
fended his  family  by  marrying  a  lady  without 
fortune,  and  died  in  1771,  leaving  his  widow 
destitute.  She  had  recourse  to  the  stage  for 
support,  but  was  not  very  successful,  and  was 
afterwards  twice  married.  She  lived  to  see  the 
success  of  her  son,  from  whom  she  ever  received 
the  tenderest  marks  of  filial  love.  Mr.  Canning 
inherited  a  small  estate  in  Ireland,  was  educated 
at  Eton,  where  he  was  distinguished  for  industry, 
vigour  of  mind,  and  elegance  of  taste,  and,  at  the 
age  of  fifteen,  formed  the  plan  of  a  periodical 
called  the  Microcosm,  of  which  he  was  the 
editor.  In  1787  he  was  entered  at  Oxford.  His 
vacations  were  passed  with  Sheridan,  by  whom  he 
was  introduced  to  Burke,  Fox,  and  other  distin- 
guished whigs.  Although  Sheridan  announced 
him  as  the  future  ornament  of  his  party,  yet  he 
was  brought  into  parliament  in  1793  by  Mr. 
Pitt.  During  the  first  session  he  remained 
silent.  His  maiden  effort  was  made  in  1794,  on 
the  Sardinian  treaty,  and  rather  disappointed 
expectation.  In  1796,  he  was  under-secretary  of 
state.  In  1797,  he  projected,  with  some  of  his 
friends,  the  Anti-Jacobin,  or  Weekly  Examiner, 
of  which  Gifford  was  appointed  editor,  and  to 
which  he  contributed.  In  1798,  he  supported 
Wilberforce's  motion  foi  the  abolition  of  the 
slave-trade.  In  July,  1800,  he  married  Joanna, 
daughter  of  general  Scott,  a  lady  with  a  fortune 
of  £100,000.  The  administration  being  dis- 
solved in  1801,  lie  became  a  member  of  the  op- 
position, until  the  restoration  of  Pitt  in  1804.  In 
1807,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs  in  the  Portland  administration.  A 
political  misunderstanding  with  lord  Castlereagh 
led  to  a  duel  between  him  and  that  minister,  in 
which  he  was  slightly  wounded.  This  dispute 
occasioned  the  dissolution  of  the  ministry.  He 
invariably  supported  the  admission  of  the  Catho- 
lics into  power,  purely  as  a  matter  of  expediency. 
To  Mr.  Canning  was  principally  owing  the  first 
blow  which  shook  the  throne  of  Napoleon ;  the 
British  policy  in  Spain  was  directed  and  ani- 
mated by  him.  "  If  there  was  any  part  of  his 
political  life,"  he  declared,  "  in  which  he  gloried, 
it  was  that,  in  the  face  of  every  difficulty,  discou- 
ragement, and  prophecy  of  failure,  his  had  been 
the  hand  which  had  committed  England  to  an 
alliance  with  Spain."  In  1812  he  was  elected 
member  of  Parliament  for  Liverpool ;  from 


CANNON. 


which  he  was  also  returned  in  1814,  1818, 1820. 
In  1814,  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Portugal, 
a'nd  remained  absent  about  two  years.  In  1819, 
he  declared  his  hostility  to  parliamentary  reform 
in  any  shape ;  and  his  speech  on  lord  John 
Russell's  motion  for  reform,  in  1822,  is  among 
the  most  finished  specimens  of  his  eloquence. 
On  the  impeachment  of  the  queen,  he  declared, 
that  "  towards  the  object  of  that  investigation,  he 
felt  an  unaltered  regard  and  affection ;"  and  soon 
after  resigned  the  presidency  of  the  board  of 
control,  and  went  abroad.  Having  been  nomi- 
nated governor-general  of  India,  he  was  on  the 
point  of  embarking,  when  the  death  of  the  mar- 
quis of  Londonderry  called  him  to  the  cabinet  as 
secretary  for  foreign  affairs  (Sept.  16,  1822). 
One  of  his  earliest  acts,  in  this  situation,  was  to 
check  the  French  influence  in  Spain.  In  1825, 
he  communicated  to  foreign  ministers  the  deter- 
mination of  his  majesty  to  appoint  charges 
d'affaires  to  Colombia,  Mexico,  and  Buenos 
Ayres.  In  answer  to  the  charge  of  having  en- 
couraged the  attack  upon  Portugal,  by  having 
permitted  the  occupation  of  Spain  by  France,  he 
uttered  the  memorable  words  :  "  Was  it  neces- 
sary that  we  should  blockade  Cadiz?  No.  -I 
looked  another  way ;  I  resolved  that  if  France 
had  Spain,  it  should  not  be  Spain  with  the 
Indies.  I  called  the  new  world  into  existence, 
to  redress  the  balance  of  the  old."  April  12, 
1827,  his  appointment  to  be  prime  minister  was 
announced.  His  administration  was  terminated 
by  his  death,  the  8th  of  August  following ;  but 
not  until  it  had  been  crowned  by  the  treaty  of 
London  (July  6),  for  the  settlement  of  the  affairs 
of  Greece. — As  a  statesman,  he  was  liberal,  pro- 
found, consistent,  and  independent.  His  elo- 
quence was  persuasive  and  impassioned ;  his 
reasoning  clear  and  logical ;  his  manner  grace- 
ful ;  his  expression  winning  ;  and  his  whole  ap- 
pearance prepossessing.  His  wit  was  brilliant, 
and  his  satire  was  extremely  caustic.  He  died 
poor.  His  remains  were  deposited  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

CAN'NIPPERS,  n.  s.  corrupted  from  CALLI- 
PERS ;  which' see. 

CAN'NON,  M.  •"!        Ital.   cannone;     Fr. 

CAN'NONADE,  v.  \  cannon,  from  cane,  a 
CANNON-BALL,  n.  vpipe,  meaning  a  large 
CAN'XON-BULLET,  n.  ftube.  A  great  gun  for 
CAN'KON-SHOT,  «.  |  battery.  A  gun  larger 
CAN'NONIER.  )  than  can  be  managed 

by  the  hand.  They  are  of  so  many  sizes  that 
they  decrease  in  the  bore  from  a  ball  of  forty- 
eight  pounds  to  a  ball  of  five  ounces.  To  can- 
nonade :  to  play  the  great  guns ;  to  batter  or 
attack  with  great  guns.  A  cannonier  is  the  en- 
gineer that  manages  the  cannon. 

CANNON.  These  destructive  missile  engines 
have  long  been  of  considerable  importance  in 
miliiary  tactics.  Their  invention  must  obviously 
have  been  subsequent  to  the  discovery  of  gun- 
powder. Mezeray  states  that  King  Edward 
struck  terror  into  the  French  army,  by  five  or  six 
pieces  of  cannon ;  it  being  the  first  time  they 
had  encountered  such  thundering  machines.  In 
the  list  of  aids  raised  for  the  redemption  of  king 
John  of  France,  in  1368,  mention  is  made  of  an 
officer  in  the  French  army,  called  the  master  of 


the  king's  cannon,  and  of  his  providing  four 
large  cannon  for  the  garrison  of  Harfleur.  But 
father  Daniel,  in  his  life  of  Philip  of  Valois, 
produces  a  proof  from  the  records  of  the  chamber 
of  accounts  at  Paris,  that  cannon  and  gunpowder 
were  used  in  the  year  1338.  The  Germans  carry 
the  invention  of  cannon  farther  back,  and  ascribe 
it  to  Albertus  Magnus,  a  Dominican  monk,  about 
the  year  1250.  But  Isaac  Vossius  assures  us  that 
they  were  known  in  China  upwards  of  1900 
years  ago ;  being  employed  by  the  Emperoi 
Kitey,  in  the  year  of  Christ  85. 

Cannon  were  originally  made  of  bars  of  iron 
fitted  together  lengthways,  or  of  sheets  of  iron 
rolled  up  arid  fastened  together,  and  hooped 
with  iron  rings,  and  sometimes  of  wood.  They 
were  ponderous,  clumsy,  cumbrous,  in  a  great 
measure  unmanageable,  and  could  not  be  trans- 
ported from  one  place  to  another,  but  with  great 
difficulty  and  labor.  They  were  chiefly  employed 
for  throwing  large  stones  like  the  machines  of  the 
ancients,  which  they  succeeded.  These  were 
gradually  supplanted  by  brass  cannon,  which 
had  much  smaller  calibers,  and  threw  iron  bul- 
lets instead  of  stones,  but  prodnced  in  a  few 
hours  greater  effects  than  the  others  could  in 
many  days.  These  guns  were  first  cast  of  a 
mixture  of  copper  and  tin,  called  gun-metal 
from  that  circumstance,  which  continued  to  be 
employed  for  the  same  purpose  for  a  long  time 
before  cast  iron  was  made  use  of.  As  the  use 
of  artillery,  however,  became  more  general,  and 
the  number  of  cannon  greatly  increased,  iron 
guns  were  invented  by  way  of  lessening  the  ex- 
pense. An  idea,  however,  that  prevailed  of  their 
being  very  liable  to  burst  when  much  heated  by 
firing,  retarded  the  general  introduction  of  them 
into  military  service,  and  was  the  cause  of  their 
being  made  much  heavier  than  brass  guns  of  the 
same  caliber.  And  this  apprehension  was 
strengthened  by  some  accidents  that  took  place, 
either  through  improper  management,  or  the 
carelessness  and  unskilfulness  of  the  early  foun- 
ders ;  this  has  militated  against  the  general  use  o! 
them  even  down  to  the  present  time.  When  cast, 
however,  with  iron  obtained  from  good  ore,  they 
resist  bursting  as  much  as  brass  cannon,  and 
possess  great  advantages  over  them.  , 

At  present,  cannon  take  their  names  from  the 
weights  of  the  balls,  which  they  respectively  dis- 
charge. Thus  a  piece  that  discharges  a  ball  of 
twenty-four  pounds,  is  called  a  twenty-four 
pounder ;  one  that  takes  a  ball  of  twelve  pounds 
is  called  a  twelve  pounder ;  and  so  of  the  rest, 
divided  into  the  following  sorts. 

Ship-guns,  consisting  of  forty-two,  thirty-six, 
twenty-four,  eighteen,  twelve,  nine,  six  and  three 
pounders. 

Garrison  guns,  consisting  of  forty-two,  thirty- 
two,  twenty-four,  eighteen,  twelve,  nine  and  six 
pounders. 

Battering  guns,  consisting  of  twenty-four, 
eighteen,  and" twelve  pounders,  and  sometimes, 
though  but  seldom,  of  forty-two  pounders. 

Field  pieces,  consisting  of  twelve,  nine,  six, 
three,  two,  one  and  a  half,  one,  and  half- 
pounders. 

The  different  parts  of  a  gun  will  be  best  un- 
derstood by  a  reference  to  platell.  MISCELLANY, 
3  11  2 


100 


CANNON. 


fig.  6,  in  which  a  6  is  the  length  of  the  gun  ; 
ne  the  first  reinforce;  e  f  the  second  reinforce; 
fb  the  chase;  A 6  the  muzzle;  ah  the  cascable; 
a  c  the  breech ;  c  d  the  vent  field ;  fi  the  chace 
girdle;  rs  the  base  ring  and  ogee;  t  the  vent 
astragal  and  fillets ;  p  q  the  first  reinforce  ring 
and  ogee ;  v  w  the  second  reinforce  ring  and 
ogee ;  x  the  chace  astragal  and  fillets ;  z  the 
muzzle  astragal  and  fillets ;  n  the  muzzle  mould- 
ings ;  m  the  swelling  of  the  muzzle ;  a  i  the 
breech  mouldings. 

The  vacant  cylinder,  wherein  the  powder  and 
ball  are  lodged,  is  called  the  bore,  and  the  en- 
trance of  the  bore  the  mouth  of  the  gun.  The 
cylindric  parts  t,  by  which  the  gun  is  fixed  upon 
its  carriage,  are  called  trunnions;  and  the  handles 
on  brass  pieces  are  called  dolphins,  from  the  fish 
whose  form  they  represent.  The  diameter  of  the 
bore  is  called  the  caliber  of  the  piece.  Lastly, 
the  difference  between  the  diameters  of  the  shot 
and  the  bore,  is  called  the  windage  of  the  gun. 

The  mode  of  casting  cannon  is  too  important 
to  be  passed  unnoticed  in  this  article.  This 
process  was,  until  about  half  a  century  ago, 
considered  an  arduous  undertaking ;  and  so  little 
were  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  art  under- 
stood, that  we  are  assured  that  not  one  in  three 
of  the  shells  cast  for  the  mortar  service  could  be 
admitted  into  the  stores.  Such  have  been  the 
improvements  made,  that  thousands  of  articles 
which  used  to  be  from  necessity  made  of 
wrought  iron,  are  now  to  be  had  from  the 
foundries  at  less  than  one-fifth  of  their  former 
prices;  while  the  material  itself  has  been  so 
highly  perfected,  that  instances  have  been  known 
of  cast-iron  being  sufficiently  "soft  to  bear  the 
file,  and  sufficiently  ductile  to  undergo  the  ham- 
mer. Such,  indeed,  could  not  be  done  but  at  a 
considerable  expense  ;  nor  does  it  appear  that 
much  good  could  result  in  general.  With  respect 
to  military  apparatus,  it  is  found  expedient  to  have 
the  whole  of  our  cannon,  mortars,  carronades, 
shot,  shells,  and  garrison  gun-carriages,  cast  at  the 
several  foundries  established  in  the  vicinity  of 
coal  and  iron  mines,  whereby  the  work  is  done 
at  a  comparatively  low  expense,  and  the  articles 
can  be  conveyed  by  water  to  the  warren  at  Wool- 
wich, much  under  the  prices  at  which  they  could 
be  cast  at  the  place,  to  which  both  the  iron  and 
the  coals  must  be  transported. 

Guns  are  usually  cast  from  metal  brought  into 
the  fluid  state  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  and 
the  moulds  are  formed  of  loam  or  dry  sand. 
Guns  cast  in  loam  do  not  come  from  the  mould 
with  a  surface  so  correctly  resembling  that  of 
the  model  as  those  cast  in  dry  sand,  and  in  order 
to  render  the  surface  correct,  and  to  remedy 
defects,  it  was  always  necessary  to  subject 
them  to  the  process  of  turning.  In  guns 
carefully  cast  in  dry  sand,  the  process  of  turning 
might  be  dispensed  with,  the  gun  would  then 
be  strengthened  by  the  outer  skin  of  metal, 
which,  having  cooled  more  rapidly  than  the 
other  parts,  is  the  hardest  :  this  outer  skin  is 
also  less  liable  to  rust  than  the  surface  laid  bare 
by  turning,  The  mould  of  a  gun  in  dry  sand, 


at  the  same  time  that  it  is  more  accurate,  is  also 
sooner  made  and  dried  than  a  loam  mould. 

It  may  be  proper  to  state  that  some  experi- 
ments are  at  present  being  made  at  Douay,  in 
cannon  founding,  under  the  direction  of  Messrs. 
Gay  Lussac  and  D'Arcet,  which  tend  to  show 
that  the  addition  of  a  small  proportion  of  iron 
into  the  alloy  of  brass  nearly  doubles  the  force 
of  resistance. 

Brass  guns  are  subject  to  melt  at  the  interior 
extremity  of  the  touch-hole,  by  the  heat  of  quick 
firing;  and  the  melted  parts  are  driven  out  by  the 
explosion,  so  as  to  render  the  touch-hole  too 
wide.  To  prevent  this,  there  is  sometimes  a 
bush  of  copper  inserted,  and  in  this  bush  the 
touch-hole  is  drilled.  The  copper,  being  less 
fusible  than  the  brass,  is  not  melted  by  the  heat 
of  firing  the  piece.  To  form  the  bush,  a  cy- 
lindrical piece  of  copper  is  hammered  cold,  and 
made  into  the  form  of  a  male  screw.  A  hole  is  then 
bored,  reaching  from  the  surface  of  the  gun  into 
its  bore ;  the  diameter  of  this  cylindrical  hole  is 
equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  of  copper 
measured  from  the  bottom  of  the  threads  of  the 
screw.  The  piece  of  copper  is  then  screwed  into 
the  cylindrical  hole,  and  the  touch-hole  is  drilled 
in  it. 

Cannon  were  formerly  made  of  a  very  great 
length,  which  rendered  them  exceedingly  heavy, 
and  the  use  of  them  very  limited  and  trouble- 
some. There  were  some  of  them  employed  by 
the  Turks,  in  1394,  at  the  siege  of  Constantinople, 
then  in  possession  of  the  Christians,  and  also  in 
1452,  which  threw  a  weight  of  100  Ibs. ;  but  they 
could  not  stand  repeated  firing.  Louis  XII.  had 
one  cast  at  Tours  of  the  same  size,  that  threw  a 
ball  from  the  bastile  to  Charenton.  One  of  these 
extraordinary  cannon  was  taken  at  the  siege  of 
Diu  in  1546,  by  Don  John  de  Castro,  and  is 
now  in  the  castle  of  St.  Julian  de  Barra,  ten 
miles  from  Lisbon.  The  length  of  it  is  twenty 
feet  seven  inches ;  its  diameter  at  the  middle  is 
six  feet  three  inches ;  and  it  threw  100  Ibs.  weight. 
It  has  neither  dolphins,  rings,  nor  a  button ;  is  of 
an  unusual  kind  of  metal,  and  has  an  inscription 
on  it,  which  says  that  it  was  cast  in  1400.  For- 
merly strange  and  uncommon  names  were  given 
to  cannon.  Thus  Louis  XII.,  in  1503,  had 
twelve  brass  cannon,  cast  of  an  extraordinary 
size,  called  after  the  twelve  peers  of  France. 
The  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  named  theirs  after 
their  saints.  The  emperor  Charles  V.,  when  he 
went  against  Tunis,  had  twelve  cannon  founded, 
which  he  called  the  Twelve  Apostles.  At  Milan 
there  is  a  seventy-pounder  called  the  Pimontelli; 
and  there  is  one  at  Bois-le-duc  called  the  Devil. 
At  Dover  castle  there  is  a  sixty-pounder  called 
Queen  Elizabeth's  pocket-pistol.  There  is  an 
eighty-pounder  in  the  Tower  of  London,  brought 
thither  from  Edinburgh  castle,  called  Mounts- 
meff,  and  another  in  the  royal  arsenal  at  Berlin, 
called  the  Thunderer.  The  large  gunsemploved 
by  the  French  at  the  siege  of  Cadi?  threw  shells 
more  than  four  miles. 

A  brief  tabular  view  of  the  dimensions  and 
weight  of  iron  and  brass  guns  may  now  be  given. 


CANNON. 


Table  of  the  Length,  Weight,  Caliber,  and  Charges,  of  British  Government  Iron  Guns. 


Length. 

Weight. 

Diameter  of 
the  Bore. 

Diameter  of 
the  Shot. 

Diameter  of 
the  Shot 
Gauge. 

-  - 
Charge. 

Ft.     In. 

Curt.     Ib.     oz. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

Proof. 
Ib. 

Service. 
Ib. 

42-Pounder  gun 

10       0 

67     0     0 

7-018 

6-684 

6-795 

25-0 

14-0 

32-Pounder  gun 

10       0 

58     0     0 

6-410 

6-105 

6-207 

21-8 

10-11 

24-Pounder  gun 

10       0 

52     0     0 

5-824 

5-547 

5-639 

18-0 

8-0 

18-Pounder  gun 

9       6 

42     0     0 

5-292 

5-040 

5-124 

15-0 

6-0 

12-Pounder  gun 

9       6 

34     0     0 

4-623 

4-403 

4-476 

12-0 

4-0 

9-Pounder  gun 

9       6 

30     1      0 

4-20 

-4-000 

4-066 

9-0 

3-0 

6-Pounder  gun 

9       0 

24     0     0 

3-668 

3-498 

3-552 

6-0 

2-0 

4-Pounder  gun 

6       0 

12     1     0 

3-204 

3-053    ' 

3-104 

4-0 

1-5 

3-Pounder  gun 

4       6 

710 

2-913 

2-775 

2-820 

3-0 

1-0 

2-Pounder  gun 

3       9 

420 

2-544 

2-423 

2-463 

2-0 

0-11 

1-Pounder  gun 

3       0 

220 

2-019 

1-293 

,  1-955 

1-0 

0-6 

A-Pounder  gun 

3       0 

120 

1-602 

1-526 

1-551 

0-8 

0-3 

BRASS  CANNON. 


Nature. 

Poun- 
ders. 

Length. 

Weight. 

Caliber 
of  the 
gun. 

Diame- 
ter of 
the  shot 

ft.     in. 

cwt.  qr.  Ib. 

in.  hunt! 

in.hund 

' 

42 

9     6 

61      0      0 

7-3 

6-68 

24 

9     6 

52      0     0 

5-83 

5-54 

H 

12 

9     0 

29     0     0 

4-63 

4-40 

*< 

9 

9     0 

26     0     0 

4-21 

4-0 

•< 

6 

8     0 

19     0     0 

3-66 

3-48 

3 

7     0 

11     2     0 

2-91 

2-77 

1* 

6     0 

520 

2-31 

2-2 

?f 

H 

3  * 

24 
12 
6 

8     0 
6     6 
5     0 

42     1   21 
21     0  14 
10     1     0 

5-83 
4-63 
3-66 

5-54 
4-40 
3-48 

f 

24 

5     6 

16     1   12 

5-83 

5-54 

P) 
11 

12 
6 

5     0 
4     6 

8     3  18 
4     3  14 

4-63 
3-66 

4-40 
3-48 

c 

3 

3     6 

234 

2-91 

2.77 

BRASS  SHIP  GUNS. 


Caliber. 

Length. 

Weight. 

3-Pounder  .     .     . 

ft.     in. 
3     6 

cwt.     qr.     Ib. 
5     1      17 

6-Pounder  .     .     . 

4     4 

6     2     14 

9-Pounder  .     .     . 

5     0 

10     0       0 

12-Pounder.     .     . 

5     6 

13     1        3 

18-Pounder  .     .     . 

6     4 

20     0       0 

24-Pounder  .     .     . 

7     0 

26     2       7 

32-Pounder  .     .     . 

7     6 

35     1      17 

36-Founder  .     .     . 

7  10 

40     0       0 

42-Pounder  .     .     . 

8     4 

46     2       0 

48-Pounder  . 

8     6 

53     0     14 

VV  e  have  now  to  notice  a  new  description  of 
missile  weapon,  which  may  properly  find  a  place 
in  this  article;  we  allude  to  the  steam-cannon, 
suggested  by  Mr.  Perkins.  This  ingenious 
American  has  proposed  to  employ  the  elastic 
force  of  water  converted  into  steam  for  the  pur- 
pose of  propelling  bullets ;  and  the  power  of  the 
apparatus  must  of  necessity  depend  on  the  in- 
tensity of  the  heat  which  is  employed.  A  small 


cannon  has  already  been  constructed,  which, 
when  connected  with  the  generator  or  boiler, 
has  been  found  to  discharge  ordinary  musket- 
bullets  at  the  rate  of  240  in  the  minute,  and  with 
such  tremendous  force,  that,  after  passing  through 
an  inch  deal,  the  ball,  in  striking  against  an  iron- 
target,  became  flattened  on  one  side  and  squeezed 
out;  The  original  size  of  the  bullets  was  0-65  of 
an  inch  ;  but,  after  striking  the  target,  they  were 
plano-convex,  and  their  diameter  1-070  inches, 
and  0'29  of  an  inch  thick. 

CAN'NOT.    A  word  compounded  of  can  and 
not :  noting  inability. 

Sir !  seyd  the  burgeyse,  no  mevelle  it  is  to  me, 
For  many  a  time  and  oft,  I  cannot  sey  how  lome, 
He  hath  be  in  your  marches  ;  and  as  I  trow  in  Room 
Also  he  was  ybore,  yf  I  ne  ly  shall. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 
And  you,  most  noble  Lord  :  that  can  and  dare 
Redresse  the  wrong  of  miserable  wight, 
Cannot  employ  your  most  victorious  speare 
In  better  quariell  than  defence  of  right, 
And  for  a  lady  'gainst  a  faithlesse  knight.  Spenser. 

Thus  though  we  cannot  make  our  sun 
Stand  still,  yet  we  v.-ill  make  him  run.    Marvell. 
I  cannot  but  believe  many  a  child  can  tell  twenty, 
long  before  he  has  any  idea  of  infinity  at  all.    Locke. 


To  cities  and  the  court  repair, 
A  fortune  cannot  fail  thee  there. 


Gay. 


Base  envy  withers  at  another's  joy, 
And  hates  that  excellence  it  cannot  reach. 

Thomson. 

There  is  a  spur  in  its  half  movements,  to  become 
All  that  the  others  cannot,  in  such  things 
As  still  are  free  to  both,  to  compensate 
For  stepdame  Nature's  avarice  at  first.  Byron. 

CANNULA,  or  CANULA,  in  surgery,  a  tube. 
They  are  introduced  into  hollow  ulcers,  in  order 
to  facilitate  a  discharge  of  pus  or  any  other  sub- 
stance ;  or  into  wounds  either  accidental  or  arti- 
ficial, of  the  large  cavities,  as  the  thorax  or  ab- 
domen ;  they  are  used  in  the  operation  of  bron- 
chotomy ;  and,  by  some,  after  cutting  for  the 
stone,  as  a  drain  for  urine.  Other  cannulae  are 
used  for  introducing  cauteries,  either  actual  or  po- 
tential, in  order  to  guard  the  parts  adjacent  from 


102 


CANON. 


to  be  cauterised,  from  that  injury.  They  are  of 
various  figures  ;  oval,  round,and  crooked. 

CANO  (Alonzo),  a  statuary,  who  has  been  called 
the  Michael  Angelo  of  Spain,  was  born  at  Grenada, 
in  1 600.  He  studied  architecture  and  sculpture 
from  his  youth,  first  under  his  father,  and  then  at 
Seville;  his  first  instructions  in  painting  were 
received  from  Juan  dell  Castillo.  He  was  after 
this  made  royal  architect,  king's  painter,  and  in- 
structor to  the  prince,  Don  Balthazar  Carlos. 
While  enjoying  the  great  celebrity  which  his  ta- 
lents and  attainments  deserved,  he  one  evening 
found  his  house  robbed,  and  his  wife  murdered  in 
his  absence  ;  an  Italian  servant  having  fled.  The 
magistrates,  because  Cano  was  of  a  jealous  disposi- 
tion, seemed  now  determined  to  sacrifice  him,  and 
he  fled  to  Valencia,  but  afterwards  returned  to  Ma- 
drid ;  where  he  endured  torture,  without  criminat- 
ing himself,  and  the  king  restored  him  to  favor. 
He  afterwards  embraced  an  ecclesiastical  life,  as 
a  protection  from  prosecution.  When  the  priest, 
at  the  hour  of  his  death,  held  to  him  a  crucifix, 
he  told  him  to  take  it  away,  for  it  was  so  badly 
done  he  could  not  bear  the  sight  of  such  a  per- 
formance. He  died  in  1676.  See  Cumberland's 
Anecdotes  of  Eminent  Spanish  Painters. 

CANO'A,  n.  s.  >      Sp.  canoa.     But  the  word 

CANOE'.  1  is  said  to  be  originally  West 

Indian ;  Columbus  having  found  it  in  use  at  San 
Salvador,  on  his  arrival  thete.  A  boat  made  by 
cutting  the  trunk  of  a  tree  into  a  hollow  vessel. 

Others  made  rafts  of  wood  ;  others  devised  the  boat 
of  one  tree,  called  the  canoa,  which  the  Gauls  upon 
the  Rhone  used  in  assisting  the  transportation  of 
Hannibal's  army.  Ruleiyh. 

In  a  war  against  Semiramis,  they  had  four  thou- 
sand monoxyla,  or  canoes  of  one  piece  of  timber. 

Arbuthnot  on  Coins, 

CANOES  are  Indian  boats,  sometimes  formed 
of  several  pieces  of  bark  put  together,  but  more 
frequently  by  the  hollowing  out  the  trunk  of 
some  tree.  The  largest  are  made  of  the  cotton 
tree ;  some  of  them  will  carry  between  twenty 
and  thirty  hogsheads  of  sugar  or  molasses.  Some 
are  made  to  carry  sail ;  and  for  this  purpose  are 
steeped  in  water  till  they  become  pliant ;  after 
which  their  sides  are  extended,  and  strong  beams 
placedjbetween  them,  on  which  a  deck  is  after- 
wards laid  that  serves  to  support  their  sides. 
The  other  sorts  very  rarely  carry  sail,  unless  when 
going  before  the  wind  ;  their  sails  are  made  of 
short  silk  grass  or  rushes.  They  are  commonly 
rowed  with  paddles,  which  are  pieces  of  light 
wood  somewhat  resembling  a  com-shovel ;  and, 
instead  of  rowing  wkh  it  horizontally  like  an 
oar,  they  manage  it  perpendicularly.  The  small 
canoes  are  very  narrow,  having  only  room  for  one 
person  in  breadth,  and  seven  or  eight  lengthwise. 
The  American  Indians,  when  they  are  under  the 
necessity  of  landing  to  avoid  a  water-fall,  or  of 
crossing  the  land  from  one  river  to  another,  carry 
their  canoes  on  their  heads,  till  they  arrive  at  a 
place  where  they  can  launch  them  again.  Some 
nations  have  vessels  under  this  name,  which  dif- 
fer from  these,  as  the  inhabitants  of  Greenland, 
&c.  The  Esquimaux  canoe  is,  however,  the 
only  one  essentially  different ;  this  is  formed  of 
ribs  of  whalebone,  from  end  to  end,  sewed  to- 


Kavuv.    A    rule;    a 
law.    The  laws    made 
by  ecclesiastical  coun- 
cils.     The     books    of 
Holy  Scripture :  or  the 
f  great  rule.    A  dignitary 
'  in  cathedral   churches. 
Canons  Regular.    Such 
as  are  placed  in  monas- 
teries.   Canons  Secular. 


gether  with  strong  muscles,  and  covered  with 
seal-skins.  It  is  very  small  and  light,  and  gene- 
rally contains  but  one  person,  who,  by  fastening 
his  large  skin  cloak  to  the  sides  of  the  canoe, 
renders  the  whole  water-tight,  so  that  if  overset, 
he  can  recover  himself  with  his  paddle,  without 
injury.  The  paddle  is  ten  feet  long,  and  flat  at 
each  end ;  and  so  expert  are  the  natives  in  the 
use  of  it,  that  they  can  keep  up  with  any  English 
ten-oared  boat. 

CAN'ON,  n. 

CAN'ONESS,  n. 

CANONICAL,  adj. 

CANON'ICALLY,  adv. 

CANON'ICALNESS,  n. 

CAN'ONIST,  n. 

CAN'ONIZATION,  n. 

CAN'ON  IZE,  fl.  a. 

CAN'ON  RY,  n. 

CAN'ONSHIP,  n. 
Lay  canons,  who  have  been,  as  a  mark  of  honor, 
admitted  into  some  chapters.  Canonical  signi- 
fies according  to  the  canon,  constituting  the 
canon;  regular,  stated,  fixed  by  ecclesiastical 
laws.  Spiritual,  relating  to  the  church.  A  ca- 
nonist is  a  man  versed  in  the  ecclesiastical  laws ; 
a  professor  of  the  canon  law.  Canonisation  is 
the  act  of  declaring  saintship  :  to  canonise  is  to 
put  into  the  canon,  or  rule,  for  observing  festi- 
vals ;  to  declare  any  man  a  saint. 

In  poyse  and  philosophie  also  he  can  endite ; 
Cevile  an  canounc,  and  al  maner  lawes, 
Seneca  and  Sydrak,  and  Salamony's  sawys, 
And  the  seven  sciences  and  eke  law  of  armys. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tale*. 

His  books  are  almost  the  very  canon  to  judge  both 
doctrine  and  discipline  by.  Hooker. 

Public  readings  there  are  of  books  and  writings, 
not  canonical,  whereby  the  church  doth  also  preach,  or 
openly  make  known,  the  doctrine  of  virtuous  conver- 
sation. Id. 

The  king,  desirous  to  bring  into  the  house  of  Lan- 
caster celestial  honour,  became  suitor  to  pope  Julius, 
to  canonize  king  Henry  VI.  for  a  saint.  Bacon. 

For  deans  and  canons,  or  prebends  of  cathedral 
churches,  they  were  of  great  use  in  the  church  ;  they 
were  to  be  of  counsel  with  the  bishop  for  his  revenue, 
and  for  his  government,  in  causes  ecclesiastical.  Id. 

By  those  hymns  all  shall  approve 
Us  canonised  for  love.  Donne. 

Religious  canons,  civil  laws,  are  cruel ; 

Then  what  should  war  be  ?  Shaktpeare. 

Seven  times  in  a  day  do  I  praise  thee,  said  David  : 

from  this  definite  number  some  ages  of  the  church 

took  their  pattern  for  their  canonical  hours.        Taylor < 

It  is  a  known  story  of  the  friar,  who  on  a  fasting 

day,  bid  his  capon  be  carp,  and  then  very  canonically 

eat  it.  Government  of  the  Tongue. 

A  canon',  that's  a  place  too  mean 
No,  doctor,  you  shall  be  a  dean  ; 
Two  dozen  eanons  round  your  stall, 
And  you  the  tyrant  o'er  them  all.  Swift. 

Canon  law,  is  that  law,  which  is  made  and  ordained 
in  a  general  council,  or  provincial  synod,  of  the 
church.  Ayliffe. 

York  anciently  had  a  metropolitan  jurisdiction  over 
all  the  bishops  of  Scotland,  from  whom  they  had  their 
consecration,  and  to  whom  they  swore  canonical  obe- 
dience. Id. 


CANON. 


103 


Canon  alao  denotes  those  books  of  Scripture,  which     allotted  for  the  performance  of  divine  service,  in 


a  cathedral,  or  collegiate  church.  Canons  are  of 
no  great  antiquity  ;  Pasquier  observes  that  the 
name  was  not  known  before  Charlemagne;  at 
least  the  first  we  hear  of  are  in  Gregory  de  Tours, 
who  mentions  a  college  of  canons  instituted  by 


are  received  as  inspired  and  canonical,  to  distinguish 
them  from  either  profane,  apocryphal,  or  disputed 
books.  Thus  we  say,  that  Genesis  is  part  of  the 
sacred  canon  of  the  Scripture.  Id, 

There  are,  in  popish  countries,  women  they  call 

.  f  m  '  1  f  1  **   11V      UltllLlULliS      «         V*Vll\^£-V*          •-/.        *,«.»«****      ...w».w~*vu»       —  J 

secular  eanonexes,  living  after  the  example  of  secular  Baldwin  XVI  archbishop  of  that  city,  in  the  time 
ThneSs'e  were  looked  on  as  lapsed  persons,  and  greai  of  Clotharius  I.  The  common .opinion  attributes 
severities  of  penance  were  prescribed  them  by  the  the  institution  of  this  order  to  Chrodegangus 
canon,  of  Ancyra.  Stillingfleet.  bishop  of  Metz,  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth 

It  is  very  suspicious,  that  the  interests  of  particular  Century.  Originally  canons  were  only  priests  or 
families,  or  churches,  have  too  great  a  sway  in  canon-  inferior  ecclesiastics,  who  lived  in  community, 
Nations  Addison  residing  by  the  cathedral  church,  to  assist  the 

~  John  Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester,  when  the  king  bishop;  depending  entirely  on  his  will;  sup- 
would  have  translated  him  from  that  poor  bishoprick,  ported  by  the  revenues  of  the  bishopric,  and  liv- 
he  refused,  saying,  he  would  not  forsake  his  poor  ing  in  the  same  house,  as  his  domestics  or  coun- 
little  old  wife ;  thinking  of  the  fifteenth  canon  of  the  sellers,  &C.  They  even  inherited  his  moveables, 
Nicene  council,  and  that  of  the  canonists,  Matrimo-  till  A.D.  817,  when  this  was  prohibited  by  the 
nium  inter  episcopum  et  ecclesiam  esse  contraction,  Sfc.  council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  a  new  rule  sub- 

Camden's  Remains,    stituted  in  the  place  of  that  which  had  been  ap- 

Of  whose  strange  crimes  no  canonist  can  tell  pointed     by     Chrodegangus,    and    which    was 

In  what  commandment's  large  contents  they  dwell.         observed  for  the   most  part  in  the  west  till  the 

Pope,    twelfth  century.      By  degrees  these  communities 

Canons,  in  logick,  are  such  as  these  :  every  part  of  a    of  priests,  shaking  off  their  dependence,  formed 

division,  singly  taken,  must  contain  less  than  the    separate  bodies,   whereof  the  bishops,  however, 

whole  ;  and  a  definition  must  be  peculiar  and  proper    were  still  the  heads.     In  the  tenth  century  there 

to  the  thing  defined.  Watts,    were  communities  of  the  same  kind,  established 

He  [Edward  I.]  seems  to  have  been  the  first  chris-    even   in    cities    where  there  were    no  bishops ; 

tian  prince  that  passed  a  statute  of  mortmain ;  and    these  were  called   collegiates,  as  they  used  the 

prevented  by  law  the  clergy  from  making  new  acqui-    terms  congregation  and  college  indifferently  ;  the 

sitions  of  lands,  which,  by  the  ecclesiastical  canons,    name  chapter  now   given   to   these   bodies  being 

they  were  for  ever  prohibited  from  alienating.  much  more  modern.     Under  the  second  race  of 

Hume's  History  of  England.    the  French  kingS)  the  canonical  life  had  spread 

The  canon  law  is  a  body  of  Roman  ecclesiastical    all  over  the  country  ;  and  each  cathedral  had  its 
law,  relative  to  such  matters  as  that  church  either    chapter   distinct    from   the   rest    of    the   clergy, 
has,  or  pretends  to  have,  the  proper  jurisdiction  over.    They  ha(j  tne  name  canon  frOm  the  Greek  xaviav, 
Blackttone's  Commentaries.    which  signifies  three  different  things :  a  rule,  a 
pension,  or  fixed  revenue  to  live  on,  and  a  cata- 
logue of  matricula,  all  which  are  applicable  to 
them.     In  time  the  canons  freed  themselves  from 
their  rules ;  and  at  length  they  ceased  to  live  in 
community:  yet  they  still  formed  bodies;  pre- 
CANON,  in  an  ecclesiastical  sense,  is  a  rule,    tending  to  other  functions  besides  the  celebra- 
either   of  doctrine  or  discipline,   enacted  espe-    tion  of  the  common  office  in  the  church,  yet 
cially  by  a  council,  and  confirmed   by  the  so-    assuming  the  rights   of  the  rest  of  the  clergy, 
vereign.       Canons    are    properly   decisions   of    making  themselves  a   necessary  council  of  the 
matters  of  religion,  or  regulations  of  the  policy    bishop ;  taking  upon  them  the  administration  of 
and  discipline  of  a  church,  made  by  councils,    a  see  during  a  vacancy,  and  the  election  of  a 
either  general,    national,   or   provincial.      Such    bishop  to  supply  it.     There  are  even  some  chap- 
are  the  canons  of  the  council  of  Nice,  or  Trent,    ters  exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop, 
&c.     There  have  been  various  collections  of  the    and  owning  no  head  but  their  dean.     After  the 
canons  of  the  Eastern  councils  ;  but  four  prin-    example   of  cathedral  chapters,  collegiate  ones 
cipal  ones,  each  ampler  than  the  preceding.    The    also  continued  to  form  bodies,  after  they  had 
first,  according  to  Usher,  A.  D.  380,  contained    abandoned  living  in  community.     Canons  are  of 
only  those  of  the  first  ecumenical  council,  and    various  kinds,  particularly  in  the  Romish  church  : 
the  first  provincial  ones :  they  were  but  164  in    as:  1.  Canons,  cardinal.      2.  Canons,  domicil- 
number.     To  these,  Dionysius  Exiguus,  in  520,    lary.     3.  Canons  expectative,  &c.      4.  Canons, 
added  the  fifty  canons  of  the  apostles,  and  those    lay  or  honorary,  are  such  among  the  laity  as  have 
of  the  other  general  councils.     The  Greek  can-    been  admitted,  out  of  honor  and  respect,  into 
ons  in  this  second  collection  end  with  those  of    some  chapter  of  canons.    Dr.  Johnson  confounds 
the  council   of  Chalcedon  ;  to  which   are  sub-    these  with  the  secular  canons.     5.  Canons,  regu- 
joined  those  of  the  council  of  Sardica,  and  the    lar,  are  those  who  still  live  in  community,  and 
African  councils.     The  fourth  and  last  collection    who  have,  to  the  practice  of  their  rules,  added 
comes  down   as  low  as  the  second  council  of    the  solemn  profession  of  vows.     They  are  called 
Nice;  and  it  is  on  this  that  Balsamon  and  Zo-    regulars,  to  distinguish  them  from  those  secular 
naras  have  commented.  canons  who  abandon  living  in  community,  and 

CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE.     See  BIBLE.  observing  the  canons  made  for  the  maintenance 

CANON,  in  a  modern  ecclesiastical  sense,  is  a    of  the  ancient  discipline, 
person  who  possesses  a  prebend,  or  revenue        CANON   is  also  used  in  the  Romish  church : 


But  a  word  or  two  : 
His  stature  is  twelve  cubits  :  would  you  so  far 
Outstep  these  times,  and  be  a  Titan  ?  or 
(To  talk  canonicatty}  wax  a  Son 
Of  Anak  ? 


104 


CANON. 


1.  By  way  of  excellence  for  the  secret  words  of 
the  mass,  from  the  preface  to  the  pater,  in  the 
middle  of  which  the  priest  consecrates  the  host. 

2.  For  the  catalogue  of  saints  acknowledged  and 
canonised  in   the  church  of  Rome.     3.  In  mo- 
nastic orders,  for  a  book  wherein  the  religious  of 
every  convent  have  a  fair  transcript  of  the  rules 
of  their  order  frequently  read  among  them  as 
their  local  statutes.      Canons  is  also  applied  to 
other  compositions :  as — 

1.  CANON,  PASCHAL,  a  table  of  the  moveable 
feasts,  showing  the  day  of  Easter,  and  the  other 
feasts  depending  on  it,  for  a  cycle  of  nineteen 
years.     The  paschal  canon  is  supposed  to  be  the 
calculation  of  Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  and  to  have 
been  done  by  the  order  of  the  council  of  Nice. 

2.  CANONS,  APOSTOLICAL,  those  which  have 
been  usually  ascribed  to  St.  Clement.     Bellar- 
min,   Baronius,  &c.  will   have  them  to  be  ge- 
nuine canons   of  the  apostlas.      Cotelerius  ob- 
serves that  they  cannot  be  ascribed  to  the  apostles 
or  Clement,  because  they  are  not  received  with 
other  books  of  Scripture,  are  not  quoted  by  the 
writers  of  the  first  ages,  and  contain  many  things 
not  agreeable   to  the  apostolical  times.     Hinc- 
mar,  De  Marca,  Beveridge,  &c.  take  them  to  be 
framed  by  the  bishops  who  were  the  apostles' 
disciples  in  the  second  or  third  century ;   but 
Daille,  8cc.  maintain  them  to  have  been  forged 
by  some   heretic  in  the  sixth  century ;  and  S. 
Basnage  conjectures  that  though  some  of  them  are 
ancient,  and  collected  in  the  fifth  century,  others 
are  not  older  than   the  seventh.      The  Greek 
church  allow  only  eighty-five  of  them,  and  the 
Latins  only  fifty,  though  there  are  eighty-four  in 
the  edition  given  of  them  in  the  Corpus  Juris 
Canonici. 

CANON,  in  geometry  and  algebra,  a  general 
rule  for  the  solution  of  all  cases  of  a  like  nature 
with  the  present  enquiry.  Thus  every  last  step 
of  an  equation  is  a  canon;  and,  if  turned  into 
words,  becomes  a  rule  to  solve  all  questions  of 
the  same  nature  with  that  proposed. 

CANON,  in  ancient  music,  is  a  method  of  de- 
termining the  intervals  of  notes.  Ptolemy,  re- 
jecting the  Aristoxenian  way  of  measuring  the 
intervals  in  music,  by  the  magnitude  of  a  tone, 
(which  was  supposed  to  be  formed  by  the  diffe- 
rence between  a  diaperite  and  a  diatessaron), 
thought  that  musical  intervals  should  be  distin- 
guished according  to  the  proportions  which  the 
sounds  terminating  those  intervals  bear  to  one 
another,  when  considered  according  to  their  de- 
gree of  acuteness  or  gravity ;  which,  before 
Aristoxenus,  was  the  old  Pythagorean  way.  He 
therefore  made  the  diapason  consist  in  a  double 
ratio ;  the  diapente  in  a  sesquialterate ;  the  dia- 
tessaron in  a  sesquitertian ;  and  the  tone  itself 
in  a  sesquioctave  ;  and  all  the  other  intervals  ac- 
cording to  the  proportion  of  the  sounds  that 
terminate  them  ;  wherefore  taking  the  cauon  for 
a  determinate  line  of  any  length,  he  shows  how 
this  canon  is  to  be  cut  accordingly,  so  that  it  may 
represent  the  respective  intervals  ;  and  this  me- 
thod answers  exactly  to  experiment  in  the  dif- 
ferent lengths  of  musical  chords.  From  this 
canon  Ptolemy  and  his  followers  have  been  called 
Canonica ;  as  those  of  Aristoxenus  were  called 
Musici. 


CANON,  in  music,  is  a  short  modern  composi- 
tion of  two  or  more  parts,  in  which  one  leads 
and  the  other  follows ;  and  is  a  fugue  so  bound 
up  or  restrained,  that  the  following  part  or  parts 
must  precisely  repeat  the  same  notes,  with  the 
same  degrees,  rising  or  falling,  which  were  ex- 
pressed by  the  leading  part.  It  is  therefore  tied 
to  so  strict  a  rule  that  it  is  called  canon. 

CANON  LAW  is  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical 
laws,  serving  as  the  rule  of  church  government. 
The  power  of  making  laws  was  exercised  by  the 
church  before  the  Roman  empire  became  Chris- 
tian. The  canon  law  that  obtained  throughout 
the  west  till  the  twelfth  century,  was  the  collec- 
tion of  canons  made  by  Dionysius  Exiguus  in 
520,  the  capitularies  of  Charlemagne,  and  the 
decrees  of  the  popes  from  Syricius  to  Anastasius 
III.  The  canon  law,  even  when  papal  authority 
was  at  its  height  in  England,  was  of  no  force 
when  it  contradicted  the  prerogative  of  the  king, 
the  laws,  statutes,  and  customs  of  the  realm,  or 
the  doctrine  of  the  established  church.  The  ec- 
clesiastical jurisdiction  of  the  see  of  Rome  in 
England  was  founded  on  the  canon  law;  and 
this  created  quarrels  between  kings  and  several 
archbishops  and  prelates  who  adhered  to  the 
papal  usurpation.  Besides  the  foreign  canons, 
there  were  several  laws  and  constitutions  made 
here  for  the  government  of  the  church,  but  all 
these  received  their  force  from  the  royal  assent, 
and  if,  at  any  lime,  the  ecclesiastical  courts  did, 
by  their  sentence,  endeavour  to  enforce  obedience 
to  such  canons,  the  courts  at  common  law,  upon 
complaints  made,  would  grant  prohibition.  The 
authority  vested  in  the  church  of  England  of 
making  canons  was  ascertained  by  a  statute  of 
Henry  VIII.  commonly  called  the  act  of  the 
clergy's  submission,  by  which  they  acknowledged 
that  the  convocation  had  always  been  assembled 
by  the  king's  writ ;  so  that  though  the  power  of 
making  canons  resided  in  the  clergy  met  in  con- 
vocation, their  force  was  derived  from  the  autho- 
rity of  the  king's  assenting  to  and  confirming 
them.  The  old  canons  continued  in  full  force 
till  the  reign  of  James  I.  when  the  clergy  being 
assembled  in  convocation,  the  king  gave  them 
leave  to  treat  and  consult  upon  canons,  which 
they  did,  and  presented  them  to  the  king,  who 
gave  them  the  royal  assent :  these  were  a  collec- 
tion out  of  the  several  preceding  canons  and  in- 
junctions. Some  of  these  canons  are  now  obso- 
lete. In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  several  canons 
were  passed  by  the  clergy  in  convocation. 

CAN'ON,  among  chirurgeons,  an  instrument 
used  in  sewing  up  wounds.  A  large  sort  of 
printing  letter,  probably  so  called  from  being 
first  used  in  printing  a  book  of  canons ;  or  per- 
haps from  its  size,  and  therefore  properly  written 
cannon. 

CAN'ON-BIT,  n.  s.  That  part  of  the  bit  let  into 
the  horse's  mouth. 

A  goodly  person,  and  could  manage  fair 
His  stubborn  steed  with  canon-bit, 
Who  under  him  did  trample  as  the  air.     Spenser. 

CAtfONARCHA,  or  CANON  ARCHUS,  tin  office 
in  the  Greek  church,  answering  to  the  precentor 
in  the  Latin,  or  chanter  in  the  English  church. 

CANONESS,  in  the  Romish  church,  is  a  woman 
who  enjoys  a  prebend,  affixed  by  the  foundation 


CAN 


105 


CAN 


to  maids,  without  their  being  obliged  to  renounce 
the  world,  or  make  any  vows. 

CANONGATE,  a  burgh  adjacent  and  under 
vassalage  to  Edinburgh,  of  which  it  is  one  of  the 
suburbs.  See  EDINBURGH.  It  is  governed  by 
a  baron  bailie  and  two  resident  magistrates,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Town  Council  of  Edinburgh. 
Their  jurisdiction  extends  to  the  east  side  of  the 
Pleasance,  and  to  the  populous  town  of  North 
Leith. 

CANONICA,  in  philosophical  history,  an 
appellation  given  by  Epicurus  to  his  doctrine  of 
logic,  as  consisting  of  a  few  rules  for  directing 
the  understanding  in  the  pursuit  of  truth.  The 
great  principle  of  Epicurus's  canonica  is,  that  the 
senses  are  never  deceived;  and  therefore  that 
every  sensation  of  an  appearance  is  true. 

CANONICAL  HOURS  are  certain  stated  times  of 
the  day,  consigned,  more  especially  by  the  Ro- 
mish church,  to  the  offices  of  prayer  and  devo- 
tion. Such  are  matins,  lauds,  sixth,  ninth, 
vespers.  In  England  the  canonical  hours  are 
from  eight  to  twelve  in  the  forenoon,  before  or 
after  which,  marriage  cannot  be  legally  per- 
formed in  any  parish  church. 

CANONICAL  LIFE  is  the  rule  of  living  pre- 
scribed by  the  ancient  clergy  who  lived  in 
community.  The  canonical  life  was  a  kind  of 
medium  between  the  monastic  and  clerical  lives. 
Originally  the  orders  of  monks  and  clerks  were 
entirely  distinct ;  but  pious  persons  afterwards 
instituted  colleges  of  priests  and  canons,  where 
clerks  brought  up  for  the  ministry,  as  well  as 
others  already  engaged  therein,  might  live  under 
a  fixed  rule,  which,  though  somewhat  more  easy 
than  the  monastic,  was  more  restrained  than  the 
secular.  Authors  are  divided  about  the  founder 
of  the  canonical  life.  Some  will  have  it  to  be 
founded  by  the  apostles,  others  ascribe  it  to 
pope  Urban  I.  about  A-D.  1230,  who  is  said  to 
have  ordered  bishops  to  provide  such  of  their 
clergy  as  were  willing  to  live  in  community,  with 
necessaries  out  of  the  revenues  of  their  churches. 
The  generality  attribute  ft  to  St.  Augustin,  who, 
having  gathered  a  number  of  clerks  to  devote 
themselves  to  religion,  instituted  a  monastery 
within  his  episcopal  palace,  where  he  lived  in 
community  with  them.  Onuphrius  Panvinius 
says  that  pope  Gelasius  I.  about  A.  D.  495, 
placed  the  first  regular  canons  of  St.  Augustin  in 
the  Lateran  church. 

CANONICAL  OBEDIENCE  is  that  submission 
which,  by  the  ecclesiastical  laws,  the  inferior 
clergy  are  to  pay  to  their  bishops,  and  the  reli- 
gious to  their  superiors. 

CANONICAL  PORTION,  so  much  of  the  effects 
of  a  person  deceased,  as  the  canons  allow  to  his 
parish  church. 

CANONICAL  PUNISHMENTS  are  those  which  the 
church  may  inflict,  such  as  excommunication, 
degradation,  and  penance,  in  Roman  Catholic 
countries ;  also  fasting,  alms,  whipping,  &c. 

CANONICAL  SINS,  in  the  ancient  church,  those 
which  were  capital  or  mortal,  such  as  idolatry, 
murder,  adultery,  heresy,  and  schism. 

CANONISATION,  in  the  Romish  church,  suc- 
ceeds beatification.  Before  a  beatified  person  is 
canonised,  the  qualifications  of  the  candidate  are 
strictly  examined  into,  in  some  consistories  held 


for  that  purpose ;  after  which,  one  of  the  consis- 
torial  advocates,  in  the  presence  of  the  pope  and 
cardinals,  makes  the  panegyric  of  the  person  who 
is  to  be  proclaimed  a  saint,  and  gives  a  particular 
detail  of  his  life  and  miracles:  which  done,  the 
holy  father  decrees  his  canonisation,  and  appoints 
the  day.  On  the  day  of  canonisation  the  pope 
officiates  in  white,  and  the  cardinals  are  dressed 
in  the  same  color.  St.  Peter's  church  is  hung 
with  rich  tapestry,  upon  which  the  arms  of  the 
pope,  and  of  the  prince  or  state  requiring  the 
canonisation,  are  embroidered  in  gold  and  silver. 
The  following  rule  is  now  observed,  though  it 
has  not  been  in  force  above  a  century,  viz.  not 
to  enter  into  the  enquiries  prior  to  canonisation 
till  fifty  years,  at  least,  after  the  death  of  the 
person  to  be  canonised.  This  rite  of  the  mo- 
dern Romans  resembles  the  deification  of  the 
ancient  Romans,  and,  in  all  probability,  takes  its 
rise  from  it. 

CANOPUS,  in  astronomy,  a  star  of  the  first 
magnitude  in  the  rudder  of  Argo. 

CANOPUS,  in  Pagan  mythology,  one  of  the 
deities  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  the  god  of 
water.  It  is  said,  that  the  Chaldeans,  who  wor- 
shipped fire,  carried  their  deity  through  other 
countries  to  try  its  power,  in  order  that,  if  it  ob- 
tained the  victory  over  the  other  gods,  it  might 
be  acknowledged  as  the  tme  object  of  worship ; 
and  it  having  easily  subdued  the  gods  of  wood, 
stone,  brass,  silver,  and  gold,  its  priests  declared 
that  all  gods  did  it  homage.  This  the  priests  of 
Canopus  hearing,  and  finding  that  the  Chaldeans 
had  brought  their  gods  to  contend  with  Canopus, 
they  took  a  large  earthen  vessel,  in  which  they 
bored  several  holes,  which  they  afterwards  stop- 
ped with  wax,  and  having  filled  the  vessel  with 
water,  painted  it  of  several  colors,  and  fitting 
the  head  of  their  idol  to  it,  brought  it  out,  in  or- 
der to  contend  with  the  Chaldean  deity.  The 
Chaldeans  accordingly  kindled  their  fire  all  around 
it;  but  the  heat  having  melted  the  wax,  the  wa- 
ter gushed  out  through  the  holes  and  extinguished 
the  fire ;  and  thus  Canopus  conquered  the  god 
of  the  Chaldeans.  Canopus,  according  to  Stra- 
bo,  was  a  native  of  Amycla,  had  been  Menelaus's 
pilot,  and  had  a  temple  erected  to  him  in  the 
town  of  Canopus.  It  is  mentioned  by  Diony- 
sius.  Vossius  remarks  the  vanity  of  the  Greeks, 
who,  as  he  conjectures,  hearing  of  the  Egyptian 
deity,  took  an  opportunity  of  deifying  the  pilot 
of  Menelaus,  and  giving  out  that  the  Egyptian 
god  Canopus  had  been  a  Greek. 

CANOPUS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  city  of 
Lower  Egypt,  on  the  Mediterranean,  near  one 
of  the  mouths  of  the  Nile,  120  stadia  or  thirteen 
miles  east  of  Alexandria :  as  old  as  the  war  of 
Troy,  Canopus  being  there  buried.  See  ABOU- 
KIR. 

CAN'OPY,  v.  a.&n.-i      The   noun  is  from 

CAN'OPIED.  J  luavuTrtiov  barbarous; 

Lat.  canopium  ;  Fr.  canopee  ;  a  covering  of  state 
over  a  throne,  or  bed ;  anything  spread  above 
the  head.  The  Canopy  of  Heaven  is  the  con- 
cave limit  of  our  vision,  beyond  which  the  eye 
cannot  penetrate :  when  studded  with  stars  at 
night,  it  is  like  a  dark  mantle  bespangled  with 
gems,  and  is  the  canopy  under  which  we  walk, 
or  repose. 


106 


C  A  N  O  V  A. 


She  is  there  brought  unto  a  paled  green, 
And  placed  under  a  stately  canopy, 
The  warlike  feats  of  both  those  knights  to  *ee. 

Faerie  Qtieene. 

I  have  of  late  (but  wherefore  I  know  not)  lost  all 
my  mirth — Indeed  it  goes  so  heavily  with  my  dispo- 
sition, that  this  goodly  frame,  the  earth,  seems  to  me 
a  steril  promontory ;  this  most  excellent  canopy,  the 
air  look  you,  this  brave  o'erhanging  firmament,  this 
majestic  roof,  fretted  with  golden  fires,  why  it  appears 
no  other  to  me  than  a  foul  and  pestilent  congregation 
of  vapours.  Shakspcare. 

I  sat  me  down  to  watch  upon  a  bank 
With  ivy  canopied,  and  interwove 
With  flaunting  honeysuckle,  and  began, 
Wrapt  in  a  pleasing  fit  of  melancholy, 
To  meditate  my  rural  minstrelsy, 
Till  fancy  had  her  fill.  Milton's  Comua. 

"Now  spread  the  night  her  spangled  canopy, 
And  summoned  every  restless  eye  to  sleep.    Fairfax. 
The  birch,  the  myrtle,  and  the  bay, 

Like  friends  did  all  embrace  ; 
And  their  large  branches  did  display 

To  canopy  the  place.  Dryden. 

CANOPY  formed  from  icwywTmov,  a  mosquito 
net,  of  rwvwi//,  a  gnat.  Canopies  are  also  borne 
over  the  head  in  processions  of  state,  after  the 
manner  of  umbrellas,  The  canopy  of  an  altar 
is  called  Ciborium.  The  Roman  grandees  had 
their  canopies,  or  spread  veils,  called  thensae, 
over  their  chairs ;  and  in  temples  over  the  statues 
of  the  gods.  The  modern  cardinals  still  retain 
the  use  of  canopies. 

CAN'OROUS,  adj.  Lat.  canons.  Musical ; 
tuneful. 

Birds  that  are  most  canorous,  and  whose  notes  we 
most  commend,  are  of  little  throats,  and  short. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

CANOSA,  a  town  of  Puglia,  Naples,  occupy- 
ing part  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  Canusium. 
The  old  city  was  one  of  the  most  considerable  in 
this  part  of  Italy,  for  extent,  population,  and 
magnificent  buildings.  The  aera  of  Trajan  seems 
to  have  been  that  of  its  greatest  splendor ;  but 
this  pomp  only  served  to  mark  it  as  a  capital  ob- 
ject for  the  avarice  and  fury  of  the  Barbarians. 
Genseric,  Totila,  and  Autharis,  treated  it  with 
extreme  cruelty.  The  deplorable  state  to  which 
this  province  was  reduced  in  590  is  concisely  but 
strongly  painted  by  Gregory  the  Great.  '  On 
every  side,'  said  he,  '  we  hear  groans  !  On  every 
side  we  behold  crowds  of  mourners,  cities  burnt, 
castles  rased  to  the  ground,  countries  laid  waste, 
provinces  become  deserts,  some  citizens  led 
away  captives,  and  others  inhumanly  massacred.' 
No  town  in  Puglia  suffered  more  from  the  Sara- 
cens ;  and  the  contests  between  the  Greeks  and 
Normans  increased  the  measure  of  its  woes, 
which  was  completed  by  a  conflagration  when  it 
was  stormed  by  Duke  Robert.  In  1090  it  was 
assigned  to  Bohemund,  prince  of  Antioch,  who 
died  here  in  1111.  Under  the  reign  of  Ferdi- 
nand III.  it  belonged  to  the  Grimaldis.  On  their 
forfeiture,  the  Assaititi  acquired  it.  The  ancient 
city  stood  in  a  plain  between  the  hills  and  the 
river  Ofanto. 

CANOVA  (Antonio),  one  of  the  greatest,  per- 
haps the  greatest,  of  modern  scujptors,  was  born 
in  1757,  at  Passagno,  a  small  village  of  the 
Trevisan,  in  the  Venetian  states.  The  first  indi- 


cation of  his  talent  he  is  said  to  have  given  when 
he  was  twelve  years  old,  by  modelling  a  lion  in 
butter,  to  be  sent  up  to  the  table  of  Falieri,  the 
seigneur  of  the  village.  Struck  with  the  genius 
which  was  displayed  in  this  fragile  performance, 
Falieri  took  him  under  his  protection,  and  com- 
mitted him  to  the  tuition  of  Torretti,  who  was 
considered  the  most  eminent  sculptor  of  that 
period.  His  powers  were  now  rapidly  deve- 
loped :  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Aca- 
demy of  Fine  Arts  at  Venice,  and  gained  several 
prizes.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  produced  his 
statue  of  Eurydice.  Shortly  after  the  death  of 
Torretti,  his  youthful  pupil  commenced  busi- 
ness on  his  own  account,  in  the  cloisters  of  San 
Stefano  at  Venice.  His  reputation  increased 
daily ;  and  Venice  soon  became  too  narrow  a 
sphere  for  his  exertions.  In  1779  Girolamo 
Zuliano,  the  Venetian  ambassador  at  Rome,  in- 
vited him  to  that  capital.  Canova  accepted  the 
invitation ;  and,  previous  to  his  departure,  was 
gratified  by  a  pension  of  three  hundred  ducats 
from  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  as  a  reward  for 
his  groupe  of  Dedalus  and  Icarus.  At  Rome  he 
became  acquainted  with  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
who  introduced  him  to  all  his  friends ;  and  no 
long  time  elapsed  before  he  was  patronised  by  all 
the  Englishmen  of  taste  who  visited  the  '  eternal 
city.'  The  various  Roman  pontiffs  and  nobility 
also  vied  in  finding  occupation  for  his  creative 
chisel.  So  fully  was  he  employed,  that  it  was 
not  until  the  year  1798  he  could  indulge  his  de- 
sire of  travelling.  In  that  and  the  following 
year  he  travelled  through  Germany  and  Prussia, 
in  company  with  Prince  Rezzonico.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Rome,  Pius  VII.  appointed  him  in- 
spector general  of  the  fine  arts,  and  conferred  on 
him  the  honor  of  knighthood.  In  1802  the 
first-consul  of  France  desired  to  see  him  at  Paris ; 
the  pontiff  permitted  his  absence ;  he  was  re- 
ceived in  the  French  capital  with  the  respect 
due  to  his  genius ;  and  was  chosen  one  of  the 
foreign  associates  of  the  Institute.  When,  how- 
ever, he  next  visited  Paris,  which  was  in  1815, 
his  presence  excited  no  feelings  but  those  of 
anger  and  hatred.  On  that  occasion  he  appeared 
in  the  character  of  ambassador  from  the  pope, 
to  claim,  and  superintend  the  sending  back,  the 
numerous  works  of  art  of  which  Italy,  had  been 
deprived  by  the  victorious  arms  of  Buonaparte. 
Sarcasms  and  witticisms  were  lavished  on  him ; 
and  it  was  said,  that  instead  of  being  called  the 
pope's  ambassador,  he  ought  to  have  been  denomi- 
nated the  pope's  packer.  For  these  splenetic  effu- 
sions, however,  he  was  fully  indemnified  by  his  re- 
ception in  England,  where  he  was  treated  as  a 
brother  by  all  who  were  connected  with  the  arts, 
and  was  presented  with  a  brilliant  snuff-box  by  the 
prince  regent.  Still  more  gratifying  honors  awaited 
him  on  his  return  to  Rome.  The  Academy  of 
St.  Luke  went  in  a  body  to  meet  him  ;  and  the 
pope  not  only  granted  him  a  pension  of  three 
thousand  crowns,  and  created  him  marquis  of 
Ischia,  but  also,  at  an  audience  which  he  gave  to 
him  on  the  5th  of  January,  1816,  put  into  his 
hands  a  billet,  announcing  that  the  artist's  name 
was  inscribed  on  'The  Book  of  the  Capitol.' 
The  pension  Canova  resolved  to  dedicate  en- 
tirely to  the  benefit  of  the  artr,  and  of  those 


CAN 


107 


CAN 


who  professed  them.  Nor  was  he  a  scanty  dis- 
penser of  the  fortune  which  he  had  gained  by 
the  exercise  of  his  talents.  He  established  prizes, 
endowed  academies,  and  diffused  his  bounty 
among  the  aged  and  unfortunate.  A  favorite 
occupation  of  his  latter  years  was  the  erection 
of  a  magnificent  church,  at  Possagno,  to  con- 
tain his  statue  of  Religion.  This  building  was 
not  completed  at  the  period  of  his  decease. 
His  death  took  place  at  Venice  on  the  22d  of 
October,  1822,  and  he  was  buried  in  the  ca- 
thedral of  St.  Mark,  his  funeral  being  attended 
by  all  the  public  authorities  of  the  city. 

Among  the  numerous  works  of  Canova  may 
be  mentioned  his  Love  and  Psyche,  reposing; 
Psyche,  standing;  Love  and  Psyche,  standing; 
Venus  and  Adonis ;  a  repentant  Mary  Magda- 
len;  Perseus,  holding  the  head  of  Medusa; 
Ferdinand  IV.  of  Naples  ;  the  athletes  Krengan 
and  Damoxenes ;  Hebe,  pouring  out  nectar ; 
Hercules,  dashing  Lycus  against  a  rock;  Na- 
poleon, as  Mars  the  pacificator ;  the  mother  of 
Napoleon ;  Venus,  resting,  for  which  Paulina 
Buonaparte  sat ;  Venus,  quitting  the  bath ;  The- 
seus, vanquishing  the  centaur;  the  Three  Graces; 
Religion,  crowned  ;  Mars  and  Venus ;  Peace 
and  the  Graces ;  a  winged  Peace ;  a  statue  of 
Washington  ;  and  several  mausoleums,  among 
which  are  those  of  the  popes  Clement  XIII.  and 
XIV.  and  of  Maria  Christiana,  archduchess  of 
Austria.  His  Psyche,  standing  and  holding  a 
butterfly  by  the  wings,  is  one  of  his  early  pro- 
ductions, but,  though  it  has  high  merit,  he  was 
not  satisfied  with  it.  '  That,'  said  he,  in  a  com- 
pany, '  is  one  of  the  sins  of  my  youth.'  '  Canova,' 
replied  an  accomplished  and  beautiful  woman, 
'  such  sins  are  not  mortal.' 

The  works  of  Canova  have  been  engraved  by 
Vitali,  Bertini,  Marchetti,  Raciani,  Bertinelli, 
Cameroti,  Bonato,  Fontana,  and  Moses.  The 
edition  from  the  graver  of  Moses  is,  we  believe, 
the  only  one  which  has  appeared  in  this  country. 

CANQUES,  in  commerce,  a  sort  of  cotton  cloth 
made  in  China,  with  which  the  Chinese  make  the 
garments  next  their  skin,  which  are  properly  their 
shirts. 

CANSIERA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  class  tetrandria,  order  digynia :  CAL.  ven- 
tricose,  four-toothed:  COR.  none:  nectary,  four- 
leaved,  surrounding  the  base  of  the  germ:  berry, 
one-celled ;  seed,  one,  superior.  One  species 
only,  an  East  Indian  climbing  plant,  with  small 
yellow  flowers. 

CANSTRISIUS,  an  officer  in  the  church  of 
Constantinople,  whose  business  it  is  to  take  care 
of  the  patriarch's  pontifical  vestments,  assist  in 
robing  him,  and  during  mass  to  hold  the  in- 
cense pot,  and  sprinkle  holy  water  among  the 
people,  while  the  hymn  of  the  Trinity  is  sing- 
ing. 

CANT,  s.  &  v.    1      Probably,  says  Johnson, 

CAN'TER,  J  from  cantus.  Thomson, 

thinks  that  it  is  fjom  canto;  adopted  from  the 
Latin  into  the  Italian ;  and,  as  canto  in  the  one 
signified  to  repeat  often  the  same  thing,  in  the 
other  it  means  to  juggle,  to  deceive;  whence, 
cantambanco,  a  mountebank ;  egti  canta,  he  fibs. 
In  defining  it,  Johnson  adds,  that  it  implies  the 
odd  tone  of  voice  used  by  vagrants;  but  imagin- 


ed by  some  to  be  corrupted  from  quaint.  It  is 
a  verbal  affectation,  employed  either  to  excite 
pity  or  command  respect.  It  is  peculiar  to  no 
class  of  society.  There  is  the  cant  of  criticism, 
the  cant  of  religion,  the  cant  of  infidelity ;  and  the 
jargon  talked  by  every  particular  profession,  to 
mystify  and  obscure  it,  is  entitled  to  the  same 
denomination.  It  implies,  in  all  cases,  a  degree 
of  hypocrisy  or  an  intention  to  deceive,  by  im- 
posing upon  others  jargon  for  wisdom;  the 
appearance  of  goodness  for  goodness  itself.  It  is 
one  of  the  expedients  by  which  fools  attempt  to 
raise  themselves  as  objects  of  admiration ;  and 
by  which  rogues  attempt  to  mislead  others  for 
their  own  advantage,  Swift  uses  the  noun  in 
the  sense  of  an  auction,  and  it  is  very  expressive 
of  the  method  by  which  goods  are  disposed  of  at 
such  sales.  Those  who  describe  the  imaginary 
qualities  of  horses,  so  as  to  obtain  unwary  pur- 
chasers, are  now  called  chanters.  May  not  auc- 
tioneers be  so  described  for  a  similar  reason ; 
a  puffer  is  a  chanter,  a  chanter  is  a  canter,  and 
to  puff  is  the  life  and  soul  of  an  auctioneer.  Thus 
an  auction  is  a  cant,  from  Lat.  quanlo',  Ital.  in- 
canto  ;  Fr.  encan. 

For  knaves  and  fools  being  near  of  kin, 

As  Dutch  boors  are  t'a  sooterkin, 

Both  parties  joined  to  do  their  best 

To  damn  the  publick  interest, 

And  herded  only  in  consults, 

To  put  by  one  another's  bolts, 

T'  out-cant  the  Babylonian  labourers, 

And  all  their  dialects  of  jabberers, 

And  tug  at  both  ends  of  the  saw, 

To  tear  down  government  and  law. 

Butler^s  Hudibrag. 

Men  cant  about  materia  and  forma  ;  hunt  chimeras 
by  rules  of  art,  or  dress  up  ignorance  in  words  of 
bulk  or  sound  which  may  stop  up  the  mouth  of  en- 
quiry. Glanville. 

That  uncouth  affected  garb  of  speech,  or  canting 
language  rather,  if  I  may  so  call  it,  which  they  have 
of  late  taken  up,  is  the  signal  distinction  and  charac- 
teristical  note  of  that,  which,  in  that  their  new  lan- 
guage, they  call  the  godly  party.  Sanderson. 

The  busy,  subtle  serpents  of  the  law 
Did  first  my  mind  from  true  obedience  draw; 
While  I  did  limits  to  the  king  prescribe, 
And  took  for  oracles  that  canting  tribe.       Roscommon. 

Of  promise  prodigal,  while  power  you  want, 
And  preaching  in  the  self-denying  cant. 

Dry  den's  Attrengzebe. 

I  write  not  always  in  the  proper  terms  of  naviga- 
tion, land  service,  or  in  the  cant  of  any  profession. 

Dry  den. 

The  affectation  of  some  late  authors,  to  introduce 
and  multiply  cant  -words,  is  the  most  ruinous  corrup- 
tion in  any  language.  Swift. 

Numbers  of  these  tenants,  or  their  descendants,  are 
now  offering  to  sell  their  leases  by  cant,  even  those 
which  were  for  lives.  Id. 

Your  tragic  heroes  shall  not  rant, 
Nor  shepherds  use  poetic  cant.  Id.  _ 

A  few  general  rules,  with  a  certain  cant  of  words, 
has  sometimes  set  up  an  illiterate  heavy  writer  for  a 
most  judicious  and  formidable  critick.  Addison. 

When  a  pleasant  thought  plays  in  the  features, 
before  it  discovers  itself  in  words,  it  raises  too  great 
an  expectation  and  loses  the  advantage  of  giving  sur- 
prise. Wit  and  humour  are  no  less  poorly  recom- 
mended by  a  levity  of  phrase  and  that  kind  of  Ian- 


CAN 


108 


CAN 


guage  which  may  be  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
cant.  Spectator. 

Of  all  the  cants  which  are  canted  in  this  canting 
•world,  though  the  cant  of  hypocrites  may  be  the  worst, 
the  cant  of  criticism  is  the  most  tormenting.  Sterne. 
I  want  a  hero  :  an  uncommon  want, 

When  every  year  and  month  sends  forth  a  new  one  ; 
Till,  after  cloying  the  gazettes  with  cant, 
The  age  discovers  he  is  not  the  true  one. 

Byron.     Don  Juan. 

The  primum  mobile  of  England  is  cant.  Id. 

CANT,  s.  \  A  side,  an  edge ;  Goth,  and 
CAN'TER,  s.  }  Swed.  kant ;  the  gallop  of  an 
ambling  horse,  in  which  one  side  moves  before 
the  other ;  called  ludicrously,  says  Thomson,  a 
Canterbury  gallop;  because  Kent  and  Canterbury 
are  also  from  cant,  a  side.  Johnson  gives  another 
reason.  The  hand  gallop  of  an  ambling  horse, 
commonly  called  a  canter;  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  monks  riding  to  Canterbury  on  easy 
ambling  horses. 

CANT',  n.  ~\      From  canto,  which  sig- 

CAN'TLE,  n.  &  u.  nines  a  piece,  section, 
CANTI'LEVERS,  >  square,  or  angle.  Fr. 
CAN'TICLE,  j  chantel,  chanteau,  a  small 

CANT'LET.  J  piece,    or  fragment.      To 

can  tie,  is  to  cut  in  pieces ;  to  project  in  small 
angles.  Cantilevers  are  small  pieces  of  wood 
to  support  the  eaves  of  a  house.  A  cantle  is 
a  piece  with  corners.  Gantlet  is  the  diminu- 
tive ;  a  small  piece  or  fragment.  Cant  is  sup- 
posed to  mean  a  niche  in  the  following  passage 
of  Ben  Jonson : 

The  first  and  principal  person  in  the  temple  was 
Irene,  or  Peace  j  she  was  placed  aloft  in  a  cant. 

Ben  Jonson. 

In  this  sense  it  is  also  used  by  Decker: 

Directly  under  her,  in  a  cant  by  herself,  was  Areta 
enthroned.  Decker. 

Canticle  is  a  section,  or  a  piece ;  but  usually 
applied  to  a  song ;  it  is  thus  used  in  Scripture. 

For  nature  hath  not  taken  his  beginning 
Of  no  partie,  ne  cantel,  of  a  thing, —  . 

But  of  a  thing  that  parfit  is  and  stable. 
Descending  so  till  it  be  corrumpable. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

See  how  this  river  comes  me  crankling  in, 
And  cuts  me  from  the  best  of  all  my  land 
A  huge  half-moon,  a  monstrous  cantle  out. 

Shakspeare.     Henry  7F 

Nor  shield  nor  armour  can  their  force  oppose  ; 
Huge  tantlets  of  his  buckler  strew  the  ground, 
And  no  defence  in  his  bored  arms  is  found.    Dryden. 

For  four  times  talking,  if  one  piece  thou  take, 
That  must  be  cantled,  and  the  judge  go  snack. 

Dry  den' t  Juvenal. 

CANTABRIA,  a  district  of  Tarraconensis,  on 
the  Oceanus  Cantabricus,  now  called  Biscay. 
Dr.  Wallis  makes  the  Cantabrian  the  ancient 
language  of  all  Spain ;  which,  according  to  him, 
like  the  Gaulish,  gave  way  to  a  kind  of  broken 
Latin,  called  romance  or  romanshe ;  which  by 
degrees  was  refined  into  the  Castilian,  or  present 
Spanish.  The  Cantabrians  were  famous  an- 
ciently for  their  warlike  character.  In  con- 
junction with  the  Asturians,  they  carried  on  a  long 
war  with  the  Romans ;  but  were  subdued  by  them 
about  A.  A.  C.  25.  Impatient,  however,  of  a 
foreign  yoke,  they  soon  revolted.  Most  of  their 


youth  had  been  taken  prisoners  by  the  Romans, 
and  sold  for  slaves  to  the  neighbouring  nations ; 
but,  having  found  means  to  break  their  chains, 
they  cut  the  throats  of  their  masters ;  and,  re- 
turning to  their  own  country,  attacked  the  Roman 
garrisons  with  incredible  fury.  As  the  Canta- 
brians had  waged  war  with  the  Romans  for 
upwards  of  200  years,  they  were  well  acquainted 
with  their  manner  of  fighting,  no  way  inferior  to 
them  in  courage,  and  were  now  become  despe- 
rate ;  knowing  that  if  they  were  conquered, 
after  having  so  often  attempted  to  recover  their 
liberty,  they  must  expect  the  most  severe  usage. 
Animated  with  this  reflection,  they  fell  upon  the 
Romans  with  a  fury  hardly  to  be  imagined, 
routed  them  in  several  engagements,  and  de- 
fended themselves,  when  attacked,  with  such 
intrepidity,  that  Agrippa  afterwards  owned  that 
he  had  never,  either  by  sea  or  land,  been  engaged 
in  a  more  dangerous  enterprise.  But,  having  at 
last  prevailed  upon  his  forces  to  try  the  chance 
of  an  engagement  in  the  open  field,  he  so  ani- 
mated them  by  his  example,  that  after  a  most 
obstinate  dispute,  he  gained  a  complete  victory, 
which  put  an  end  to  that  destructive  war.  All 
the  Cantabrians  fit  to  bear  arms  were  cut  in 
pieces;  their  castles  and  strong  holds  taken 
and  rased ;  and  their  women,  children  and  old 
men  (none  else  being  left  alive)  were  obliged  to 
abandon  the  mountainous  places,  and  settle  in 
the  plain. 

CANTABRICUS  OCEANUS,  the  ancient  name 
of  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 

CANTABRUM,  in  antiquity,  a  large  flag  used 
by  the  Romao  emperors,  distinguished  by  its  pe- 
culiar color,  and  bearing  some  motto  of  good 
omen,  to  encourage  the  soldiers. 

CANTACUZENUS  (Johannes),  emperor  of 
Constantinople,  and  an  historian,  was  born  in 
Constantinople,  of  a  noble  family.  He  was  bred 
to  letters  and  to  arms,  and  admitted  to  the  high- 
est offices  of  the  state.  The  emperor  Androni- 
cus  loaded  him  with  wealth  and  honors ;  made 
him  generalissimo  of  his  forces  ;  and  desired  him 
to  join  him  in  the  government,  but  this  he  refused. 
Andronicus  dying  in  1341,  left  to  Cantacuzenus 
the  care  of  the  empire,  till  John  Paleologus, 
then  only  nine  years  of  age,  should  be  fit  to  take 
it  upon  himself.  This  trust  he  faithfully  dis- 
charged; till  the  empress  dowager  and  her  faction 
forming  a  party  against  him,  declared  him  a 
traitor.  On  this,  the  principal  nobility  and  the 
army  besought  him  to  ascend  the  throne ;  and 
accordingly  he  was  crowned,  21st  May,  1342. 
This  was  followed  by  a  civil  war,  which  lasted 
five  years :  when  he  had  John  admitted  a  partner 
with  him  in  the  empire,  and  their  union  was 
confirmed  by  his  giving  him  his  daughter  in 
marriage.  Suspicions  and  enmities,  however, 
soon  arising,  the  war  broke  out  again,  and  Can- 
tacuzenus, unwilling  to  continue  the  effusion  of 
blood,  abdicated  his  share  of  the  empire;  and, 
retiring  to  a  monastery,  took  the  habit  of  a  monk 
and  the  name  of  Joasaphas.  In  this  retirement, 
he  lived  till  1411,  when  he  was  upwards  of  100 
years  of  age.  Here  he  wrote  a  history  of  his  own 
times,  a  Latin  translation  of  which,  from  the 
Greek  MS.  was  published  by  Pontanus  at  Ingol- 
stadt,  in  1603;  and  a  splendid  edition  was  prin- 


CAN  109 

ted  at  Paris,  in  1645,  in  three  volumes  folio,  of 
the  original  Greek,  and  Pontanus's  Latin  version. 
lie  also  wrote  an  apology  for  theChristian  religion 
against  that  of  Mahomet,  under  the  name  of 
Christodulus. 

CANTA,  a  province  and  town  of  Peru,  situ- 
ated in  the  Cordillera,  and  supporting  immense 
herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  wild  goats.  The 
sheep  is  of  the  cama  species.  The  town  of  Canta 
stands  in  lat.  11°  10'  south. 

CANTAL,  a  chain  of  mountains  in  upper 
Auvergne,  France,  the  highest  peak  in  which 
(called  the  Plomb  de  Cantal)  is  said  to  be  5918 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  They  give  name 
to  the  following  department,  through  the  centre 
of  which  they  run. 

CANTAL,  an  interior  department  in  the  south 
of  France,  part  of  the  late  province  of  Auvergne ; 
it  is  now  divided  into  four  arrondissements, 
twenty-three  cantons,  and  272  communes;  it  is 
in  the  diocese  of  St.  Flour,  and  royal  jurisdiction 
of  lliom,  its  area  is  1,124,802  arpents.  It  is 
a  hilly  country  producing  some  wine ;  and 
is  a  grazing  rather  than  an  arable  district. 
It  has  manufactures  of  linen,  leather,  and  paper ; 
and  contains  some  antimony  and  other  minerals 
The  river  Dordogne  rises  in  the  north  part  of  the 
department,  and  the  Tuyere,  a  branch  of  the 
Lot  in  the  south.  Population  in  1825,  552,100 ; 
Aurillac,  the  chief  town,  is  108  French  leagues  or 
258  English  miles  due  south  of  Paris.  Mauriac, 
Murat,  and  St.  Flour,  are  the  chief  towns  of  the 
other  three  arrondissements. 

CANTARINI  (Simon),  a  famous  painter, 
ro,  was  the  disciple  of  Guido  ;  and  copied  the 
manner  of  his  master  so  exactly,  that  it  is  often 
difficult  to  distinguish  their  works.  He  died  at 
Verona  in  1648. 

CANTATA,  in  music,  is  a  composition,  first  used 
in  Italy,  intermixed  with  recitatives,  airs,  and 
different  movements,  chiefly  intended  for  a  single 
voice,  with  a  thorough  bass,  though  sometimes  for 
other  instruments. 

CAPTATION,  n.  s.  From  Lat.  canto.  The 
act  of  singing. 

CANTEENS,  in  military  language,  tin  vessels 
in  the  form  of  square  bottles,  used  for  carrying 
water  to  supply  the  soldiers  in  camp.  Also  a 
machine  made  of  wood  or  leather,  with  compart- 
ments for  several  utensils,  generally  used  by 
officers. 

CANTEMIR  (Demetrius),  the  son  of  a  prince 
of  Moldavia.  Disappointed  by  not  succeeding  his 
father  in  that  dignity,  held  under  the  Ottoman 
Porte,  he  went  over  with  his  army  to  the  czar 
Peter  the  great,  against  whom  he  had  been  sent 
by  the  grand  seignior,  and  signalised  himself  in 
the  czar's  service.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Latin 
history  of  the  origin  and  decline  of  the  Ottoman 
empire.  lie  died  at  his  estate  in  the  Ukraine  in 
1729. 

CANTEMIR  (Antiochus),  esteemed  the  foun- 
der of  the  Russian  poetry,  was  the  youngest  son 
of  Demetrius.  Under  the  professors,  whom  the 
rzar,  Peter,  had  invited  to  Petersburgh,  he 
learned  mathematics,  physic,  history,  moral 
philosophy,  and  polite  literature ;  when  he  had 
finished  his  academic  course  he  printed  a  Con- 
cordance to  the  Psalms,  in  the  Russian  language, 


CAN 


and  was  elected  member  of  the  Academy.  When 
but  twenty-three  years  of  age,  he  was  nominated 
minister  at  the  court  of  Great  Britain  ;  and  his 
dexterity  in  the  management  of  public  affairs 
was  as  much  admired  as  his  taste  for  science. 
He  had  the  same  reputation  in  France,  whither 
he  went  in  1738,  in  quality  of  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary, and  soon  after  was  invested  with  the 
character  of  ambassador  extraordinary.  He  died 
of  a  dropsy,  at  Paris,  in  1744,  aged  forty-four 
years. 

CANTERBURY,  a  city  of  England,  capital 
of  the  county  of  Kent.  It  is  seated  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  Stour,  fifty-five  miles  east  by  south 
of  London,  on  the  great  high  road  to  Dover, 
from  which  it  is  distant  seventeen  miles.  Can- 
terbury is  a  place  of  great  antiquity ;  by  the  an- 
cient Britons  it  was  dignified  by  the  title  of 
Caerkent,  or  the  City  of  Kent;  and  its  site  was 
too  favorable  to  escape  the  enlightened  attention 
of  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was  called  Duro- 
vernum.  Ethelbert,  the  fifth  king  of  Kent,  who 
began  his  reign  in  568,  made  it  his  residence ; 
after  the  Norman  conquest,  William  Rufus  made 
Canterbury  the  chief  archiepiscopal  see  of  Eng- 
land, and  conferred  it  wholly  upon  the  bishops ; 
but  it  owes  its  chief  celebrity  to  the  massacre  of 
its  bishop  Thomas  a  Becket,  on  the  29th  of 
December  1170.  Some  disputes  having  arisen 
between  the  bishop  and  the  king,  Henry  II., 
four  surveillants  of  the  court,  took  upon  them- 
selves to  avenge  what  they  considered  an  affront 
offered  to  the  king;  for  which  purpose  they  pro- 
ceeded secretly  to  Canterbury,  and  murdered 
the  prelate  by  beating  him  with  clubs,  whilst  en- 
gaged at  vespers  in  the  church  of  St.  Benedict 
(now  extinct).  Becket  was  a  very  imperious 
man ;  but  there  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
any  thing  in  his  conduct  to  justify  so  revengeful 
an  act ;  and,  to  the  credit  of  the  king,  he  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  a  party  to  it.  He  dispatched 
a  deputation  to  the  pope  to  exonerate  himself 
from  having  participated  in  so  foul  a  deed,  and 
the  pope  sent  two  legates  to  impose  upon  him  a 
public  penance,  in  expiation  of  the  crime.  The 
king  accordingly  proceeded  to  Canterbury,  and 
when  arrived  within  sight  of  the  city  he  dismounted 
from  his  horse,  and  walked  barefoot  to  the 
church,  and  prostrated  himself  for  a  whole  day 
before  the  shrine  of  the  murdered  bishop,  who 
had  become  canonised  as  a  saint.  On  the 
following  day  he  presented  his  back  to  the 
monks,  and  put  scourges  into  their  hands,  with 
which  they  inflicted  a  punishment  of  eighty 
lashes,  after  which  he  received  absolution. 
Henry  has  been  accused  of  hypocrisy,  in  submit- 
ting to  this  ceremony.  It  possibly  was  so;  but 
the  page  of  history  does  not  fully  justify  the 
conclusion.  After  this  event,  Canterbury  became 
the  grand  resort  of  pilgrims  from  every  part  of 
England,  as  well  as  of  numbers  from  various 
parts  of  Europe,  who  contributed  to  render  the 
shrine  of  the  martyr  one  of  the  richest  in  Chris- 
tendom ;  it  continued  so  until  Henry  VIII. 
seized  all  the  offerings,  which  were  exceedingly 
valuable,  and  appropriated  them  to  his  own  use. 
It  is  still  an  archiepiscopal  see,  and  its  incum- 
bent is  primate  of  all  England,  taking  prece- 
dence of  all  the  nobility  and  great  otiicers  of 


CAN 


110 


CAN 


state,  not  of  the  royal  blood ;  at  the  coronation 
of  the  sovereigns  of  England,  he  places  the 
crown  on  their  head  ;  the  king  and  queen,  wher- 
ever they  may  be  residing,  are  regarded  as  his 
domestic  parishioners;  his  provincial  and  sub- 
dean,  chancellor,  and  chaplain,  are  all  bishops. 
The  cathedral  is  a  noble  structure ;  its  building 
commenced  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  four  or 
five  years  after  the  murder  of  Becket,  but  was 
not  finished  till  the  reign  of  Henry  V.  It  is  514 
feet  in  length  from  west  to  east  within  the  walls ; 
the  east  transept  is  154  feet,  and  the  choir  180 
feet,  the  height  of  the  vaulted  roof  is  eighty  feet, 
and  of  the  tower  235  feet;  several  kings,  princes, 
cardinals,  and  bishops  have  been  interred  here. 
It  formerly  contained  thirty-eight  altars :  the 
shrine  of  Becket  was  placed  in  a  chapel  dedi- 
cated to  the  Holy  Trinity,  behind  the  great  altar. 
This  noble  edifice  suffered  greatly  during  the  fa- 
natical reign  of  Cromwell,  who  quartered  his  ca- 
valry within  its  walls.  It  was,  however,  thorough- 
ly repaired  after  the  Restoration.  In  1784  an 
elegant  organ  was  introduced,  and  in  1788  the 
floor  was  new  laid  with  stone;  it  has  a  most 
beautiful  window  of  stained  glass,  and  the  whole 
is  now  in  a  fine  state  of  preservation.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  cathedral,  to  which  are  attached,  be- 
side the  archbishop,  dean,  sub-dean,  and  chan- 
cellor, twelve  prebends,  six  preachers,  six  minor 
canons,  six  substitutes,  twelve  lay  clerks,  ten 
choristers,  two  masters,  fifty  scholars,  and  twelve 
almsmen ;  there  are  fifteen  other  churches ;  and 
within  the  precincts  of  the  cathedral  is  the  ar- 
chiepiscopal  palace,  and  a  grammar  school 
founded  by  Henry  VIII.  Canterbury  contains 
several  other  public  buildings,  both  ancient  and 
modern ;  among  the  former  is  the  guildhall, 
Christ  Church  gate,  &c. ;  and  among  the  latter, 
are  a  theatre  and  public  assembly  rooms  ;  a  hill 
on  the  outskirts  of  the  city  being  laid  out  with  ter- 
raced walks,  and  tastefully  planted,  forming  a 
delightful  promenade.  It  had  formerly  a  consi- 
derable manufacture  of  silk,  which  has  materially 
declined  of  late  years  ;  and  its  chief  trading  im- 
portance now  consists  in  its  extensive  thorough- 
fare ;  being  the  point  of  conveyance  to  London 
from  Dover,  Deal,  Ramsgate,  and  Margate,  tfie 
travelling  intercourse  is  very  great;  it  is  also 
the  chief  place  of  fashionable  resort  in  the  coun- 
ty, and  its  annual  races  and  periodical  assemblies 
attract  numerous  visitors:  The  surrounding 
country  is  very  fertile,  producing  great  quan- 
tities of  hops,  wheat,  and  other  grain,  and  its 
markets  on  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays  are  nu- 
merously attended.  It  has  two  springs  of  mine- 
ral water  within  the  city,  strongly  impregnated 
with  sulphur  and  steel.  The  corporation  con- 
sists of  a  mayor,  twelve  aldermen,  twenty-four 
common-council-men,  four  serjeants-at-mace, 
sheriff,  coroner,  &c.  who  hold  a  court  in  the 
guildhall  to  try  civil  and  criminal  cases  every 
Monday,  and  on  Tuesdays  for  city  affairs.  It 
returns  two  members  to  parliament.  It  some- 
what declined  in  population  during  the  twenty 
years'  war,  which  commenced  in  1793,  owing 
to  the  non-intercourse  between  London  and 
Paris,  between  which  it  is  the  great  thorough- 
fare. The  number  of  inhabitants  in  1801  was 
10,498;  in  1811  only  10,200;  but  increased  in 


1821  to  12,745.  It  is  six  miles  distant  from 
the  south  bank  of  the  Thames. 

CANTERBURY,  a  town  of  the  United  States, 
in  Connecticut,  agreeably  situated  in  VVindham 
county  on  the  west  side  of  the  river  Quim- 
aboug,  over  which  there  is  a  wooden  bridge. 
It  is  nine  miles  east  by  south  of  Windham. 

CANTERBURY  BELLS.    See  CAMPANULA. 

CANTERUS  (William),  an  eminent  linguist 
and  philologer,  was  born  at  Utrecht,  in  1542.  He 
studied  at  Louvaine  and  Paris ;  and  afterwards 
visited  the  universities  of  Germany  and  Italy. 
He  died  at  Louvaine  in  1575,  aged  thirty-three. 
He  was  master  of  six  languages,  besides  that  of 
his  native  country;  and  wrote  several  philolo- 
gical and  critical  works,  among  which  are,  Notse, 
Scholia,  Emendationes,  et  Explicationes,  in 
Euripidem,  Sophoclem,  ./Eschylum,  Ciceronem, 
Propertium,  Ausonium,  &c.  and  many  transla- 
tions of  Greek  authors. 

CANTHAR'IDES,  n.  s.  Lat.  Spanish  flies, 
used  to  raise  blisters. 

The  flies  cantharides,  are  bred  of  a  worm,  or  cater 
pillar,  but  peculiar  to  certain  fruit  trees ;  as  are  the 
fig-tree,  the  pine-tree,  and  the  wild  brier  ;  all  which 
bear  sweet  fruit,  and  fruit  that  hath  a  kind  of  secret 
biting  or  sharpness  ;  for  the  fig  hath  a  milk  in  it  that 
is  sweet  and  corrosive  ;  the  pine  apple  hath  a  kernel 
that  is  strong  and  abstersive.  Bacon's  Natural  Hist. 

CANTHARIDES,  in  medicine  and  zoology, 
a  kind  of  poisonous  insects,  much  used  as  an 
epispastic.  The  stimulating  power  of  cantharides 
is  caused  by  a  very  acrid  resinous  substance, 
contained  in  these  insects,  two  scruples  of  which 
Neumann  extracted  from  four  ounces  of  cantha- 
rides by  spirit  of  wine.  Canlharides  are  very 
sharp  and  corrosive,  abounding  with  a  subtile, 
caustic,  volatile  salt ;  whereby  they  become  ex- 
ceedingly injurious  to  the  bladder,  so  as  to  ulcerate 
it,  even  when  applied  externally,  if  suffered  to 
lie  on  too  long.  They  are  much  commended  in 
fevers,  &c.  See  MEDICINE. 

CANTHARIS,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  insects 
of  the  order  coleoptera.  The  feelers  of  this 
genus  are  setaceous ;  the  breast  is  marginated, 
and  shorter  than  the  head  ;  the  elytra,  or  wing- 
cases,  are  flexile  ;  and  the  sides  of  the  belly  are 
plated  and  papillous.  This  is  an  extremely 
rapacious  tribe,  preying  even  on  its  own  species, 
except  the  lymexylon  of  Linnaeus,  which  feed- 
on  wood.  This  numerous  and  extensive  genus 
has  been  well  divided  by  Gmelin  into  the  three 
following  sections:  1.  Those  having  four  feelers 
of  a  hatchet  shape.  2.  Having  filiform  feelers, 
with  the  last  joint  cetaceous.  These  are  the 
malachii  of  Fabricius.  3.  Fore-feelers  project- 
ing, the  last  joint  but  one  with  a  large  ovate, 
cleft  appendage;  the  last  joint  ovate,  acute. 
The  lymexylon  of  Fabricius.  The  canthaiis  is 
found  scattered  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  es 
pecially  in  Europe. 

CANTHIUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  tetrandria  class  and  monogynia  order : 
CAL.  four-toothed,  superior  :  COR.  one-petalled, 
with  a  short  inflated  tube,  and  four-parted  bor- 
der, the  mouth  downy ;  drupe  two-celled,  with 
a  one-celled  nut  in  each.  Species  only  one ;  a 
Coromandel  shrub,  with  small  yellow  flowers. 


CANT  ON. 


Ill 


CANTHUS,  n.  s.  Latin,  from  KavOoe,  the  tire 
or  iron  binding  of  a  cart  wheel ;  which  induces 
Dr.  Turton  to  suppose  that  it  originally  signified 
the  circular  extremity  of  the  eye-lid.  It  now 
means,  in  anatomy,  the  angle  or  corner  of  the 
eye.  The  internal  is  called  the  greater,  the  ex- 
ternal the  lesser  canthus. 

A  gentlewoman  was  seized  with  an  inflammation 
and  tumour  in  the  great  canthus,  or  angle  of  her  eye. 

Wiseman. 

CANTHUS,  in  chemistry,  the  lip  of  a  vessel, 
or  that  part  of  the  mouth,  which  is  a  little  hol- 
lowed, for  the  easy  pouring  off  a  liquor.  Hence 
to  decant,  is  to  pour  through  that  place. 

CANTICLES,  or  THE  SONG  OF  SOLOMON,  a 
book  of  the  Old  Testament,  is  in  the  opinion  of 
Dr.  Lowth,  an  allegorical  epithalamium  or 
nuptial  dialogue,  in  which"  the  principal  charac- 
ters are  Solomon,  his  bride,  and  a  chorus  of 
virgins.  Some  are  of  opinion  that  it  is  to  be 
taken  altogether  in  a  literal  sense ;  but  the  gene- 
rality of  Jews  and  Christians  have  esteemed  it 
wholly  allegorical,  expressing  the  union  of  Jesus 
Christ  and  the  church.  Dr.  Lowth  has  sup- 
ported this  opinion,  by  showing  that  the  sacred 
writers  often  apply  to  God  and  his  people 
metaphors  derived  from  the  conjugal  state.  Our 
Saviour  is  styled  a  bridegroom  by  John  the 
Baptist,  John  iii.  and  is  represented  in  the  same 
character  in  the  parable  of  the  ten  virgins,  and 
in  the  book  of  Revelation.  Bishop  Horsley 
says,  '  In  the  prophetical  book  of  the  Song  of 
Solomon,  the  union  of  Christ  and  his  church  is 
described  in  images  taken  entirely  from  the 
mutual  passion  and  early  love  of  Solomon  and 
his  bride.  Read  the  Song  of  Solomon,  you 
will  find  the  Hebrew  king,  if  you  know  any 
thing  of  his  history,  produced  indeed  as  the 
emblem  of  a  greater  personage ;  but  you  will 
find  him  in  every  page.'  Sermons,  vol.  1,  p.  73, 
second  edition. 

CANTII,  an  ancient  people  of  Britain,  who 
inhabited  Cantium,  now  Kent. 

CANTILIVERS,  pieces  of  wood  framed  into 
the  front  or  other  sides  of  a  house,  to  sustain 
the  moulding  and  eaves  over  it. 

CANTIMAKONS,  or  CATIMAUONS,  a  kind 
of  floats  or  rafts,  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
coast  of  Coromandel  to  fish  in,  and  to  trade  along 
the  coast.  They  are  made  of  three  or  four 
small  canoes,  or  trunks  of  trees,  dug  hollow,  and 
tied  together  with  cacao  ropes,  with  a  triangular 
sail  in  the  middle,  made  of  mats.  Those  who 
manage  them  are  almost  half  in  the  water,  there 
being  only  a  place  in  the  middle  a  little  raised  to 
hold  their  merchandise. 

CANTIUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a  pro- 
montory of  Britain,  now  named  North  Foreland. 
CANTIUM,  an  ancient  territory  in  South  Bri- 
tain whence  the  English  word  Kent  is  derived ; 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first  district  which 
received  a  colony  from  the  continent.  The  si- 
tuation of  Cantium  occasioned  its  being  much 
frequented  by  the  Romans,  who  generally  took 
their  way  through  it,  in  their  marches  to  and 
from  the  continent.  Few  places  in  Britain  are 
more  frequently  mentioned  by  the  Roman  wri- 
ters than  Portus  Rutupensis.  Portus  Dubris, 
now  Dover,  Durobrivse  and  Durovernum,  now 


Rochester  and  Canterbury,  were  also  Roman 
towns  and  stations.  Cantium,  in  the  most  per- 
fect state  of  the  Roman  government,  made  a 
part  of  the  province  called  Flavia  Caesariensis. 
See  KENT. 

CANTO ;  Arab,  kata ;  KCITOV,  icavra,  KOVTO  , 
Lat.  cento;  Ital.  canto;  a  section,  a  division,  part, 
portion,  piece.  Thus  a  division  or  section  of  a 
poem,  or  a  song. 

But  evermore  my  shield  did  me  defend 
Against  the  storme  of  every  dreadfull  stoure  : 
Thus  safely  with  my  love  I  thence  did  wend. 
So  ended  he  his  tale,  where  I  this  canto  end.  Spenser. 
Why,  what  would  you  do  ? 

— Make  a  willow  cabbin  at  your  gate, 

And  call  upon  my  soul  within  the  house  ; 

Write  loyal  cantos  of  contemned  love. 

Shakspeare.      Twelfth  Night. 
Then  should  thy  shepherd  (poorest  shepherd)  sing 

A  thousand  cantos  in  thy  heavenly  praise, 
And  rouse  his  flagging  muse,  and  fluttering  wing, 

To  chaunt  thy  wonders  in  immortal  lays. 

Fletcher's  Purple  Island. 
But  now  the  city  and  the  train  we  leave, 

To  seek  the  duke  and  make  his  fortune  known  ; 
And  how  the  rest  the  dreadful  news  receive, 

Shall  be  in  the  succeeding  cantos  shown.  day. 

CANTON,  v.  a.  &  n.   }     Fr.   c.unton ;    Lat. 

CAN'TONIZE,  v.  a.  fcenlena.  See  CANTO. 

CAN'TONMENT.  j  A  small  parcel  or  di- 

vision of  land.  A  small  community,  or  clan.  To 
divide  into  little  parts.  To  parcel  out  into  small 
divisions. 

The  same  is  the  case  of  rovers  by  land  ;  such  as 
yet,  are  some  cantons  in  Arabia,  and  some  petty  kings 
of  the  mountains  adjacent  to  straits  and  ways. 

Bacon's  Holy  War 

Thus  was  all  Ireland  cantonized  among  ten  persons 
of  the  English  nation.  Davies  on  Ireland. 

The  whole  forest  was  in  a  manner  cantonized  amongst 
a  very  few  in  number,  of  whom  some  had  regal  rights. 

Howel. 

Only  that  little  canton  of  land,  called  the  English 
pale,  containing  four  small  shires,  did  maintain  a  bor- 
dering war  with  the  Irish,  and  retain  the  form  of 
English  government.  Davies. 

Families  shall  quit  all  subjection  to  him,  and  can- 
ton his  empire  into  less  governments  for  themselves. 

Locke. 

It  would  certainly  be  for  the  good  of  mankind,  to 
have  all  the  mighty  empires  and  monarchies  of  the 
world  cantoned  out  into  petty  states  and  principalities. 

Addison  on  Italy. 

They  canton  out  to  themselves  a  little  province  in 
the  intellectual  world,  where  they  fancy  the  light 
shines,  and  all  the  rest  is  in  darkness. 

Watts  on  the  Mind. 

CANTON,  a  city,  sea-port,  and  capital  of 
Quantong,  the  most  southern  province  of  China, 
and  the  only  port  in  that  vast  empire  with  which 
Europeans  are  permitted  to  hold  any  intercourse. 
It  is  finely  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  a  noble 
river,  which,  by  numerous  collateral  branches, 
intersects  all  the  southern  part  of  the  empire; 
one  branch  is  from  the  north,  which,  by  a  portage 
of  only  one  day's  journey,  communicates  with, 
the  great  chain  of  inland  waters  extending  to 
Pekin,  and  intersecting  every  intermediate  pro 
vince,  thereby  affording  a  facility  of  conveyance 
by  water,  which  renders  Canton  peculiarly  well 


112 


CANTON. 


adapted  for  the  great  outport  of  the  empire.  The 
harbour  is  very  commodious,  and,  being  sheltered 
by  several  small  islands,  it  affords  secure  moor- 
ings for  the  innumerable  barks  and  junks  which 
navigate  the  inland  waters ;  all  the  foreign  ships 
anchor  several  miles  distant  from  the  town,  not 
on  account  of  the  incapacity  of  the  harbour  to 
accommodate  them,  but  from  the  peculiarly 
jealous  policy  of  the  Chinese,  which  seems  to 
•dread  nothing  so  much  as  sociality  of  intercourse. 
Canton  consists  of  three  towns,  divided  by  high 
walls,  but  so  conjoined  as  to  form  almost  a  regu-  ' 
lar  square.  The  streets  are  long  and  straight, 
paved  with  flag-stones,  and  adorned  with  trium- 
phal arches.  The  houses  in  general  have  only 
one  floor,  built  of  earth  or  brick,  some  of  them 
fantastically  colored,  and  covered  with  tiles. 
The  better  class  of  people  are  carried  about  in 
chairs ;  but  the  common  sort  walk  barefooted 
and  bareheaded.  At  the  end  of  every  street  is 
a  barrier,  which  is  shut  every  evening,  as  well  as 
the  gates  of  the  city.  The  Europeans  and  Ameri- 
cans occupy  a  range  of  buildings  termed  the 
factories,  fronting  a  spacious  quay  along  the  bank 
of  the  river,  without  the  city,  which  no  foreigner 
is  permitted  to  enter  without  the  special  permis- 
sion of  the  viceroy,  which  is  very  seldom 
obtained.  The  foreign  trade  of  Canton  re- 
solves itself  into  a  monopoly  more  peculiar 
and  oppressive  than  anywhere  else  exists;  it  is 
vested  in  twelve  persons,  precisely  on  the  same 
principle  as  the  twelve  Jews  are  permitted 
to  act  as  brokers  in  the  city  of  London ;  each 
paying  a  large  premium  for  the  privilege  of 
trading,  or,  in  other  words,  as  far  as  the  princi- 
ple applies  in  China,  for  the  privilege  of  extort- 
ing from,  and  oppressing  the  producers  of  the 
commodities  in  which  they  trade-  There  is, 
however,  this  difference  in  China :  though  the 
whole  of  the  twelve  individuals  trade  on  separate 
accounts,  they  are  collectively  amenable,  as  well 
to  foreigners  as  to  the  government,  for  any  de- 
fault or  mulct  imposed  upon  any  one  or  more  of 
them  individually  ;  whereas  each  of  the  Jew  bro- 
kers of  London  is  responsible  only  for  his 
own  acts.  In  addition  to  the  external  commerce 
of  Canton,  it  also  appears  to  be  the  seat  of 
almost  every  branch  of  manufacture,  more  espe- 
cially of  silks  and  household  gods ;  the  manu- 
facture of  the  latter,  in  consequence  of  there 
being  no  public  worship  in  China,  and  every  house 
having  its  own  collection  of  idols,  forms  one  of 
the  most  important  branches  of  occupation.  The 
main  article  of  export  from  Canton  is  Tea,  which 
since  1798,  to  England  alone,  has  averaged  about 
25,000,000  of  Ibs.,  whilst  to  America  and  other 
parts  (since  1815  more  especially)  it  has  been 
gradually  increasing,  making  an  aggregate  ave- 
rage quantity  annually  exported  at  the  period  of 
1826,  of  about  40,000,000  Ibs.  The  other 
principal  articles  exported  to  England  are  raw 
silk  and  nankeens,  of  the  former  about  250,000 
Ibs.  weight,  and  of  the  latter,  about  600,000 
pieces,  of  four  and  seven  yards  each,  annually  ; 
a  few  manufactured  silks  and  crapes,  porcelain 
vases,  fans,  ivory  chess-men,  fancy  boxes,  and 
other  toys,  soy,  and  ink,  constitute  the  remaining 
exports  to  England,  which  employ  about  twenty- 
five  sail  of  ships  annually,  .of  about  1200  tons 


each ;  the  reimbursement  by  the  English  for  the 
above  productions  is  made  in  cotton  wool,  opium, 
and  some  other  articles,  from  Bombay  and  Ben- 
gal, and  in  woollen  cloths,  lead,  &c.  from  Eng- 
land, to  the  amount  of  about  £700,000  annually. 
In  addition  to  the  trade  direct  to  England,  there 
is  also  an  extensive  traffic  on  English  account 
between  the  different  ports  of  India  and  Canton, 
which  consists  in  a  reciprocal  interchange  of  the 
productions  of  the  respective  countries,  and  in 
which  porcelain  and  paper  form  considerable 
articles  of  export  from  Canton.  The  intercourse 
of  America  with  Canton,  on  the  part  of  America, 
is  maintained*  with  furs  from  the  North-west 
coast,  sandal-wood,  and  the  edible  birds'  nests, 
collected  among  the  eastern  islands,  and  with 
dollars ;  a  considerable  portion  of  the  tea  ex- 
ported in  American  ships,  being  on  account  and 
risk  of  the  Chinese  merchants,  more  especially 
the  portion  brought  to  Hamburgh,  Antwerp,  and 
other  European  ports,  is  wholly  reimbursed  in 
specie.  The  imposts  of  the  government  on  its 
external  commerce  are  levied  on  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  shipping  entering  and  leaving  the 
port.  The  following  statement  of  the  amount  of 
duties  returned  to  the  Chinese  treasury,  for  the 
year  1822,  will  best  show  the  extent  and  pro- 
portion of  the  three  great  branches  into  which 
the  external  commerce  of  Canton  resolves  itself: 
viz.  1st,  that  with  the  English  East  India  Com- 
pany; 2d,  that  with  the  different  ports  of  British 
India  ;  3d,  that  with  America  : — 

On  Import.  On  Export. 

Eng.  East  Ind.  Comp.     395,112  460,042 

Country  Trade  .     .     .     118,533  80,623 

America 276,578  339,409 


Total  Tale 


880,074 


The  tale  being  only  equal  to  6s.  8d.  of  English 
money,  the  whole  impost  will  be  seen  to  amount, 
according  to  the  above  statement,  to  only 
£556,800,  not  equal  to  the  amount  levied  on  the 
single  article  of  coals  alone,  at  the  port  of  Lon- 
don ;  and  yet  such  is  the  extent  and  insidious 
nature  of  the  intermediate  oppression  of  the  Chi- 
nese hong  (or  council,  which  is  the  term  by 
which  the  twelve  privileged  merchants  of  Can- 
ton are  collectively  called)  on  one  side ;  and  the 
English  East  India  Company  on  the  other  ;  that 
whilst  the  25,000,000  Ibs.  of  tea  annually  con- 
sumed in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  costs  the  con- 
sumer, on  an  average,  at  least  7s.  per  lb.,  it  does 
not  yield  to  the  producer,  including  the  inland 
conveyance  to  Canton,  an  average  of  3£d.  per  lb. 

In  1823  several  thousand  houses  in  Can- 
ton were  destroyed  by  fire,  but  the  ground  has 
since  been  rebuilt  upon.  The  population  has 
been  estimated  at  about  1,500,000,  but  more 
recent  accounts  imply  that  the  extent  of  popu- 
lation, not  only  of  Canton,  but  of  China  gene- 
rally, has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  See  on 
this  head  CHINA,  and  more  particularly  QUANG- 
TONG.  It  is  in  the  lat.  of  23°  8'  N.,  and  113°  2' 
of  E.  long.,  being  16°  47',  or  about  1190  British 
statute  miles  south  by  west  of  Pekin,  the  metro- 
polis of  the  empire. 

CANTON  (John),  an  ingenious  natural  philo- 
sopher, born  at  Stroud,  in  Gloucestershire,  in 


CANTON. 


113 


1718.  lie  was  placed,  when  young,  under  the 
care  of  Mr.  Davis,  a  very  able  mathematician, 
and  had  made  some  progress  in  algebra  and 
astronomy,  when  his  father  took  him  from 
school,  and  put  him  to  learn  his  own  business, 
of  a  broad  cloth  weaver.  This  was  not  able  to 
damp  his  zeal  for  knowledge.  His  leisure  was 
devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  astronomical 
science  ;  and,  by  the  help  of  the  Caroline  tables 
annexed  to  Wing's  Astronomy,  he  computed 
eclipses  of  the  moon  and  other  phenomena. 
lie  also  at  this  time  computed  and  cut  upon 
stone,  with  no  better  an  instrument  than  a  com- 
mon knife,  the  lines  of  a  large  upright  sun-dial, 
on  which,  besides  the  hour  of  the  day,  was 
shown  the  rising  of  the  sun,  his  place  in  the 
ecliptic,  &c.  When  this  was  finished  and  made 
known  to  his  father,  he  permitted  it  to  be  placed 
against  the  front  of  his  house,  where  it  excited 
the  admiration  of  several  gentlemen  in  the 
neighbourhood,  which  was  followed  by  the  offer 
to  this  youth  of  the  use  of  their  libraries.  In 
one  of  these  he  found  Martin's  Philosophical 
Grammar,  which  was  the  first  book  that  gave 
him  a  taste  for  natural  philosophy.  In  the  pos- 
session of  another  gentleman,  a  few  miles  from 
Stroud,  he  first  saw  a  pair  of  globes ;  an  object 
that  afforded  him  uncommon  pleasure,  from  the 
great  ease  with  which  he  could  solve  those  pro- 
blems he  had  hitherto  been  accustomed  to  com- 
pute. Among  other  persons  with  whom  he  be- 
came acquainted  in  early  life,  was  the  ingenious 
Dr.  Miles,  of  Tooting,  who,  perceiving  that 
Canton  possessed  abilities  too  promising  to  be 
confined  within  the  narrow  limits  of  a  country 
town,  prevailed  on  his  father  to  permit  him  to 
rome  to  London.  After  having  served  five 
years  as  clerk  to  Mr.  Watkins,  of  the  academy 
at  Spital  Square,  he  was  taken  into  partnership, 
and  succeeded  him  in  the  academy,  where  he 
continued  during  life.  Towards  the  end  of  1749, 
he  undertook  experiments  to  determine  to  what 
height  rockets  may  be  made  to  ascend,  and  at 
what  distance  their  light  may  be  seen.  In  1750 
was  read  at  the  Royal  Society,  his  method  of 
making  artificial  magnets,  without  the  use  of, 
and  yet  far  superior  to,  any  natural  ones.  This 
paper  procured  him  the  honor  of  being  elected 
a  member  of  the  Society,  and  the  present  of 
their  gold  medal.  The  same  year  he  was  com- 
plimented with  the  degree  of 'M.A.  by  the  uni- 
versity of  Aberdeen  ;  and,  in  1751,  was  chosen 
one  of  the  council  of  the  Royal  Society.  In 
1752  he  was  so  fortunate  as  to  be  the  first  per- 
son in  England,  who,  by  attracting  the  electric 
fire  from  the  clouds  during  a  thunder-storm, 
verified  Dr.  Franklin's  hypothesis  of  the  simi- 
larity of  lightning  and  electricity.  Next  year, 
his  paper  entitled,  Electrical  Experiments,  with 
an  attempt  to  account  for  their  several  Pheno- 
mena, was  read  to  the  Royal  Society.  In  the 
same  paper  Mr.  Canton  mentioned  his  having 
discovered,  by  a  great  number  of  experiments, 
that  some  clouds  were  in  a  positive,  and  some  in 
a  negative  state  of  electricity.  In  the  Lady's 
Dairy  for  1756  our  author  answered  the  prize 
question  that  had  been  proposed  in  the  preced- 
ing year ;  viz, '  How  can  what  we  call  the  shoot- 
ing of  stars  be  best  accounted  for:  what  is  the 
VOL.  V. 


substince  of  this  phenomenon  ;    and   in  what 
state  of  the  atmosphere  doth  it  most  frequently 
show  itself?'     Our  philosopher's  next  communi- 
cation to  the  public  was  a  letter  in  the  Gentle- 
man's Magazine  for  September,  1759,  on   the 
electrical  properties  of  the  tourmalin,  in  which 
the  laws  of  that  wonderful  stone  are  laid  down 
in  a  very  concise  and  elegant  manner.     On  De- 
cember 13th,  in  the  same  year,  was  read  at  the 
Royal  Society,  An  attempt  to  account  for  the 
regular  diurnal  variation  of  the  Horizontal  Mag- 
netic Needle ;  and  also  for  its  irregular  variation 
at  the  time  of  an  Aurora  Borealis.     A  complete 
year's  observations  of  the  diurnal  variations  of 
the  needle  are  annexed  to  the  paper.    On  Novem- 
ber 5th,  1761,  he  communicated  to  the  Royal 
Society   an   account   of  the  Transit  of  Venus, 
June  6th,  1761,  observed  in  Spital  Square.    His 
next  communication  was  a  letter  addressed  to 
Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  read  February  4th, 
1762,  containing  some  remarks  on  Mr.  Delaval's 
electrical   experiments.      On    December    16th, 
1762,  another  curious  addition  was  made  by  him 
to  philosophical  knowledge,  in  a  paper,  entitled, 
Experiments  to  Prove  that  Water  is  not  Incom- 
pressible.     These  experiments  are  a  complete 
refutation  of  the  famous  Florentine  experiment, 
which  so  many  philosophers  have  mentioned  as 
a  proof  of  the  incompressibility  of  water.     On 
St.  Andrew's  day,  1763,  he  was  elected  the  third 
time  one  of  the  council  of  the  Royal   Society  ; 
and    on  November  8th,  in  the  following  year, 
were  read,  before  that  learned  body,  his  farther 
Experiments  and  Observations  on  the  Compressi- 
bility of  Water,   and   some   other  fluids.     The 
establishment  of  this  fact,  in  opposition  to  the 
received  opinion,  formed  on  the  hasty  decision 
of  the  Florentine  Academy,  was  thought  to  be 
deserving  of  the  Society's  gold  medal.     It  was 
accordingly  moved  for  in  the  council  of  1764; 
and  after  several  invidious  delays,  which  ter- 
minated much  to  the  honor  of  Mr.  Canton,  'it 
was  presented  to  him  November,   30th,   1765. 
His  next  communication  to  the  Royal  Society 
was  on  December  22nd,  1768,  An  easy  Method 
of  Making  a  Phosphorus,  that  will  imbibe  and 
emit  light  like  the  Bolognian  Stone ;   with  Ex- 
periments  and    Observations.     The    dean   and 
chapter  of  St.  Paul's  having  in  a  letter  to  the 
president,  dated  March  6th,  1769,  requested  the 
opinion  of  the  Royal  Society  relative  to  the  best 
and   most  effectual  method  of  fixing  electrical 
conductors  to  preserve  that  cathedral  from  dam- 
age by  lightning,  Mr.  Canton  was  one  of  the 
committee  appointed  to  take  the  letter  into  con- 
sideration, and  to  report  their  opinion  upon  it. 
The  other   members   were,   Dr.    Watson,    Dr. 
Franklin,  Mr.  Delaval,  and  Mr.  Wilson.    Their 
report  was  made  on  the  8th  of  June  following  ; 
and    the   mode    recommended   by   them    was 
carried' into  execution.     The  last  paper  of  our 
author's,  which  was  read  before  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, was  on  December  21st,  1769;  and  con- 
tained Experiments  to  prove  that  the  Luminous- 
ness  of  the  Sea  arises  from   the  Putrefaction  of 
its  Animal  Substances.     Besides  the  above,  he 
wrote  a  number  of  papers,  which  appeared  in 
different  publications,  particularly  the  Gentle- 
man's Magazine.     He  fell  into  a  dropsy,  which 


CAN 


114 


CAN 


carried  him  off,  March  22nd,  1772,  in  tne  fifty- 
fourth  year  of  his  age.  • 

CANTONING,  in  the  military  art,  is  the  al- 
lotting distinct  and  separate  quarters  to  eacli 
regiment ;  the  town  where  they  are  quartered 
being  divided  into  as  many  cantons  as  there  are 
regiments. 

CAN'TRED,  n.  s.  The  same  in  Wales  as  an 
hundred  in  England.  For  cantre,  in  the  British 
language,  signifieth  an  hundred. 

The  king  rogrants  to  him  all  that  province,  reserving 
only  the  city  of  Dublin,  and  the  cantreds  next  adjoin- 
ing and  the  maritime  towns.  Dames  on  Ireland. 

CANT-TIMBERS,  in  ship-building,  those 
timbers  which  are  situated  at  the  two  ends  of  a 
ship.  They  derive  their  name  from  being  canted, 
or  raised  obliquely  from  the  keel ;  in  contra- 
distinction from  those  whose  planes  are  per- 
pendicular to  it.  The  upper  ends  of  those  on 
the  bow,  or  fore  part  of  the  ship,  are  inclined  to 
the  stern;  as  those  in  the  after,  or  hind  part, 
incline  to  the  stern-post  above.  See  SIIIP- 
BUILDING. 

CANTUA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
pentandria  class,  and  monogynia  order :  CAL. 
five  or  three  cleft :  COR.  funnel-shaped :  STIG. 
three-cleft:  CAPS,  three-valved,  three-celled, 
many-seeded :  SEEDS  winged.  Species  four; 
natives  of  South  America. 

CANTY,  adj.  Goth,  hat;  kiat;  Swed.  katja; 
gay,  joyful,  wanton;  whence,  Fr.  catin,  a 
woman  of  pleasure. 

CANVAS,  in  commerce,  a  very  clear  un- 
bleached cloth  of  hemp  or  flax,  woven  regularly 
in  little  squares.  It  is  used  for  working  tapes- 
try with  the  needle,  by  passing  the  threads  of 
gold,  silver,  silk,  or  wool,  through  the  intervals 
of  squares.  Also  a  coarse  cloth  of  hemp,  un- 
bleached, somewhat  clear,  which  serves  to  cover 
women's  stays ;  to  stiffen  men's  clothes,  and  to 
make  some  other  of  their  wearing  apparel,  &c. 

CANVAS,  among  painters,  is  the  cloth  on 
which  they  usually  draw  their  pictures ;  the  can- 
vas being  smoothed  over  with  a  slick-stone, 
then  fixed,  and  afterwards  whited  over,  makes 
what  the  painters  call  their  primed  cloth,  on 
which  they  draw  their  first  sketches  with  coal  or 
chalk,  and  afterwards  finish  with  colors. 

CANVAS  is  also  used  among  the  French  for 
the  model  or  first  words  whereon  an  air  or  piece 
of  music  is  composed,  and  given  to  a  poet  to 
regulate  and  finish.  The  canvas  of  a  song  con- 
tains certain  notes  of  the  composer,  which  show 
the  poet  the  measure  of  the  verses  he  is  to 
make. 

CAN'VASS,  v.  a.  &  n.  I      Per.   kanu;    Lat. 

CAN'VASSING,  \  cannabis;  Fr.  cane- 

vas;  Ital.  canavaccio.  Coarse  hempen  cloth, 
woven  for  several  uses ;  as  sails,  painting  cloths, 
tents.  It  is  also  so  constructed  as  to  be  a  sifting 
cloth,  through  which  the  lighter  particles  pass ; 
but  the  grosser  matter  is  retained.  Thus  it  is 
metaphorically  applied  to  sift,  to  examine;  to 
sifting  voices,  or  trying  them,  previously  to  the 
decisive  act  of  voting :  also  to  debate,  to  discuss ; 
to  separate  the  truth  from  error,  as  the  sieve  or 
canvass  separates,  by  the  act  of  straining,  the 
heterogeneous  mixtures  that  may  be  put  into  it. 


The  master  commanded  forthwith  to  set  on  all  the 
canvats  they  could,  and  fly  homeward.  Sidney. 

And  eke  the  pens  that  did  his  pinions  bind, 
Were  like  main  yards  with  flying  canvass  lin'd. 

Spenser. 
Eftsoones  her  shallow  ship  away  did  slide, 

More  swift  than  swallow  shores  the  liquid  sky, 
Withouten  oare  or  pilot  it  to  guide, 

Or  winged  canvas  with  the  wind  to  fly ; 
Onely  she  turn'd  a  pin ;  and  by  and  by, 
It  cut  away  upon  the  yielding  wave.  Spenser. 

There  be  that  can  pack  cards,  and  yet  cannot  play 
well  :  so  there  are  some  that  are  good  in  canvasses 
and  factions,  that  are  otherwise  weak  men.  Bacon. 

Elizabeth  being  to  resolve  upon  an  officer,  and 
being,  by  some  that  canvassed  for  others,  put  in  some 
doubt  of  that  person  she  meant  to  advance,  said,  she 
was  like  one  with  a  lanthorn  seeking  a  man.  Id. 

The  curs  discovered  a  raw  hide  in  the  bottom  of  a 
river,  and  laid  their  heads  together  how  to  come  at  it : 
they  canvassed  the  matter  one  way  and  t'other,  and 
concluded,  that  the  way  to  get  it,  was  to  drink  their 
•way  to  it.  L'Estrange. 

Their  canvass  castles  up  they  quickly  rear, 
And  build  a  city  in  a  hour's  space.  Fairfax. 

Where'er  thy  navy  spreads  her  canvass  wings, 
Homage  to  thee,  and  peace  to  all,  she  brings.  Waller. 

Spread  a  large  canvass,  painter,  to  contain 
The  great  assembly  and  the  numerous  train.  Marvell. 

This  crime  of  canvassing,  or  soliciting,  for  church 
preferment,  is,  by  the  canon  law,  called  simony. 

Ayliffe's  Parergon, 
Thou,  Kneller,  long  with  noble  pride, 

The  foremost  of  thy  art  hast  vied 

With  nature  in  a  generous  strife, 

And  touch'd  the  canvass  into  life.  Addison. 

So  when  a  general  bids  the  martial  train 
Spread  their  encampment  o'er  the  spacious  plain  ;     ' 
Thick  rising  tents  a  canvass  city  build, 
And  the  loud  dice  resound  thro'  all  the  field.       Gay. 

Happy  the  maid,  who,  from  green  sickness  free, 
In  canvass  or  in  Holland  pocket  bears 
A  crooked  sixpence.  Bramston. 

Then  towered  the  masts  ;  the  canvass  swelled  on  high  j 
And  waving  streamers  floated  in  the  sky. 

Falconer's  Shipwreck. 

CANULA.     See  CANNULA. 

CANUSIUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town 
of  Apulia,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Aufidus, 
west  of  Cannae  ;  whither  the  Romans  fled  after 
the  defeat  sustained  there.  It  was  founded  by 
Diomede,  and  afterwards  became  a  Roman 
colony.  It  was  famous  for  its  red  shining  wool ; 
whence  those  who  wore  clothes  made  of  it  were 
called  Canusinati.  It  is  now  called  CANOSA  ; 
which  see. 

CANUTE,  the  first  Danish  king  of  England. 
He  married  Emma,  widow  of  king  Ethelred  , 
and  put  to  death  several  persons  of  quality  who 
stood  in  his  way  to  the  crown.  Having  thus 
settled  his  power  in  England,  he  made  a  voyage 
to  his  kingdom  of  Denmark,  in  order  to  resist  the 
attacks  of  the  king  of  Sweden ;  and  carried  along 
with  him  a  great  body  of  the  English,  under  the 
command  of  Earl  Godwin.  This  nobleman  was 
stationed  next  the  Swedish  camp;  and  observing 
a  favourable  opportunity,  he  attacked  the  enemy 
in  the  night,  drove  them  from  their  trenches,  and 
obtained  a  decisive  victory.  In  another  voyage 
which  he  afterwards  made  to  Denmark,  Canute 
attacked  Norway,  and  expelled  the  just  but  un- 
warlike  Olaus  from  his  kingdom,  of  which  he 


CAO 


115 


CAP 


kept  possession  till  the  deatli  of  that  prince.  By 
a  spirit  of  devotion,  no  less  than  by  his  equitable 
administration,  he  gained  in  a  great  measure  the 
affections  of  his  subjects.  Some  of  his  flatterers 
breaking  out  one  day  in  admiration  of  his  gran- 
tleur,  exclaimed,  that  every  thing  was  possible 
for  him  :  upon  which  the  monarch,  it  is  said, 
ordered  a  chair  to  be  set  on  the  sea  shore 
while  the  tide  was  making  ;  and,  as  the  waters 
approached,  he  commanded  them  to  retire,  and 
to  obey  the  voice  of  him  who  was  lord  of  the 
ocean.  He  feigned  to  sit  some  time  in  expecta- 
tion of  their  submission  ;  but  when  the  sea  still 
advanced  towards  him,  and  began  to  wash  him 
with  its  billows,  he  turned  to  his  courtiers,  and 
remarked  to  them,  that  every  creature  in  the 
universe  was  feeble  and  impotent,  and  that 
power  resided  with  one  Being  alone,  in  whose 
hands  were  all  the  elements  of  nature,  who 
could  say  to  the  ocean,  '  thus  far  shall  thou  go, 
and  no  farther,'  and  who  could  level  with  his 
nod  the  most  towering  piles  of  human  pride  and 
ambition.  From  this  time,  it  is  said,  he  never 
would  wear  a  crown.  He  died  in  the  twentieth 
year  of  his  reign ;  andwas  interred  at  Winchester. 

CANZONE,  in  music,  signifies,  in  general,  a 
song,  where  some  little  fugues  are  introduced : 
but  it  is  sometimes  used  for  a  sort  of  Italian 
poem,  usually  long,  to  which  music  may  be 
composed  in  the  style  of  a  cantata.  If  this  term 
be  added  to  a  piece  of  instrumental  music,  it 
signifies  much  the  same  as  cantata  :  if  placed  in 
any  part  of  a  sonata,  it  implies  the  same  meaning 
as  allegro,  and  only  denotes  that  the  part  to 
which  it  is  prefixed  is  to  be  played  or  sung  in  a 
brisk  and  lively  manner. 

CAN'ZONET,  n.  s.  Ital.  canxonetta.  A  lit- 
tle song. 

Vecchi  was  most  pleasing  of  all  others,  for  his  con- 
ceit and  variety,  as  well  his  madrigals  as  canzonets. 

Peacham. 

CAOUTCHOUC,  or  Indian  rubber,  an  elastic 
gum,  produced  from  the  jatropha  elastica  and 
other  plants  of  South  America,  and  possessed  of 
the  most  singular  properties.  No  substance  is 
yet  known  which  is  so  pliable,  and  at  the  same 
time  so  elastic ;  and  it  is  capable  of  resisting  the 
action  of  very  powerful  menstrua.  The  Indians 
make  boots  of  it,  which  water  cannot  penetrate, 
and  which,  when  smoked,  have  the  appearance 
of  real  leather;  bottles  are  also  made  of  it. 
Flambeaux,  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and 
two  feet  long,  are  likewise  made  of  this  resin, 
they  give  a  beautiful  light,  have  no  bad  smell, 
and  bum  twelve  hours.  A  kind  of  cloth  is  also 
prepared  from  it,  which  the  inhabitants  of  Quito 
apply  to  the  same  purposes  as  our  oil-cloth  and 
sail-cloth.  It  is  formed  by  moulds  into  a  variety 
of  figures  for  use  and  ornament.  The  great 
Frederick  king  of  Prussia  had  a  pair  of  boots 
made  of  caoutchouc.  A  mould  of  wrought  clay, 
the  exact  figure  of  his  leg,  was  covered  with 
ethereal  solution  of  caoutchouc,  laid  on  in  alter- 
nate layers  by  a  brush,  until  it  acquired  the 
proper  thickness  ;  the  whole  was  then  held  over 
a  strong  smoke  of  burning  vegetables,  to  harden 
into  the  texture  and  appearance  of  leather. 
When  the  whole  was  thus  prepared,  the  inside 


mould  was  broken  and  taken  out.  To  form  this 
resin  into  small  tubes,  M.  Macquer  prepared  a 
solid  cylindrical  mould  of  wax,  of  the  desired 
size  and  shape,  and  then,  dipping  a  pencil  into 
the  ethereal  solution  of  the  resin,  coated  the 
mould  over  with  it,  till  he  had  covered  it  with  a 
coat  of  resin  of  a  sufficient  thickness.  He  then 
threw  the  whole  piece  into  boiling  water;  by  the 
heat  of  which  the  wax  soon  melted,  and  rising  to 
the  surface  left  the  resinous  tube  completely 
formed.  Mr.  Macintosh  has  a  patent  for  cloth 
rendered  water-proof  with  a  solution  of  caout- 
chouc. If  linseed  oil  be  rendered  very  drying  by 
digesting  it  upon  an  oxide  of  lead,  and  afterwards 
applied  with  a  small  brush  on  any  surface,  and 
dried  by  the  sun  or  in  the  smoke,  it  makes  an  ar- 
tificial caoutchouc,  and  it  will  afford  a  pellicle  of 
considerable  firmness,  transparent,  burning  like 
caoutchouc,  and  wonderfully  elastic.  A  pound 
of  this  oil,  spread  upon  a  stone,  and  exposed  to 
the  air  for  six  or  seven  months,  acquires  almost 
aty  the  other  properties  of  caoutchouc  :  it  is  used 
to  make  catheters  and  bougies,  to  varnish  bal- 
loons, and  for  other  purposes.  It  will  also  answer 
the  same  end  in  rubbing  out  pencil  marks. 

CAP,  n.  &  v.  a.  Welsh  cap ;  Sax.  caeppe  ; 
Germ,  cappe ;  Ft.  cappe  ;  Ital.  cuppa;  Span,  cap- 
pa.;  Dan.  and  Dutch  kappe;  Lat.  caput;  a  head. 
A  covering  for  the  head,  that  which  is  usually 
worn ;  and  a  vessel,  used  by  divers,  to  protect 
the  head,  and  secure  free  respiration,  when  under 
water.  Anything  that  covers  the  top,  or  that 
which  is  topmost  and  highest.  It  is  technically 
applied  to  a  piece  of  lead,  laid  over  the  touch- 
hole  of  a  gun,  to  preserve  the  prime.  The  cap 
of  maintenance  is  one  of  the  regalia,  carried  be- 
fore the.  king  at  his  coronation.  To  cap,  is  to 
cover  the  head  ;  to  make  a  reverence  by  uncover- 
ing it.  To  protect  that  by  covering,  which  ex- 
posure would  injure  or  weaken.  It  also  signi- 
fies to  contend,  from  Goth,  and  Swed.  kapp ; 
Sax.  camp,  to  contest ;  see  To  COPE.  Thus  it  has 
been  applied  to  striving  for  the  mastery,  and  to 
rival  conflicts,  whether  personal,  literary,  or  skil- 
ful, for  superiority.  To  cap  verses  is  to  name, 
alternately,  verses  beginning  with  a  particular 
letter ;  to  name  in  opposition  to  emulation  ;  to 
name,  alternately,  in  contest.  To  cap,  is  likewise 
to  deprive  of  the  cap  ;  to  take  it  by  force  or  fraud. 
Shakspeare  uses  the  noun  in  the  same  sense  in 
which  we  now  apply  the  term  hat  as  the  ensign 
of  the  cardinalate. 

For  I  wol  tell  a  legend  and  a  lif 
Both  of  a  carpenter  and  of  his  wif, 
How  that  a  clerk  hath  the  wrighte's  cappe. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

If  one,  by  another  occasion,  take  any  thing  from 
another,  as  boys  sometimes  use  to  cap  one  another, 
the  same  is  straight  felony.  Spenser  on  Ireland. 

Here  is  the  cap  your  worship  did  bespeak. — 
— Why,  this  was  moulded  on  a  poringer, 
A  velvet  dish.         Shakspeare.      Taming  of  the  Shrew 

I  have  ever  held  rny  cap  off  to  thy  fortune. — 
— Thou  hast  served  me  with  much  faith.  Id. 

Three  great  ones  of  the  city, 
In  personal  suit  to  make  me  his  lieutenant, 
Oft  capped  to  him  : — and  by  the  faitli  of  man, 
I  know  my  price,  I  "in  worth  no  worse  a  place. 

S/iakitpeare.   Othello. 
I  2 


CAP 


116 


CAP 


They  morfi  and  less  came  in  with  cap  and  knee, 
Met  him  m  boroughs,  cities,  villages.      Id.  Henry  IV. 

Thou  art  the  cap  of  all  the  fools  alive.    Id.    Timon. 

Enicus,  king  of  Sweden,  had  an  inchanted  cap,  by 
virtue  of  which,  and  some  magical  murmur  or  whis- 
pering terms,  he  could  command  spirits,  trouble  the 
ayre,  and  make  the  wind  stand  which  way  he  would  ; 
insomuch,  that  when  there  was  any  great  wind  or 
storm,  the  common  people  were  wont  to  say  the  king 
now  had  on  his  conjuring  cap.  Burton.  Anat.  Mel. 

At  the  court  gate  met  him  four  noblemen  in  cloth 
of  gold,  and  rich  fur  caps,  embroidered  with  pearl  and 
stone.  Milton.  Hist.  Moscovia, 

The  bones  next  the  joint  are  capped  with  a  smooth 
cartilaginous  substance,  serving  both  to  strength  and 
motion.  Derham. 

Where  Henderson  and  the  other  masses, 
Were  sent  cap  texts,  and  put  cases.       Hudibras. 

Sure  it  is  a  pitiful  pretence  to  ingenuity  that  can 
be  thus  kept  up,  there  being  little  need  of  any  other 
faculty  but  memory,  to  cap  texts. 

Government  of  the  Tongue. 

There  is  an  author  of  ours,  whom  I  would  desire 
him  to  read,  before  lie  ventures  at  capping  characters. 

A  tier  bury. 

First,  lolling  sloth,  in  woollen  cap, 
Taking  her  after  dinner  nap.  Swift. 

CAP,  in  ship-building,  a  strong,  thick,  block  of 
•wood,  used  to  confine  two  masts  together,  when 
one  is  erected  at  the  head  of  the  other  in  order 
to  lengthen  it.  It  is  furnished  with  two  holes, 
perpendicular  to  its  length  and  breadth,  and 
parallel  to  its  thickness :  one  of  these  is  square 
and  the  other  round  ;  the  former  being  solidly 
fixed  upon  the  upper  end  of  the  lower  mast, 
whilst  the  latter  receives  the  mast  employed  to 
lengthen  it,  and  secures  it  in  this  position.  The 
breadth  of  all  caps  is  equal  to  twice  the  diameter 
of  the  top-mast,  and  the  length  to  twice  the 
breadth.  The  thickness  of  the  main  and  fore- 
caps  is  half  the  diameter  of  their  breadths ;  the 
mizen-cap  three-sevenths,  and  the  top-mast  caps 
two-fifths  of  their  respective  breadths. 

CAPS,  ANCIENT.  The  Romans  were  many  ages 
without  any  regular  covering  for  the  head :  when 
either  the  rain  or  sun  was  troublesome,  the  lappet 
of  the  gown  was  thrown  over  the  head  ;  and 
hence  it. is  that  all  the  ancient  statues  appear 
bare-headed,  excepting  sometimes  a  wreath  or 
the  like.  And  the  same  usage  obtained  among 
•the  Greeks,  where,  at  least  during  the  heroic  age, 
no  caps  were  known.  The  sort  of  caps  or  covers 
of  the  head  in  use  among  the  Romans  on  divers 
occasions,  were  the  pitra,  pileus,  cucullus,  galerus, 
and  palliolum;  the  differences  between  which  are 
often  confounded  by  ancient  as  well  as  modern 
writers. 

The  general  use  of  caps  and  hats  is  referred  to 
the  year  1449,  the  first  seen  in  these  parts  of  the 
world  being  at  the  entry  of  Charles  VII.  -into 
Rouen  :  from  that  time  they  began  to  take  place 
of  chaperoons,  or  hoods.  When  the  cap  was  of 
velvet,  they  called  it  mortier;  when  of  wool, 
simply  bonnet.  None  but  kings,  princes,  and 
knights,  were  allowed  the  use  of  the  raortier. 
The  cap  was  the  head-dress  of  the  clergy  and 
graduates.  Pasquier  says,  that  it  was  anciently 
z.  part  of  the  hood  worn  by  the  people  of  the 
robe  ;  the  skirts  whereof  being  cut  off  as  an  in- 
cumbrance,  left  the  round  cap  an  easy  commo- 


dious cover  for  the  head ;  which  cap  being 
afterwards  assumed  by  the  people,  those  of  the 
gown  changed  it  for  a  square  one,  first  invented 
by  a  Frenchman,  called  Patrouillet :  he  adds,  that 
the  giving  of  the  cap  to  the  students  in  the  uni- 
versities, was  to  denote,  that  they  had  acquired 
full  liberty,  and  were  no  longer  subject  to  the 
rod  of  their  superiors ;  in  imitation  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  who  gave  a  pileus,  or  cap,  to  their 
slaves,  in  the  ceremony  of  making  them  free  : 
whence  the  proverb,  Vocare  servos  ad  pileum. 
Hence,  also,  on  medals,  the  cap  is  the  symbol  of 
liberty,  whom  they  represent  holding  a  cap  in 
her  right  hand,  by  the  point. 

The  French  clergy  wear  a  shallow  kind  of 
cap,  called  calotte,  which  only  covers  the  lop  of 
the  head,  made  of  leather,  satin,  worsted,  or 
other  stuff.  The  red  cap  is  a  mark  of  dignity 
allowed  only  to  those  who  are  raised  to  the  car- 
dinalate.  During  the  first  five  years  of  the 
French  revolution,  the  red  cap  was  a  mark  of 
democracy.  The  secular  clergy  are  distinguished 
by  black  leathern  caps,  the  regulars  by  knit  and 
worsted  ones.  Churchmen,  and  members  of 
universities,  students  in  law,  physic,  &c.  as  well 
as  graduates,  wear  square  caps.  In  most  univer- 
sities, doctors  are  distinguished  by  peculiar  caps, 
given  them  on  assuming  the  doctorate.  In  that 
of  Edinburgh,  the  principal  only  touches  the 
young  graduate's  head  with  a  velvet  cap.  Wick- 
liffe  calls  the  canons  of  his  time  bifurcati,  from 
their  caps.  Pasquier  observes,  that  in  his  time, 
the  caps  worn  by  the  churchmen,  &c.  were 
called  square  caps ;  though,  in  effect,  they  were 
round  yellow  caps.  The  Chinese  have  not  the 
use  of  the  hat,  like  us ;  but  wear  a  cap  of  pe- 
culiar structure,  which  the  laws  of  civility  will 
not  allow  them  to  put  off:  it  is  different  for  the 
different  seasons  of  the  year :  that  used  in  sum- 
mer is  in  form  of  a  cone,  ending  at  top  in  a 
point.  It  is  made  of  a  very  beautiful  kind  of 
mat,  much  valued  in  that  country,  and  lined  with 
satin ;  to  this  is  added,  at  top,  a  large  lock  of 
red  silk,  which  falls  all  round  as  low  as  the 
bottom ;  so  that,  in  walking,  the  silk  fluctuating 
regularly  on  all  sides,  makes  a  graceful  appear- 
ance ;  sometimes,  instead  of  silk,  they  use  a  kind 
of  bright  red  hair,  the  lustre  of  which  no  weather 
effaces.  In  winter  they  wear  a  plush  cap,  bor- 
dered with  martlet's  or  fox's  skin ;  as  to  the  rest, 
like  those  for  the  summer.  These  caps  are  fre- 
quently sold  for  eight  or  ten  crowns.  The  cap  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  mark  of  infamy  ;  in  Italy 
the  Jews  are  distinguished  by  a  yellow  cap ;  at 
Lucca  by  an  orange  one.  In  France,  by  the  old 
laws,  those  who  had  been  bankrupts  were  ob- 
liged ever  after  to  wear  a  green  cap  to  prevent 
people  from  being  imposed  on  in  any  future 
commerce.  By  several  arrets,  in  1584,  1622, 
1628,  1688,  it  was  decreed,  that  if  they  were  at 
any  time  found  without  their  green  cap,  their 
protection  should  be  null,  and  their  creditors 
empowered  to  cast  them  into  prison. 

CA'PABLE,  adj.  ~\      Fr.  capuble ;  It.  capace ; 

CAPABILITY,  n.      >Span.  capaz  ;  Lat.  capax, 

CA'PABLENESS,  n.  j  capio ;  fit  to  receive,  or 
do;  power  of  receiving,  or  doing  ;  intelligent; 
able  to  understand  ;  intellectually  capacious  ; 
susceptible ;  qualified  for,  without  natural  or 


CAP 


117 


CAP 


legal  impediment.  Before  a  noun,  capable  has  the 
particle  of.  In  our  old  writers  it  bears  the  sense 
of  capacious.  Shakspeare,  in  a  quotation  below, 
uses  it  in  the  meaning  of  hollow,  but  this  also  is 
now  obsolete.  Capability  was,  some  years  ago, 
ludicrously  converted  into  an  epithet,  and  affixed 
to  the  name  of  Brown,  the  celebrated  landscape 
gardener,  in  consequence  of  his  perpetually  using 
the  phrase  '  it  has  capabilities,'  while  he  was 
viewing  the  scenery  which  the  owner  wished 
him  to  improve. 

Sure  he  that  made  us  with  such  large  discouse, 
Looking  before  and  after,  gave  us  not 
That  capability  and  godlike  reason 
To  rust  in  us  unused.  Slutkspeare.     Hamlet. 

Look  you,  how  pale  he  glares  ; 
His  form  and  cause  conjoined,  preaching  to  stones, 
Would  make  them  capable.  Id.  ib. 

Of  my  land, 

Loyal  and  natural  boy,  111  work  the  means 
To  make  thr-e  capable.  Id.      King  Lear. 

Lean  but  upon  a  rush, 
The  cicatrice  and  capable  impressure 
Thy  palm  some  moments  keeps. 

Id.     As  You  Like  It. 

To  say  that  the  more  capable,  or  the  better  deserver, 

hath  such  right  to  govern,  as   he  may   compulsorily 

bring  under  the  less  worthy,  is  idle.  Bacon. 

I  am  much  bound  to  God,  that  he  hath  endued  you 

•with  one  capable  of  the  best  instructions.  Diyby. 

What  secret  springs  their  eager  'passions  move, 
Hnw  capable  of  death  for  injured  love. 

Dryden's  Virgil. 
Besides  his  picture 

I  will  send  far  and  near,  that  all  the  kingdom 
May  have  due  note  of  him  ;  and  of  my  land, 
Loyal  and  natural  boy,  I'll  work  the  means, 
To  make  thee  capable.          Shakspeare.  Kiny  Lear. 
There  is  no  man  that  believes  the  goodness  of  God, 
but  must   be    inclined  to  think,  that  he  hath  made 
some  things  for  as  long  a  duration  as  they  are  capable 
of.  Tillotson. 

The  soul,  immortal  substance,  to  remain, 
Conscious  of  joy,  and  capable  of  pain.          Prior. 
When  we  consider  so  much  of  that  space,  as  is  equal 
to,  or  capable  to  receive    a  body  of  any  assigned  di- 
mensions. Locke. 
When  you  hear  any  person  give  his  judgment,  con- 
sider with  yourself  whether  he  be  a  capable  judge. 

Watts. 

Fr.  capacite ;  Ital.  cu- 
}  pacita ;  Span,  capuci- 
dad;  Lat.  cupacitus. 
'To  capacify  and  capa- 
citate signify  to  qualify ; 
to  render  capable.  For 
the  first  of  these  verbs  I  remember  but  one  au- 
thority, which  is  in  South's  Sermons.  Capacious, 
in  its  primary  sense,  is  wide,  large,  and  ample ; 
but  is  applied  only  to  that  which  is  capable  of 
containing  ;  and  figuratively,  it  expresses  equal  to 
much  knowledge,  or  great  design.  Capacity  is 
the  ability  to  contain  ;  space ;  mental  and  physical 
power  and  state,  condition  and  character. 

No  intellectual  creature  is  able,  by  capacity,  to  do  that 
which  Nature  doth  without  capacity  and  knowledge. 

Hooker. 

Notwithstanding  thy  capacity 
Receiveth  as  the  sea,  nought  enters  there, 
Of  what  validity  and  pitch  soe'er, 
But  falls  into  abatement  and  low  price. 

Slinkspcarc, 


CAPA'CIFY,  v. 
CAPA'CITATE,  v. 
CAPA'CIOUS,  adj. 
CAPA'CIOUSLY,  adv. 
CAPA'CIOUSNESS,  n. 
CAPA'CITY,  n. 


Had  our  palace  the  capacity 
To  camp  this  host,  we  would  all  sup  together. 

Id. 

For  they  that  most  and  greatest  things  embrace, 
Enlarge  thereby  their  mind's  capacity, 
As  streams  enlarged,  enlarge  their  channel's  space. 

Daviei. 

A  concave  measure  of  known  and  determined  ca- 
pacity, serves  to  measure  the  capaciousness  of  any 
other  vessel.  In  like  manner  to  a  given  weight,  the 
weight  of  all  other  bodies  may  be  reduced  and  so 
found  out.  Holden  on  Time. 

In  spiritual  natures,  so  much  as  there  is  of  desire, 
so  much  there  is  also  of  a  capacity  to  receive.  I  do 
not  say  there  is  always  a  capacity  to  receive  the  very 
thing  they  desire,  for  that  may  be  impossible. 

Smth. 

A  miraculous  revolution  reducing  many  from  the 
head  of  a  triumphant  rebellion  to  their  old  condition 
of  masons,  smiths,  and  carpenters  ;  that  in  this  ca- 
pacity they  might  repair  what,  as  colonels  and  captains, 
they  had  ruined  and  defaced.  Id. 

An  heroic  poem  requires  the  accomplishment  of 
some  extraordinary  undertaking  ;  which  requires  the 
duty  of  a  soldier,  and  the  capacity  and  prudence  of  a 
general.  Dryden. 

By  this  instruction  we   may  be  capacitated  to   ob- 
serve those  errors.  Id. 
There  remained,  in  the  capacity  of  the  exhausted 
cylinder,  store  of   little  rooms,   or  spaces,  empty  or 
devoid  of  air.                                                            Boyle. 
Space,  considered  in  length,  breadth,  and  thickness, 
I  think,  may  be  called  capacity.                            Locke. 

Since  the  world's  wide  frame  does  not  include, 
A  cause  with  such  capacities  endued, 
Some  other  cause  o'er  Nature  must  preside. 

Blackmore. 

These  sort  of  men  were  sycophants  only,  and  were 
endued  with  arts  of  life,  to  capacitate  them  for  the 
conversation  of  the  rich  and  great.  Taller. 

The  next  upon  the  optic  list  is  old  Janus,  who  stood 
in  a  double  sighted  capacity,  like  a  person  placed  be- 
twixt two  opposite  looking  glasses,  and  so  took  a  sort 
of  retrospective  cast  at  one  view.  Spectator. 

Van  (for  'tis  fit  the  reader  know  it) 
Is  both  a  herald  and  a  poet  ; 
No  wonder  then  if  nicely  skilled 
In  both  capacities  to  build.  Staift. 

There  are  some  person  of  a  good  genius,  and  a  capa- 
cious mind,  who  write  and  speak  very  obscurely.  Wattt 
Beneath  the  incessant  weeping  of  those  drains, 
I  see  the  rocky  siphons  stretched  immense, 
The  mighty  reservoirs  of  hardened  chalk, 
Of  stiff  compacted  clay,  capacious  found. 

Thomson's  Seasons. 

CAPACITY,  in  geometry,  the  solid  contents 
of  any  body.  Our  hollow  measures  for  wine, 
beer,  corn,  salt,  &c.  are  called  measures  of  ca- 
pacity. 

CAPACITY,  in  law,  the  ability  of  a  man,  or 
body  politic,  to  give  or  take  lands,  or  other 
things,  or  sue  actions.  Our  law  allows  the  king 
two  capacities ;  a  natural  and  a  political :  in 
the  first,  he  may  purchase  lands  to  him  and  his 
heirs ;  in  the  second,  to  him  and  his  successors. 
The  clergy  of  the  church  of  England  have  the 
like. 

CAPANEUS,  a  noble  Argive,  son  of  Hippo- 
nous  and  Astinome,  and  husband  to  Evadne. 
He  was  so  impious,  that  when  he  went  to  the 
Theban  war,  he  declared  that  he  would  take 
Thebes  even  in  spite  of  Jupiter.  Such  contempt 


118 


CAPE    OF    GOOD    HOPE. 


provoked  the  god,  n-ho  struck  him  dead  with  a 
thunderbolt.  His  body  was  burnt  separately 
from  the  others,  and  his  wife  threw  herself  on  the 
burning  pile  to  mingle  her  ashes  with  his.  It  is 
said  that  /Esculapius  restored  him  to  life. 

CAP-A'-PE',  >      Fr.  cap-a-pie.     From  head 
CAP-A'-PIE'.    j  to  foot;  all  over;  completely 
armed. 

A  figure  like  your  father, 
Armed  at  all  points,  exactly  cap-a-pe, 
Appears  before  their.,  and,  with  solemn  march, 
Goes  slow  and  stately  by  them. 

V  Shakspeare.     Hamlet. 

There  for  the  two  contending  knights  he  sent, 
Armed  cap-a-pie,  with  reverence  low  they  bent. 

Dryden.     Fables. 
A  woodlouse, 

That  folds  up  itself  in  itself  for  a  house, 
As  round  as  a  ball,  without  head,  without  tail, 
Inclosed  cap-a-pe  in  a  strong  coat  of  mail.      Swift. 
CAPAR'ISON,  v.  &  n.  Fr.caparaf  ore /Span. 
caparazon ;  from   Lat.  capio  and  paro.     It  was 
formerly  spelt  caparasson,  and  signifies,  prima- 
rily, the  bards  or  trappings  of  a  horse,  but  is  ap- 
plied  ludicrously  to   any  pompous  dress.     The 
homely  definition  given    by  the   Farmer's  Dic- 
tionary is,   '  a  horse  cloth,  or  a  sort  of  cover  for 
a  horse,  which  is  spread  over  his  furniture.' 

Don't  you  think,  though  I  am  caparisoned  like  a 
man,  I  have  a  doublet  and  hose  in  my  disposition  ? 

Shakspeare.     As  You  Like  It. 
Tilting  furniture,  emblazoned  shields, 
Impresses  quaint,  caparisons,  and  steeds, 
Bases,  and  tinsel  trappings,  gorgeous  knights 
At  joust  and  tournament.  Paradite  Lout. 

Some  wore  a  breast-plate,  and  alight  juppon, 
Their  horses  clothed  with  rich  caparison. 

Dryden's  Fablet. 

The  steeds  caparisoned  with  purple  stand, 
With  golden  trappings,  glorious  to  behold, 
And  champ  betwixt  their  teeth  the  foaming  gold. 

Dryden. 

CAPE,  n.  Fr.  cape  ;  Ital.  capo ;  Dan.  kappe ;  Lat. 
caput.  A  headland,  a  promontory ;  also  the  neck 
piece  of  a  cloak.  Its  application  from  the  Latin 
is  quite  obvious  in  the  first  case,  and  not  ob- 
scure in  the  second  ;  the  cape  being,  as  Minsheu 
observes,  the  superior  part  of  the  garment.  In 
the  northern  languages,  it  is  not  from  the  whole 
head,  but  from  the  nose,  that  the  designation  of 
a  promontory  is  derived ;  and  from  them  many 
headlands  both  on  the  French  and  English  coasts 
received  names,  as  in  Dungeness,  Cape  Gris- 
nez,  &c. 

What  from  the  cape  can  you  discern  at  sea  ? 
Nothing  at  all ;  it  is  n  high  wrought  flood. 

Shakspeare.      Othello. 
The  parting  sun, 

Beyond  the  earth's  green  cape  and  verdant  isles, 
Hesperian  sets  ;  my  signal  to  depart. 

Paradise  Lift. 

The  Romans  made  war  upon  the  Tarentines,  and 
obliged  them  by  treaty  not  to  sail  beyond  the  cape. 

Arbuthnot, 

But  now  Athenian  mountains  they  descry, 
And  o'er  the  surge  Colonna  frowns  on  high. 
Beside  the  cape's  protecting  verge  is  placed 
A  range  of  columns,  long  by  time  defaced. 

Falconer. 

He  was  cloathed  in  a  robe  of  .fine  black  cloth,  with 
v'idc  sleeves  and  cape.  Bacun. 


CAPE,  in  law,  a  judicial  writ  concerning  plea 
of  lands  or  tenements,  and  divided  into  cape 
magnum  and  cape  parvum,  both  of  wnich  affect 
things  immovable. 

Cape  magnum  is  designed  to  lie  where  a 
person  has  brought  a  praecipe  quod  reddat  of  a 
thing  that  touches  a  plea  of  land,  and  the  tenant 
makes  default  at  the  day  given  to  him  in  the 
original  writ;  then  this  writ  shall  go  for  the 
king,  to  take  the  land  into  his  hands :  and  if 
he  comes  not  at  the  day  given  him,  he  loses  his 
land,  &c. 

Cape  parvum,  called  petit-cape,  is  denned 
thus :  when  the  tenant  is  summoned  in  plea  of 
land,  and  cometh  at  the  summons,  and  his  ap- 
pearance is  recorded ;  and  after  he  maketh  default 
at  the  day  that  is  given  to  him,  then  this  writ 
shall  go  for  the  king. 

CAPE  COAST  CASTLE.  See  AFRICA  and 
ASHANTEE. 

CAPE  DE  VERD ISLANDS.  See  VERDI,,  CAPE  DE. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE.  The  colony  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  stretches  along  the 
whole  of  the  southern  extremity  of  Africa  from 
the  cape  of  that  name  (originally  called  Cabo 
dos  Tormentos,  the  Cape  of  Storms,  by  the 
Portuguese)  to  the  Great  Fish  river,  the  Rio 
d*  Infante  of  the  Portuguese,  or  from  17°  36'  to 
28°  17'  E.  long,  and  lies  between  29°  55' and  34° 
17'  S.  lat.  Its  most  western  point  is  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Koussie  river,  which,  with  the 
Bosjesman's  country,  forms  the  northern  boun- 
dary of  the  colony ;  on  the  west  and  south  it  is 
bounded  by  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans ; 
and  on  the  east  by  Kaffreland.  Its  length  from 
west  to  east,  from  the  point  of  the  Cape  Penin- 
sula to  the  mouth  of  Fish  river,  is  580  miles; 
from  the  river  Koussie  to  the  Snowy  Mountains 
520  miles  :  giving  a  mean  breadth  of  about  550 
miles.  Its  breadth  from  south  to  north,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Koussie  to  the  Cape  Point,  is  315 
miles  ;  from  the  Nieuwveldt  Mountains  to  Plet- 
tenberg's  bay  160  miles  :  giving  a  mean  breadth 
of  223  miles,  and  including  an  area  of  128,150 
square  miles,  according  to  the  chart  constructed 
by  order  of  lord  Macartney,  during  the  British 
possession  of  the  colony,  prior  to  the  peace  of 
Amiens.  On  the  east,  upon  which  the  CafTre 
tribes  are  often  making  incursions,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  preserve  the  chain  of  posts  particularly 
strong.  Northward  the  boundary  line  is  little 
more  than  imaginary,  being  formed  by  the  com- 
mencement of  arid  sands,  stretching  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  continent,  or  the  winding  ranges 
of  barren  hills,  where  no  settled  tribes  can  exist. 
Over  this  district  are  scattered  61,947  inhabitants 
(exclusive  of  the  British  army  and  navy),  accord- 
ing to  the  latest  returns  :  of  whom  10,983  are 
white  males,  9,482  white  females;  1,281  servants 
and  people  of  color;  25,754  slaves;  and  14,447 
Hottentots. 

The  whole  colony  is  intersected  by  chains  of 
mountains  crossing  it  from  east  to  west,  and  ge- 
nerally barren  ;  some  few  ranges  on  the  western 
coast  run-  from  south  to  mrth,  and  one  in  parti- 
cular, which  begins  at  False  Bay  opposite  the 
Cape  Point,  stretches  northward  to  Olifant  river, 
i\n  extent  of  about  210  miles. 

The  most  southern  of  the  former  chains  leaves 


CAPE    OF    GOOD    HOPE. 


119 


a  belt  of  coast  of  irregular  breadth,  varying 
from  20  to  60  miles)  which  is  well  covered  with 
soil,  indented  with  bays,  and  watered  by  nume- 
rous streams.  The  second  great  chain,  formed 
by  the  Zwarte  Berg  or  Black  Mountains,  is  of 
much  greater  elevation,  and  more  rugged  in  ap- 
pearance than  the  former.  It  frequently  breaks 
like  the  Andes  of  the  New  Contmen;,  into  dou- 
ble and  treble  ranges,  and  encloses  with  the  first 
i  series  of  elevated  plains  of  about  the  general 
width  of  the  coast  lands  from  north  to  south, 
but  very  various  in  their  character  ;  occasionally 
presenting  nothing  but  a  succession  of  clay  flats, 
known  by  the  name  of  Karroo.  In  other  places 
small  plantations  and  farms  meet  the  eye,  on  the 
borders  of  feeble  streams  ;  and  are  as  extremely 
productive  as  the  surrounding  flats  are  barren. 
The  whole  of  these  lands  are  much  higher  than 
those  to  the  south  of  the  ranges,  and  the  tempe- 
rature is  as  various  as  the  aspect  of  the  country. 
The  third  principal  chain,  of  a  still  greater  aver- 
age height,  is  denominated  the  Nieuwveldt's  Ge- 
bergte,  and  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  a 
vast  uninhabited  karroo,  or  desert,  commencing 
at  the  foot  of  the  second.  Here  severe  frosts 
in  the  bad  monsoons,  and  the  vehement  heats  of 
the  summer  months,  seem  alike  the  enemies  of 
all  vegetation,  and  human  habitations  rarely  re- 
lieve the  waste. 

Of  the  various  cays  that  indentthe  long  range 
of  coast  possessed  by  this  colony,  False  Bay  and 
Table  Bay,  the  former  on  the  southern,  and  the 
latter  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Cape  Peninsula, 
are  the  principal  resort  for  shipping.  From  Sep- 
tember to  May,  usually  reckoned  as  the  summer 
months,  Table  Bay  presents  a  secure  shelter  from 
the  south-east  winds ;  and  during  the  rest  of  the 
year  False  Bay,  and  its  cove  or  adjunct,  Simon's 
Bay,  are  preferred,  as  shielding  vessels  from  the 
northern  and  north-west  winds.  Hout,  or  Wood 
Bay  and  Chapman's  Bay,  on  the  west  coast,  are 
also  frequently  entered  The  first  of  these, 
though  small,  is  remarkably  sheltered  by  the 
surrounding  heights ;  but  the  eddy  winds,  caused 
by  that  circumstance,  render  it  difficult  of  egress 
and  regress.  Between  Simon's  Bay  and  Cape 
Town  is  a  remarkable  pass,  which  may  be  called 
the  Thermopylae  of  the  Cape,  and  to  which,  as 
well  as  indeed  to  all  the  principal  bays  and 
passes  of  the  colony,  the  attention  of  govern- 
ment has  of  late  been  particularly  directed. 
This  pass  is  now  supposed  to  be  impregnable  to 
any  army  that  could  be  landed  in  the  bay. 
Saldhana  Bay,  in  lat.  33°  S.  is  commodious  and 
well  sheltered,  being  about  fifteen  miles  long 
from  north  to  south,  and  from  two  to  three  miles 
broad,  and  running  between  lofty  granite  hills  ; 
but  wood  and  water  are  very  scarce  in  the 
neighbourhood.  The  rivers  on  the  western 
coast  are  Olifant  or  Elephant  River, which  empties 
itself  into  the  Atlantic  in  S.  lat.  31°  30'. ;  and 
the  Berg,  or  Mountain  River,  which  has  its* 
source  in  the  Roggeveldt  Mountains,  and  after 
receiving  several  minor  streams  in  its  passage, 
falls  into  St.  Helena  bay.  On  the  south  are 
Gauritz  River,  the  principal  stream  that  waters 
the  colony,  and  which,  descending  from  the 
Black  Mountains,  becomes  during  the  rains  a 
very  rapid  torrent;  Bror<)  lliver,  falling  into 


Sebastian's  Bay,  and  nearly  a  mile  in  width  aV 
'the  mouth  ;  Camtoos  River,  running  into  a  bay 
of  the  same  name,  and  deep  enough  within  the 
bar  to  float  a  ship  of  the  line ;  Sondag,  or  Sun- 
day River,  which  rises  in  the  Nieuwveldt  or 
Snow  Mountains,  and  after  watering  a  conside- 
rable portion  of  the  Graaff  Reynet  district,  dis- 
charges itself  in  a  south-east  direction  in  Zwart 
Kops  or  Algoa  Bay ;  Zwart  Kops  River  ;  and  the 
Great  Fish  River,  which  takes  its  rise  in  the  Snow 
Mountains,  at  a  distance  of  200  miles  from  the 
sea.  None  of  these  streams  are  calculated  for 
the  navigation  of  vessels  of  burden,  being  almost 
uniformly  blocked  at  the  mouths  by  beds  of 
sand  or  reefs  of  rock  ;  they  are,  however,  well 
stored  with  fish,  particularly  with  a  small  kind 
of  turtle,  perch,  and  eels  ;  and  are  exceedingly 
prized  'by  the  colonists  for  the  fertility  which 
crowns  their  banks. 

The  climate  of  this  colony  is,  on  the  whole, 
salubrious,  but  subject  to  very  sudden  changes 
of  temperature.  Duringwhat  is  called  the  gc  nd 
monsoon,  or  the  summer  months,  commencing 
in  September,  south-east  winds  are  most  fre- 
quent, and,  springing  up  about  noon,  drive  the 
whole  atmosphere  into  circulation,  and  die  away 
in  the  evening,  which  is  delightfully  cool  and 
exhilarating.  Sometimes,  however,  they  assume 
a  more  violent  and  stormy  character ;  a  dry  and 
blasting  heat  attends  them,  and  sweeps  ove>>  the 
land  like  a  mildew ;  relaxing  the  human  frame, 
and  spreading  destruction  among  the  luxuriant 
fruits  of  the  district.  In  the  bad  monsoon,  or 
winter  months,  north-east  winds  prevail.  There 
seem  to  be  few  or  no  diseases  peculiar  to  this 
spot;  in  Cape  Town,  however,  the  instances  of 
longevity  are  rare,  and  bilious  fevers  are  frequent 
everywhere  among  the  slaves.  The  annual  deaths 
in  the  town,  taken  on  the  average  of  eighty  years, 
were  about  two  and  a-half  per  cent,  among  the 
white,  and  three  per  cent,  among  the  slave  popu- 
lation. 

The  territory  of  the  cape  was  divided  by  the 
Dutch  into  four  districts  or  drosdys,  each  of 
which  was  governed  byalandrost,  and  a  council 
of  six  hemraaden.  These  were,  1.  The  Cape. 
2.  Stellenbosch  and  Drakenstein.  3.  Zwellen- 
dam,  and  -4.  Graaff  Reynet.  The  Dutch  system 
of  government  has  been  followed  by  the  British, 
but  subdivisions  of  the  country  districts  have 
taken  place.  The  northern  part  of  what  was 
once  the  united  district  of  Stellenbosch  and 
Drakenstein,  has  been  called  the  district  of  Tul- 
bagh,  and  a  new  drosdy  and  landrostship  has 
been  erected.  District  George  has  been  formed 
out  of  the  southern  parts  of  Zwellendam,  east 
of  the  river  Gauritz ;  and  the  southern  part  of 
Graaff  Reynet  has  been  called  the  district  of 
Uitenhagen.  That  of  the  Cape  is  by  far  the 
most  important  of  these  governments,  and  reaches 
from  St.  Helena  Bay,  to  the  breadth  of  twenty- 
five  miles  from  the  shores  of  the  ocean  ;  being 
about  eighty  miles  in  length ;  twenty-five  in 
breadth ;  and  containing  an  area  of  2000  square 
miles. 

Cape  Town,  the  capital,  is  situated  in  the 
bosom  of  hills  branching  0-ut  from  the  Table 
Mountain,  and  is  a  neat  and  well  built  placo 
The  streets  throughout  arc  at  ii<iht  angles  with 


120 


CAPE    OF    GOOD    HOPE. 


each  other,  and  composed  of  houses  mostly  built 
of  stone.  Many  have  canals  running  down  them, 
shaded  with  avenues  of  oaks,  and  a  fine  stream 
from  Table  Mountain  fertilises  the  neighbour- 
hood- There  are  several  handsome  squares 
devoted  to  the  public  markets  and  military  pur- 
poses ;  a  Calvinist  and  Lutheran  church,  guard- 
house, justice  court,  and  theatre.  The  govern- 
ment house  is  on  the  side  of  Table  Mountain, 
surrounded  by  a  fine  public  garden,  and  several 
handsome  villas.  Eastward  of  the  town  is  a 
pentagon  fort  or  castle,  surrounded  with  a  ditch 
and  outworks,  which  enclose  the  bank,  called 
the  Lombard  hank,  the  orphan  chamber,  and 
other  public  offices ;  here  also  are  a  magazine 
for  military  stores,  and  barracks  for  4,000  men. 
The  town  is  further  defended  by  several  forts  on 
the  shores  of  Table  Bay ;  the  principal  of  which 
are  Fort  Knokke,  connected  with  the  castle  by 
the  rampart  called  the  Sea  lines,  and  Craig's 
Tower,  east;  the  Lion's  Rump,  Rogge  Bay  bat- 
tery, Amsterdam,  and  Chavenne  battery,  west ; 
and  an  important  outwork,  called  the  Mouille, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  bay.  The  inhabitants  are 
estimated  at  about  5,500  whites  and  people  of 
color,  and  10,000  blacks. 

The  Table  Mountain  is  too  conspicuous  a 
feature  of  this  part  of  the  colony  to  escape  the 
attention  of  any  stranger ;  while  it  will  reward 
the  most  scientific  investigation  of  its  natural 
history,  and  presents  some  very  curious  minera- 
logical  facts.  At  a  distance  it  assumes  the  ap- 
pearance of  an  immense  battlement  in  ruins, 
crowned  during  the  summer  months  with  an  ele- 
gant fleecy  cloud,  which,  in  allusion  to  the  popular 
name  of  the  central  part  of  the  mountain  has 
been  not  unaptly  called  the  Table  Cloth.  The 
north  front,  facing  Cape  Town,  forms  a  horizontal 
line  at  top,  of  about  two  miles  in  length,  the  face 
of  which  is  supported  by  a  number  of  project- 
ing rocks  that  stand  out  upon  the  plain  below 
like  buttresses,  and  terminate  in  the  mountain 
about  midway  towards  the  summit.  Two  great 
chasms  divide  the  upper  part  of  its  face  into 
three  distinct  eminences  (the  centre  one  falling 
back,  and  its  wings  or  bastions  projecting  for- 
ward), which  are  named  from  east  to  west,  the 
Devil's  Head,  Table  Mount,  and  Lion's  Head. 
Along  the  sea  shore  the  west  side  is  highly  pic- 
turesque, presenting  a  vast  number  of  pointed 
and  time-worn  masses,  rising  at  last  into  a  solid 
rounded  block,  resembling,  according  to  some 
descriptions,  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral 
placed  upon  a  conical-shaped  eminence.  This 
part  of  the  mountain  is  3315  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea ;  the  eastern  wing  (the  Devil's  Hill) 
is  also  remarkable  for  its  craggy  broken  brow; 
it  runs  off  at  right  angles  to  the  front,  and  is  the 
most  elevated  of  the  three  summits,  being  3582 
feet  in  altitude.  The  Table,  properly  so  called, 
is  only  2160  feet  above  the  bay.  Southward  the 
mountain  breaks  away  in  steps  or  terraces  into 
the  chain  that  extends  along  the  whole  Cape 
Peninsula.  A  deep  chasm,  that  divides  the  cur- 
tain from  the  left  bastion  of  the  mountain,  leads 
the  way  from  the  town  to  the  summit  of  this  ro- 
mantic elevation.  Its  length  is  about  three  quar- 
ters of  a  mile,  and  the  angle  of  ascent  through 
it  about  forty-five  degrees.'  The  entrance  is  parti- 


cularly imposing.  Perpendicular  walls  of  granite 
here  rise  on  each  side  of  the  passenger,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  eighty  yards  from  each  other,  to  the  height 
of  1000  feet,  and  gradually  close  towards  the  open- 
ing at  the  top,  on  which  he  in  a  moment  finds 
himself  commanding  a  boundless  view.  The 
pensa  mucronata,  a  tall  and  elegant  shrub,  is 
peculiar  to  this  spot ;  as  also  a  species  of  heath, 
called  the  physodes,  which  bears  a  beautiful 
cluster  of  white  flowers.  The  air  on  the  summit 
is  in  most  parts  of  the  year  mild  and  pleasant; 
in  winter  it  is  about  15°  of  Fahrenheit  lower  than 
at  Cape  Town ;  and  in  summer  still  more,  through 
the  density  of  the  Table  Cloud. 

Stellenbosch,  and  Drakenstein,  are  districts  of 
the  former  Dutch  division,  which  comprehended 
the  present  divisions  of  Stellenbosch  and  Tul- 
bagh.  They  were  formerly  governed  by  one 
landrost  and  two  hemraaden,  but  are  now  entirely 
distinct  governments,  and  extend  together,  from 
Cape  1'Aguillas  south,  to  the  river  Koussie  north- 
ward, and  from  the  ocean  and  the  Cape  district 
west,  to  B.reede  River  and  the  Gamka,  or  Lion's 
River  eastward ;  having  a  mean  length  of  380 
miles,  and  a  breadth  of  about  150 ;  enclosing 
an  area  of  55,000  square  miles.  Scarcely  a 
twentieth  part  of  this  area  is  in  a  state  of  culti- 
vation. The  valley  of  Drakenstein,  however,  on 
the  east  of  the  Cape,  is  well  inhabited,  and  the 
sections  of  these  districts  between  False  Bay  and 
the  long  range  of  mountains  that  run  northward 
to  the  Elephant  River,  are  amongst  the  most 
fruitful  parts  of  the  colony.  East  Zwartland,  and 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  twenty-four  rivers,  are 
valleys  in  this  direction  that  are  called  the  Gra- 
naries of  the  Cape  ;  and  the  Roggeveldt  moun- 
tains and  valleys  yield  a  large  and  strong  breed 
of  horses,  originally  introduced  from  South 
America. 

The  original  district  of  Zwellendam  compre- 
hended the  most  southern  belt  of  land  in  the 
colony,  lying  between  the  Black  Mountains  and 
the  ocean,  north  and  south  ;  and  the  district  of 
Stellenbosch,  and  that  of  Graaff  Reynet,  east 
and  west.  It  was  about  380  miles  long,  and 
sixty  broad,  containing  an  area  of  19,000  square 
miles.  District  George  now  cuts  off  about  one- 
half  of  the  fruitful  portion  of  this  district  towards 
the  south.  The  mountains  of  the  coast  are 
clothed  with  forest  trees,  and  the  plains  with 
shrubs.  This  part  of  the  colony  as  a  whole  is 
more  fruitful  than  any  other ;  and  contains  one 
subdivision  out  of  which  the  Dutch  government 
reserved  20,000  acres  of  land  in  its  own  hands 
for  the  growth  of  corn,  of  which  it  yielded  10,000 
muids  annually,  besides  nourishment  for  1000 
horses,  and  1000  head  of  cattle.  The  village 
of  Zwellendam  is  situated  in  a  delightful  valley, 
and  the  new  rising  town  of  the  name  of  George, 
is  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  land 
just  mentioned. 

Graaff  Reynet  district  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Bosjesmans'  country,  or  the  limits  of  the 
colony  in  this  direction ;  on  the  south  by  the 
districts  George,  Uitenhagen,  and  the  sea ;  west 
by  part  of  Zwellendam ;  and  east  by  Kaffreland. 
The  eastern  subdivisions  (by  far  the  most  pro- 
ductive) are  molested  by  the  incursions  of  the 
Kaflres  and  Bosjesmans,  who  recently  seized 


C  A  P  K    OF    GOOD    HOPE. 


121 


and  murdered  the  landrost  of  the  district,  with 
all  his  family,  at  his  own  residence  in  the  village 
of  Graaff  Key  net.  Very  little  grain  is  grown  in 
this  district,  from  the  difficulty  of  its  finding  a 
market,  and  from  the  circumstance  of  the  fre- 
quent descent  of  locusts  from  the  mountains ; 
but  cattle  and  sheep  thrive  well  here.  The  Village 
at  which  the  landrost  resides  scarcely  boasts  a 
dozen  houses  besides  his  own.  In  the  Sneuwberg 
division  of  this  district  on  the  banks  of  the  Fish 
River,  are  two  mineral  springs  of  great  repute 
among  the  colonists,  for  the  cure  of  rheumatic 
and  cutaneous  disorders  ;  the  water  is  at  the 
temperature  of  88°  Fahrenheit.  South  of  these 
waters,  and  west  of  Sunday  River,  is  a  large  salt 
water  lake,  which  is  an  object  of  resort  for  the 
inhabitants  of  various  neighbouring  and  remote 
regions,  who  obtain  a  valuable  supply  of  that 
mineral  from  it  annually.  The  salt  is  taken  out 
in  masses  of  from  four  to  six  inches  thick,  which 
are  broken  down  on  the  banks  of  the  lake,  where 
a  much  finer  salt  accumulates  after  a  dry  wind  ; 
the  latter  indeed  is  said  to  equal  in  its  native 
state  any  of  the  refined  salts  of  this  country. 

The  predominant  soils  of  this  colony  are  a 
stiff  clay,  into  which  no  plough  will  enter  until 
it  is  thoroughly  soaked  with  rain,  and  a  light 
red  sand,  capable  of  extreme  fertility  wherever 
it  is  sufficiently  irrigated.  The  superinduced 
soil,  which  is  furnished  by  the  decomposition 
of  vegetables,  is  of  course  rarely  seen  in  a 
country  everywhere  penetrated  by  ranges  of 
naked  mountains,  and  three-fifths  of  whose  sur- 
face wears  not  the  least  appearance  of  verdure 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Sometimes, 
indeed,  where  these  eminences  form  a  channel 
for  the  floods  of  the  rainy  season,  or  natural 
springs  are  found,  a  singular  luxuriance  will 
appear  in  the  valleys,  and  many  farmers  have 
cultivated  these  patches  among  the  mountains 
on  the  southern  coast ;  but  no  part  of  the  earth 
has  hitherto  seemed  abandoned  to  more  complete 
sterility  than  the  greater  portion  of  those  vast 
karroo  plains  that  occupy  the  interstices  between 
the  great  mountain-ranges.  Impenetrable  clays, 
strewed  with  sand,  stretch  for  miles  under  the 
aching  eye  ;  and  the  larger  and  smaller  hills  that 
interrupt  the  surface  are  only  diversified  masses 
of  sandstone,  blue  slate,  felspar,  and  ironstone, 
in  the  midst  of  which  a  single  blade  of  grass 
is  rarely  seen. 

The  operations  of  nature  are  here,  however, 
conducted  in  singular  extremes.  Where  iron 
or  its  oxydes  are  liberally  mixed  with  the  clay, 
and  the  fertilising  aid  of  the  feeblest  rill  can  be 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  soil,  astonishing  fer- 
tility will  occasionally  ensue ;  some  of  the  best 
grapes  and  fruits  of  the  colony  are  yielded  on 
these  spots,  the  influence  of  a  few  showers  of 
rain  in  other  places  is  equally  remarkable ; 
parched  as  they  will  appear  with  the  hot  season, 
and  utterly  deserted  by  everything  living,  the 
rains  of  a  few  days  will  clothe  whole  acres  with 
verdure  ;  the  botanist  is  suddenly  presented  with 
the  richest  harvest  of  plants  that  is  to  be  found 
in  any  country;  and  flocks  of  antelopes  are 
quietly  grazing.  Of  the  capabilities  of  such  a 
country,  therefore,  under  the  hand  of  British 
industry,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  form  a.  fair  esti- 


mate at  present.  A  deep  and  fertile  soil  appears 
to  reward  the  long  culture  of  some  of  the  most 
unpromising  spots.  Such,  at  any  rate,  is  the 
character  of  the  land  stretching  from  Cape  Town 
to  the  east,  or  between  the  most  southern  moun- 
tains and  the  shore. 

Different  portions  of  the  colony  are  very  differ- 
ently affected  by  the  heats  of  summer ;  and  in 
the  Table  Valley  an  epitome  of  all  the  varieties 
may  be  said  to  be  found.  One  of  the  British 
officers,  who  was  stationed  there  during  our  for- 
mer possession  of  the  Cape,  '  declared,'  says  Mr. 
Barrow,  '  that  those  who  lived  in  it  were  either 
in  an  oven,  or  at  the  funnel  of  a  pair  of  bellows, 
or  under  a  water  spout.'  There  is  a  difference 
in  the  summer  months  of  from  eight  to  ten 
degrees,  of  Fahrenheit's  scale,  between  the  tem- 
perature of  Cape  Town  and  Wynberg,  at  the 
distance  only  of  about  eight  miles,  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  the  latter  lying  to  the  windward  of 
the  Table  Mountain  and  the  former  to  leeward 
of  it.  The  summer  is  not  oppressive  to  English- 
men in  its  general  temperature  at  the  Cape,  and 
during  the  months  of  July,  August,  and  Septem- 
ber^ answering,  as  we  have  seen,  to  our  winter 
months),  all  the  European  settlers  are  glad,  as  a 
home,  of  a  constant  fire.  The  characteristic  in- 
dications of  the  approach  of  winter  at  the  Cape 
are  the  withdrawing  of  the  silvery  cloud  from 
the  head  of  the  Table  Mountain,  and  the  gradual 
change  of  the  winds  from  south-east  to  north-west. 
A  raw  and  cold  feel  first  accompanies  the  latter, 
which  gradually  heighten  into  perfect  hurricanes, 
and  storms  of  thunder  and  lightning,  which  con- 
tinue for  several  days.  When  the  weather 
clears,  the  mountains  east  and  north  are  seen  to 
be  covered  with  snow,  and  the  head  of  the 
venerable  Table  to  have  exchanged  its  fleecy 
garb  for  a  thin  covering  of  snow  or  ice.  The 
British  soldiers  were  so  remarkably  healthy, 
during  our  first  occupation  of  the  place,  that  in 
the  regimental  hospitals  of  5000  troops  not  more 
than  100  men  were  entered  during  several 
months  (and  with  complaints  brought  on  from 
the  sort  of  excesses  in  which  the  natives  indulge), 
while  the  general  hospital  had  not  one  sick  man. 
There  is  hardly  a  finer  spot,  indeed,  in  the  domi- 
nions of  Great  Britain,  as  we  shall  see  in  the 
sequel  of  this  account,  for  the  seasoning  of  troops 
for  a  warm  climate.  Eastward  of  the  colony, 
the  Caffres,  who  are  inured  to  exertion  from 
their  childhood,  present  as  fine  a  race  of  men, 
generally  reaching  six  feet  high,  robust  and  mus- 
cular, as  are  to  be  found  on  any  portion  of  the 
globe. 

In  almost  every  part  of  the  isthmus  that  con- 
nects the  Cape  Peninsula  with  the  continent, 
fresh  water  rises  at  the  depth  of  ten  or  twelve 
feet.  At  Wynberg,  eight  miles  from  Cape  Town, 
a  rill  of  water  was  recently  discovered  in  boring 
at  about  twenty  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground  ;  and  when  some  workmen  were  pricking 
for  coal  in  the  Tiger  Hills,  at  an  elevation  of 
twenty  feet,  a  copious  stream  of  water,  according 
to  the  above  author,  was  collected  in  the  level  in 
the  month  of  February,  the  dryest  season  of 
the  year. 

The  profitable  productions  of  the  colony, 
taken  as  a  whole,  are  wine,  grain,  all  the  Euro- 


122 


CAPE    OF    GOOD    HOPE. 


pean  and  most  of  the  tropical  fruits,  vegetables 
of  every  description,  cattle  and  sheep.  At  the 
foot  of  the  Table  Mountain  are  considerable 
plantations  of  the  protea  argentea,  or  silver  tree 
'a  species  of  the  protea  peculiar  to  this  spot), 
tie  stone  pine,  and  the  white  poplar.  Avenues 
of  oak  adorn  the  country  houses,  and  this  tree 
grows  rapidly  throughout  the  colony,  but  rarely 
to  any  perfection  as  timber.  It  is  constantly  cut 
down,  with  the  rest  of  the  few  forest  trees  of 
the  Cape,  for  fuel,  an  article  very  scarce  here, 
and  which  seems  to  have  been  very  intemperately 
supplied  from  the  plantations  of  late  years,  with- 
out any  provision  for  a  succession  of  trees. 
Another  species  of  protea,  the  kreupel  boom  of 
the  Dutch,  is  also  planted  extensively  on  the  hills 
of  the  Cape  district ;  its  bark  is  used  in  tanning, 
and  the  branches  for  fire-wood,  a  purpose  to 
which  are  devoted  various  other  species  of  this 
tree,  which  grow  wild  throughout  the  Peninsula, 
and  many  heath  plants  that  grow  on  the  smaller 
hills  of  that  neighbourhood.  Most  families  in 
decent  circumstances  are  obliged  to  keep  a  slave 
employed  entirely  in  the  collection  of  this  latter 
article. 

Lord  Macartney  directed  various  efforts  to  be 
made  during  the  period  of  his  government,  in 
search  for '  fossil  coal ;  and  the  operations  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Table  Bay  were  not  wholly 
unsuccessful,  when  they  were  suspended  by  the 
discovery  of  a  stratum  of  coally  matter  along 
the  banks  of  a  deep  rivulet,  flowing  out  of  Tyger- 
berg  Hill,  on  the  east  of  the  isthmus  which  joins 
the  Cape  Peninsula  to  the  continent.  It  ran  ho- 
rizontally, from  ten  inches  to  two  feet  in  width 
over  a  bed  of  indurated  clay,  and  was  surrounded 
by  strata  of  pipe-clay  and  white  sandstone. 
The  main  bed  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
found  ;  but  large  ligneous  blocks  were  dug  out 
in  some  places  ;  in  others  the  lithanthrax  of 
naturalists,  a  turfy  sort  of  coal,  appeared,  similar 
to  the  Bovey  coal  of  England.  The  ligneous 
blocks  burnt  with  a  clear  flame,  leaving  white 
ashes  ;  the  more  earthy  and  compact  parts  of  the 
stratum  not  so  clear,  and  leaving  a  sort  of  slaty 
caulk,  with  a  brown  crust. 

On  the  mountains  of  the  southern  coast  as  we 
have  already  stated,  and  particularly  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Plettenberg's  Bay,  some  lofty 
forests  are  found.  The  trees  are  of  quick  growth 
and  considerable  size,  but  generally  hollow  in 
the  heart  and  much  twisted  in  grain  ;  profitable 
timber  is  rarely  procured  from  them. 

Wheat,  barley,  and  pulse,  are  cultivated  with 
success  throughout  the  Cape  district,  and  in  the 
valleys  of  Drakenstein,  East  Zwartland,  and  the 
Twenty-four  Rivers,  which  appear  capable  of  any 
kind  of  agriculture.  In  fruits,  flowers,  and  elegant 
shrubbery,  no  country  exceeds  the  Cape.  The 
apricots,  oranges,  peaches,  prunes,  and  grapes, 
of  Europe,  flourish  in  the  greatest  perfection; 
pomegranates,  melons,  apples  and  pears,  almonds, 
chestnuts,  walnuts  and  mulberries,  are  also 
plentiful.  The  apples  and  pears  are  rather  infe- 
rior ;  but  strawberries  are  found  ripe  all  the  year 
and  a  few  raspberries  of  a  superior  quality.  No 
grapes  in  Europe  are  thought  superior  to  those 
of  this  colony. 

There  are  some  good  pasture  farms  on  the 


eastern  side  of  the  mountains  that  run  northward 
from  the  Cape,  and  at  the  southern  foot  of  the 
Zwartzberg,  or  Black  Mountains.  In  the  same 
direction  are  found  whole  plains  of  the  com  - 
mon  aloe,  which  forms  a  considerable  article  of 
traffic.  Horses  are  the  favorite  speculation  of 
the  grazing  farmers  in  this  direction,  however, 
and  the  rye-grass  of  the  district  appears  to  suit 
them  well. 

The  wild  animals  of  the  Cape  are  the  lion, 
rhinoceros,  elephant,  hippopotamus,  buffalo, 
wolf,  panther,  leopard,  hyaena,  jackal,  zebra, 
tiger-cat,  quacha,  and  various  tribes  of  antelopes. 
Of  these  the  gnoo,  an  elegant  mixture  of  the 
horse  and  antelope,  seems  peculiar  to  this  part  of 
Africa.  His  body,  shoulders,  and  mane,  resemble 
those  of  the  former  animal,  except  that  the  mane 
is  rather  under  than  upon  the  neck,  running 
from  the  breast  between  the  fore  legs ;  his  legs 
have  the  exquisite  finish  of  those  of  the  antelope ; 
while  his  head  resembles  that  of  a  buffalo.  The 
flocks  of  antelopes  have  greatly  receded  from 
the  coast  within  these  few  years,  and  are  now 
principally  confined  to  the  eastern,  or  Graaff 
Reyuet  district.  The  lion  is  said  to  be  peculiarly 
cowardly  and  treacherous  here.  The  elephant  is 
taken  by  the  Hottentots  by  digging  pits  under  his 
haunts;  but  the  European  settlers  openly  hunt 
him,  as  well  as  the  rhinoceros,  and  kill  them  with 
fire  arms.  Here  are  also  hares,  and  a  rock-rabbit 
without  a  tail. 

Ostriches,  eagles,vultures,kites,pelicans,cranes, 
ibises,  flamingos,  and  spoon-bills,  with  wild 
ducks,  geese,  teal,  snipes,  and  partridges,  abound 
in  the  colony ;  together  with  a  vast  variety  of 
the  smaller  birds  of  most  beautiful  plumage. 
The  markets  are  well  supplied  with  fish,  both 
from  the  open  sea,  the  rivers,  and  the  numerous 
inlets  of  the  coast.  Bream,  perch,  soles,  mack- 
erel, skate,  and  rock-fish,  are  the  most  common  ; 
and,  of  shell-fish,  the  oyster,  crab,  and  muscle. 
Seals  were  once  found  in  large  quantities  in  the 
islets  of  False  Bay,  but  are  considerably  dimi- 
nished of  late  years.  The  whale  is  taken  in 
Table  Bay  :  a  company  of  merchants  formerly 
associated  in  the  town  for  the  prosecution  of  a 
South  Whale  Fishery ;  it  was  a  speculation, 
however,  that  did  not  succeed  ;  the  fish  are  cer- 
tainly inferior  to  the  whale  of  the  northern  seas, 
though  Mr.  Barrow  is  still  sanguine  in  his  expec- 
tations from  a  similar  undertaking. 

The  horses  most  in  request  here  are  the  black 
and  grizzled  breed  of  South  America,  which  art 
elegant  in  appearance,  and  though  small  are  very 
strong.  Large  numbers  of  oxen  are  raised  in 
the  eastern  division,  and  the  animal  is  much 
used  in  draught  work  throughout  the  colony.  In 
his  make  he  runs  to  waste,  (as  the  English  farmtr 
would  say)  the  shoulders  are  high,  his  legs  unu- 
sually long,  and  his  horns  large.  Mr.  Barrow 
saw  many  of  them  with  long  scars  in  their  sides, 
arising  from  the  practice  of  cutting  them  with 
knives,  as  a  method  of  urging  them  forward  over 
a  difficult  pass;  and  mentions  a  wealthy  inhabi- 
tant of  the  Cape  whg  boasted  that  he  could  at 
any  time  start  his  team  on  a  full  gallop  by  only 
whetting  his  knife  on  the  side  of  the  waggon  ! 
'  In  exhibiting  this  masterly  experiment,'  he  adds, 
'  the  effect  of  a  constant  and  long  perseverance 


CAPE    OF    GOOD    HOPE. 


123 


in  brutality,  to  some  of  his  friends,  the  waggon  was 
overturned,  and  one  of  the  company,  unluckily 
not  the  proprietor,  had  his  leg  broken.  Hotten- 
tot's Holland  Kloof,  a  steep  pass  over  the  first 
range  of  mountains  beyond  the  promontory  of 
the  (Jape,  has  been  the  scene  of  many  an  instance 
of  this  sort  of  cruelty.  I  have  heard  a  fellow 
boast  that  after  cutting  and  slashing  one  of  his 
oxen  in  the  kloof  till  an  entire  piece  of  a  foot 
square  did  not  remain  in  his  whole  hide,  he 
stabbed  him  to  the  heart ;  and  the  same  person 
is  said,  at  another  time,  to  have  kindled  a  fire 
under  the  belly  of  an  ox,  because  it  could  not 
draw  the  waggon  up  the  same  kloof.'  Goats 
are  numerous  in  some  parts ;  hogs  are  badly 
fed,  and  never  eaten  at  a  respectable  table  ;  and 
poultry  is  very  rarely  seen. 

At  Cape  Town,  is  the  seat  of  government, 
and  a  court  of  justice,  to  which  the  provincial 
courts  appeal ;  the  landrosts,  or  resident  magis- 
trates of  the  other  districts,  exercising  a  feeble 
authority.  The  Dutch  system  of  governing  this 
colony  was  found,  indeed,  on  its  conquest  by 
our  arms,  to  be  exceedingly  ill-contrived,  and 
badly  executed ;  but  quite  impossible  to  be  sud- 
denly changed  amongst  an  obstinate  and  igno- 
rant race  of  colonists.  The  landrosts  were 
originally  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  settling 
disputes  between  the  farmer  and  the  oppressed 
natives ;  he  was  impowered  to  levy  fines  to  a 
certain  amount,  and  to  collect  the  government 
and  parochial  imposts.  His  assistant  council, 
called  the  hemraaden,  comprised  a  few  of  the 
principal  settlers  of  the  neighbourhood,  gene- 
rally about  six  ;  and  under  them  were  placed  an 
indefinite  number  of  feldtwagtmeesteers,  or  su- 
perintendents of  subdivisions  of  the  district,  who 
were  to  settle  the  watercourses,  rights  to  springs, 
&c.  The  boors,  as  they  call  themselves,  who 
were  the  principal  agents  of  this  administration, 
of  course,  always  favored  their  brother  boors; 
crimes  of  every  kind  were  committed  with  impu- 
nity, within  a  few  miles  of  the  Cape ;  and  the 
mere  inconvenience  of  discontinuing  his  personal 
visits  to  the  markets  of  the  capital  was  the  sole 
punishment  of  the  murderer,  and  men  under 
sentence  of  outlawry  for  contempt  of  the  pro- 
vincial courts.  Public  justice,  however,  has  of 
late  been  gradually  assuming  its  firm  British  cha- 
racter. 

About  midway  between  False  Bay  and  Table 
Bay,  are  the  two  farms  mentioned  by  Dr.  Sparr- 
man,  as  producing  the  genuine  Constantia  wine, 
of  which  they  yield  from  fifty  to  a  hundred 
leaguers  of  154  gallons,  annually.  They  lie  di- 
rectly under  the  mountains,  a  circumstance  to 
which  the  richness  of  the  soil  is,  no  doubt,  in 
part  to  be  attributed ;  the  grapes  are  the  mtisca- 
tel ;  and  particular  care  is  taken  in  the  whole 
process  of  the  vineyard,  to  sustain  the  reputation 
of  the  spot,  and  in  particular  to  reject  all  stalks 
and  unripe  fruit  from  the  press.  The  whole  of 
the  farms  on  this  part  of  the  Peninsula  yield  to- 
gether about  700  leaguers  of  wine ;  and  green 
and  ripe  grapes,  and  prepared  raisins,  are  sent  in 
abundance  from  them  to  Cape  Town.  A  distinct 
and  laborious  collection  of  the  bulbous  roots  of 
•he  Peninsula  has  been  thought  worthy  of  a  place 


in  the  botanic  garden  at  Kew ;  but  many  of  it  > 
elegant  varieties  are  still  said  to  be  wanting 
there. 

The  shrubs  and  heath  plants  that  diversify  the 
hills  of  the  Cape  district,  the  chasms  of  the 
mountains,  and  every  spot  where  a  root  will 
strike,  are  also  almost  endless  in  their  variety ; 
Doctor  Roxburgh  enumerated  1 30  species  of  the 
latter  between  the  Cape,  and  the  first  range  of 
mountains.  The  wax  plant  also  grows  abun- 
dantly on  the  sandy  parts  of  the  isthmus.  In 
the  clefts  of  kloofs  of  the  mountains  in  this  dis- 
trict are  found  the  few  remaining  holds  of  the  hy- 
aenas and  wolves,  which  formerly  infested  even 
the  streets  of  the  capital,  and  still  approach  its 
outskirts  in  the  night,  in  scent  of  the  offal  and 
dead  cattle  which  are  suffered  to  be  thrown  down 
on  the  public  roads.  The  das,  called  by  Pennant 
the  Cape  cavy,  is  a  curious  little  animal,  which 
also  abounds  in  these  caverns.  Its  size  is  about 
that  of  a  rabbit ;  its  color  a  light  dusk ;  its  ears 
are  short,  and  it  has  no  tail ;  the  flesh  is  eaten  at 
table.  The  steenbok,  the  Guinea  antelope  of 
Pennant,  and  once  the  most  numerous  of  the  an- 
telope tribe  in  this  district,  is  now  nearly  exter- 
minated. 

The  inlets  of  South  Africa  abound  with  whales 
which  run  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet  in  length,  and 
yield  from  six  to  ten  tons  of  oil.  They  appear  to 
make  these  bays  a  shelter  for  their  young,  and  it 
is  remarkable  that  none  but  females  have  been 
caught  for  years  together.  They  are  easier  taken 
than  in  the  northern  seas,  but,  from  their  inferior 
size,  the  bone  is  not  valuable.  The  penguin  now 
supplies  the  place  of  the  seal  on  the  islands  of 
False  Bay.  Scolopendras,scorpions,  and  immense 
black  spiders,  infest  the  Cape ;  but  the  mosqui- 
toes are  not  so  annoying  as  in  most  warm  cli- 
mates. A  particular  species  of  garden  locust  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  formidable  insect  of  the  coun- 
try :  and  the  bite  of  the  small  sand-fly  is  very 
troublesome.  Small  land  turtles  are  found  in  all 
the  open  parts  of  the  peninsula;  the  camel  ion  is 
also  frequently  seen,  and  various  species  of 
lizards.  The  most  formidable  of  the  snake  tribe 
(which  every  where  abounds,  and  most  of  which 
are  venomous)  is  the  cobra  capella,  as  it  is  called, 
or  hooded  snake,  of  which  the  Hottentots  are 
particularly  afraid,  and  for  which  they,  as  well 
as  the  Dutch  settlers,  use  a  ridiculous  remedy, 
called  the  slange  steen,  or  snake  stone.  It  is  de- 
clared by  those  who  deal  in  it  to  be  a  stone  taken 
out  of  the  head  of  a  particular  kind  of  serpent, 
and  the  criterion  of  its  virtue  is  that,  when 
plunged  into  water,  it  should  produce  bubbles 
on  the  surface.  The  fact  is,  it  is  a  piece  of  ivory 
or  firm  bone,  burnt  round  the  edges  into  an  oval 
shape,  and  the  porosity  of  the  bone  constitutes 
its  virtues,  such  as  they  are.  The  fascinating 
power  of  serpents  over  birds  is  uniformly  asser- 
ted in  this  country,  but  their  influence  is  not 
supposed  to  be  extended  to  the  human  species. 

All  marriages  in  the  colony  must  be  performed 
at  Cape  Town  ;  the  following  table  contains  a 
list  of  them  for  eight  years,  and  the  christenings 
and  burials  of  the  capital  during  the  same  period ; 
giving  an  increase  of  christenings  above  burials 
of  1,4 16  in  that  time. 


124 


CAPE    OF    GOOD    HOPE. 


r~ 

Marriages. 

Christenings. 

Burials. 

1790 

130 

350 

186 

1791 

97 

354 

146 

1792 

174 

360 

144 

1793 

158 

288 

116 

1794 

211 

308 

111 

1795 

213 

308 

145 

1796 

249 

257 

168 

1797 

217 

364 

157 

In  eight  years. 

'1449 

2589 

1173 

To  the  north-east  of  Stellenbosch  are  the  val- 
leys of  Great  and  Little  Drakenstein,  sheltered 
by  lofty  mountains,  and  well  watered  throughout 
by  the  river  Berg  and  its  minor  streams,  which 
unite  in  about  the  centre  of  them.  The  subdi- 
vision of  Little  Drakenstein  is  enclosed,  as  it 
were,  by  the  larger  valleys,  and  the  two  together 
supply  full  two-thirds  of  the  wine  of  the  Cape 
market.  On  the  west  of  this  valley  is  the  village 
of  Paarl,  surrounded  by  a  very  fine  tract  of  land, 
and  distinguished  by  a  curious  mass  of  granite, 
surmounted  with  a  number  of  large  round  stones, 
like  the  pearls  of  a  necklace,  to  which  it  owes 
its  name.  The  pearl  is  inaccessible  on  three 
sides,  and  rises  about  400  feet  from  its  base  on 
the  summit  of  the  mountain,  where  it  measures 
in  circumference,  according  to  this  writer,  a  full 
mile.  The  sloping  northern  side  by  which  it 
is  ascended,  is  upwards  of  1000  feet  in  length, 
and  nearly  covered  with  a  species  of  green  lichen. 
Towards  the  summit  it  is  split  by  two  deep  clefts 
crossing  at  right  angles,  in  which  grow  a  number 
of  beautiful  aloes,  and  several  cryptogamous 
plants.  The  whole  side  of  the  mountain  is  a 
perfect  garden  of  various  and  beautiful  plants. 

In  the  autumn  the  exquisite  scenery  of  this 
spot  is  further  heightened  by  the  presence  of 
large  numbers  of  a  beautiful  little  bird  called  the 
creeper,  some  species  of  which  unite  the  most 
enchanting  powers  of  voice  with  their  elegant 
attractions  for  the  eye,  and  occasionally  call  off 
the  attention  of  the  traveller  from  every  other 
part  of  the  scene. 

The  mountains  to  the  east  of  this  valley  are 
the  barrier  wall  between  the  Cape,  or  western 
coast,  and  the  interior  ;  and  there  are  but  three 
passes,  or  kloofs,  that  are  ever  crossed  by  wheels. 
Eland's  Kloof  to  the  north,  which  opens  into 
plains  almost  entirely  uninhabited.  Roode  Sand 
Kloof  opposite  to  Sandhana  Bay,  which  com- 
municates with  Graaf  Reynet  and  the  north-east 
of  the  colony  ;  and  Hottentot's  Holland  Kloof,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  False  Bay,  which  leads 
from  the  Cape  into  the  district  of  Zwellendam. 

Tranche  Hoeck,  the  French  Corner,  occupies 
the  south-east  angle  of  this  beautiful  valley,  and 
is  not  the  less  interesting  from  the  recollection 
of  the  causes  that  brought  its  first  settlers  here, 
the  persecutions  that  ensued  on  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantz.  To  these  injured  confessors 
of  Protestantism  the  whole  colony  is  indebted 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  here  first  intro- 
duced by  them. 

The    division   of    East   Zvvartland    and    the 


twenty-four  rivers,  '  the  Granaries  of  the  Cape,' 
deserve  particular  notice.  They  lie  to  the  north- 
west of  the  valley  of  Drakenstein,  or  between 
the  Berg  river  west,  and  the  great  northern  chain 
of  mountains  east.  The  wheat  crops  are  very 
fine  and  full,  and  the  land  rich  to  perfect  lux- 
uriance. Rice  also  nourishes  in  the  marshy 
grounds,  and  abundance  of  fruit ;  but  wine  is 
only  made  for  domestic  use.  The  Berg  river, 
whose  numerous  streams  give  name  to  it,  is  an 
invaluable  acquisition  to  the  valley  of  the  twenty- 
four  rivers ;  and  being  capable,  at  a  compara- 
tively small  expense,  of  a  communication  with 
Saldhana  Bay,  bids  fair,  in  some  future  time,  to 
open  an  important  avenue  of  supplies  to  ship- 

Sing.  '  Should  the  bay  of  Saldiif  na,'  says  Mr. 
arrow,  '  at  any  future  period,  become  the 
general  rendezvous  for  shipping,  these  two  di- 
visions will  be  more  valuable  than  all  the  rest  of 
the  colony.'  The  crops  in  the  Zwartland  dis- 
trict are  more  precarious,  having  a  greater  de- 
pendence on  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls. 

Nortn  of  the  plain  of  the  twenty-four  rivers 
is  the  Picquet  Berg,  which  grows  tobacco  in 
large  quantities,  and  of  the  best  description  in 
the  colony,  Here  also  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep, 
are  more  cultivated  than  to  the  south,  while  the 
grain  and  fruit  is  not  inferior. 

The  division  of  Olifant's  or  Elephant's  River 
terminates  this  fruitful  series  of  plains.  This 
stream  is  navigable  for  small  craft  full  twenty 
miles  up  the  country ;  but  its  banks  are  uninha- 
bited until  it  reaches  this  valley,  which  is  situated 
between  a  double  ridge  of  the  mountains  that  run 
northward  from  the  Cape. 

Crossing  the  great  chain  of  mountains  to  the 
east,  we  now  have  a  succession  of  grazing  farms, 
scattered  over  vast  karroo  plains,  and  producing 
some  of  the  finest  horses  and  horned  cattle  of 
the  colony. 

To  the  "north-west,  at  the  distance  of  five  days' 
journey  over  an  absolute  desert,  is  the  rch  gra- 
zing country  formerly  inhabited  by  the  Namaaqua 
Hottentots.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  plains  at 
the  foot  of  the  Khamies  Berg  mountains,  which 
form  the  northern  extremity  of  the  colony,  and 
unite  with  the  Copper  Mountains,  which  run  ?n 
unknown  course  into  the  interior  of  the  con- 
tinent. 

Among  the  Roggeveldt  Mountains  in  thi? 
neighbourhood,  and  a  little  to  the  south,  is  the 
division  of  Roode  Sand,  or  Waveren,  about 
thirty  miles  in  length,  and  seventy  miles  from 
Cape  Town  ;  on  the  road  to  which  is  the  kloof 
of  Roode  Sand,  a  much  frequented  pass  through 
the  great  chain  of  mountains.  Here  is  a  small 
rising  village,  with  a  church  and  comfortable 
parsonage.  The  valley  is  abundantly  watered 
by  streams  connected  with  the  Berg  and  Breed 
rivers,  and  is  fruitful  both  in  grain  and  wine. 
The  Chinese  bamboo  flourishes  in  great  beauty  ; 
rice,  tfie  Cape  olive,  and  the  palma  Christi. 

Further  south,  on  the  border  of  the  Hex  and 
Breede  rivers,  are  some  excellent  meadows,  well 
adapted  for  the  growth  of  corn  ;  no  part  of  the 
colony  is  better  watered.  South  of  this  is  Zoek 
Milk,  or  Sweet  Milk's  Valley,  containing  the 
meritorious  establishment  of  the  Moravians,  or 
Hem  liiiters  as  they  were  originally  called,  whose 


CAPE    OF    GOOD    HOPE. 


125 


kind  offices  towards  the  poor  oppressed  aborigines 
of  the  country  were  never  duly  appreciated  by 
the  Dutch.  During  both  the  periods  in  which 
tlve  colony  has  been  in  British  possession,  their 
influence  has  been  much  encouraged  and  in- 
creased. These  appear,  indeed,  missionaries 
well  adapted  to  obtain  a  permanent  triumph  in 
their  benevolent  designs.  They  have  devoted 
themselves  to  the  civilisation  of  the  Hottentot, 
as  the  best  mode  of  reaching  both  his  un- 
derstanding and  his  heart.  Mr.  Barrow,  in 
his  first  journey,  found  three  of  their  venerable 
ministers  surrounded  by  600  Hottentots,  and  an 
establishment  that  breathed  the  simplicity  and 
meek  effective  zeal  of  their  system.  Their 
church,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  valley,  was  a 
plain  but  neat  edifice ;  their  corn  mill  the  best 
in  the  colony ;  and  the  garden  of  their  village  in 
the  highest  state  of  cultivation.  One  '  adorned' 
his  Christianity,  thus  circumstanced,  by  acting  as 
the  smith  of  the  establishment;  another  as  a 
shoemaker,  and  a  third  as  a  tailor.  '  They  were 
men  of  the  middle  age,'  savs  Mr.  B.,  '  plain  and 
decent  in  their  dress ;  cleanly  in  their  persons  ; 
of  modest  manners  ;  meek  and  humble  in  their 
deportment,  but  intelligent  and  lively  in  con- 
versation ;  zealous  in  the  cause  of  the  mission, 
but  free  from  bigotry  or  enthusiasm.'  .  It  is  their 
habit  to  teach  every  one  of  their  converts  some 
useful  trade.  The  place  is  now  called  Gnaden- 
thal,  and  contains  about  1300  inhabitants.  There 
is  a  similar  establishment  at  Groenekloof. 

The  Kamnasie  mountain  on  the  east  is  sur- 
rounded with  a  few  grazing  lands  and  woody 
hills,  that  lead  down  to  the  Lange  Kloof,  or 
Long  Pass,  a  delightful  valley  between  the  moun- 
tains, along  which  runs  one  of  the  best  roads  in 
the  colony.  A  series  of  rich  pastures  here  sud- 
denly burst  upon  the  traveller,  bordered  by  a 
profusion  of  heath  plants,  and  studded  with  farm- 
houses, to  the  length  of  150  miles;  each  farm 
being,  by  a  regulation  of  the  Dutch  government, 
three  miles  distant  from  the  other.  At  every 
house  is  a  vineyard  and  fruitery,  yielding  the 
Persian  or  Muscatel  grape,  which  is  generally 
dried  in  a  summary  way  for  the  Cape  market ; 
and  remarkably  fine  oranges.  The  inferior  and 
bruised  grapes  are  thrown  with  the  under- 
growings,  and  with  the  lees  or  dregs  of  new 
wine,  into  large  vessels  to  ferment,  and  from  this 
is  procured  the  brandewyn,  an  execrable  cheap 
spirit,  of  the  Cape.  Here  are  also  extensive 
plantations  of  tobacco. 

There  is  but  one  road  leading  to  the  south  of 
the  valley  called  the  Duyvil's  Kop,  or  Devil's 
Head,  which  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  for- 
midable passes  of  the  country.  Sixteen  oxen 
were  yoked  to  each  waggon  of  Mr.  Barrow's 
party  in  passing  this  place,  which  toward  the  top 
is  a  complete  set  of  stairs,  or  steps  from  stratum 
to  stratum  of  the  rock,  some  of  them  from  three 
to  four  feet  high,  while  the  width  of  the  road  is 
not  more  than  fifteen  paces.  Over  these  it  was 
necessary  to  lift  the  waggons  by  main  strength  ; 
and  just  as  our  traveller  reached  the  summit,  one 
of  those  remarkable  changes  in  the  weather  took 
place  which  will  strikingly  illustrate  the  character 
of  this  climate.  The  day  had  been  remarkably 
pleasant,  the  thermometer  standing  at  74°,  when 


the  whole  hemisphere  was  sudden  .y  overcast, 
and  an  immense  sheet  of  black  vapor  ap- 
proached from  the  south-east.  Rolling  up  the 
mountain  in  distinct  volumes,  rapidly  succeeding 
each  other,  it  completely  immersed  the  party  at 
the  top,  and  the  temperature  sunk  to  39°.  Snow 
had  fallen  on  the  same  day  (the  longest  in  the 
year)  near  Zwellendam,  and  laid  for  some  time 
on  the  mountains,  unmelted.  The  descent  on 
the  south  side  is  by  no  means  difficult. 

The  most  eastern  division  of  this  portion  of  the 
colony  comprehends  all  the  country  between  Plet- 
tenberg's  and  Camtoos  Bay,  and  is  penetrated  by 
a  range  of  forests  running  parallel  with  the  sea 
coast  for  150  miles,  where  the  stately  elephant, 
the  rhinoceros,  the  buffalo,  and  the  antelope,  are 
found  in  their  primitive  herds.  There  is  no  re- 
gular road  through  these  thickets,  but  many 
large  and  well  watered  plains  have  been  cleared 
in  the  midst  of  them.  We  count  no  less  than 
•nine  minor  rivers  in  the  official  chart.  There 
are  also  several  lakes  abounding  with  fish.  Cattle 
and  sheep  are  the  principal  productions,  but 
there  is  no  part  of  the  colony  more  evidently 
capable  of  improvement,  or  indeed  of  any  kind 
of  agriculture.  The  wood  of  this  district  has 
never  been  fairly  cultivated ;  such  of  it  as  is 
only  fit  for  fuel  can  hardly  be  got  to  market, 
through  the  badness  of  the  roads  from  the  prin- 
cipal forests  to  the  Cape.  Were  these  once 
equal  to  what  the  demands  of  the  Cape  for  fuel, 
and  the  abundance  of  the  supplies  in  this  neigh- 
bourhood alike  seem  to  dictate,  an  unfailing 
source  of  emolument  would  be  opened  to  the 
colonist,  and  a  capital  supplied  for  the  working 
of  the  iron  ores,  and  the  rearing  of  profitable 
timber,  to  an  almost  indefinite  quantity. 

The  settlement  of  the  town  of  George,  in  this 
neighbourhood,  is  one  of  those  circumstances  that 
must  tend  to  the  development  of  these  resources ; 
it  was  a  measure  of  Sir  J.  Cradock's  government. 
This  and  the  Graaff  lleynet  district  furnish  the 
principal  and  best  trees  of  the  colony. 

Of  these  the  cyperus  or  cedar-hout  has  the 
recommendation  of  a  strong  turpentine  smell, 
which  preserves  furniture  from  insects ;  the 
geel-houts  run  occasionally  much  larger,  and 
would  make  an  excellent  substitute  for  fir  on  a 
variety  of  occasions ;  the  hassagai-hout  is  an 
elegant  wood  for  domestic  purposes  ;  the  koeha 
might  be  recommended  for  superior  household 
furniture ;  and  the  planks  of  the  wit  Essenhout 
for  flooring  of  all  sorts,  and  boat  planks  in  par- 
ticular. 

Graaff  Reynet  District,  as  originally  laid  down, 
was  the  termination  of  the  colony  eastward ;  di- 
vided between  about  700  families.  The  whole 
of  the  south  of  this  division  up  to  Albany  has 
been  recently  called  the  district  of  Uitenhagen. 
It  is  generally  speaking,  a  grazing  district,  but 
grows  upwards  of  10,000  muids  of  good  corn 
annually ;  and  about  half  the  quantity  of  barley. 
See  ALBANY.  The  inhabitants  of  this  colony 
may  be  considered  as  divided  into  six  very  dis- 
tinct classes  of  human  beings;  including,  per- 
haps, as  great  a  variety  of  human  character  as 
could  be  found  upon  any  equul  space  of  the 
earth's  surface.  1.  The  native,  or  Hottento 
tribes.  See  HOTTENTOTS.  2.  The  slave  popula- 


126 


CAPE    OF    GOOD    HOPE. 


tion.  3.  The  vine  growers.  4.  The  grain  far- 
mers. 5.  The  graziers  ;  and  6.  The  town's  peo- 
ple of  the  cape. 

The  slave  population  Mr.  Barrow  describes  as 
better  fed  and  clothed  than  any  of  the  peasantry 
of  Europe  :  the  domestic  slaves  at  Cape  Town 
live  a  wretchedly  idle  life.  Every  child  amongst 
the  richer  inhabitants  has  its  attendant  of  this 
description  ;  and  to  humor  its  caprices  is  amongst 
their  most  important  employments.  Twenty  or 
thirty  of  them,  in  other  establishments,  will  be 
engaged  to  do  the  work  of  six  good  English  ser- 
vants. The  education  of  children  is  also,  in 
many  cases,  wholly  left  to  the  most  clever  of 
them.  The  aspiring  temper  of  this  part  of  the 
population  was  decidedly  indicated  at  that  period 
of  the  French  revolution  which  was  fatal  to  the 
independence  of  Holland.  Just  at  the  crisis  of 
the  arrival  of  the  British  forces  in  1 795,  the  slaves 
had  their  regular  meetings,  and  discussions  upon 
the  prevailing  doctrines  of  the  day,  and  were 
even  becoming  bold  enough  to  hint  to  their  mis- 
tresses, '  We  carry  you  now ;  but  by-and-by  it  will 
be  our  turn.'  The  whole  system,  in  fact,  is  a 
disgrace  and  an  incumbrance  to  the  colony. 

The  vine  growers,  or  wine  boors  as  they  are 
called  at  the  Cape,  are  the  most  opulent  culti- 
vators of  the  soil  of  this  colony.  Their  lands  are 
chiefly  freehold,  exempt  from  almost  all  taxes, 
and  capable  of  any  sort  of  cultivation.  The  size 
of  their  farms  is  about  120  acres,  English,  and 
the  culture  of  the  grape,  with  an  elegant  garden, 
generally  occupies  the  whole.  Descended  from 
the  old.  French  families  who  first  introduced  the 
vine  into  the  colony,  they  retain  much  of  the 
suavity  and  communicativeness  of  their  ancestors, 
and  in  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  the  numerous 
comforts  of  their  establishments,  impress  the 
stranger  with  a  feeling  of  their  respectability  and 
of  their  decided  superiority  over  their  neigh- 
bours. But  the  French  language  is  never  heard 
amongst  them,  and  a  French  book  of  any  kind 
is  rarely  seen. 

The  produce  of  their  vineyards  is  brought  to 
market  from  September  to  the  period  of  the  new 
vintage  in  February  or  March,  but  principally 
in  the  four  last  months  of  the  year.  Here  it  is 
subject  to  a  rate  of  three  rix-dollars  per  legger  of 
wine  or  brandy,  on  passing  the  barrier  ;  but  no 
duty  is  laid  upon.it  at  the  vineyard,  or  when  sold 
in  the  country.  The  only  taxes  to  which  the 
grower  is  subject  are  a  small  capitation  rate  to- 
wards repairing  the  highways  leading  into  Cape 
Town,  and  what  is  called  the  lion  and  tiger 
money,  a  district  rate  originally  levied  to  defray 
the  expenses  of  exterminating  those  animals,  but 
now  devoted  to  the  general  exigencies  of  each 
division.  At  his  farms  he  will  rear  his  sheep, 
and  his  corn,  perhaps,  or  obtain  them  readily  in 
exchange  for  wine.  Milch  cows  for  his  family, 
and  occasionally  poukry,  are  also  among  the 
comforts  of  his  establishment. 

The  grain  farmers,  or  corn  boors,  are  also 
generally  opulent,  and  assume  the  next  rank  in 
society  to  the  wine  boors.  The  most  respectable 
of  them  live  either  in  the  Cape  district,  or  the 
neighbouring  parts  of  Stellenbosch  and  Draken- 
stein.  They  occupy  loan  farms,  or  such  as  are 
held  by  lease  under  government,  and  their  paro- 


chial taxes  are  not  more  than  those  of  the  wine 
growers.  They  are  a  selfish  and  quarrelsome 
race.  The  eastern  mode  of  treading  out  the  corn 
by  oxen  is  the  substitute  for  threshing  here.  A 
great  part  of  the  straw  is  wasted ;  the  chaff  only 
and  short  straw  of  barley  being  preserved  as 
fodder  for  horses.  The  wheat  in  the  Cape  dis- 
trict is  fine  and  full  in  the  ear,  weighing  from 
sixty  to  sixty-five  pounds  a  bushel ;  a  cargo  sent 
to  Mark-lane,  on  the  capture  of  the  Cape  in 
1795,  fetched  the  highest  price  of  the  day. 

The  graziers  are  the  lowest  class  of  the  colo- 
nists, and  consist  in  many  parts  of  the  refuse  of 
European  society :  of  sailors  who  abandon  their 
vessels,  or  deserters  from  the  troops,  who  may 
have  been  stationed  here,  or  have  put  in  at  the 
Cape.  If  they  are  fortunate  enough  to  recom- 
mend themselves  to  a  settled  boor's  family,  and 
marry  one  of  his  daughters  (which  they  frequently 
will),  a  few  sheep  and  cattle  are  given  them  to 
begin  the  world  with,  and  those  who  are  steady 
sometimes  attain  considerable  comforts. 

The  inhabitants  of  Cape  Town  are  a  very 
distinct  race  from  most  of  those  which  we  have 
described,  and  yet  are  intimately  connected  with 
all  their  pursuits.  In  addition  to  its  importance 
as  a  capital,  and  as  the  chief  market  of  redun- 
dant produce,  Cape  Town  stands  at  present  be- 
tween the  only  two  channels  of  exportation  and 
importation,  Table  Bay  and  False  Bay,  and  is 
the  military  key  of  the  colony.  Here,  therefore, 
numerous  agents  of  the  boor's  reside ;  and  the 
koopman,  or  merchant,  is  a  man  of  importance. 
While  the  phlegm  and  apathy  of  the  Dutch 
character  seldom  appear  more  conspicuously  than 
at  this  place,  and  nowhere  so  devoid  of  common 
industry,  men  of  undoubted  talent,  intelligence, 
and  integrity,  are  found  at  the  head  of  this  class. 
The  mercantile  advantages  of  Cape  Town  have 
been  latterly,  however,  in  some  degree  diverted 
to  Simon's  Town,  a  rising  place,  containing  the 
naval  arsenal  of  the  colony,  and  about  150  neat 
houses  on  the  shore  of  Simon's  bay. 

The  established  religion  of  the  Cape  colony 
is  Calvinism  or  the  reformed  church ;  the  mi- 
nisters of  which  are  a  highly  respected  and 
respectable  body  of  men,  both  in  the  town  and 
country.  All  other  sects  are  tolerated,  but  not 
directly  countenanced  or  paid.  The  clergy  are 
entitled  in  civil  life  to  take  place  next  to  the  pre- 
sident of  the  court  of  justice  in  town,  and  to  the 
landrost  in  the  country ;  and  their  widows  are 
provided  for  for  life.  Education  we  regret  to  add 
is  at  a  very  low  ebb  in  this  capital,  and  through- 
out the  colony. 

The  original  discovery  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  is  traced  to  Bartholomew  Diaz,  who  with 
a  small  expedition  fitted  out  by  John  II.  of 
Portugal,  five  years  before  Columbus  embarked 
on  his  first  voyage,  first  discovered  the  Cape ;  but 
the  weather-beaten  condition  of  his  ships,  and 
the  violence  of  the  winds,  compelled  him  to  steer 
homewards,  after  denominating  this  promontory 
Cabo  Tormentos,  the  Cape  of  Storms,  or,  as 
other  writers  state,  Cabo  dos  todos  Tormentos,  the 
Cape  of  all  Plagues.  His  royal  master,  how- 
ever, directed  it  to  be  called  The  Cape  of  Good 
Hope ;  and  is  said  to  have  deprived  himself  of 
sleep,  to  form  plans  for  availing  himself  of  its 


CAPE    OF    GOOD    HOPE. 


127 


advantages.  A  second  expedition  was  despatched 
10  these  regions  in  the  year  1497,  when,  on  the 
26th  of  November,  Vasco  de  Gama  successfully 
doubled  the  Cape,  and  coasted  the  eastern  shores 
of  Africa  to  Melinda,  in  Zanguebar.  The  fol- 
lowing year  the  Portuguese  admiral,  Rio  D'ln- 
fante,  landed  in  this  neighbourhood  on  a  voyage 
to  India,  and  gave  his  own  name  to  what  is  now 
called  the  Great  Fish  River ;  where  shortly  after- 
wards the  court  of  Portugal  attempted  to  form 
a  settlement.  In  1509  the  viceroy  of  Brasil, 
Francisco  D'Almeyda,  putting  in  here  for  provi- 
sions was  repulsed  ;  and,  on  attempting  to  head 
a  reinforcement,  was  mortally  wounded  by  a 
poisoned  arrow.  The  revenge  taken  by  his  coun- 
trymen three  years  aftei,  began  the  series  of  inju- 
ries which  the  tribes  of  this  country  have  received 
from  Europeans.  A  large  piece  of  brass  ordnance, 
loaded  with  missiles,  was  landed  as  a  present  to  the 
natives,  who  had  shown  themselves  extremely 
fond  of  brass,  and  they  were  drawing  it  by  ropes 
ashore,  when  it  was  barbarously  fired  amongst 
the  crowd,  and  made  a  dreadful  slaughter.  After 
this  we  hear  no  more  of  the  Portuguese  at  the 
Cape,  except  as  visiting  it,  in  common  with  other 
nations  trading  to  the  east. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  Dutch  East  India  Company  turned  their  at- 
tention to  the  Cape  as  a  permanent  possession, 
and  built  a  fort  for  their  protection  when  there. 
Every  ship  bound  to  the  east  was  provided  with 
a  stone  on  which  her  name  and  that  of  each  of 
her  principal  officers  were  engraved ;  to  these 
they  were  to  add  the  date  at  which  she  touched 
at  the  Cape  ;  and  burying  it  in  a  particular  spot 
with  a  tin  box  underneath,  containing  letters  for 
Holland,  the  returning  ships  sought  for  it,  and 
carried  them  home.  The  English  afterwards 
adopted  the  same  custom. 

In  1620  Andrew  Shilling  and  Humphrey  Fitz- 
herbert,  commanders  of  vessels  bound  to  the 
East  Indies,  hearing  that  the  Dutch  intended  to 
establish  a  colony  at  the  Cape  in  the  following 
year,  planted  the  British  standard  here,  and  took 
possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  '  James,  king  of 
England,'  because  they  '  thought  it  better  that  the 
Dutch  or  any  other  nation  whatever  should  be 
his  majesty's  subjects  in  this  place,  than  that  his 
subjects  should  be  subject  to  any  other.'  This 
sentiment  seems  to  have  been  supported  in  no 
particular  way  by  the  government  at  home.  In 
1650  Van  Iliebeck,  or  Roebeck,  a  surgeon  of  a 
Dutch  Indiaman,  was  equipped  with  every  neces- 
sary for  the  settlement  of  himself  and  100  fol- 
lowers, and  appointed  admiral  and  governor  in 
chief  at  the  Cape.  He  ordered  the  natives  a 
quantity  of  brass  beads,  toys,  brandy  and  tobac- 
co, worth  50,000  guilders,  it  is  said,  for  the  de- 
livery of  a  certain  portion  of  land  which  has 
since  become  the  site  of  Cape  Town.  Women 
and  more  cautious  adventurers  now  joined  them 
from  home,  and  we  soon  find  them  penetrating 
to  the  Salt  River. 

From  1659  to  1661  the  new  settlers  were  much 
annoyed  by  wars  with  the  native  tribes.  At  last, 
the  native  chiefs  ag-eed  to  confirm  to  the  Dutch 
three  leagues  of  land,  round  the  fort,  on  condition 
that  they  should  claim  no  more.  And  this  is  the 
only  public  attempt  that  seems  to  have  been  made 


against  this  colony  by  the  Hottentots,  during  the 
whole  period  of  its  history. 

Stellenbosch  district  was  planted  about  the 
year  1609  by  Governor  Simon  Vander  Stel,  who 
gave  it  his  name,  according  to  the  authors  of  the 
Universal  History  ;  i.  e.  Stel — and  Bosch  or 
Bush,  from  the  abundance  of  the  shrubs  in  the 
neighbourhood.  S"ome  modern  travellers  suppose 
it  to  be  derived  from  the  stenbok,  or  antelope, 
which  once  abounded  here.  The  same  governor 
first  organised  a  militia,  and  military  board,  for 
the  defence  of  the  colony.  The  vineyards  of 
Constantia,  also,  were  enclosed  and  settled  by 
this  spirited  governor,  and  named  after  his  wife, 
a  lady  who  is  honored  by  one  remaining  statue 
to  her  memory  over  the  door  of  the  mansion, 
and  another  over  the  cellar-door  of  the  establish- 
ment. Simon's  Bay  and  Valley  appear  likewise 
to  owe  their  names  to  him. 

The  colony  was  for  a  long  time  subject  to  the 
governor  of  Batavia,  through  whom  all  the  or- 
ders of  the  home  government  were  sent;  and  it 
was  directed  that  no  two  farms  in  the  country 
should  be  established  at  less  than  three  miles'  dis- 
tance from  each  other.  No  further  events  of  im- 
portance occur  in  the  history  of  the  Cape,  until 
the  revolution  of  Holland  at  the  close  of  the  last 
century.  This  extended  its  influence  to  this  re- 
mote settlement  as  early  as  1795  ;  and  the  Bri- 
tish government  fortunately  resolved  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  colony  for  the  prince  of  Orange, 
at  the  very  period  when  a  convention  had 
already  been  established,  and  was  about  to  de- 
clare it  a  free  and  independent  republic.  A 
French  force  had  been  confidently  expected,  and 
the  first  determination  of  the  public  authorities 
was  to  hold  out  against  the  British  attack,  and 
to  call  out  the  burgher  cavalry,  who  were  to  per- 
form wonders  against  the  enemy.  Some  few  of 
them  answered  the  summons.  General  Sir  James 
Craig,  at  the  head  of  about  1600  men,  led  on  the 
attack,  and  brought  his  guns  to  bear,  he  quickly 
drove  the  Dutch  within  their  lines,  and  a  very 
few  shots  from  our  artillery  decided  the  contest. 
In  the  middle  of  the  night  offers  of  capitulation 
were  sent  to  the  British  commander,  and  the 
whole  colony  passed  into  our  hands  almost  as 
easily  as  it  had  done  into  those  of  the  Dutch.  It 
was  restored  in  full  sovereignty  to  the  Batavian 
republic,  in  March,  1803. 

On  the  renewal  of  the  war  with  France,  and 
its  dependencies,  Great  Britain  did  not  fail  to 
consider  the  Cape  as  an  important  point  of  attack 
upon  the  enemy ;  and  seems  to  have  awoke  to 
the  determination  of  holding  it  permanently.  A 
well-appointed  force  of  5000  men,  under  Sir 
David  Baird  and  Sir  Home  Popham,  appeared 
before  the  town  in  January  1806,  and  were  re- 
ceived by  about  equal  numbers,  under  the  conl- 
mand  of  the  same  governor  to  whom  we  had 
relinquished  the  colony.  The  two  armies  met 
in  the  plain  at  the  foot  of  Table  Mountain.  The 
Highland  brigade,  under  general  Ferguson,  led 
the  attack,  and  the  enemy  retreated  through  a 
neighbouring  defile  to  the  mountains,  when  ho- 
norable terms  were  proposed,  and  agreed  upon, 
for  the  cession  of  the  place  to  the  British  troops. 
At  the  peace  of  Paris  it  was  definitely  recognised 
as  a  colony  of  Great  Britain.  See  Barrow's 


CAP  128 

T^aoelsm  Southern  Africa;  Vaillant,  Lichtenstein, 
and  Campbell's  Travels ;  and  the  Interesting  Jour- 
nal of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Latrobe's  Visit  to  South 
Africa  i*  1815  and  1816. 

CAPEL  (Arthur,  lord),  a  devoted  and  truly 
noble  adherent  of  Charles  I.  was  the  son  of 
Sir  Henry  Capel,  Knt.  on  whose  death  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  fortunes  of  his  family.  In  1640 
lie  represented  the  county  of  Hertford  in  par- 
liament, and  voted  in  the  first  instance  against  the 
king's  measures,  and  for  the  attainder  of  Stafford. 
Finding,  however,  the  extravagance  of  the  views 
of  his  party,  he  had  the  intrepidity  to  abandon  it, 
and  was  soon  advanced  by  Charles  to  the  peerage 
by  the  title  of  lord  Capel,  of  Hadham.  He 
defended  Colchester  in  1649,  against  the  par- 
liamentary forces,  but,  being  obliged  to  surrender 
to  Fairfax,  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  and, 
although  at  first  he  made  his  escape,  being  re- 
taken, he  was  beheaded  March  9th,  1649.  Cla- 
rendon says  he  was  a  man  in  whom  the  malice 
of  his  enemies  could  find  no  fault,  and  that  his 
friends  might  be  well  content  with  Cromwell's 
character  of  him. 

CAPEL  (Arthur),  his  son,  was  created  earl  of 
Essex  at  the  Restoration,  and  employed  as  am- 
bassador to  Denmark.  In  1679  he  became,  for 
a  few  months,  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  But, 
being  accused  of  being  concerned  in  the  rye- 
nouse  plot,  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower  in 
1683.  He  was  found  a  few  days  afterwards 
with  his  throat  cut. 

CAPELL  (Edward),  a  celebrated  dramatic 
critic,  was  born  in  Suffolk,  and  educated  at  Bury. 
The  duke  of  Grafton  bestowed  on  him  the  office 
of  deputy  inspector  of  plays,  to  which  a  salary 
is  annexed  of  £200  a  year.  In  1745  he  first 
projected  an  edition  of  Shakspeare,  of  the  strictest 
accuracy,  to  be  collated  and  published,  in  due 
time,  ex  fide  codicum.  He  immediately  pro- 
ceeded to  collect  and  compare  the  oldest  and 
scarcest  copies ;  noting  the  original  excellencies 
and  defects  of  the  rarest  quartos,  and  distin- 
guishing the  improvements  or  variations  of  the 
first,  second,  and  third  folios;  and,  after  many 
years'  labor,  produced  a  very  beautiful  small  oc- 
tavo, in  ten  volumes,  with  an  Introduction.  In 
1763  he  published  three  large  volumes  in  quarto, 
entitled  Notes  and  Various  Readings  of  Shaks- 
peare ;  together  with  the  School  of  Shakspeare, 
or  Extracts  from  divers  English  books,  that  were 
in  print  in  the  Author's  tin? 3 ;  evidently  showing 
from  whence  his  several  Fables  were  taken,  and 
some  parcel  of  his  Dialogue.  Also  farther  Ex- 
tracts, which  contribute  to  a  due  understanding 
of  his  Writings,  or  give  a  light  to  the  History  of 
his  Life,  or  to  the  Dramatic  History  of  his  Time. 
Mr.  Capell  was  also  the  editor  of  a  volume 
of  ancient  poems,  called  Prolusions;  and  the 
Alteration  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  as  acted  at 
Drury  Lane,  in  1758.  He  died  January  24th, 
1781. 

CAPELLA,  in  astronomy,  a  bright  fixed  star 
in  the  left  shoulder  of  the  constellation  Auriga. 

CAPELLO  ^Bianca),  a  Venetian  lady,  of 
respectable  family,  and  duchess  of  Tuscany,  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  Her  father,  Bart.  Capello, 
a  patrician  of  Venice,  discountenancing  an  in- 
trigue into  which  she  fell  in  early  life,  she  left 


her  native  city  in  company  with  her  paramour. 
Bonaventure.  She  was  pregnant,  and  the  lovers 
married  at  Florence.  Here  the  uncommon 
beauty  of  her  person  soon  attracted  the  attentions 
of  Francis,  son  of  Cosmo  de  Medici,  the  reigning 
dull  e  of  Tuscany  ;  the  husband  consenting  to 
his  own  dishonor,  was  advanced;  and  he  being 
assassinated  in  the  course  of  a  new  intrigue,  Bi- 
anca  became  the  avowed  mistress  of  Francis. 
She  is  said  at  this  time  to  have  feigned  a  second 
pregnancy,  and  to  have  imposed  the  purchased 
chi'd  of  some  poor  parents  on  her  admirer  as 
his  own  son.  Ultimately,  on  the  death  of  the 
wife  of  Francis,  and  his  accession  to  the  ducal 
throne,  she  induced  the  republic  of  Venice  to 
acknowledge  her  as  '  a  daughter  of  the  state,'  and 
was  publicly  married,  and  installed  duchess  of 
Tuscany  in  1579.  This  elevated  station  she  oc- 
cupied nearly  nine  years,  to  the  great  disgust  of 
the  other  members  of  the  Medicean  family,  and 
died  within  two  days  of  her  husband  (not  without 
the  suspicion  of  both  being  poisoned),  in  Oc- 
tober, 1587.  His  successor  would  not  suffer  her 
remains  to  be  buried  in  the  family  vault,  and 
procured  the  illegitimacy  of  her  child  to  be  pub- 
licly recorded. 

CAPELLUS  (Lewis),  an  eminent  French 
Protestant  divine,  born  at  Sedan  about  1579. 
He  was  author  of  some  learned  works;  but  is 
chiefly  known  from  the  controversy  he  engaged 
in  with  the  younger  Buxtorf,  concerning  the  an- 
tiquity of  the  Hebrew  points,  which  Capellus 
undertook  to  disprove.  His  Critica  Sacra  was 
also  an  elaborate  work,  and  excited  some  dis- 
putes. He  died  in  1658,  having  made  an 
abridgement  of  his  life  in  his  work  De  gente 
Capellorum.  He  was  also  the  author  of  Historia 
Illustrata;  Templi  Hierosolymetani  Delineatio 
Triplex;  De  Critica Nuper  se  Edita;  Ad  Novem 
Davidis  Lyram  Animadversiones ;  Cronologia 
Sacra ;  Diatriba  de  Verio  et  Antiquis  Ebraorum 
Literis  ;  Spicilegium  Post  Messem. 

CA'PER,  v.  &w.     ~)      Fr.  capriole  ;  Ital.  cu- 

CA'PERER,  n.  \priola;    from   the    Lat. 

CA'PER-CUTTING,  n.  j  caper,  a  goat.  A  leap  ; 
a  jump ;  a  skip.  The  verb  is  expressive  of  dan- 
cing sportively;  skipping  merrily;  'like  die 
leaping  and  springing  up  of  goates,  when  they 
leape  and  play,'  says  Minsheu.  It  is  also  used 
as  a  contemptuous  designation  of  dancing  ;  as  is 
the  word  caperer  for  a  dancer.  To  cut  a  caper 
is  to  leap  up  with  a  dance-like  motion.  The 
Italians  have  an  equivalent  phrase,  tagliar  le  ca- 
priole, which  is  translated  by  to  caper,  to  prance. 
A  caper,  Fr.  capre ;  Dutch,  kapre ;  was  once  the 
designation  cf  a  privateer,  or  pirate-ship  ;  per- 
haps from  the  quickness  and  desultoriness  of  iUs 
motions. 

We,  that  are  true  lovers,  run  into  strange  capers  , 
but  as  all  is  mortal  in  nature,  so  is  all  nature  in  love 
mortal  in  folly.  Sliahspeare.  As  you  like  it, 

The  truth  is,  I  am  old  in  judgment ;  and  he  that 
•will  caper  with  me  for  a  thousand  marks,  let  him  lend 
me  the  money,  and  have  at  him.  Id.  Henry  IV. 

Our  master 

Capering  to  eye  her.  Id.  Tempest. 

His  nimble  hand's  instinct  then  taught  each  string 

A  cuperiny  cheerfulness,  and  made  them  sing 

To  their  own  dance.  Crushnia, 


CAP  / 

We  that  are  true  lovers,  run  into  strange  capers ; 
out  as  all  is  mortal  in  nature,  so  is  all  nature  in  love 
uxirtal  in  folly. 

Shaktpeare.  As  you  like  it. 

jie  tumbler's  gambols  some  delight  afford  j 
T?o  less  the  nimble  caperer  on  the  cord  : 
l!ut  these  are  still  insipid  stuff  to  thee, 
Cooped  in  a  ship,  and  tossed  upon  the  sea. 

Dryden's  Juvenal. 

Flimnap,  the  treasurer,  is  allowed  to  cut  a  caper, 
on  the  strait  rope,  at  least  an  inch  higher  than  any 
other  lord  in  the  whole  empire.  Swift's  Gulliver. 

The  family  tript  it  about,  and  capered  like  hail  stones 
bounding  from  a  marble  floor.  Artsuthnot's  John  Bull. 

The  stage  would  need  no  force,  nor  song,  nor  dance, 
Nor  capering  monsieur  from  active  France.  Rowe. 

CA'PER,  n.       1      Fr.    capre,    Lat.    capparis ; 

CA'PER-BUSH,  $  KaTTTropic.  An  acid  pickle, 
made  of  the  flower-buds  of  a  shrub.  The  word 
is  always  used  in  the  plural,  except  when  it  forms 
a  compound  with  another  word,  as  in  caper- 
sauce.  See  CAPPARIS. 

We  invent  new  sauces  and  pickles,  which  resemble 
the  animal  ferment  in  taste  and  virtue,  as  mangoes, 
olives,  and  capers.  Flayer. 

CAPER,  in  shipping,  a  vessel  used  by  the 
Dutch  for  cruising  and  taking  vessels  from  the 
enemy ;  in  which  sense,  caper  amounts  to  the 
same  with  privateer.  Capers  are  commonly 
double  officered,  and  crowded  with  hands  even 
beyond  the  rates  of  ships  of  war,  because  the 
thing  chiefly  in  view  is  boarding  the  enemies. 

CAPER  BEAN.  See  ZYGOPHYLLUM. 

CAPERNAUM,  a  city  celebrated  in  the  gos- 
pels, being  the  place  where  Jesus  usually  resided 
during  the  time  of  his  ministry.  This  city  is  no 
where  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  under 
this  or  any  other  name ;  and  therefore  it  is  pro- 
bable that  it  was  built  after  the  return  from  the 
Babylonish  captivity.  It  stood  on  the  coast  of 
Galilee,  in  the  borders  of  Zebulon  and  Nephtha- 
lim  (Matt.  iv.  15),  and  took  its  name  from  an 
adjacent  spring,  which  probably  was  an  induce- 
ment to  build  the  town  in  the  place  where  it 
stood.  Capernaum  was  said  by  our  Lord  him- 
self to  be  exalted  unto  heaven ;  but,  because  its 
inhabitants  made  no  right  use  of  the  privileges 
they  enjoyed,  he  denounced  that  it  should  be 
brought  down  to  hell  (Matt.  xi.  23),  which  has 
certainly  been  verified :  for,  as  Dr.  Wells  ob- 
serves, so  far  is  it  from  being  the  metropolis  of 
all  Galilee,  as  it  once  was,  that  it  consisted  long 
ago  of  no  more  than  six  poor  cottages. 

CAPEROLANS,  a  congregation  of  religious 
in  Italy,  so  called  from  Peter  Caperole,  their 
founder,  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  Milanese 
and  Venetians  being  at  war,  the  enmity  occa- 
sioned thereby  spread  itself  to  the  very  cloisters. 
The  superiors  of  minor  brothers,  of  the  province 
of  Milan,  which  extended  itself  as  far  as  the  ter- 
ritories of  the  republic  of  Venice,  carried  it  so 
haughtily  over  the  Venetians,  that  those  of  the 
convent  of  Brescia  resolved  to  shake  off  a  yoke 
which  was  grown  insupportable  to  them.  The 
superiors,  informed  of  this,  expelled  the  principal 
authors  of  this  design;  viz.  Peter  Caperole,  Mat- 
thew de  Thareillo,  and  Bonaventure  of  Brescia. 
Peter  Caperole,  a  man  of  an  enterprising  genius, 
VOL.  V. 


^J  CAP 

found  means  to  separate  the  convents  of  Brescia, 
Bergamo,  and  Cremona,  from  the  province  of 
Milan.  This  occasioned  a  law-suit  between  the 
vicar  general  and  these  convents,  which  was  de- 
termined in  favor  of  the  latter;  and  in  1475,  by 
the  authority  of  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  they  were 
erected  into  a  distinct  vicariate,  under  the  title  ot 
that  of  Brescia.  This  not  satisfying  the  ambition 
of  Caperole,  he  obtained,  by  the  interposition  of 
the  Doge  of  Venice,  that  this  vicariate  might  be 
erected  into  a  congregation;  called  from  him 
Caperolans. 

CAPH,  a  Jewish  measure  of  capacity  for 
things,  estimated  by  Kimchi  at  the  thirtieth  part 
of  the  log,  by  Arbuthnot  at  the  sixteenth  part  of 
the  hin,  or  thirty-second  of  the  seah,  amounting 
to  f  of  an  English  pint.  It  does  not  occur  in 
Scripture  as  the  name  of  any  measure. 

CAPHAR,  a  duty  which  the  Turks  exact  from 
the  Christians  who  carry  or  send  merchandises 
from  Aleppo  to  Jerusalem  and  other  places  in 
Syria.  This  duty  was  first  imposed  by  the 
Christians  themselves,  when  they  were  in  pos- 
session of  the  Holy  Land,  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  troops  which  were  planted  in  difficult  passes, 
to  observe  the  Arabs  and  prevent  their  incur- 
sions. It  is  still  continued,  and  much  increased 
by  the  Turks,  under  pretence  of  defending  the 
Christians  against  the  Arabs ;  with  whom,  never- 
theless, they  keep  a  secret  intelligence,  favoring 
their  excursions  and  plunders. 

CAPI-AG  A,  or  C  A  PI-AGASSI,  a  Turkish  officer, 
governor  of  the  gates  of  the  seraglio,  or  grand 
master  of  the  seraglio.  He  enjoys  the  first  dig- 
nity among  the  white  eunuchs :  he  is  always 
near  the  person  of  the  grand  seignior  :  he  intro- 
duces ambassadors  to  their  audience :  nobody 
enters  or  goes  out  of  the  grand  seignior's  apart- 
ment but  by  his  means.  He  has  the  privilege  of 
wearing  the  turban  in  the  seraglio,  and  of  going 
everywhere  on  horseback.  He  accompanies  the 
grand  seignior  to  the  apartment  of  the  sultanas, 
but  stops  at  the  door  without  entering.  The 
grand  seignior  bears  the  expense  of  his  table,  and 
allows  him  at  the  rate  of  about  fifty  shillings  per 
day  :  but  his  office  brings  him  in  abundance  of 
presents ;  no  affair  of  consequence  coming  to  the 
emperor's  knowledge  without  passing  through 
his  hand.  He  cannot  be  bashaw  when  he  quits 
his  post. 

CAPIAS.  A  writ  of  two  sorts,  one  before 
judgment,  called  capias  ad  respondendum,  in  an 
action  personal,  if  the  sheriff,  upon  the  first  writ 
of  distress,  return  that  he  has  no  effects  in  his 
jurisdiction.  The  other  is  a  writ  of  execution 
after  judgment. 

CAPIAS  AD  RESPONDENDUM  is  where  an  ori- 
ginal is  issued  out,  to  take  the  defendant,  and 
make  him  answer  the  plaintiff. 

CAPIAS,  after  judgment,  is  of  divers  kinds.1 
such  as, 

CAPIAS  AD  SATISFACIENDUM,  a  writ  of  exe 
cution  that  issues  on  a  judgment  obtained,  and 
lies  where   any  person  recovers  in  a  persona 
action,  as  for  debt,  damages,  &c.  in  which  cases 
this  writ  issues  to  the  sheriff,  commanding  hin* 
to  take  the  body  of  him  against  whom  the  deJ 
is  recovered,  who  is  to  be  kept  in  prison  till 
make  satisfaction. 

K 


CAP 


130 


CAP 


CAPIAS  IN  WiTHtRNAM,  a  writ  that  lies  for 
cattle  in  Withernam :  that  is,  where  a  distress 
taken  is  driven  out  of  the  country,  so  that  the 
sheriff  cannot  make  deliverance  upon  a  replevin  ; 
then  this  writ  issues,  commanding  the  sheriff  to 
take  as  many  beasts  of  the  'distrainer,  &c. 

CAPIAS  PRO  FINE  is  a  writ  lying^where  a 
person  is  fined  to  the  king,  for  some  offence 
committed  against  a  statute,  and  he  does  not 
discharge  the  fine  according  to  the  judgment; 
therefore  his  body  shall  be  taken  by  this  writ, 
and  committed  to  gaol  till  the  fine  is  paid. 

CAPIAS  VT  LEGATUM,  a  writ  which  lies  against 
any  one  outlawed,  upon  any  action  personal  or 
criminal,  by  which  the  sheriff  is  ordered  to  ap- 
prehend the  party  outlawed,  for  not  appearing 
on  the  exigent,  and  keep  him  in  safe  custody  till 
the  day  of  his  return,  when  he  is  to  present  him 
to  the  court,  to  be  there  farther  ordered  for  his 
contempt. 

CAPJGI,  Turk.  i.  e.  gate,  a  door-keeper  of 
the  Turkish  seraglio.  There  are  about  500  ca- 
pigis  in  the  seraglio,  divided  into  two  com- 
panies; one  consisting  of  300,  under  a  chief 
called  Capigi-bassa,  who  has  a  stipend  of  three 
ducats  per  day ;  the  other  consists  of  200,  called 
Cuccicapigi,  and  their  chief  Cuccicapigi-bassa, 
who  has  two  ducats.  The  capigis  have  from 
seven  to  fifteen  aspers  per  day.  Their  business 
is  to  assist  the  janissaries  in  the  guard  of  the 
first  and  second  gates  of  the  seraglio ;  sometimes 
all  together,  as  when  the  Turk  holds  a  general 
council,  receives  an  ambassador,  or  goes  to  the 
mosque;  and  sometimes  only  in  part,  being 
ranged  on  either  side  to  prevent  people  entering 
with  arms,  tumults  being  made,  &c. 

CAPILLA'CEOUS,  adj.-\       .Lat.      capillus, 
CAPIL'LAMENT,  n.  I  quasi  capitis  pilus, 

CAPIL'LARY,  n.  &  adj.      VfromTriXoc.  Hairy; 
CAPILLA'TION,  n.  I  hair-like  ;  in  deli- 

CAPIL'LATURE,  n.  J  cate  filaments.  Ca- 

pillary is  most  commonly  applied  to  the  fibres  of 
plants,  and  the  minute  vessels  of  bodies.  Mine- 
ralogists also  apply  it  to  ores  which  shoot  out 
thread-like  branches.  Capillaceous  is  the  same 
with  capillary,  when  the  latter  is  used  as  an 
adjective.  Capillation  is  obsolete.  Capillature, 
Bailey  defines  to  be,  a  bush  of  hair,  a  frizzling  of 
the  hair.  This  word  also  is  disused. 

Our  common  hyssop  is  not  the  least  of  vegetables, 
nor  observed  to  grow  upon  walls ;  but  rather,  some 
kind  of  capillaries,  which  are  very  small  plants,  and 
on-.y  grow  upon  walls  and  stony  places. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

Nor  is  the  humour  contained  in  smaller  veins,  or 
obscure  tap  illations,  but  in  a  vesicle.  Id. 

Ten  capillary  arteries  in  some  parts  of  the  body,  as 
in  the  brain,  are  not  equal  to  one  hair ;  and  the 
smallest  lymphatic  vessels  are  an  hundred  times 
smaller  than  the  smallest  capillary  artery. 

Arbuthnot  on  Aliments. 

Capillary  or  capillaceous  plants,  are  such  as  have  no 
xntiin  stalk  or  stem,  but  grow  to  the  ground,  as  hairs 
on  the  head  ;  and  which  bear  their  seeds  in  little 
tufts  or  protuberances  on  the  backside  of  their  leaves. 

Quincy. 

Those  small  threads,  or  hairs,  which  grow  up  in 
the  middle  of  a  flower,  and  adorned  with  little  knobs 
at  the  top,  are  called  capillaments.  Id. 


CAP'ILLAIRE,  n.  Fr.  Genuine  yipillaire  is 
a  syrup  of  adiantum  but  in  this  country  it  is 
frequently  made  of  water,  orange  flower  water, 
eggs  and  sugar.  A  few  spoonsful  of  it  in  water, 
either  with  or  without  the  addition  of  orgeat, 
makes  a  pleasant  beverage. 

CAPILLAMENTS  in  a  general  sense,  signifies  a 
hair;  whence  the  word  is  applied  to  several 
things,  which  on  account  of  their  length  or  their 
fineness  resemble  hairs :  as, 

CAPILLAMENTS  OF  THE  NERVES,  in  anatomy, 
the  fine  fibres  or  filaments  whereof  the  nerves 
are  composed. 

CAP1LLARIS,  or  CAPILLATA,  ARBOR,  an 
ancient  tree  at  Rome,  on  which  the  vestal  vir- 
gins, when  shaven  for  their  office,  hung  up  their 
hair,  and  consecrated  it  to  the  gods. 

CAPILLARY  TUBES.     See  TUBES,  CAPILLARY. 

CAPILLUS  VENERIS.    See  ADIANTUM. 

CAPISCHOLUS,  or  CAPISCOLUS,  in  ecclesi- 
astical writers,  denotes  an  officer  in  certain  cathe- 
drals, who  had  the  superintendency  of  the  choir, 
or  band  of  music,  answering  to  what  in  other 
churches  is  called  chanter  or  precentor.  The 
word  is  also  written  cabiscolus,  and  caput-scholse, 
q.  d.  the  head  of  the  school,  or  band  of  music. 
The  office  is  also  called  scolasticus,  as  having  the 
instruction  of  the  young  clerks  and  choristers, 
how  to  perform  their  duty. 

CAPITA,  DISTRIBUTION  BY,  in  law,  signifies 
the  appointing  to  every  man  an  equal  share  of  a 
personal  estate;  when  all  the  claimants  claim  in 
their  own  rights,  as  in  equal  degrees  of  kindred, 
and  not  jure  representationis. 

CAPITA,  SUCCESSION  BY,  where  the  claimants 
are  next  in  degree  to  the  ancestor,  in  their  own 
right,  and  not  by  right  of  representation. 

CAP'ITAL,  n.  &  adj.-\      Lat.  capitalis,  from 

CAPITALIST,  n.  I  caput,  the  head.     Ac- 

CAP'ITALLY,  adv.         V  cordingly,  capital  uni- 

CAP'ITALNESS,  ra.        i  formly    implies    pre- 

CAP'ITATION,  n.  _/  eminence,  whether  of 
place,  action,  possession,  or  crime.  The  capital 
of  a  pillar  is  that  part  which  crowns  the  whole  ; 
the  capital  of  a  country  is  its  principal  city ;  a 
capital  crime  is  one  of  such  magnitude  that  it 
can  be  expiated  only  by  death ;  capital  letters 
are  the  letters  that  head  a  sentence  ;  capital  in  a 
mercantile  sense,  is  the  money  which  is  em- 
ployed to  gain  other  sums ;  and  a  capitalist  is  a 
person  who  trades  with  a  large  capital,  and  is 
commonly  known  by  the  denomination  of  a 
monied  man ;  capitation  refers  still  more  closely 
to  caput,  and  means  numeration  or  taxation  by 
the  head.  Sherwood  defines  capitalness  to  be 
*  a  capital  offence,  cupitahte  ;'  but  I  know  of  no 
authority  for  the  word. 

I  will,  out  of  that  infinite  number,  reckon  but  some 
that  are  most  capital,  and  commonly  occurrent  "both 
in  the  life  and  conditions  of  private  men. 

Spenser  on  Ireland. 

As  to  swerve  in  the  least  points  is  errour  ;  so  the 
capital  enemies  thereof  God  hateth,  as  his  deadly 
foes,  aliens,  and  without  repentance,  children  of 
endless  perdition.  Hooker. 

Edmund,  I  arrest  thee 
On  capital  treason.  Shakspeare.  King  Lear. 


CAP 


131 


CAP 


In  capital  causes,  wherein  but  one  man's  life  is  in 
question,  the  evidence  ought  to  be  clear ;  much  more, 
in  a  judgment  upon  a  war,  which  is  capital  to  thou- 
sands. Bacun. 

This  had  been 

Perhaps  thy  capital  seat  from  whence  had  spread 
All  generations.  Paradise  Lost. 

Our  most  considerable  actions  arc  always  present 
like  capital  letters  to  an  aged  and  dim  eye. 

Taylor's  Holy  Living. 

They  do,  in  themselves,  tend   to  confirm  the   truth 

of  a  capital  article  in  religion.  Atterbury. 

Several    cases    deserve    greater   punishment    than 

many  crimes  that  are  capital  among  us.  Swift. 

You  see  the  volute  of  the  lonick,  the  foliage  of  the 

Corinthian,    and    the    novali    of  the   Dorick,    mixed 

without  any  regularity  on  the  same  capital. 

Addison  on  Italy. 

I  take  the  expenditure  of  the  capitalist,  not  the 
value  of  the  capital,  as  my  standard  ;  because  it  is  the 
standard  upon  which,  among  us,  property,  as  an  ob- 
ject of  taxation,  is  rated. 

Burke.  Letter  III.  on  a  Regicide  Peace. 
He  suffered  for  not  performing  the  commandment 
of  God  concerning  capitation ;  that,  when  the  people 
were  numbered,  for  every  head  they  should  pay  unto 
God  a  shekel.  Browne. 

Either  from  design  or  from  accident,  the  mode  of 
assessment  seemed  to  unite  the  substance  of  a  land 
tax  with  the  forms  of  a  capitation.  The  returns  which 
were  sent,  of  every  province  or  district,  expressed  the 
number  of  tributary  subjects,  and  the  amount  of  the 
public  impositions.  The  latter  of  these  sums  was 
divided  by  the  former  ;  and  the  estimate,  that  such  a 
province  contained  so  many  capita,  or  heads  of  tri- 
bute ;  and  that  each  head  was  rated  at  such  a  price ; 
was  universally  received,  not  only  in  the  popular,  but 
even  in  the  legal  computation.  Gibbon. 

CAPITANA,  or  CAPTAIN  GALLEY,  the  chief 
or  principal  galley  of  a  state,  riot  dignified  with 
the  title  of  a  kingdom.  It  was  anciently  the  de- 
nomination of  the  chief  galley  of  France,  which 
the  commander  went  on  board  of. 

CAPITANATA,  a  province  of  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  bordering  on  the  Adriatic,  formed  of  what 
is  commonly  called  the  Spur  of  Italy  ;  a  collate- 
ral ridge  of  the  Appenines  bounds  it  on  the  north, 
dividing  it  from  Abruzzo  Citra ;  on  the  south  it 
is  bounded  by  Terra  di  Bari;  the  spur  or  pro- 
montory of  mount  Gargano,  projecting  into  the 
Adriatic,  is  mountainous,  the  remaining  part  of 
the  province  is  an  arid  plain,  though  not  unpro- 
ductive either  in  grain  or  cattle  ;  it  is  intersected 
by  several  streams  falling  into  the  Adriatic.  The 
slopes  of  mount  Gargano  are  planted  with  orange 
groves,  and  its  quarries  furnish  stone  for  nearly 
all  the  buildings  of  the  province,  the  area  of 
which  is  about  3500  square  miles;  population 
about  200,000.  The  principal  sea-port  is  Manfre- 
donia,  a  little  north  of  which  is  Monte  St.  Angelo. 
The  principal  towns  in  the  interior  are,  St.  Se- 
vero,  Foggia,  and  Lucera. 

CAPITANEATE.in  a  general  sense,  the  same 
with  Capitania,  the  Brazilian  governments.  Capi- 
taneats,  in  Prussia,  are  a  kind  of  estates,  which, 
besides  their  revenue,  raise  their  owners  to  the 
rank  of  nobility.  They  are  also  called  Starosties. 
CAPITANEI,  or  CATANEI,  in  Italy,  was  a 
denomination  given  to  all  the  dukes,  marquisses, 
and  counts,  who  were  called  capitanei  regis. 


The  same  appellation  was  given  to  persons  of 
inferior  rank  who  were  invested  with  fees,  for- 
merly distinguished  by  the  appellation  of  valva- 
sores  majores. 

CAPITATION,  a  tax  raised  on  each  person,  in 
proportion  to  his  labor,  industry,  office,  rank, 
&c.  It  is  a  very  ancient  kind  of  tribute.  The 
Latins  call  it  tributum,  by  which  taxes  on  per- 
sons are  distinguished  from  taxes  on  merchan- 
dise, which  were  called  vectigalia.  Capitations 
are  never  practised  among  us  but  in  exigencies 
of  state.  In  France  the  capitation  was  intro- 
duced by  Louis  XIV.  in  1695  ;  and  was  a  tax 
very  different  from  the  taille,  being  levied  from 
all  persons  except  the  clergy,  even  the  princes  of 
the  blood  not  being  exempted  from  it. 

CAP1TE,  in  law,  is  a  species  of  ancient  tenure 
of  land.  See  TENURE. 

CAPITE  CENSI,  in  antiquity,  the  lowest  rank 
of  Roman  citizens,  who  in  public  taxes  were 
rated  the  least  of  all,  being  such  as  never  were 
worth  above  365  asses.  They  were  supposed  to 
have  been  thus  called,  because  they  were  rather 
counted  and  marshalled  by  their  heads  than  by 
their  estates.  The  capite  censi  made  part  of  the 
sixth  class  of  citizens,  below  the  proletarii,  who 
formed  the  other  moiety  of  that  class.  They 
were  not  enrolled  in  the  army,  being  judged  not 
able  to  support  the  expense  of  war  ;  for  in  those 
days  the  soldiers  maintained  themselves.  It  does 
not  appear,  that  before  Caius  Marius  any  of  the 
Roman  generals  listed  the  capite  censi  in  their 
armies. 

CAPITO,  in  ichthyology.     See  ZERTA. 

CAPITOL,  CAPITOLIUM,  in  antiquity,  a  cele- 
brated temple  and  citadel  on  the  Mons  Capito- 
linus  at  Rome,  in  which  the  senate  anciently  as- 
sembled ;  and  which  still  serves  as  the  city-hall 
for  the  meeting  of  the  conservators  of  the  Roman 
people.  It  had  its  name  capitol,  from  caput,  a 
man's  head,  which  was  said  to  have  been  found 
fresh,  and  bleeding,  upon  digging  the  foundation 
of  the  temple  built  in  honor  of  Jupiter.  Arno- 
bius  adds,  that  the  man's  name  was  Tolius, 
whence  caputolinum.  The  first  foundations  of 
the  capitol  were  laid  by  Tarquin  I.  A.  U.  C.  139. 
His  successor  Servius  raised  the  walls ;  and 
Tarquin  Superbus  finished  it  in  the  year  221. 
But  it  was  not  consecrated  till  the  third  year 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings.  The  ceremony 
of  the  dedication  of  the  temple  was  performed 
by  the  consul  Horatius  in  256.  The  capitol  con- 
sisted of  three  parts  ;  a  nave  sacred  to  Jupiter  ; 
and  two  wings  consecrated  to  Juno  and  Minerva. 
It  was  ascended  by  100  stairs ;  the  frontispiece 
and  sides  were  surrounded  with  galleries,  in 
which  those  who  w,ere  honored  with  triumphs 
entertained  the  senate  at  a  magnificent  banquet, 
after  the  sacrifices  had  been  offered  to  the  gods. 
Both  the  inside  and  outside  were  enriched  with 
an  infinity  of  ornaments,  the  most  distinguished 
of  which  was  the  statue  of  Jupiter,  with  his  gol- 
den thunderbolt,  sceptre,  and  crown.  All  the 
consuls  successively  made  donations  to  the  capi- 
tol, and  Augustus  bestowed  upon  it  at  one  time 
2000  pounds  weight  of  gold.  Its  thresholds 
were  made  of  brass,  and  its  roof  was  gold.  In 
the  capitol  also  were  a  temple  to  Jupiter  the 
guardian,  and  another  to  Juno,  with  the  mint  ; 

K2        ' 


CAP 


132 


CAP 


and  on  the  descent  of  the  bill  was  the  temple  of 
Concord.  This  beautiful  edifice  contained  the 
most  sacred  deposits,  such  as  the  ancylia,  the 
books  of  the  Sibyls,  &c.  The  capitol  was  burnt 
during  the  civil  war  of  Marius,  and  Sylla  rebuilt 
it,  but  died  before  the  dedication,  which  was 
performed  by  Q.  Catulus.  It  was  again  burnt 
by  Vitellius,  and  rebuilt  by  Vespasian.  It  was 
burnt  a  third  time  by  lightning  under  Titus,  and 
restored  by  Domitian,  who  spent  12,000  talents 
in  the  gilding  only. 

CAPITOL  was  also  a  name  anciently  applied  to 
all  the  principal  temples,  in  most  of  the  colonies 
throughout  the  Roman  Empire  ;  as  at  Constan- 
tinople, Jerusalem,  Carthage,  Ravenna,  Capua, 
&c. 

CAPITOLINE  GAMES,  annual  games  insti- 
tuted by  Camillus,  in  honor  of  Jupiter  Capitoli- 
nus,  and  in  commemoration  of  the  capitol  not 
being  taken  by  the  Gauls.  Plutarch  tells  us, 
that  a  part  of  the  ceremony  consisted  in  the  pub- 
lic crier  putting  up  the  Hetrurians  to  sale  by 
auction ;  they  also  took  an  old  man,  and,  tying  a 
golden  bulla  about  his  neck,  exposed  him  to  the 
public  derision.  Festus  says  they  also  dressed 
him  in  a  pretexta.  There  was  another  kind  of 
Capitoline  games,  instituted  by  Domitian,  where- 
in there  were  rewards  and  crowns  bestowed  on 
the  poets,  champions,  orators,  historians  and  musi- 
cians. These  last  were  celebrated  every  five 
years,  and  became  so  famous,  that  instead  of  cal- 
culating time  by  lustra,  they  began  to  count  by 
Capitoline  games,  as  the  Greeks  did  by  Olym- 
piads. However,  this  custom  was  riot  of  long 
continuance. 

CAPITOLINI,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  college 
of  men  residing  in  the  capitol,  to  whom  was 
committed  the  care  of  the  Capitoline  games. 

CAPITOLINUS  (Mons),  in  the  history  of 
architecture,  one  of  the  seven  hills  of  Rome, 
anciently  called  Saturnius  as  the  residence  of 
Saturn,  and  Tarpeius  from  the  maid  who  betrayed 
it  to  the  Sabines.  It  is  believed  to  have  been 
first  enclosed  when  Romulus  admitted  Titus  Ta- 
tius  into  the  partnership  of  his  throne ;  and  then 
to  have  been  decorated  with  a  temple  of  Jupiter 
Feretrius.  The  thatched  cottage  of  their  first 
king,  which  crowned  the  Capitoline  Mount,  was 
long  an  object  of  veneration  to  the  Romans.  It 
is  mentioned  by  Vitruvius  in  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus, and  still  later  by  Lactantius  and  Macro- 
bius  in  the  fourth  century. 

CAPITOUL,  or  CAPITOL,  an  appellation 
given  formerly  to  the  chief  magistrates  of  Tou- 
louse, -who  had  the  administration  of  justice  and 
policy  in  the  city.  They  were  much  the  same 
with  the  consuls,  bailiffs,  burgo-masters,  mayors, 
«nd  aldermen,  &c.  in  other  cities.  In  ancient 
«cts  they  were  called  consules  capitularii,  or  ca- 
\pitolirri,  and  their  body  capitulum.  They  had 
•fce  custody  of  the  town-house,  which  was  anci- 
ently called  capitol.  The  office  only  lasted  one 
vear,  ennobled  the  bearers,  and  entitled  them  to 
the  jus  imaginum,  i.  e.  when  their  administration 
expired  their  pictures  were  hungup  in  the  town- 
house. 

CAPITULAR,  or  CAPITULARY,  denotes  an  act 
passed  in  a  chapter,  either  of  knights,  canons,  or 
religious.  The  capitular  of  Charlemagne,  Charles 


the  Bald,  &c.  are  the  laws,  both  ecclesiastical  an 
civil,  made  by  those  emperors  in  the  general  as- 
semblies of  the  people  ;  which  was  the  way  in 
which  the  constitutions  of  most  of  the  ancient 
princes  were  made  :  each  person  present,  though 
a  plebeian,  setting  his  hand  to  them.  They  had 
their  name  from  being  divided  into  capitula, 
chapters,  or  sections.  In  these  capitulars  did 
jurisprudence  anciently 


French 


the    whole 

consist. 

CAPIT'ULATE,  v 
CAPITULA'TION,  n. 
CAPIT'ULATOR,  n, 
CAPIT'ULAR,  n. 


These  seem  to  be  all 
derived  from  caput,  the 
head;  though  some  would 
^deduce  thefirst  three  from 

CAPIT'ULARLY,  adv.     capio.     To  capitulate,  is 

CAPIT'ULARY,  adj.    \  to   surrender  ;    and,   in 

CAPI'TILE,  n.  J  the  ordinary  acceptation, 

a  capitulation  is  the  terms  on  which  the  surren- 
der is  made.  Of  the  latter  word,  however,  there 
is  another  use,  confined  to  the  German  empire  ;  and 
denoting  the  contract  made  by  the  emperor  with 
the  electors.  In  the  quotation  from  Shakspeare,  the 
word  capitulate  is  defined  by  Johnson,  '  drawing 
up  anything  in  heads  or  articles  ;'  but  Stevens, 
more  probably  interprets  it  as  '  making  head/ 
Capitular  signifies  both  a  member  of  a  chapter 
and  the  body  of  the  statutes  of  a  chapter;  and 
capitularly  implies  convened  as  an  ecclesiastical 
chapter.  Wicliffe,  in  his  bible,  uses  capitile  in 
the  sense  of  the  sum,  the  substance,  the  heads. 

The  king  took  it  as  a  great  indignity,  that  thieves 
should  offer  to  capitulate  with  him  as  enemies. 

Hay  ward. 
Percy,  Northumberland, 

The  archbishop  of  York,  Douglas,  and  Mortimer, 

Capitulate  against  us,  and  are  up. 

Shakspeare.  Henry  IV. 

It  was  not  a  complete  conquest,  but  rather  a  de- 
dition  upon  terms  and  capitulation*,  agreed  between 
the  conqueror  and  the  conquered  ;  wherein,  usually, 
the  yielding  party  secured  to  themselves  their  law 
and  religion.  Hale. 

I  still  pursued,  and,  about  two  o'clock  this  afternoon, 
she  thought  fit  to  capitulate.  Spectator. 

The  Nadhirites  were  more  guilty,  since  they  con- 
spired in  a  friendly  interview  to  assassinate  the  pro- 
phet. He  besieged  their  castle,  three  miles  from 
Medina,  but  their  resolute  defence  obtained  an 
honorable  capitulation,  and  the  garrison,  sounding 
their  trumpets  and  beating  their  drums,  was  per- 
mitted to  depart  with  the  honors  of  war.  Gibbon. 

That  this  practice  continued  till  the  time  of  Charle- 
main,  appears  by  a  constitution  in  his  capitular. 

Taylor. 

The  nuns  of  St.  Ursula  acted  the  wisest;  —  they 
never  attempted  to  go  to  bed  at  all.  The  dean  of 
Strasburg,  the  prebendaries,  the  capitulars  and  domi- 
ciliars  (capitularly  assembled  in  the  morning  to  con- 
sider the  case  of  buttered  buns)  all  wished  they  had 
followed  the  nuns  of  St.  Ursula's  example. 

Sterne.     Slawkenburgiui's  Tale. 

Canonists  do  agree,  that  the  chapter  makes  decrees 
and  statutes,  which  shall  bind  the  chapter  itself,  and 
all  its  members  or  capitulars. 

Ayliffe. 

CAPITULATION,  in  military  affairs  has  been 
used  both  in  ancient  and  modern  warfare,  to 
signify  a  treaty  made  between  the  inhabitants  of  a 
place  besieged  and  the  besiegers,  for  the  deliver- 
ing up  the  place  on  certain  conditions.  The 
most  honorable  terms  of  capitulation  are,  to 


CAPPADOCIA. 


133 


march  out  at  the  breach  with  arms  and  baggage, 
drums  beating,  colors  flying,  a  match  lighted  at 
both  ends,  and  some  pieces  of  cannon,  waggons, 
and  convoys  for  their  baggage,  and  for  their  sick 
and  wounded. 

CAPITULUM,  in  ecclesiastical  writers,  de- 
noted part  of  a  chapter  of  the  Bible  read  and  ex- 
plained ;  whence  ire  ad  capitulum,  to  go  to  such 
a  lecture.  Afterwards  the  place  where  such 
exercises  were  performed  was  named  domus 
capituli. 

CAPITULUM,  in  the  ancient  military  art,  was  a 
transverse  beam,  wherein  were  holes  through 
which  passed  the  strings,  whereby  the  arms  of 
huge  engines,  as  balistse,  catapultae,  and  scor- 
pions, were  played,  or  worked. 

CAPNICON,  chimney  money,  a  tax  which 
the  eastern  emperors  levied  for  smoke,  and  which 
of  consequence  was  due  from  all,  even  the 
poorest,  who  kept  a  fire.  It  was  first  exacted  by 
Nicephorus. 

CAPNOMANCY  ;  from  KCUTVOS,  smoke,  and 
HavTtia,  divination ;  a  kind  of  divination  by 
means  of  smoke,  used  by  the  ancients  in  their 
sacrifices.  The  general  rule  was,  when  the 
smoke  was  thin  and  light,  and  rose  straight  up, 
it  was  a  good  omen  :  if  the  contrary,  it  was  an 
ill  one.  There  was  also  a  species  of  capnomancy, 
consisting  in  the  observation  of  the  smoke  rising 
from  poppy  and  jessamine  seed,  cast  upon  lighted 
coals. 

CAPO  D'ISTRIA,  a  town  and  fortress  of 
Venetian  Istria,  on  the  east  side  of  the  gulf  of 
Trieste.  The  town  is  seated  on  a  small  island, 
connected  with  the  main  land  by  a  draw  bridge 
and  causeway,  about  half  a  mile  in  length.  It 
is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  cathedral  and 
several  other  churches  and  religious  houses ;  the 
population  is  about  5000,  and  their  chief  support 
:B  derived  from  salt  and  wine ;  the  former  is  ex- 
ported in  large  quantities.  It  is  twelve  miles 
due  south  of  Trieste,  in  the  latitude  of  45°  4'  N. 
and  14°  E.  long. 

CAPOC,  in  commerce,  a  sort  of  cotton  so  fine 
and  so  short  that  it  cannot  be  spun.  It  is  used 
in  the  East  Indies  to  line  palanquins,  to  make 
beds,  mattrasses,  cushions,  pillows,  &c. 

CAPO'CHE,  v.     -\      Fr.  capuce,  capuchon ; 

CAPO'UCH,  n.  I  Ital.  cappuccio  ;  a  monk's 

CAPU'CH,  n.  \  cowl  or  hood  ;    the  cape 

CAPU'CHED,  adj.     I  of  a  cloak ;  capuchin  is 

CAPUCHI'N,  n.  J  a  female  garment,  consist- 
ing of  a  hood,  and  takes  its  name  from  its  re- 
semblance to  the  dress  of  the  capuchin  monks. 
Capuched  signifies  covered  over  as  with  a  hood. 
Johnson  declares  himself  unable  to  form  a  distinct 
idea  of  the  meaning  of  the  word  capoched,  but 
supposes  that  it  may  stand  for  stripped  of  the 
hood.  May  it  not  mean  blinded  them  with  their 
own  hoods  ? 

Capoched  your  rabbins  of  the  synod, 
And  snapped  their  canons  with  a  Why  not? 
Grave  synod,  men  that  were  revered 
For  solid  face  and  length  of  beard.        Hudibrta. 

They  are  differently  cucullatcd  and  capuched  upon 
the  head  and  back  j  and,  in  the  cicada,  the  eyes  are 
more  prominent.  Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

He  wore  a  little  brown  capouch,  girt  very  near  to 
uis  body  with  a  white  towel. 

Shelton.      Translation  of  Don  Quixote. 


CA'PON,  v.  &  n.  -\      Lat.  capo ;  Fr.  chapon  ; 
CA'PONET,  n.         f  Ital.  capone ;  Swed.  kapun  ; 
CA'PONISE,  v.        i  Dan.  capun ;  Ger.  kapphan ; 
CA'PON-FASHION.  .-/  Dut.  kapoen. .   A  castrated 
cock.     The  term  is  also  applied  in  ridicule  to 
an  effeminate  fellow.     Birch   uses   the  verb  to 
capon  ;   and  Daines  Barrington,  in  his  paper  on 
singing  birds,  has  to  caponise,  which  is,  proba- 
bly of  his  own  formation,  as   there    appears  no 
other  authority.     Capon-fashion  was  an  expres- 
sion of  archers,  descriptive  of  the  steel  of  an 
arrow,  when  it  was  short-breasted,  and  big  to- 
wards the  head. 

And  eke  there  was  a  polkat  in  his  hawe, 
That,  as  he  sayd,  his  capons  had  yslawe  ; 
And  feyn  he  wolde  him  wreken,  if  he  might, 
Of  vermine  that  destroied  hem  by  night. 

Cliaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 
And  then  the  justice, 
Its  fair  round  belly,  with  good  capon  lined. 

Shakspeare.     As  You  Like  It. 
Yet  must  he  hunt  his  greedy  landlord's  hall, 
With  ofton  presents  at  each  festival  : 
With  crammed  capont  every  new  year's  morne, 
Or  with  green  rheeses  when  his  shee"  ar«  shorne. 

BoM 

All  come  in,  the  farmer  and  the  clown  •, 
And  no  one  empty-hand,  to  salute 
Thy  lord  and  lady,  though  they  have  no  suit. 
Some  bring  a  capon,  some  a  rural  cake, 
Some  nuts,  some  apples.  Ben  Johnson. 

Muley  Hamet,  king  of  Fez  and  Morocco,  spent 
three  pounds  on  the  sauce  of  a  c  ipon :  it  is  nothing  iu 
our  times  :  we  scorn  all  that  is  cheap. 

Burton.     Anat.  of  Mel. 

In  good  roast  beef  my  landlord  sticks  his  knife  ; 
The  capon  fat  delights  his  dainty  wife. 

Gay.     Pastoral  I. 

CAPOT,  v.  &  n.  Fr.  To  win  all  the  tricks  on 
the  cards  at  the  game  of  picquet. 

CAPPADINE,  in  commerce,  a  sort  of  silk 
flock,  taken  from  the  upper  part  of  the  silk  worm 
pod,  after  the  true  silk  has  been  wound  off. 
Slight  stuffs  called  lassis  and  carbass,  are  made 
of  it. 

CAPPADOCIA,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Asia, 
comprehending  all  that  country  which  lies  be- 
tween Mount  Taurus  and  the  Euxine  Sea.  It 
was  divided  by  the  Persians  into  two  satrapies 
or  governments ;  by  the  Macedonians  into  two 
kingdoms,  viz. : 

1.  CAPPADOCIA  AD  PONTUM,  more  commonly 
called  Pontus.     See  PONTUS. 

2.  CAPPADOCIA    AD   TAURUM,   CAPPADOCIA 
MAGNA,  or  CAPPADQCIA.  properly  so  called,  in 
ancient  geography,  a  country  lying  between  38° 
and  41°  N.  latitude.     It  was  bounded  by  Pontus 
on  the   north;  Lycaonia   and   part  of  Armenia 
Major  on  the  south  ;  Galatia  on  the  west;  and 
by  Euphrates  and  part  of  Armenia  Minor  on  the 
east.     The   first  king  of  Cappadocia,  of  whom 
we  read,  was  Pharnaces,  raised  to  the  crown  by 
Cyrus,  who  gave  him  his  sister,  Atossa,  in  mar- 
riage.    He  was  killed  in  a  war  with  the  Hyrca- 
nians.     After  him  came  a  succession   of  eight 
kings,  of  whom  we  only  know  that  they  con- 
tinued faithful  to  the  Persian  interest.     In  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Cappadocia  was 
governed  by  Ariarathes  II.  who,  notwithstanding 
the  vast  conquests  of  the  Macedonian  monarch, 


134 


CAPPADOC1A. 


also  continued  in  alliance  with  Persia.  Death 
prevented  Alexander  from  invading  his  domi- 
nions; but  Perdiccas,.  marching  against  him  with 
a  powerful  and  well- disciplined  army,  dispersed 
his  forces,  and  having  taken  Ariarathes  himself 
prisoner,  crucified '  him,  with  all  those  of  the 
royal  blood  whom  he  could  get  into  his  power. 
Diodorus,  however,  says  that  he  was  killed  in  the 
battle.  He  is  said  to  have  reigned  eighty-two 
years.  His  son  Ariarathes  III.  having  escaped 
the  general  slaughter,  fled  into  Armenia,  where 
he  was  concealed,  till  the  dissensions  among  the 
Macedonians  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  recover- 
ing his  kingdom.  Amyntas,  governor  of  Cappa- 
docia,  opposed  him ;  but,  being  defeated  in  a 
pitched  battle,  the  Macedonians  were  obliged  to 
abandon  all  the  strong  holds.  Ariarathes,  after 
a  long  and  peaceable  reign,  left  his  kingdom  to 
his  son  Ariaramnes  II.  who  applied  himself  more 
to  the  arts  of  peace  than  war,  in  consequence  of 
which  Cappadocia  flourished  greatly  during  his 
reign.  He  was  succeeded  by  Ariarathes  IV.  his 
son,  who  proved  a  very  warlike  prince,  and  hav- 
ing overcome  Arsaces,  founder  of  the  Parthian 
monarchy,  considerably  enlarged  his  dominions. 
His  successor,  Ariarathes  V.  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  Antiochus  the  Great,  and  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  that  prince  against  the  Romans ; 
but  Antiochus  being  defeated,  Ariarathes  was 
obliged  to  sue  for  peace,  which  he  obtained, 
upon  paying  a  fine  of  2000  talents.  He  after- 
wards assisted  the  republic  with  men  and  money 
against  Perseus,  king  of  Macedon,  on  which  ac- 
count he  was  by  the  senate  honored  with  the 
title  of  the  '  friend  and  ally  of  the  Roman 
people.'  He  left  the  kingdom  in  a  very  flourish- 
ing condition  to  his  son  Mithridates,  who,  on 
his  accession,  took  the  name  of  Ariarathes  VI. 
This  prince  (surnamed  Philopater,  from  the 
filial  respect  and  love  he  showed  his  father  from 
his  infancy),  immediately  renewed  the  alliance 
with  Rome.  He  restored  Mithrobarzanes,  son 
to  Ladriades,  king  of  the  Lesser  Armenia,  to  his 
father's  kingdom,  though  he  foresaw  that  the 
Armenians  would  lay  hold  of  that  opportunity 
to  join  Artaxias,  who  was  then  on  the  point  of 
invading  Cappadocia,  and  presented  the  senate 
of  Rome  with  a  golden  crown,  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  their  assistance  at  this  time.  The  senate, 
in  return,  sent  him  a  staff  and  chair  of  ivory, 
which  were  presents  usually  bestowed  on  those 
only  whom  they  looked  upon  as  attached  to 
their  interest.  Not  long  before  this,  Demetrius 
Joter,  king  of  Syria,  unsuccessfully  invaded  his 
dominions,  and  set  up  a  rival  pretender  to  the 
throne,  one  Orophernes,  a  supposed  son  of  the 
late  king.  The  senate  now  decreed  that  Ariara- 
thes and  he  should  reign  as  partners ;  but  next 
year  his  rival  was  driven  out,  and  Ariarathes,  be- 
ing restored,  demanded  of  the  Priennians  400 
talents  of  gold,  which  Orophernes  had  deposited 
with  them.  They  replied,  '  that,  as  they  had 
been  trusted  with  the  money  by  Orophernes, 
they  could  deliver  it  to  none  but  himself,  or  such 
as  came  in  his  name.'  Upon  this  the  king 
ravaged  their  territory  with  an  army.  The 
Priennians,  however,  though  besieged  by  the 
united  forces  of  Ariarathes  and  Attalus,  not  only 
made  an  obstinate  defence,  but  found  means  to 


restore  the  money  to  Orophernes.     At  last  tney 
applied  to  the  Romans  for  assistance,  who  en- 
joined the  two  kings  to  raise  the  siege.     Ariar- 
athes   immediately    obeyed,  and   marching  his 
army    into     Assyria,    joined   Alexander   Balas 
against  Demetrius,  who,  in  the  very  first  engage- 
ment was  slain,  and  his  army  entirely  dispersed ; 
Ariarathes  having  on  that  occasion  given   un- 
common  proofs    of  his  courage    and   conduct. 
Scrme  years  after,  a  war  breaking  out  between  the 
Romans  and  Aristonicus,  who  claimed  the  king- 
dom of  Pergamus  in  light  of  his  father,  Ariara- 
thes. joined  the  former,   and   was  slain  in   the 
same  battle  in  which  P.  Crassus,  proconsul  of 
Asia,  was  taken,  and  the  Roman  army  cut  in 
pieces.     He  left  six  sons  by  his  wife,  Laodice, 
on  whom  the  Romans  bestowed  Lycaonia  and 
Cilicia.      But  Laodice,  fearing  lest  her  children, 
when  they  came  of  age,  should  take  the  govern- 
ment out  of  her  hands,   poisoned  five  of  them, 
the  youngest    only  having  escaped  her  cruelty 
by  being  conveyed  out  of  the  kingdom.      The 
monster  herself  was  soon  after  put  to  death  by  her 
subjects.     She  was  succeeded  by  Ariarathes  VII. 
who,    soon   after  his  accession,  married    another 
Laodice,  daughter    of    Mithridates   the   Great, 
hoping  to  find  in  that  prince  a  powerful  friend 
to  support  him  against  Nicomedes,  king  of  Bi- 
thynia,  who  laid  claim  to   part  of  Cappadocia. 
But  Mithridates,  instead  of  assisting,  procured 
one  Gordius  to  poison  his  son-in-law ;  and  on 
his  death  seized  the  kingdom  under  pretence  of 
maintaining   the    rights    of    the   Cappadocians 
against  Nicomedes,  till  the  children  of  Ariarathes 
were  in  a  condition  to  govern  it.     The  Cappa- 
docians at  first    fancied   themselves  obliged   to 
their  new  protector;  but,  finding  him  unwilling 
to  resign  the  kingdom  to  the  lawful   heir,  they 
rose  up  in  arms,  and  driving  out  all  his  garri- 
sons, placed  Ariarathes  VIII.  eldest  son  of  their 
deceased  king,  on  the  throne.      The  new  prince 
now  found  himself  immediately  engaged  in  war 
with  Nicomedes  ;  but,  being  assisted  by  Mithri- 
dates, not  only  drove  him  out   of  Cappadocia, 
but  stripped  him  of  a  great  part  of  his  hereditary 
dominions.     On   the   conclusion    of  the  peace, 
Mithridates  seeking  for  some  pretence  to  quarrel 
with  Ariarathes,  insisted  upon  his  recalling  Gor- 
dius, who  had  murdered  his  father  ;  which  being 
rejected  with  abhorrence,  a  war  ensued.    Mithri- 
dates took  the  field  first,  in  hopes  of  over-run- 
ning Cappadocia  before  Ariarathes  could  be  in 
a  condition  to  make  head  against  him  ;  but,  con- 
trary to  his  expectation,  he  was  met  on  the  fron- 
tiers by  the  king  of  Cappadocia,  with  an  army 
no  way  inferior  to  his  own.      Hereupon  he  in- 
vited Ariarathes  to  a  conference ;  and   in  sight 
of  both  armies   stabbed   him  with    a    dagger, 
which  he  had  concealed  under  his  garment.  This 
struck  such  terror  into  the  Cappadocians,  that 
they  immediately  dispersed,  and    gave  Mithri- 
dates  an   opportunity  of  possessing  himself  of 
the  kingdom  without  the  least  opposition.     The 
Cappadocians,  however,  not  able  to  endure  the 
tyranny  of  his  prefects,  soon  shook  off'  the  yoke ; 
and  recalling  the  king's  brother,  who  had  fled 
into  the  province  of  Asia,  proclaimed  him  king. 
He  was  scarcely  seated  on  the  throne,  however, 
before  Mithridates  invaded  the  kingdom  at  the 


C  A  P  R  A. 


135 


head  of  a  very  numerous  army,  and,  having  drawn 
Ariarathes  to  a  battle,  defeated  his  army  with 
great  slaughter,  and  obliged  him  to  abandon  the 
kingdom.  The  unhappy  prince  soon  after  died 
of  grief,  and  Mithridates  bestowed  the  kingdom 
on  his  own  son,  who  was  then  only  eight  years 
old,  giving  him  at  the  same  time  the  name  of 
Ariarathes  X.  Cappadocia  passed  through  va- 
rious struggles  for  and  with  their  Roman  allies, 
till  the  reign  of  Ariobarzanes  II.  who  proved  no 
less  faithful  to  the  Romans  than  his  predecessors. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  between 
Ccesar  and  Pompey,  he  sided  with  the  latter ; 
but  after  the  death  of  Pompey,  was  received  injo 
favor  by  Caesar,  who  bestowed  upon  him  great 
part  of  Armenia.  While  Cassar  was  engaged  in 
a  war  with  the  Egyptians,  Pharnaces,  king  of 
Pontus,  invaded  Cappadocia,  and  stripped  Ario- 
barzanes of  all  his  dominions ;  but  Caesar,  hav- 
ing defeated  Pharnaces,  restored  the  king  of 
Cappadocia,  and  honored  him  with  new  titles 
of  friendship.  After  the  murder  of  Caesar,  Ario- 
barzanes, having  refused  to  join  Brutus  and 
Cassius,  was  by  them  declared  an  enemy  to 
the  republic,  and  soon  after  taken  prisoner  and 
put  to  death.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Ariobarzanes  III.  who  was  by  Marc  Antony  de- 
prived both  of  his  kingdom  and  life ;  and  in  him 
ended  the  family  of  Ariobarzanes.  Archelaus, 
the  grandson  of  that  general  of  the  same  name, 
who  commanded  against  Sylla  in  the  Mithridatic 
war,  was  by  Marc  Antony  placed  on  the  throne 
of  Cappadocia,  though  nowise  related  either  to 
the  family  of  Pharnaces  or  Ariobarzanes.  His 
preferment  was  entirely  owing  to  his  mother, 
Glaphyra,  a  woman  of  great  beauty,  but  of 
loose  behaviour,  who,  in  return  for  her  com- 
pliance with  the  desires  of  Antony,  obtained  the 
kingdom  of  Cappadocia  for  her  son.  In  the  war 
between  Augustus  and  Antony,  he  joined  the 
latter;  but,  at  the  intercession  of  the  Cap pado- 
cians,  was  pardoned  by  the  emperor.  He  after- 
wards received  from  him  Armenia  the  Lesser, 
and  Cilicia  Trachfea,  for  having  assisted  the 
Romans  in  clearing  the  seas  of  pirates,  who 
greatly  infested  the  coasts  of  Asia.  He  con- 
tracted a  strict  friendship  with  Herod  the  Great," 
king  of  Judea,  and  married  his  daughter  Glaphyra 
to  Alexander,  Herod's  son.  In  the  reign  of 
Tiberius,  Archelaus  was  summoned  to  appear 
before  the  se'nate,  for  he  had  always  been  hated 
by  that  emperor,  because,  in  his  retirement,  at 
Rhodes,  he  had  paid  him  no  sort  of  respect. 
This  had  proceeded  from  no  aversion  in  him  to 
Tiberius,  but  from  the  warning  given  Archelaus 
by  his  friends  at  Rome.  For  Caius  Ctesar,  the 
presumptive  heir  to  the  empire,  was  then  alive, 
and  had  been  sent  to  compose  the  differences  of 
the  east,  whence  the  friendship  of  Tiberius  was 
then  looked  upon  as  dangerous.  But  when  he 
came  to  the  empire,  Tiberius,  remembering  the 
disrespect  shown  him  by  Archelaus,  enticed  the 
litter  to  Rome  by  means  of  letters  from  Livia, 
.  who  promised  him  her  son  Tiberius's  pardon, 
provided  he  came  in  person  to  implore  it.  Ar- 
chelaus obeyed  the  summons,  and  hastened  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  received  by  the  emperor 
with  great  wrath  and  contempt,  and  soon  after 
accused  as  a  criminal  in  the  senate.  The  crimes 


of  which  lie  was  accused  were  mere  fictions ; 
but  his  concern  at  seeing  himself  treated  as  a 
malefactor  was  so  great,  that  he  died  soon  after 
of  grief,  or,  as  others  say,  laid  violent  hands  on 
himself.  He  is  said  to  have  reigned  fifty  years. 
On  the  death  of  Archelaus,  Cappadocia  was  re- 
duced to  a  Roman  province,  and  governed  by 
those  of  the  equestrian  order.  It  continued  sub- 
ject to  the  Romans  till  the  invasion  of  the  eastern 
empire  by  the  Turks,  to  whom  it  is  now  subject. 
The  Turks  have  four  Beglerbeglics  in  it. 

CAPPANUS,  a  name  given  by  some  authors 
to  a  worm  that  adheres  to  and  gnaws  the  bottoms 
of  ships,  to  which  it  is  extremely  pernicious, 
especially  in  the  East  and  West  Indies ;  to  pre- 
vent this,  ships  are  now  sheathed  with  copper, 
the  first  trial  of  which  was  made  on  his  majesty's 
frigate  the  Alarm. 

CAPPARIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  polyandria  class  of  plants,  na- 
tural order  twenty-fifth,  putamineae :  CAL.  tetra- 
phyllous  and  coriaceous ;  the  petals  are  four,  the 
stamina  are  long ;  the  fruit  is  a  berry,  carnous, 
unilocular,  and  pedunculated.  There  are  thirty 
species,  of  which  the  principal  is  C.  spinosa,  or 
common  caper,  a  low  shrub,  generally  growing 
out  of  the  joints  of  old  walls,  the  fissures  of 
rocks,  and  among  rubbish,  in  most  of  the  warm 
parts  of  Europe.  It  has  woody  stalks,  which 
send  out  many  lateral  slender  branches.  At  the 
joints,  between  the  branches,  come  out  the  flowers 
on  long  foot-stalks;  before  these  expand,  the 
bud,  with  the  empalement,  is  gathered  for  pick- 
ling. Those  which  are  left  expand  in  form  of  a 
single  rose,  having  five  large  white  petals,  which 
are  roundish  and  concave ;  in  the  middle  are 
placed  a  great  number  of  long  stamina,  surround- 
ing a  style  which  rises  above  them,  and  crowned 
with  an  oval  gerrnen,  which  afterwards  becomes 
a  capsule  filled  with  kidney-shaped  seeds.  This 
plant  is  very  difficult  to  preserve  in  Britain  ;  it 
delights  to  grow  in  crevices  of  rocks,  old  walls, 
&c.  and  always  thrives  best  in  an  horizontal  pos- 
ture ;  so  that,  when  planted  either  in  pots  or  in 
the  full  ground,  they  seldom  thrive,  though  they 
may  be  kept  alive  for  some  years.  They  are  pro- 
pagated by  seeds  in  the  warm  parts  of  Europe, 
but  very  seldom  in  Britain.  The  buds,  pickled 
with  vinegar,  &c.  are  brought  to  Britain  annually 
from  Italy  and  the  Mediterranean.  They  are 
supposed  to  excite  appetite  and  assist  digestion  5 
and  to  be  particularly  useful  as  detergents  and 
aperients  in  obstructions  of  the  liver  and  spleen. 

CAPPE  (Newcome),  a  dissenting  divine  of 
the  Unitarian  persuasion,  was  born  in  1732-3, 
at  Leeds.  He  was  placed  at  an  early  age  with 
Dr.  Aikin,  at  Kibworth,  in  Leicestershire,  and 
afterwards  with  Dr.  Doddridge.  He  went  to 
Glasgow  to  complete  his  education  in  175?,  and 
settled  ultimately  as  the  pastor  of  a  dissenting 
congregation  at  York.  He  died  in  1800,  having 
held  this  situation  forty  ye'ars.  His  works  are  : 
Discourses  on  the  Providence  and  Government 
of  God;  Remarks  in  Vindication  of  Dr.  Priest- 
ley ;  a  Selection  of  Psalms  for  Social  Worship ; 
Critical  Remarks  on  many  important  parts  of 
Scripture,  2  vols.  8vo.  &c. 

CAPRA,  the  goat,  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  be- 
longing to  the  order  pecora.  The  horns  are 


136 


C  A  P  R  A. 


persistent,  hollow,  turned  upwards,  erect,  and 
scabrous.  There  are  eight  fore  teeth  in  the 
under  jaw,  and  none  in  the  upper ;  and  they 
have  no  dog  teeth.  In  describing  the  different 
species  and  varieties  of  this  genus,  we  have 
again  to  complain  of  that  confusion  of  names 
and  descriptions,  which  we  find  among  zoolo- 
gists, and  which  renders  it  extremely  difficult  to 
give  a  complete,  and  at  the  same  time  a  distinct, 
arrangement  of  them  all.  Linnaeus  and  other 
naturalists  reckon  fourteen  species  of  this  genus, 
under  one  of  which,  viz.  the  dorcas,  they  include 
most  of  the  varieties  of  the  antelope.  Ken- 
reckons  only  eleven,  some  of  which  are  by  others 
ranked  only  as  varieties  of  the  common  species. 
But  both  Kerr  and  Pennant,  as  well  as  Gmelin, 
Erxleben,  and  Pallas,  make  the  antelope  a  dis- 
tinct genus,  forming  a  link  between  the  goat 
(capra),  and  the  deer  (cervus),  with  the  former 
of  which  the  antelopes  agree  in  the  texture  of 
their  horns,  which  have  a  core,  and  in  their  never 
casting  them;  and  with  the  latter,  in  their  ele- 
gance of  form.  Of  this  genus  Kerr  enumerates 
twenty-nine  species.  Adhering,  however,  to 
Linnaeus's  classification  of  the  whole  tribe  under 
one  genus  (though  we  by  no  means  dispute  the 
propriety  of  dividing  the  goats  from  the  ante- 
lopes), the  following  is  the  most  complete  ar- 
rangement we  can  make  of  these  animals. 

I.  CAPRA  .&GAGRUS  of  Pallas  and  Gmelin ; 
the  cervicapra  of  Kaempfer,  and  the  Caucasan 
goat   of   Pennant  and   Zimmerman,   has  large 
smooth   black  horns,  sharply   ridged  on    their 
upper,   and  hollowed  on  their  under  surface. 
There  are  no  vestiges  of  knots  or  rings,  but  on 
the  upper  surface  are  some  wavy  risings ;  they 
bend  much  back,  and  are  much  hooked  at  the 
end,  approaching  a  little  at  the  points.     On  the 
chin  is  a  great  beard,  dusky,  mixed  with  chest- 
nut.   The  fore  part  of  the  head  is  black,  the 
sides  mixed  with  brown ;  the  rest  of  the  animal 
gray,  or  gray  mixed  with  rust  color.     Along  the 
middle  of  the  back,  from  the  neck  to  the  tail,  is 
a  black  list;  and  the  tail  is  black.     The  female 
is  either  destitute  of  horns,  or  has  very  short 
ones.     In  size  it  is  superior  to  the  largest  he- 
goat,  but  in  form  and  agility  resembles  a  stag. 
They  inhabit  the  lower  mountains  of  Caucasus 
and  Taurus,  all  Asia  Minor,  and  perhaps  the 
mountains  of  India,  and  abound  on  the  inhos- 
pitable hills  of  Persia.     It  is  an  animal  of  great 
agility. 

II.  CAPRA  AMMON   has   semicircular,  plain, 
white  horns,  and  no  beard.     It  is  about  the  size 
of  a  ram,  and  is  a  native  of  Siberia.     This  ani- 
mal is  called  the  wild  sheep  by  Mr.  Pennant, 
and  is  accordingly  ranked  as  a  species  of  ovis 
by  Kerr. 

III.  CAPRA  BEZOARTICA,  the  bezoar  goat,  is 
bearded,  and  has  long,  wrinkled,  slender,  up- 
right, tapering,  sharp-pointed   horns.      It  is  a 
native  of  Persia.     The  bezoar  is  found  in  one  of 
its  stomachs,  called  abomasus.     It  has  a  red  fur, 
with  a  white  breast  and  belly ;  and  is   classed 
among  the  antelopes  by  Gmelin,  Pallas,  Pen- 
nant, &c. 

IV.  CAPRA  CAUCASICA,  the  Caucasan  goat,  de- 
scribed by  Kerr,  as  quite  a  different  species  from 
the  Caucasan  goat  of  Pennant.     The  horns,  he 


says,  are  slightly  triangular,  knobbed  on  their 
anterior  surface  and  arched  backwards,  consi- 
derably divaricating,  with  their  extremities  turned 
inwards.  It  inhabits  the  bare,  schistic,  rocky 
summits  of  mount  Caucasus,  near  the  origin  of 
the  Terek  and  Chouban  rivers.  The  horns  of 
the  male  are  of  a  dirty  blackish  color,  and  much 
longer  than  those  of  the  common  goat ;  those  of 
the  female  are  brownish,  and  much  smaller. 
The  upper  parts  of  the  body  are  a  bright  brown- 
ish gray,  with  a  narrow  dark  brown  line  along 
the  back;  the  under  parts  are  whitish,  and  the 
limbs  black.  The  hair  is  harsh,  somewhat  stiff, 
ash-colored  at  the  roots,  and  mixed  with  an  ash- 
colored  wool.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  common 
goat,  with  which,  however,  it  will  not  breed ; 
and  is  rather  shorter  and  broader  in  its  general 
form. 

V.  CAPRA  CERVICAPRA,  the  lidmee,  or  In- 
dian antelope  of  Buffon,  has  long  prominently 
annulated,  tapering,  plaited,   cylindrical  horns, 
and  inhabits  Barbary.     The  hair  near  the  horns 
is  longer  than  in  any  other  part   of  the  body. 
The  females  want  horns. 

VI.  CAPRA  DEPRESS  A,  the  African  goat,  has 
short,  thick,  triangular,  depressed,  horns,  bent  in- 
wards, lying  on  the  head.     It  is  about  the  size  of 
a  kid;    and   the   hair   is   long  and   pendulous, 
rough  in   the  male,  but  smooth  in  the  female. 
The  male  has  also  two   long  hairy  wattles  be- 
low the  chin. 

VII.  CAPRA  DORCAS,  the  antelope,  has  cylin- 
drical  annulated   horns,    bent  backward,   con- 
torted, and  arising  from  the  front  between  the 
eyes.      It  is  a  native  of  Africa   and   Mexico. 
These  animals  are  of  a  restless  and  timid  dis- 
position; extremely  watchful ;  of  great  vivacity  ; 
remarkably  swift;  exceedingly  agile;  and  their 
boundings  so  light  and  elastic,  as  to  strike  the 
spectator  with  astonishment.   What  appears  sin- 
gular,  they  will  stop   in   the   middle   of  their 
course,  for  a  moment  gaze  at  their  pursuers,  and 
then  resume  their  flight.     The   chase  of  these 
animals  is  a  favorite  diversion  in  the  east.     The 
greyhound  is  unequal  in  the   course;  and  the 
sportsman  is  obliged  to  call  in  the  aid  of  the 
falcon,  trained  to  the  work,  to  seize  on  the  ani- 
mal, and  so  to  impede  its  motions  as  to  give  the 
dog  time  to  overtake  it.     It  is  a  common  com- 
pliment in  the  east ;  to  say,  '  Aine  el  czazel,'  i.  e. 
you  have  the  eyes  of  an  antelope.     Some  species 
form  herds  of  2000  or  3000,  while  others  keep 
in  small  troops  of  five  or  six.     They  generally 
reside  in  hilly  countries,  and  some  browse  like 
the  goat.     To  the  distinctive  marks  of  the  ante- 
lope we  may  add  the  following  characteristics 
viz.  that  most  of  them   have  distinct  lachrymA 
pits  under  the  eyes ;  that  all  have  a  plait  of  the 
skin  subdivided  into  several  cells  in  the  groins ; 
brushes  of  hair  on  the  knees,  and  beautiful  black 
eyes:    in   general  also  their   flesh   is   excellent. 
Kerr,  who,  as  already  observed,  classes  the  an- 
telope as  a  distinct  genus,  enumerates  twenty- 
nine  species;  among  which  he  ranks  the  Bezoap 
tica,  cervicapra,    gazella,   and  tartarica  of  Lin- 
naeus. 

VIII.  CAPRA  GAZELLA,  the  goat  antelope  of 
Linnaeus,  the  antelope  oryx,  or  Bezoartica  of 
Pallas,  the  pasan  of  Buffon,  or  Egyptian  ante- 


C  A  P  R  A. 


137 


lope  of  Pennant,  has  straight,  slender,  distinctly 
annulatcd  horns,  three  feet  long,  which  taper  to 
a  point :  the  body  and  sides  are  of  a  reddish  ash 
color,  with  a  dusky  line  along  the  hack.  It  in- 
habits Syria,  Arabia,  Persia,  India,  Egypt, 
Ethiopia,  and  the  Cape.  It  is  about  the  size 
of  a  fallow  deer.  Gmelin  takes  this  for  the  zebi 
of  Scripture. 

IX.  CAPRA  GNOU,  has  scabrous  horns,  thick 
at  the  base,  bending  forward  close  to  the  head, 
then  suddenly  reverting  upwards.  The  mouth  is 
square;  the  nostrils  covered  with   broad  flaps. 
From  the  nose,  half  way  up  the  front,  is  a  thick 
oblong  square  brush   of  long  stiff  black  hairs 
reflected  upwards,  on  each   side  of  which  the 
other  hairs  are  long,  and  point  closely  down  the 
cheeks.     Round  the  eyes  are  disposed  in  a  ra- 
diated form  several  strong  hairs.     The  neck  is 
short,  and  a  little  arched.  On  the  top  is  a  strong 
and  upright  mane,  reaching  from  the  horns  be- 
yond the  shoulders.     On  the  chin  is  a  long  white 
beard ;  and  on  the  gullet  a  very  long  pendulous 
bunch  of  hair.     The  legs  are  long,  elegant,   and 
slender,  like  those  of  a  stag.     On  each  foot  is 
only  a  single  spurious  or  hind  hoof.  It  is  a  strange 
compound  of  animals ;  having  a  vast  head  like 
that  of  an  ox,   body  and  tail  like  a  horse,    legs 
like  a  stag,  and  the  sinus  lacrymalis  of  an  ante- 
lope.    Its  ordinary  size  is  about  that  of  a  com- 
mon galloway;  its  length  being. somewhat  above 
five,  and    height    rather    more  than  four  feet. 
These  animals  inhabit  in  great  numbers  the  fine 
plains  of  the  great  Namaquas,  far  north  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  extending  from  south  lati- 
tude 25°  to  28°  42',  where  Africa  seems  at  once 
to  open  its  vast  treasures  of  hoofed  quadrupeds. 
The  gnou  is  an  excedingly  fierce  animal :  on  the 
sight  of  anybody  it  usually  drops  its  head,  and 
puts  itself  into  an  attitude  of  offence ;  and  will 
dart  with  its  horns  against  the  pales  of  the  en- 
closure towards  the  persons  on  the  outside ;  yet 
it  will  afterwards  take  the  bread  which  is  offered. 
It  will  often  go  upon  its  knees,  run  swiftly  in 
that   singular   posture,  and   furrow  the  ground 
with  its  horns  and  legs.     The  Hottentots  call  it 
gnou  from  its  voice.     It  has  two  notes,  one  re- 
sembling the  bellowing  of  an  ox,  the  other  more 
clear.     It  is  called  an  ox  by  the  Europeans,  and 
is  stiled  accordingly  bos  gnou  by  Zimmerman. 

X.  CAPRA  HIRCUS,  the  common   goat,  with 
arched  carinated  horns,  and  a  long  beard.    It  is 
a  native  of  the  eastern  mountains.     Goats  are 
animals  of  more  sagacity  than  sheep.    Instead  of 
having  an  antipathy  to  mankind,  they  voluntarily 
mingle  with  them,  and  are  easily  tamed.     Even 
in  uninhabited  countries,  they  betray  no  savage 
dispositions.  They  have  a  lively,  capricious,  and 
wandering  disposition ;  are  fond  of  high  and  so- 
litary places,  and  frequently  sleep  upon  the  very 
points   of  rocks.     They   are   more  easily  sup- 
ported than  any  other  animal  of  the  same  size ; 
for  there  is  hardly  a  herb,  or  the  bark  of  a  tree, 
which  they  will  not  eat.     Neither  are  they  liable 
to  so  many  diseases  as  sheep,  and  can  bear  heat 
and   cold  with   less   inconvenience.     Goats   go 
with  young  four  months  and  a  half,  and  bring 
forth  from  the  end  of  February  to  the  end  of 
April.     They  have  only  two  teats,  and  generally 
bring  forth  but  one  or  two  young ;  sometimes 


three,  and  in  good  warm  pastures  there  have 
been  instances,  though  rare,  of  their  bringing 
forth  four  at  a  time.  »  Both  young  and  old  are 
affected  by  the  weather ;  a  rainy  season  makes 
them  thin,  a  dry  sunny  one  fat  and  blythe.  In 
our  climate  they  seldom  live  above  eleven  or 
twelve  years.  Though  their  food  costs  next  to 
nothing,  their  produce  is  valuable.  The  whitest 
wigs  are  made  of  their  hair;  for  which  purpose 
that  of  the  he- goat  is  most  in  request.  The 
Welsh  goats  are  far  superior  in  size,  and  in 
length  and  fineness  of  hair,  to  those  of  other 
mountainous  countries.  Their  usual  color  is 
white :  those  of  France  and  the  Alps  are  short- 
haired,  reddish,  and  the  horns  small.  Bolsters, 
made  from  the  hair  of  a  goat,  were  in  use  in  the 
days  of  Saul,  as  appears  from  1  Sam.  xix.  13. 
The  species  very  probably  was  the  Angora  goat, 
whose  soft  and  silky  hair  supplied  a  most  luxu- 
rious couch.  ....The  suet  of  the  goat  is  in  great 
esteem  as  well  as  the  hair.  The  inhabitants  of 
Caernarvonshire  suffer  these  animals  to  run  wild 
on  the  rocks  in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer ; 
and  kill  them  in  October  for  the  sake  of  their  fat. 
The  goats  killed  for  this  purpose  are  about  four 
or  five  years  old.  Their  suet  makes  candles  far 
superior  in  whiteness  and  goodness  to  those  made 
from  that  of  the  sheep  or  the  ox,  and  accord- 
ingly brings  a  much  greater  price  in  the  market; 
nor  are  the  horns  without  their  use,  the  country- 
people  making  of  them  excellent  handles  for 
tucks  and  penknives.  •  The  skin  is  peculiarly 
well  adapted  for  the  glove  manufactory,  espe- 
cially that  of  the  kid  :  abroad  it  is  dressed  and 
made  into  stockings,  bed-ticks,  bed-hangings, 
sheets,  and  even  shirts.  In  the  army  it  covers 
the  horseman's  arms,  and  carries  the  foot-soldier's 
provisions.  As  it  takes  a  dye  better  than  any 
other  skin,  it  was  formerly  much  used  for  hang- 
ings in  the  houses  of  people  of  fortune,  being 
susceptible  of  the  richest  colors,  and  when  flow- 
ered and  ornamented  with  gold  and  silver,  be- 
came an  elegant  and  superb  furniture.  The  flesh 
is  of  great  use  to  the  inhabitants  of  those  coun- 
tries which  abound  with  goats ;  and  affords  them 
a  cheap  and  plentiful  provision  in  winter.  The 
haunches  are  frequently  salted  and  dried,  and 
supply  all  the  uses  of  bacon  :  this  by  the  Welsh 
is  called  coch  yr  wden,  or  hung  venison.  The 
meat  of  a  spayed  goat  of  six  or  seven  years  old, 
(which  is  called  hyfr)  is  reckoned  the  best; 
being  generally  very  fat  and  sweet.  It  makes 
an  excellent  pasty ;  goes  under  the  name  of 
rock  venison ;  and  is  little  inferior  to  that  of 
the  deer.  The  milk  is  sweet,  nourishing,  and 
medicinal.  It  is  an  excellent  succedaneum  foe 
ass's  milk;  and  has,  with  a  tea-spoonful  oi 
hartshorn,  drunk  warm  in  bed  in  the  morning 
and  afternoon,  and  repeated  for  some  time, 
proved  a  cure  for  phthisis  when  not  too  far  gone. 
In  some  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  the  milk  is  made  into  whey,  which  has 
done  wonders  in  this  and  similar  cases ;  and  to 
many  of  those  places  there  is  as  great  a  resort  of 
patients  of  all  ranks,  as  there  is  in  England  to  the 
spas  or  baths.  The  milk  of  this  animal  must  be 
salutary,  as  it  browses  only  on  the  tops,  tendrils 
and  flowers,  of  the  mountain  shrubs,  and  medt 
dicinal  herbs ;  rejecting  the  grosser  parts.  Tbl 


138 


C  A  P  R  A. 


blood  of  the  he-goat,  dried,  was  formerly  reckon- 
ed a  specific  in  pleurisies,  and  is  even  taken  no- 
tice of  by  Dr.  Mead  for  this  purpose;  but  is  now 
deservedly  neglected.  Cheese  made  of  goat's 
milk  is  much  valued  in  some  of  our  mountainous 
countries,  when  kept  to  a  proper  age.  It  has  a 
peculiar  taste  and  flavor.  There  are  several  va- 
rieties of  the  common  goat:  such  as,  1.  C. 
hircus  Angorensis,  the  Angora  goat,  a  variety 
found  only  in  the  tract  that  surrounds  Angora, 
Beibazar,  and  Cougna,  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  and 
about  Gombron  in  Persia.  2.  C.  hircus  capri- 
cornus,  the  capricorne  of  Buffon,  has  short  horns, 
the  ends  turned  forwards,  their  sides  annulated, 
and  the  rings  more  prominent  before  than  behind. 
Kerr  says  the  place,  history,  and  even  figure,  of 
this  animal  are  uncertain.  3.  C.  hircus  mutica, 
the  cabonus  goat  of  Pennant,  is  ranked  by  Kerr 
as  a  distinct  species,  although  he  styles  it  '  a  va- 
riety resembling  the  common  domestic  goat  in 
everything  but  the  want  of  horns.'  Perhaps  this 
deficiency  may  be  accidental,  like  that  of  many 
of  the  Scots  oxen. 

XI.  CAPRA   IBEX,    the  wild   goat,   is   sup- 
posed to  be  the  stock  whence  the  tame  species 
sprung.     It  has  large  knotty  horns  reclined  upou 
its  back,  is  of  a  yellowish  color,  and  its  beard  is 
black.     The  females  are  less  and  have  smaller 
horns,  more  like  those  of  a  common  she-goat,  and 
with  few  knobs  on  the  upper  surface :  they  bring 
forth  one  kid,  seldom  two,  at  a  birth.     They  in- 
habit the  highest  Alps  of  the  Orisons  country  and 
the  Valais  ;  they  are  also  found  in  Crete,  Italy, 
the  Appenines,  Germany,  Siberia,  and  Kamtschat- 
ka.     They  are  very  wild,  and  difficult  to  be  shot, 
as  they  always  keep  on  the  highest  points.  Their 
chase  is  exceedingly  dangerous :  being  very  strong, 
they  often  tumble  the  incautious  huntsman  down 
the  precipices,  unless  he  has  time  to  lie  down, 
and  let  the  animals   pass  over  him.     They  are 
said  not  to  be  long-lived.     Their  flesh  is  much 
esteemed,  and  their  skins  are  very  thin. 

XII.  CAPRA  MAMBRINA,  or  MAMBRICA,  the 
Syrian  goat,  has  short  reclined  horns,  pendent 
ears,  and  a   beard.     It  is  a  native  of  the  east. 
Their  ears  are  of  vast  length ;  from  one  to  two 
feet;  and  sometimes  so  troublesome,  that    the 
owners  cut  off  one  to  enable  the  animal  to  feed 
with  more  ease.     These  animals  supply  Aleppo 
with  milk.     They  are  larger  than  the  common 
goats. 

XIII.  1.  CAPRA  REVERSA,  the  buck  of  Juda, 
has  short,  smooth,  erect  horns,   curved   a  little 
forwards.     It  is  about  the  size  of  a  kid  of  a  year 
old.     It  inhabits   Juda,  or   Widaw,  in  Africa. 
Kerr    describes   another   variety,   viz.      2.    C. 
reversa  nana,  styled  by  Buffon,  the  other  buck  of 
Juda.     It  inhabits  the  same  country,  is  likewise 
of  dwarfish  size,  and,  though  joined  with  the  pre- 
ceding by  Gmelin,  is  separated  by  Kerr,  on  ac- 
count of  the  different  figure  of  the  horns  ;  which 
he  describes  as  '  very  thick,  rounded  on  the  up- 
per surface,  with   two  sharp  edges  below;   and 
bent  backwards  with  a  slight  spiral  twist,  down- 
wards, outwards,  and  upwards.' 

XIV.  CAPRA  RUPICAPRA,  the  chamois  goat, 
has  smooth,  erect,  and  crooked  horns.  The  body 
is  of  a  dusky  red  color ;  but  the  front,  top  of  the 
bead,  gullet,  and  inside  of  the  ears  are  white; 


the  under  part  of  the  tail  is  blackish ;  and  the  up- 
per lip  is  a  little  divided.  It  inhabits  the  Alps  of 
Switzerland,  Italy,  and  the  ci-devant  province  of 
Dauphine,  the  Pyrenean  mountains,  Greece,  and 
Crete :  does  not  dwell  so  high  in  the  hills  as  the 
ibex,  and  is  found  in  greater  numbers.  It  is  of 
the  size  of  a  domestic  goat,  and  its  hair  is  as  short 
as  that  of  a  hind.  Its  vivacity  is  delightful,  and 
its  agility  truly  admirable.  These  animals  are 
very  social ;  they  go  in  little  flocks  of  from  three 
to  twenty;  sometimes  from  sixty  to  a  hundred  of 
them  are  seen  dispersed  along  the  declivity  of  the 
same  mountain.  The  large  males  keep  at  a  distance 
from  the  rest,  except  in  the  rutting  season,  when 
they  join  the  females,  and  beat  off  all  the  young. 
At  this  period,  their  ardor  is  still  longer  than 
that  of  the  wild  bucks.  They  bleat  often,  and 
run  from  one  mountain  to  another.  Their  season 
of  love  is  in  the  months  of  October  and  November, 
and  they  bring  forth  in  March  and  April.  A 
young  female  takes  the  male  at  the  age  of  eighteen 
months.  The  females  bring  forth  one,  but  rarely 
two,  at  a  time.  The  young  follow  their  mothers 
till  October,  if  not  dispersed  by  the  hunters  or 
the  wolves.  They  live  between  twenty  and  thirty 
years.  Their  flesh  is  very  good.  A  fat  chamois 
goat  will  yield  from  ten  to  twelve  pounds  of  suet, 
which  is  harder  and  better  than  that  of  the  goat. 
The  blood  of  the  chamois  is  extremely  hot,  and  is 
said  to  have  qualities  and  virtues  nearly  equal  to 
those  of  the  wild  goat.  The  voice  of  the  chamois 
is  a  very  low  and  almost  imperceptible  kind  of 
bleating,  resembling  that  of  a  hoarse  domestic 
goat.  By  this  bleating  they  collect  together. 
But,  when  alarmed,  or  when  they  perceive  an 
enemy,  they  advertise  one  another  by  a  kind  of 
whistling  noise.  The  sight  of  the  chamois  is 
very  penetrating,  and  his  sense  of  smelling  is  acute. 
When  he  sees  a  man  distinctly,  he  stops  for 
some  time,  and  flies  off  when  he  makes  a  nearer 
approach.  His  sense  of  hearing  is  equally  acute, 
for  he  hears  the  smallest  noise.  When  the  wind 
blows  in  the  direction  of  a  man,  he  will  perceive 
the  scent  at  the  distance  of  more  than  half  a  league. 
Hence,  when  he  smells  or  hears  any  thing  which 
alarms  him,  he  whistles  with  such  force,  that  the 
rocks  and  forests  re-echo  the  sound.  All  his 
brethren  that  are  near  take  the  alarm.  This 
whistling  is  performed  through  the  nostrils,  and 
consists  of  a  strong  blowing,  similar  to  the  sound 
which  a  man  may  make  by  fixing  his  tongue  to 
the  palate,  with  his  teeth  nearly  shut,  his  lips 
open,  and  somewhat  extended,  and  blowing 
long  and  with  great  force.  The  chamois  is  very 
fond  of  the  leaves  and  tender  buds  of  shrubs, 
particularly  of  the  meum  athamanta.  Kramer, 
in  his  Hist.  Nat.  Aust.  supposes  the  balls  called 
asgagropila,  found  in  his  stomach,  to  be  occa- 
sioned by  this  food.  See  ^EGAGROPIL^.  He 
ruminates  like  the  common  goat.  His  head  is 
adorned  with  two  small  horns,  from  half  a  foot 
to  nine  inches  in  length.  Their  color  is  a, fine 
black,  and  they  are  placed  on  the  front  nearly 
between  his  eyes ;  and,  instead  of  being  reflected 
backwards,  like  those  of  other  animals,  they  ad- 
vance forward  above  the  eyes,  and  bend  back- 
ward at  the  points,  which  are  extremely  sharp. 
He  adjusts  his  ears  most  beautifully  to  the  points 
of  his  horns.  Two  tufts  of  black  hair  descend 


C  A  P  R  A. 


139 


from  his  horns  to  the  sides  of  his  face.  The  rest 
of  the  head  is  of  a  yellowish  white  color,  which 
never  changes.  The  horns  of  the  chamois  are 
used  for  the  heads  of  canes.  Those  of  the  female 
are  smaller  and  less  crooked.  The  skin  of  the  cha- 
mois, when  dressed,  is  very  strong,  nervous,  and- 
supple,  and  makes  excellent  riding  breeches, 
gloves  and  vests.  Garments  of  this  kind  last  long, 
and  are  of  great  use  to  manufacturers.  The  chamois 
goats  are  so  impatient  of  heat,  that,  in  summer, 
tliey  are  only  to  be  found  under  the  shades  of 
caverns  in  the  rocks,  among  masses  of  congealed 
snow  and  ice,  or  in  elevated  forests,  on  the 
northern  declivities  of  the  most  scabrous  moun- 
tains, where  the  rays  of  the  sun  seldom  penetrate. 
They  pasture  in  the  mornings  and  evenings,  and 
seldom  during  the  day.  Their  mode  of  climb- 
ing or  descending  inaccessible  rocks  is  admirable. 
They  neither  mount  nor  descend  perpendicularly, 
but  in  an  oblique  line.  When  descending,  par- 
ticularly, they  throw  themselves  down  across  a  rock 
which  is  nearly  perpendicular,  and  of  twenty  or 
Jiirty  feet  in  height,  without  having  a  single 
prop  to  support  their  feet.  In  doing  this,  they 
strike  their  feet  three  or  four  times  against  the 
rock,  till  they  arrive  at  a  proper  resting  place 
below.  The  spring  of  their  tendons  is  so  great, 
that,  when  leaping  about  among  the  precipices, 
one  would  imagine  they  had  wings  instead  of 
limbs.  The  legs  are  long;  those  behind  are  some- 
what longer,  and  always  crooked,  which  favors 
their  springing  to  a  great  distance ;  and,  when 
they  throw  themselves  from  a  height,  the  hind 
legs  receive  the  shock,  and  perform  the  office  of 
two  springs  in  breaking  the  fall.  During  winter, 
they  inhabit  the  lower  forests,  and  live  upon 
pine  leaves,  the  buds  of  trees,  bushes,  and  such 
green  or  dry  herbs  as  they  can  find  by  scratching 
off  the  snow  with  their  feet.  The  forests  that 
delight  them  most,  are  those  which  are  very  full 
of  rocks  and  precipices.  The  hunting  of  the 
chamois  is  very  difficult  and  laborious.  See 
HUNTING.  This  species  is  ranked  among 
the  antelopes  by  Messrs.  Pennant,  Kerr,  Gme- 
lin,  &c. 

XV.  CAPRA  TARTARICA,  the  saiga  of  Buffon, 
has  cylindrical,  straight,  annulated  horns ;  the 
points  inclining  inward,  the  ends  smooth  ;  the 
other  part  surrounded  with  very  prominent  annu- 
li;  of  a  pale  yellow  color,  and  the  greatest  part 
semipellucid ;  the  cutting  teeth  are  placed  so 
loose  in  their  sockets,  as  to  move  with  the  least 
touch.  The  male  is  covered  with  a  rough  hair 
like  the  he-goat,  and  has  a  very  strong  smell ; 
the  female  is  smoother.  The  hair  on  the  sides 
and  throat  is  long,  and  resembles  wool ;  that  on 
the  neck  and  head  is  hoary ;  the  back  and  sides 
of  a  dirty  white ;  the  breast,  belly,  and  inside  of 
the  thighs,  of  a  shining  white.  The  females  are 
destitute  of  horns.  These  animals  inhabit  all  the 
deserts  from  the  Danube  and  Dnieper  to  the 
River  Irtish,  but  not  beyond.  Nor  are  they  ever 
seen  to  the  N.  of  54°  or  55°  lat.  They  are  found 
in  Poland,  Moldavia,  about  Mount  Caucasus,  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  Siberia,  in  the  dreary  open  de- 
serts, where  salt  springs  abound,  feeding  on  the 
salt,  acrid,  and  aromatic  plants  of  those  coun- 
tries, and  grow  in  summer  very  fat :  but  their  flesh 
acquires  a  taste  disagreeable  to  many  people,  and 


is  scarcely  eatable,  until  it  is  suffered  to  grow  cold 
after  dressing.  The  females  go  with  young  the 
whole  winter;  and  bring  forth  in  the  northern 
deserts  in  May.  The  young  are  covered  with  a 
soft  fleece,  like  new  dropped  lambs,  and  curled 
and  waved.  They  are  regularly  migratory.  In 
the  rutting  season,  late  in  autumn,  they  collect 
in  flocks  of  thousands,  and  retire  into  the 
southern  deserts.  In  the  spring  they  divide 
into  little  flocks,  and  return  northward.  The 
male  feeds  promiscuously  with  the  females  and 
their  young.  They  rarely  lie  down  all  at  the 
same  time ;  but,  by  a  provident  instinct,  some 
are  always  keeping  watch  ;  and,  when  they  are 
tired,  they  seemingly  give  notice  to  such  as  have 
t,aken  their  rest,  who  rise  instantly,  and  relieve 
the  sentinels.  They  thus  often  preserve  them- 
selves from  the  attack  of  wolves,  and  the  surprise 
of  the  huntsmen.  They  are  excessively  swift,  and 
will  outrun  the  fleetest  horse  or  greyhound  ;  yet 
partly  through  fear  (for  they  are  'the  most  timid 
of  animals),  and  partly  by  the  shortness  of  their 
breath,  they  are  very  soon  taken.  If  they  are  bit 
by  a  dog  they  instantly  fall  down,  nor  will  they 
even  offer  to  rise.  In  running  they  seem  to  in- 
cline on  one  side.  In  a  wild  state  they  have  no 
voice.  When  brought  up  tame,  the  young  emit 
a  short  sort  of  bleating,  like  sheep.  The  males 
are  very  libidinous.  When  taken  young  they 
may  easily  be  tamed ;  but,  if  caught  at  full  age, 
they  are  so  wild  and  obstinate  as  to  refuse  all 
food.  When  they  die,  their  noses  are  quite 
flaccid.  They  are  hunted  for  the  sake  of  their 
flesh,  horns,  and  skins,  which  are  excellent  for 
gloves,  belts,  &c.  See  HUNTING.  The  fat  re- 
sembles that  of  mutton;  in  taste,  that  of  a 
buck :  the  head  is  reckoned  the  most  delicate 
part. 

CAPR^E  SALTANTES,  Lat.  i.  e.  dancing  goats, 
in  meteorology,  fiery  meteors  or  exhalations, 
sometimes  seen  in  the  atmosphere.  They  form 
inflected  lines,  resembling  in  some  measure  the 
caperings  of  a  goat ;  whence  the  name. 

CAPRARIA,  in  botany,  goat-weed,  a  genus 
of  the  angiospermia  order,  and  didynamia  class 
of  plants ;  natural  order  fortieth,  personatae  : 
CAL.  quinquepartite  :  COR.  campanulated,  quin- 
queh'd,  with  acute  segments :  CAPS,  bivalved, 
bilocular,  and  polyspermous.  Species,  six ;  the 
principal,  C.  biflora,  is  a  native  of  the  warm 
parts  of  America. 

CAPREA,  orCAPRE.s,  in  ancient  geography, 
an  island  in  the  Tuscan  Sea,  famous  for  the  re- 
treat of  the  emperor  Tiberius  for  seven  years. 
See  TIBERIUS.  Before  he  came  hither  Capreae 
had  attracted  the  notice  of  Augustus,  as  a  most 
eligible  retreat,  though  almost  in  the  centre  of  the 
empire.  His  successor  preferred  it  to  every 
other  residence;  and  in  order  to  vary  his  plea- 
sures, and  enjoy  the  advantages  as  well  as  avoid 
the  inconveniences  of  each  revolving  season 
built  twelve  villas  in  different  temperatures,  and 
dedicated  to  the  twelve  greater  gods  :  the  ruins 
of  some  of  them  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  odium 
attached  to  the  memory  of  Tiberius  proved  fatal 
to  his  favorite  abode  ;  scarcely  was  his  death  pro- 
claimed at  Rome,  when  the  senate  issued  orders 
for  the  demolition  of  every  fabric  he  had  raised 
on  the  island,  which,  by  way  of  disgrace,  was 


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140 


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thenceforward  destined  to  be  a  state  prison.  The 
wife  and  sister  of  Commodus  were  banished  to 
its  inhospitable  rocks,  which  were  soon  stained 
with  their  blood.  In  the  middle  ages  Capreae 
became  an  appendage  of  the  Amalfitan  republic, 
and,  after  the  downfall  of  that  state,  fell  to  the 
duchy  of  Naples.  There  stood  a  pharos  on  this 
island,  which,  a  few  days  before  the  death  of 
Tiberius,  was  overthrown  by  an  earthquake.  See 
CAPRI. 

CAP'REOLATE,  adj.  from  the  Lat.  capreolus, 
a  vine  tendril. 

Such  plants  as  turn,  wind,  and  creep  along  the 
ground,  by  means  of  tendrils,  as  gourds,  melons,  and 
cucumbers,  are  termed,  in  botany,  capreolate  plants. 

Harris. 

CAPREOLI,  in  botany,  the  tendrils  by  which 
vines,  peas,  and  other  creeping  plants,  fasten 
themselves  to  any  thing  near  them.  See  BOTANY. 

CAPREOLUS,  in  anatomy,  the  helix,  or  outer 
ambit  of  the  ear. 

CAPRI,  an  island  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf 
of  Naples,  anciently  called  Caprea,  seven  miles 
long,  and  two  broad.  A  large  portion  of  its  sur- 
face is  unfit  for  cultivation  ;  but  every  spot  that 
will  admit  the  hoe,  is  industriously  tilled,  and 
richly  laden  with  the  best  productions  of  the 
earth.  It  exhibits  some  relics  of  its  ancient 
grandeur.  Two  broken  columns  show  the  en- 
trance of  Tiberius's  court  (see  CAPREA)  ;  at 
Santa  Maria  there  are  extensive  vaults  and  reser- 
voirs ;  and,  on  an  adjacent  hill,  the  remains  of  a 
light  house.  The  island  is  much  frequented  by 
quails,  forming  the  principal  revenue  of  the 
bishop,  whence  he  is  called  the  bishop  of  quails. 

CAPRI,  the  capital  of  the  above  isle,  seated  on 
a  high  rock  at  the  west  end  of  it,  twenty-seven 
miles  from  Naples.  Long.  14°  8'  E.,  lat.  40°11'  N. 

CAPRI'CE,         -v      Fr.   caprice;    Ital.  CO- 
CA PRI'CHIO,          I  priccio  ;    Span,  capricho; 

CAPRI'CIOUS,         vfrom   Lat.  coper,  a  goat; 

CAPRI'CIOUSLY,    i  allusively  to  the  wanton- 

CAPRI'CIOUSNESS. J  ness  and  freakishness  of 
that  animal.  Serenius,  on  the  other  hand,  traces 
caprice  to  the  Gothic  kepra,  corrugare  frontem. 
'  Caprichio,'  says  Sherwood,  is  '  a  fantasticall  hu- 
mour ;'  and  the  word  caprice,  in  the  French,  he 
defines  to  be  a'  humour,  caprichio,  giddy  thought, 
fantasticall  conceit ;  a  sudden  will,  desire,  or 
purpose  to  do  a  thing,  for  which  one  hath  no  (ap- 
parent) reason.'  This  is  so  full  and  correct  that 
it  is  unnecessary  to  add  anything  to  it.  The  de- 
rivatives from  the  primary  word  need  no  explana- 
tion. 

Will  this  capricio  hold  in  thee,  art  sure  ? 

Shakspeare.     All'*  Well. 

TonCH.  I  am  hare  with  thee  and  thy  goats  as 
the  most  capricious  p*ct,  honest  Ovid,  was  among 
the  Goths. 

JAO.  O  knowledge  ill  inhabited!  worse  than 
Jove  in  a  thatched-house  ! 

Id.     At  You  Like  It. 

Act  freely,  carelessly,  and  capriciously ,  as  if  our 
veins  ran  with  quicksilver.  Ben  Jonson. 

Capricious,  wanton,  bold  and  brutal  lust, 
Is  meanly  selfish  ;  when  resisted  cruel, 
And,  like  the  blast  of  pestilential  winds, 
Taints  the  sweet  bloom  of  Nature's  fairest  forms. 
Milton'i  Comiu. 


It  is  a  pleasant  spectacle  to  behold  the  shifts,  wind- 
ings, and  unexpected  coprichios  of  distressed  Nature, 
when  pursued  by  a  close  and  well-managed  experi- 
ment. Glanoille,  Preface  to  the  Scepsis. 
We  are  not  be  guided  in  the  sense  of  that  book, 
either  by  the  misreports  of  some  ancients,  or  the  ca- 
prichios  of  one  or  two  neoterics.  Grew. 

Quoth  Hudibras,  'tis  a  caprich 
Beyond  the  infliction  of  a  witch  ; 
So  cheats  to  play  with  those  still  aim, 
That  do  not  understand  'he  game.     Hudibrat. 
Heaven's  great  view  is  one,  and  that  the  whole  j 
That  counterworks  each  folly  and  caprice, 
That  disappoints  the  effect  of  every  vice.         Pope. 
A  subject  ought  to  suppose  that  there  are  reasons, 
although  he  be  not  apprised  of  them  ;  otherwise,  he 
must  tax  his  prince  of  capriciousneis,  inconstancy,  or  ill 
design.  Swift. 

Love's  a  capricious  power  ;  I've  known  it  hold, 
Out,  though  a  fever  caused  by  its  own  heat, 
But  be  much  puzzled  by  a  cough  and  cold. 
And  find  a  quinsy  very  hard  to  treat.  Byron. 

CAP'RICORN,  n.  Lat.  capricornus.  One  of 
the  zodiacal  signs  ;  the  winter  solstice. 

But  when  the  golden  spring  reveals  the  year, 
And  the  white  bird  returns,  whom  serpents  fear  ; 
That  season  deem  the  best  to  plant  thy  vines  : 
Next  that,  is  when  autumnal  warmth  declines  ; 
Ere  heat  is  quite  decayed,  or  cold  begun, 
Or  Capricorn  admits  the  winter  sun. 

Dryden.      Georgics,  b.  ii. 

Let  the  longest  night  in  Capricorn  be  of  fifteen  hours, 
the  day  consequently  must  be  of  nine. 

Notes  to  Creech's  Manilius. 

CAPRICORN,  one  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
marked  thus  yj>.  The  ancients  accounted  Capri- 
corn the  tenth  sign;  and  it  made  the  winter 
solstice  with  regard  to  our  hemisphere :  but  the 
stars  having  advanced  a  whole  sign  towards  the 
east,  Capricorn  is  now  rather  the  eleventh  sign  ; 
and  it  is  at  the  sun's  entry  into  Sagittarius,  that 
the  solstice  happens,  though  the  ancient  manner 
of  speaking  is  still  retained.  This  sign  is  repre- 
sented on  ancient  monuments,  medals,  &c.  as 
having  the  fore  part  of  a  goat,  and  the  hind  part 
of  a  fish,  which  is  the  form  of  an  JEgipan :  some- 
times simply  under  the  form  of  a  goat.  The 
stars  in  this  constellation  are  0-0-3'3-9'35-  in  all 
fifty  of  the  first  six  magnitudes. 

CAPRICORN,  TROPIC  OF,  a  lesser  circle  of  the 
sphere,  which  is  parallel  to  the  equinoctial,  pass- 
ing through  the  beginning  of  Capricorn.  See 
ASTRONOMY. 

CAPRIFICATION,  n.  Lat.  caprificatio.  An 
operation  performed  to  ripen  the  fruit  of  the  fig- 
tree. 

The  process  of  caprification  being  unknown  to  these 
savages,  the  figs  come  to  nothing.  Bruce. 

CAPRIFICATION,  a  method  used  in  the  Le- 
vant, for  ripening  the  fruit  of  the  domestic  fig 
tree,  by  means  of  insects  bred  in  that  of  the  wild 
fig  tree.  The  most  ample  and  satisfactory 
accounts  of  this  curious  operation  in  gardening 
are  those  of  Tournefort  and  Pontedera  :  the  for- 
mer, in  his  Voyage  to  the  Levant,  and  in  a 
Memoir  delivered  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Paris  in  1705;  the  latter,  in  his  Anthologia. 
The  caprification  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, described  by  Theophrastus,  Plutarch,  Pliny, 
and  other  authors  of  antiquity,  corresponds  in 
every  circumstance  with  what  is  practised  at  this 


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141 


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day  in  the  Archipelago  and  in  Italy.  These  all 
agree  in  declaring,  that  the  wild  fig  tree,  caprifi- 
cus,  never  ripened  its  fruit ;  but  was  absolutely 
necessary  for  ripening  that  of  the  garden  or 
domestic  fig,  over  which  the  husbandmen  sus- 
pended its  branches.  The  reason  has  been  sup- 
posed to  be  that  by  the  punctures  of  these 
insects  the  vessels  of  the  fruit  are  lacerated,  and 
thereby  a  greater  quantity  of  nutritious  juice 
derived  thither ;  or  that,  in  depositing  their  eggs, 
the  gnats  leave  behind  them  some  sort  of  liquor 
proper  to  ferment  gently  with  the  milk  of  the  figs, 
and  to  make  their  flesh  tender.  The  figs  in  Pro- 
vence, and  even  at  Paris,  ripen  much  sooner  for 
having  their  buds  pricked  with  a  straw,  dipped 
in  olive  oil.  Plums  and  pears  likewise  pricked 
by  some  insects,  ripen  much  faster,  and  the  flesh 
round  such  puncture  is  better  tasted  than  the 
rest.  Linnaeus  explained  the  operation,  by  sup- 
posing that  the  insects  brought  the  farina  from 
the  wild  fig,  which  contained  the  male  flowers 
only,  to  the  domestic  fig,  which  contained  the 
female  ones.  Hasselquist,  from  what  he  saw  in 
Palestine,  seemed  to  doubt  of  this  mode  of  fruc- 
tification. M.  Bernard,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Society  of  Agriculture,  opposes  it  more  decidedly. 
He  could  never  find  the  insect  ii.  the  cultivated 
fig ;  and,  in  reality,  it  appeared  to  leave  the  wild 
fig  after  the  stamina  were  mature,  and  their 
pollen  dissipated :  besides,  he  adds,  what  they 
may  have  brought  on  their  wings  must  be  rubbed 
away,  in  the  little  aperture  which  they  would 
form  for  themselves. 

CA'PRIFOLE,  Lat.  caprifolium.  Minsheu 
spells  it  caprifoile.  The  honey-suckle.  See  Lo- 
NICERA.  • 

With  wanton  yvie-twine  entrayled  athwart, 

And  eglantine  and  caprifole  emong. 

Spenser.     Faerie  Queen. 

CAPRIMULGUS,  the  goat-sucker,  or  fern- 
owl, in  ornithology,  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  order  passeres.  The  beak  is  incurvated, 
small,  tapering,  and  depressed  at  the  base;  the 
mouth  opens  very  wide.  They  lay  two  eggs, 
which  they  deposit  on  the  naked  ground  ;  the 
lateral  toes  are  connected  by  a  small  membrane 
to  the  middle  one.  There  are  several  species  or 
varieties  in  different  countries,  but  all  nearly 
similar  to  one  or  other  of  the  following : — C. 
Americanus  has  the  tubes  of  the  nostrils  very 
conspicuous.  It  is  a  night  bird,  and  is  found  in 
America.  C.  Europaeus  has  the  tubes  of  the 
nostrils  hardly  visible.  It  feeds  on  insects.  This 
bird  makes  but  a  short  stay  with  us ;  appearing 
the  latter  end  of  May,  and  disappearing  in  Sep- 
tember. Scopoli  seems  to  credit  the  report  of 
their  sucking  the  teats  of  goats,  an  error  delivered 
down  from  the  days  of  Aristotle.  Its  notes  are 
most  singular.  The  loudest  so  much  resembles 
that  of  a  large  spinning  wheel,  that  the  Welsh 
call  this  bird  aderyn  y  droell,  or  the  wheel  bird. 
It  lays  its  eggs  on  the  bare  ground;  usually  two; 
they  are  of  a  long  form,  of  a  whitish  hue,  prettily 
marbled  with  a  reddish  brown.  Its  plumage  is 
a  beautiful  mixture  of  white,  black,  ash-color, 
and  ferruginous,  disposed  in  lines,  bars,  and  spots. 
The  male  is  distinguished  from  the  female  by  a 
great  oval  white  spot  near  the  end  of  the  three 
first  quill-feathers,  and  another  on  the  outmost 


feathers  of  the  tail.  A  variety,  only  eight  inches 
in  length,  inhabits  Virginia,  in  summer :  arrives 
there  towards  the  middle  of  April,  and  frequents 
the  mountainous  parts,  but  will  frequently  ap- 
proach the  houses  in  the  evening,  crying  several 
times  very  loud,  somewhat  like  the  word,  whip- 
eriwhip,  or  whip-poor-will,  the  first  and  last 
syllables  pronounced  loudest.  Its  eggs  are  of  a 
dull  green,  with  dusky  spots  and  streaks. 
Another  variety,  larger,  inhabits  Virginia  and 
Carolina ;  where  it  is  called  the  rain-bird,  be. 
cause  it  nerer  appears  in  the  day-time,  except 
when  the  sky,  being  obscured  with  clouds, 
betokens  rain. 

CAPRIOLE',  n.  Fr.  capriole,  cabriole:  in 
horsemanship,  a  peculiar  kind  of  leap,  also  call- 
ed the  goats'  leap.  The  word  was  also  formerly 
descriptive  of  springing  up  in  dancing ;  but  is 
no  longer  used  in  that  sense. 

Caprioles  are  leaps  such  as  a  horse  makes  in  one 
and  the  same  place,  without  advancing  forwards,  and 
in  such  a  manner  that  when  he  is  in  the  air,  and 
height  of  his  leap,  he  yerks  or  strikes  out  with  his 
hinder  legs  even  and  near.  A  capriole  is  the  most 
difficult  of  all  the  high  menage,  or  raised  airs.  It  is 
different  from  the  cioupade  in  this,  that  the  horse 
does  not  show  his  shoes  ;  and  from  a  balotade,  in  that 
he  does  not  yerk  out  in  a  balotade. 

Farrier's  Dictionary 

A  gallant  dance,  that  lively  doth  bewray 
A  spirit  and  a  virtue  masculine, 

Impatient  that  her  house  on  earth  should  stay. 
Since  she  herself  is  fiery  and  divine  ; 
Oft  doth  she  make  her  body  upward  fine  k 

With  lofty  turns  and  caprioles  in  the  air, 

With  which  the  lusty  tunes  accordeth  fair. 

Davies.      Orchestra. 

CAPRIOLE.  To  make  this  air  perfect,  the  horse 
should  raise  his  fore  and  hind  parts  equally  high,  and 
when  he  strikes  out  behind,  his  croupe  should  be 
level  with  his  withers.  In  rising  and  coming  down 
his  head  should  be  quite  steady,  and  his  forehead 
presented  quite  straight ;  in  rising,  his  fore  legs 
should  be  equally  and  a  good  deal  bent;  he 
ought  to  strike  out  with  all  his  force  with  his 
hind  legs ;  his  feet  should  be  of  an  equal  height ; 
and,  lastly,  he  should,  at  every  leap,  fall  a  foot 
and  a-half  or  two  feet  distant  from  the  spot  where 
he  rose. 

CAPSARIUS,  from  capsa,  a  chest,  among  the 
Roman  bankers,  was  he  who  had  the  care  of  the 
money-chest  or  coffer;  also  a  servant  who 
attended  the  Roman  youth  to  school,  carrying  a 
satchel  with  their  books  in  it;  sometimes  also 
called  librarius. 

CAPSICUM,  in  botany,  Cayenne  or  Guinea 
pepper,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and 
pentandria  class  of  plants ;  natural  order  twenty- 
eighth,  luridae  :  con.  verticillated ;  fruit,  a  sap- 
less berry.  Species  four,  viz.: — C.  annuum, 
with  oblong  fruit,  the  common  long-podded  cap- 
sicuni,  commonly  cultivated  in  the  gardens.  Of 
this  there  is  one  variety  with  red,  and  another 
with  yellow  fruit ;  and  of  these  there  are  several 
sub-varieties,  differing  only  in  the  size  and  figure 
of  their  fruit.  From  the  pods  of  this  plant  is 
produced  the  Guinea  pepper  of  the  shops.  C. 
frutescens,  Barbary  pepper,  with  small  pyrami- 
dal fruit  growing  erect.  C.  boccatum,  having 
dark  green  leaves,  white  flowers,  and  roundish 


CAP 


red  berries,  from  the  powder  of  which  is  made 
the  common  Cayenne  pepper.  C.  sinense,  hav- 
ing soft  red  fruit,  and  longer  dark  shining  green 
leaves. 

CAPSQUARES,  strong  plates  of  iron  which 
cover  the  trunnions  of  a  gun,  and  keep  it  in  the 
carriage.  They  are  fastened  by  a  hinge  to  the 
prize-plate,  that  they  may  lift  up  and  down,  and 
form  the  part  of  an  arch  in  the  middle  to  receive 
a  third  part  of  the  thickness  of  the  trunnions ; 
for  two-thirds  are  let  into  the  carriage,  and  the 
other  end  is  fastened  by  two  iron  wedges  called 
the  forelocks  and  keys. 

CAP'STAN,  7i.  )  Fr.  cabestan ;  Span,  cubes- 
CAP'STAN-BAR.  J  trante,  or  cabrestante ;  Belg. 
kapstand.  It  is  sometimes  erroneously  called 
capstern.  A  cylinder,  which  is  made  to  revolve 
by  means  of  levers,  for  the  purpose  of  raising 
any  great  weight,  particularly  the  anchors  of 
ships.  The  capstan-bar  is  the  lever. 

The  weighing  of  anchors  by  the  capstan  is  also  new. 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

No  more  behold  thee  turn  my  watch's  key, 
As  seamen  at  the  capstan  anchors  weigh. 

Steift. 

The  CAPSTAN  usually  consists  of  a  strong  cy- 
linder of  wood,  with  a  truncated  cone  proceeding 
from  the  under  extremity  of  its  head.  Jt  is  con- 
structed on  the  principle  of  the  wheel  and  axle, 
and  is  put  in  motion  by  bars  or  levers,  called 
hand-spikes.  An  apparatus  of  this  description 
is  generally  employed  on  ship-board  for  the 
raising  of  anchors  and  other  violent  manipula- 
tions. 

There  are  commonly  two  capstans  in  a  ship  of 
war;  the  main-capstan,  placed  behind  the  main- 
mast, standing  on  the  first  deck,  and  reaching 
four  or  five  feet  above  the  second ;  this  is  also 
called  the  double-capstan,  because  it  has  two 
drum-heads,  and  serves  two  decks  for  drawing  of 
anchors,  and  because  its  force  may  be  doubled 
by  applying  hands  on  each  deck.  It  has  bars, 
whelps,  &c.,  for  turning  and  stopping  it.  The 
other  is  the  jeer-capstan,  or  little  capstan  :  this 
stands  on  the  second  deck,  between  the  main- 
mast and  the  mizen  :  its  use  is,  chiefly,  to  heave 
up  the  jeer-rope,  or  to  heave  up  the  viol,  to  hold 
off  by  when  the  anchor  is  weighed,  and  on  other 
occasions  where  a  less  force  is  required  than  to 
weigh  the  anchors,  &c. 

The  parts  of  a  capstan  are — the  foot,  which  is 
the  lowest  part ;  the  spindle,  the  smallest  part  of 
•which  turns  round  in  an  iron  socket,  called  the 
saucer ;  the  whelps,  a  sort  of  brackets  set  into 
the  body  of  the  capstan  close  under  the  bars, 
and  reaching  downwards  from  the  lower  part  of 
the  drum-head  to  the  deck ;  the  barrel,  the  main 
body  of  the  whole ;  the  drum-head,  which  is  a 
broad  cylindric  piece  of  wood  fixed  above  the 
barrel  and  whelps,  in  which  are  the  holes  for  the 
bars  to  be  put  into ;  the  bars,  which  are  small 
pieces  of  timber  by  which  the  men  heave ;  the 
pins,  which  are  little  bolts  of  iron,  thrust  perpen- 
dicularly through  the  holes  of  the  drum-head, 
and  through  a  correspondent  hole  in  the  end  of 
the  bar  made  to  receive  them  when  the  bars  are 
fixed ;  the  pawls,  which  are  pieces  of  iron  bolted 
to  one  ecd  of  the  beams  of  .the  deck,  close  to  the 


142  CAP 

body  of  the  capstan,  but  so  a*  that  it  has  liberty 
to  turn  about  every  way ;  and  against  them  do  the 
whelps  of  the  capstan  bear ;  so  that  the  capstan 
may  be  stopped  from  turning  back.  There  are 
also  hanging  pawls,  which  reach  from  the  deck 
above  to  the  drum-head  immediately  beneath  it ; 
and,  lastly,  the  swifter,  which  is  a  rope  passed 
horizontally  through  holes  in  the  outer  ends  o. 
the  bars,  and,  being  drawn  tight,  is  designed  to 
keep  the  men  steady  whilst  they  work,  and  to 
afford  room  for  a  greater  number  to  work  at 
once. 

An  important  improvement  has  been  suggested 
in  the  capstan  by  captain  Hamilton  of  the  royal 
navy,  which  is  that  of  reducing  the  number  of 
whelps  from  six  to  five,  making  the  lower  part 
more  obtuse,  and  filling  it  up  circular  by  the 
chocks,  and  also  making  the  upper  part  more 
perpendicular  in  the  sides,  and  open,  the  whelps 
being  a  portion  of  a  circle. 

There  is  a  simple  and  powerful  capstan  which 
may  now  be  noticed.  It  consists  of  a  compound 
barrel,  or  rather  of  two  cylinders  of  different  ra- 
dii. If  a  rope  be  attached  to  one  extremity  of 
the  smaller  cylinder,  and  then,  after  passing 
round  a  pulley  be  made  to  coil  on  a  large  one, 
so  that  as  the  one  rope  unwinds  the  other  is 
rolled  up,  the  apparatus  may  be  considered,  as 
complete. 

In  describing  a  capstan  of  this  kind,  Dr  Ro- 
bison  asserts,  that  when  the  diameters  of  the 
cylinders  which  compose  the  double  barrel  are 
as  16  to  17,  and  their  circumferences  as  48  to  51, 
the  pulley  is  brought  nearer  to  the  capstan  by 
about  three  inches  for  each  revolution  of  the  bar. 
This,  however,  is  a  mistake,  as  the  pufley  is  brought 
only  an  inch  and  a  half  nearer  the  axis.  This 
will  be  evident  if  we  conceive  a  quantity  of  rope, 
equal  to  the  circumference  of  the  larger  cylinder, 
to  be  wound  up  all  at  once,  and  a  quantity  equal 
to  the  circumference  of  the  lesser  one,  to  be  un- 
wound all  at  once.  In  the  present  case  51 
inches  of  rope  will  be  coiled  round  the  larger 
part  of  the  barrel  by  one  revolution  of  the  cap- 
stan bar,  and  consequently  the  load  would  be 
raised  25£  feet,  the  rope  being  doubled.  Let 
48  inches  of  rope  be  now  unwound  from  the 
lesser  cylinder,  and  the  load  will  sink  24  feet ; 
therefore  25  J — 24— 1J  feet  is  the  whole  height 
or  distance  through  which  the  weight  has  be&n 
moved.  See  MECHANICS. 

CAP'SULE,  n.      -\      Lat.  capsula,  the  dimi- 
CAP'SOLAR,  adj.      I  nutiveofcapsrt,fromra^a, 
CAP'SULARY,  adj.    V  a  little  chest.     The  cell, 
CAP'SULATE,  adj.    i  or  ear,  in  plants,  which 
CAP'SULATED,  adj.  J  holds   the    seeds.       The 
first  two  of  the   adjectives,   derived  from  the 
noun,  signify  hollow,  like  a  chest ;  the  last  two, 
enclosed,  as  in  a  chest. 

It  ascendeth  not  directly  into-  the  throat,  but  as- 
cending first  into  a  capsulary  reception  of  the  breast- 
bone, it  ascendeth  again  into  the  neck. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errouri. 

Such  (seeds)  as  are  corrupted  and  state,  will  swim  ; 
and  this  agreeth  unto  the  seeds  of  plants  locked  up 
and  capsiilated  in  their  husks.  Id. 

The  heart  lies  immersed,  or  capsidated,  in  a  carti- 
lage, which  Includes  the  h6art,  as  the  skull  doth  the 
brain.  Derham. 


CAP 


143 


CAP 


On  threshing,  I  found  things  as  I  expected ;  the 
cars  not  filled,  some  of  the  capsules  quite  empty,  and 
several  others  containing  only  withered  hungry  grain, 
inferior  to  the  appearance  of  rye. 

Burke  on  Scarcity. 

The  capsule  of  the  geranium  and  the  beard  of  wild 
oats  are  twisted  for  a  similar  purpose,  and  dislodge 
their  seeds  on  wet  days,  when  the  ground  is  best 
fitted  to  receive  them.  Hence,  one  of  these,  with  its 
adhering  capsule,  or  beard,  fixed  on  a  stand,  serves 
the  purpose  of  an  hygrometer,  twisting  itself,  more  or 
less,  according  to  the  moisture  of  the  air. 

Darwin. 

CAPSULE.    See  BOTANY. 
CAP'TAIN,  n&cs.     ^      Fr.  capitaine;   Ital. 

Span,  capi- 
Dut.  kapitein  ; 
kapten.  '  In 
says  Johnson, 
'capitaneus,  being  one  of  those  who,  by  tenure  in 
capite,  were  obliged  to  bring  soldiers  to  the  war.' 
Skinner,  however,  derives  it  from  caput.  Todd 
supposes  it  to  be  a  hybrid  word,  from  caput,  and 
thane,  an  ancient  title  of  honor.  It  was  anciently 
the  title  of  a  chief  commander;  but  this  use  of 
the  word  is  now  nearly,  if  not  quite,  obsolete. 
Connected  with  this,  it  implied  a  man  skilled  in 
war;  and  it  is  still  occasionally  thus  used.  Its 
common  acceptation  is  a  commander  of  a  ship, 
or  of  a  company  in  a  regiment ;  but  it  is  also 
employed  in  some  civilcases,  as  in  the  captain  of  a 
class  at  school.  The  captain-general  of  an  army 
is  a  general  in  chief,  says  Johnson ;  but  the  term 
has  a  larger  scope,  extending  to  authority  over 
various  bodies  of  forces.  The  British  monarch 
is  captain-general,  or  generalissimo,  of  all  the 
troops  in  his  dominions.  Captainry  is  chieftain- 
ship, or  power  over  a  certain  district.  Captain- 
ship, besides  its  obvious  meaning,  also  denotes 
skill  in  military  affairs. 

Nashan  shall  be  captain  of  Judah.      Numbers. 
He  sent  unto  him  a  captain  of   fifty.   Kinys. 
Awhile  they  fled,  but  soone  returned  againe 
With  greater  fury  than  before  was  found  ; 
And  evermore  their  cruell  capitaine 
Sought  with  his  rascal  routs  t' enclose  them  round, 
And,  overcome,  to  tread  them  on  the  ground. 

Spenser. 

There  snould  be  no  rewards  taken  for  captainries  of 
countries,  no  shares  of  bishoprics  for  nominating 
bishops.  Id. 

Dismayed  not  this 
Our  captains,  Macbeth  and  Banquo  ? 

Shakspeare.     Macbeth. 

A  captain!  these  villains  will  make  the  name  of 
captain  as  odious  as  the  word  occupy  ;  therefore  cap- 
tains had  need  look  to  it.  Id.  Henry  IV. 

Therefore,  so  please  you  to  return  with  us, 
And  of  our  Athens,  thine  and  ours,  to  take 
The  captainship. 

The  lieutenant  of  the  colonel's  company  might  well 
pretend  to  the  next  vacant  captainship  in  the  same  re- 
giment. Wotton. 
To  diminish  the   Irish  lords,   he  did  abolish  their 
pretended  and  usurped  captainships.  Davies  on  Ireland. 

The  grim  captain,  in  a  surly  tone, 
Cries  cut — Pack  up,  you  rascals,  and  begone. 

Dryden. 

So  the  sweet  lark,  high  poised  in  air, 
Shuts  close  his  oinions  to  his  breast, 


If  chance  his  mate's  shrill  calls  he  hear, 

And  drops  at  once  into  her  nest. 

The  noblest  captain  in  the  British  fleet 

Might  envy  William's  lip  those  kisses  sweet.   Ga;i. 

There's  Captain  Pannel,  absent  half  his  life, 
Comes  back,  and  is  the  kinder  to  his  wife  ; 
Yet  Pannel's  wife  is  brown,  compared  to  me, 
And  Mistress  Biddel  sure  is  fifty-three.  Id. 

CAPTAIN  BASHAW,  or  CAPOUDAN  BASHAW,  the 
Turkish  high  admiral.  He  holds  the  third  office  in 
the  empire,  and  is  invested  with  the  same  power  at 
sea  that  the  vizier  has  on  shore.  He  has  absolute 
authority  over  the  officers  of  the  marine  and  ar- 
senal, whom  he  may  punish,  cashier,  or  put  to 
death,  as  soon  as  he  is  without  the  Dardanelles. 
He  commands  in  chief  in  all  the  maritime  coun- 
tries, cities,  castles,  &c. ;  and  at  Constantinople, 
is  the  first  magistrate  of  police  in  the  villages  on 
the  side  of  the  Porte,  and  the  canal  of  the  Black 
Sea.  The  mark  of  his  authority  is  a  large  Indian 
cane,  which  he  carries  in  his  hand,  both  in  the 
arsenal  and  with  the  army.  His  chief  revenue 
arises  from  a  capitation -of  the  islands  in  the  Ar- 
chipelago, and  certain  governments  in  Natolia 
and  Gallipoli.  He  also  receives  the  pay  of  all 
men  who  die  during  a  campaign  ;  a  fifth  of  all 
prizes  made  by  the  begs  ;  and  he  exacts  contri- 
butions in  all  places  where  he  passes. 

CAPTAIN  LIEUTENANT,  an  officer,  who,  with 
the  rank  of  captain,  but  the  pay  of  lieutenant, 
commands  a  troop  or  company  in  the  name  of 
some  other  person,  who  is  dispensed  with  on 
account  of  his  quality  from  performing  the  func- 
tions of  his  post.  Thus  the  colonel  being  usually 
captain  of  the  first  company  of  his  regiment,  that 
company  is  commanded  by  his  deputy  as  captain 
lieutenant. 

CAPTAIN  OF  A  COMPANY  OR  TROOP,  a  com- 
missioned officer,  who  commands  a  company  of 
foot,  or  a  troop  of  horse,  under  a  colonel.  The 
duty  of  this  officer  is  to  be  careful  to  keep  his 
company  full  of  able  bodied  soldiers;  to  visit 
their  tents  and  lodgings,  to  see  what  is  wanting ; 
to  cause  them  to  keep  themselves  neat  and  clean 
in  their  clothes,  and  their  arms  bright.  He  has 
power  in  his  own  company  to  make  Serjeants 
and  corporals,  and  lance-corporals.  In  the  horse 
and  foot-guards,  the  captains  have  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonels  of  the  army. 

CAPTAIN  OF  A  MERCHANT  SHIP,  he  who  has 
the  direction  of  the  ship,  her  crew,  lading,  &c. 
In  small  ships,  and  short  voyages,  he  is  more 
ordinarily  called  the  master.  In  the  Mediterra- 
nean, he  is  called  the  patroon. — The  proprietor 
of  the  vessel  appoints  thp  captain  or  master ;  and 
he  is  to  form  the  crew,  and  choose  and  hire  the 
pilots,  mates,  and  seamen ;  though  when  the 
proprietor  and  master  reside  on  the  same  spot,  they 
generally  act  in  concert  together. 

CAPTAIN,  POST,  an  officer  commanding  any 
vessel  of  war  from  a  ship  of  the  line  down  to  a 
ship-rigged  sloop.  Formerly,  a  twenty -gunned 
ship  was  the  smallest  that  gave  post  rank,  but  by 
a  late  regulation  of  the  Lords  Commissioners  of 
the  Admiralty,  the  largest  class  of  ship  sloops 
has  been  added  to  the  list  of  post-ships,  and 
post-captains  under  three  years  standing  are  now 
appointed  to  them,  unless  they  happened  to  be  se- 
lected as  flag-captains  to  admirals'  ships ;  after 


CAP 


144 


CAP 


being  three  years  posted,  they  are  appointed  to 
frigates,  which  they  may  continue  to  command 
fill  they  are  of  ten  years  standing,  when  they 
^e  generally  removed  to  fifty  or  sixty-four  gun 
ships,  preparatory  to  their  taking  the  command 
cf  ships  of  the  line. 

CAPTATION,  n.  Old  Fr.  captation;  from 
Lat.  capto.  The  practice  of  catching  favor  or  ap- 
plause ;  courtship ;  flattery. 

I  am  content  my  heart  should  be  discovered,  •with- 
out any  of  those  dresses,  or  popular  captations,  which 
some  men  use  in  their  speeches.  King  Charles, 

CA'PTION,  n.  Lat  capio,  to  take.  A  legal 
term,  which  has  various  meanings  in  the  English 
and  Scotch  law.  In  England,  when  any  com- 
mission at  law  or  in  equity  is  executed,  the  com- 
missioners subscribe  the  names  to  a  certificate, 
testifying  when  and  where  the  commission  was 
executed ;  and  this  is  called  a  caption.  There 
is  likewise  the  caption  of  an  indictment,  setting 
forth  of  the  style  of  the  court  before  which  the 
jurors  made  their  presentment.  The  act  of  ar- 
resting a  man  is  also  called  the  caption.  In 
Scotch  law,  caption  is  a  writ  issuing  under  his 
majesty's  signet,  commanding  messengers  at 
arms  to  apprehend  and  detain  a  debtor ;  and 
likewise  a  writ  issued  by  the  court  of  session, 
to  compel  agents  of  the  court  to  return  pa- 
pers belonging  to  processes  or  law  suits,  under 
penalty  of  being  sent  to  prison  in  case  of  diso- 
bedience. 

There  is  also  an  obsolete  English  use  of  the 
word,  signifying  to  take  a  person  unawares  by 
some  trick  or  cavil.  It  is  thus  used  by  Chilling- 
worth,  in  his  Religion  of  Protestants. 

CA'PTIOUS,  adj.  }      Fr.  captieux  ;  Ital.  cap- 

CA'PTIOUSLY,  adv.  >  zioso  ;     Span,   capcioso  ; 

CA'PTIOUSNESS,  n.J  Lat.  captiosus.  '  Of  catch- 
ing,' says  Minsheu, '  because  captious  men  catch 
at  others.'  To  be  captious  is  to  be  prone  to 
cavil ;  ready  to  take  sudden  and  unexpected  of- 
fence, where  none  is  intended  to  be  given.  The 
captious  man  is  one  of  the  most  unpleasant 
of  companions.  There  is  no  probability  of  avoid- 
ing a  quarrel  with  him.  He  raises  a  dispute  on 
everything  that  is  said,  and,  by  a  sinister  sort  of 
transmutation,  converts  the  most  innocent  words 
and  actions  into  premeditated  affront.  He  will 
even  go  beyond  Hotspur,  for  he  will  '  cavil  on 
the  ninth  part  of  a  hair,'  though  there  be  nothing 
in  '  the  way  of  bargain '  to  excite  him  to  it. 
Captious  also  means  insidious,  ensnaring ;  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  quotation  from  Bacon ;  but 
is  less  frequently  used  in  this  -sense: 

She  taught  him  likewise  to  avoid  sundry  captious 
and  tempting  questions,  which  were  like  to  be  asked 
of  him.  Bacon. 

If  he  show  a  forwardness  to  be  reasoning  about 
things,  take  care  that  nobody  check  this  inclination, 
or  mislead  it  by  captious  or  fallacious  ways  of  talking 
with  him.  Locke. 

Use  your  words  as  captiotuly  as  you  can,  in  your 
arguing  on  one  side,  and  apply  distinctions  on  the 
other.  Id. 

Cautiousness  is  a  fault  opposite  to  civility  ;  it  often 
produces  misbecoming  and  provoking  expressions  and 
carriage.  Id. 


Friend,  quoth  the  Cur,  I  meant  no  harm  ; 
Then  why  so  captious,  why  so  warm  ? 
My  words,  in  common  acceptation, 
Could  never  give  this  provocation.  Gay. 

CAPTIVATE,  v.  &  adj.^      Fr.  captive,  cap 
CAPTIVA'TION,  n.  lif;  Ital.  cattivare, 

CAPTA'TION,  n.  \  cattivo;  Span,  cap- 

CAP'TIVE,  v.  n.  &  adj.       \tivar ;  captivo ;  mo- 
CAP'TIVAUNCE,  n.  I  dern   Span,   cauti- 

CAP'TURE,  ti.  &  n.  var,   cautivo ;  Lat. 

CAP'TOR,  n.  J  captivo,    captivus  ; 

from  capio.  To  make  prisoner ;  to  reduce  to 
slavery ;  to  enthral  or  subjugate,  mentally  or 
corporeally.  Captivate  and  captivation  were 
once  used  in  the  sterner  sense  of  to  take  pri- 
soner; they  are  now  applied  only  to  the 
victorious  ascendancy  which  is  acquired  over 
the  mind  by  beauty  and  the  fine  arts;  the 
willing  thraldom  of  the  heart.  Mr.  Todd  ob- 
serves, that  to  captive  '  was  used  formerly  with 
the  accent  on  the  last  syllable,  but  now  it  is  on 
the  first.  The  old  accent  seems  to  have  been 
discontinued  in  Milton's  time  ;  for  Dryden,  it 
appears,  places  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable.' 
This,  however,  may  be  disputed ;  as  instances  of 
the  accent  being  thrown  on  the  first  syllable  are  to 
be  found  in  Shakspeare  and  other  writers,  who 
preceded  Milton.  Captive  takes  to  before  the 
captor.  Captivaunce  is  synonymous  with  cap- 
tivity. In  the  quotation  from  the  Psalms,  capti- 
vity is  put,  by  a  bold  figure,  a  personification, 
for  those  who  had  led  others  captive.  Capture, 
as  a  verb,  is  of  modern  introduction. 

Thou  hast  ascended  on  high,  though  hast  led  cap- 
tivity captive,  thou  hast  received  gifts  for  men. 

Psalm  Ixviii.  18. 

Love,  that  liveth  and  reigneth  in  my  thought, 
That  built  his  seat  within  my  captive  breast. 
Clad  in  the  armes,  wherein  with  me  he  fought, 

Oft  in  my  face  he  doth  his  banner  rest. 
She  that  methought  to  love,  and  suffer  pain, 

My  doubtfull  hope,  and  eke  my  hot  desire, 
With  shamfast  cloke  to  shadow  and  restrain. 
Her  smiling  grace  converteth  straight  to  ire. 

Surrey. 

But  being  all  defeated  save  a  few, 
Rather  than  fly,  or  be  captived,  herself  she  slew. 

Spenser. 

How  ill  beseeming  is  it  in  thy  sex, 
To  triumph,  like  an  Amazonian  trull, 
Upon  their  woes,  whom  fortune  captivates. 

Shakspeare. 

Thou  hast  by  tyranny  these  many  years 
Wasted  our  country,  slain  our  citizens 
And  sent  our  sons  and  husbands  captivate.      Id. 

You  have  the  captives, 
Who  were  the  opposites  of  this  day's  strife.     Id. 

If  thou  say  Antony  lives,  'tis  well, 
Or  friends  with  Caesar,  or  not  captive  to  him. 

Id. 

My  woman's  heart 
Grossly  grew  captive  to  his  honey  words.          Id. 

This  is  the  Serjeant, 

Who,  like  a  good  and  hardy  soldier,  fought 
'Gainst  my  captivity.  Id. 

For  men  to  be  tied,  and  led  by  authority,  as  it  were 
with  a  kind  of  captivity  of  judgment ;  and  though  there 
be  reason  to  the  contrary,  not  to  listen  to  it. 

Hooker. 


CAP 


145 


CAP 


Then  when  I  am  thy  captive  talk  of  chains, 
Proud  limitary  cherub;  but  ere  then 
Far  heavier  load  thyself  expect  to  feel 
From  my  prevailing  arm,  though  heaven's  king 
Ride  oil  thy  wings,  and  thou  with  thy  compeers, 
Used  to  the  yoke,  draws't  his  triumphant  wheels 
In  progress  through  the  road  of  heaven  star-paved. 

Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

There  in  captivity  he  lets  them  dwell 
The  space  of  seventy  years,  then  brings  them  back. 

Id. 

Thou  leavest  them  to  hostile  sword 
Of  heathen  and  profane,  their  carcasses 
To  dogs  and  fowls  a  prey,  or  else  captived. 

Id.      Satnson  Agonittes. 

lie  deserves  to  be  a  slave  that  is  content  to  have 
the  rational  sovereignty  of  his  soul,  and  the. liberty  of 
his  will  so  captivated.  King  Charles  I. 

Now  nothing  more  at  Chatam's  left  to  burn, 
The  Holland  squadron  leisurely  return  ; 
And,  spite  of  Ruperts  and  of  Albermarles, 
To  Ruyter's  triumph  led  the  captive  Charles. 

Marvell. 

To  make  a  final  conquest  of  all  me, 
Love  did  compose  so  sweet  an  enemy, 
In  whom  both  beauties  to  my  death  agree, 
Joining  themselves  in  fatal  harmony  ; 
That,  while  she  with  eyes  my  heart  doth  bind, 
She  with  her  voice  might  captivate  my  mind.       Id. 

What  further  fear  of  danger  can  there  be  ? 
Beauty,  which  captives  all  things,  sets  me  free. 

Dryden. 

But  Fate  forbids  ;  the  Stygian  floods  oppose, 
A  nd  with  nine  circling  streams  the  captive  souls  enclose. 

Id. 

The  name  of  Ormond  will  be  more  celebrated  in  his 
captivity  than  in  his  greatest  triumphs.  H- 

They  stand  firm,  keep  out  the  enemy  truth,  that 
would  captivate,  or  disturb  them.  Locke. 

They  lay  a  trap  for  themselves,  and  captivate  their 
understandings  to  mistake,  falsehood,  and  error. 

Id. 

Wisdom  enters  the  last,  and  so  captivates  him  with, 
her  appearance,  that  he  gives  himself  up  to  her. 

Addiscm. 

When  love's  well-timed,  'tis  not  a  fault  to  love  ; 
The  strong,  the  brave,  the  virtuous,  and  the  wise, 
Sink  in  the  soft  captivity  together.  Id* 

Still  lay  the  god  :   the  nymph  surprised, 
Yet  mistress  of  herself,  devised 
How  she  the  vagrant  mi^ht  enthrall, 
A  ad  captive  him  who  captives  all.  Prior. 

The  great  sagacity,  and  many  artifices,  used  by 
birds,  in  the  investigation  and  capture  of  their  prey. 

Derluim. 

Free  from  shame, 
They  captive  :   I  ensure  the  penal  claim. 

Pope's  Odyssey. 
Yet  the  wise  captive,  meeting  art  with  art, 

Pretends  great  love  to  princely  Hubert's  side ; 
And  offers  many  a  secret  to  impart, 
Which  may  against  his  foe's  strong  arms  provide. 

Gay. 

When  Congreve's  favoured  pantomime  to  grace, 
She  comes  a  captive  queen  of  Moorish  race. 

Churchill. 

The  unequal  conflict  was  terminated  in  fifteen  days ; 

and   it   was  with  extreme   reluctance  that   Mahomet 

yielded  to  the  importunities  of  his   allies,  and  con- 

ientrd  to  spare  the  lives  of  the  captives.  Gib/ion. 

VOL.  V. 


Alas !  full  oft  on  guilt's  victorious  car, 

The  spoils  of  virtue  are  in  triumph  borne, 

While  the  fair  captive,  marked  with  many  a  scar, 
In  long  obscurity  oppressed,  forlorn. 

Resigns  to  tears  her  angel  form.  Bcattie. 

Hope  not,  thoxigh  all  that  captivates  the  wise, 
All  that  endears  the  good,  exalt  thy  praise, 

Hope  not  to  taste  repose,  for  envy's  eyes 

At  fairest  worth  still  point  her  deadly  rays.    Id. 

Though  fairest  captives  daily  met  his  eye, 
He  shunned,  not  sought,  but  coldly  passed  them  by. 

Byron' t  Corsair. 

CAPTIVES  formerly  became  the  slaves  of  those 
who  took  them;  and  though  slavery,  such  as 
obtained  among  the  ancients,  is  now  abolished, 
some  shadow  of  it  still  remains  in  respect  of 
prisoners  of  war,  who  are  accounted  the  pro- 
perty of  their  captors.  The  Romans  used  their 
captives  with  great  barbarity ;  their  necks  were 
exposed  to  the  soldiers  to  be  trampled  on,  and 
their  persons  afterwards  scd  by  public  auction. 
Captives  were  frequently  burnt  in  the  funeral 
piles  of  the  ancient  wari;'oi  i,  as  a  sacrifice  to  the 
funeral  gods.  Those  of  royal  or  noble  blood  had 
their  heads  shaven,  and  their  hair  sent  to  Rome 
to  serve  as  decorations  for  female  toys,  &c.  They 
were  led  in  triumph,  loaded  with  chains,  as  far 
as  the  foot  of  the  Capitoline  Mount,  for  they 
were  not  permitted  to  ascend  the  sacred  hill,  but 
carried  thence  to  prison.  Those  of  quality  were 
honored  with  golden  chains  on  their  hands  and 
feet,  and  golden  collars  on  their  necks.  If  they 
made  their  escape,  or  killed  themselves,  to  avoid 
the  ignominy  of  being  carried  in  triumph,  their 
effigies  were  frequently  carried  in  their  place. 

CAPTURE  is  particularly  applied  to  a  ship 
taken  at  sea.  Captures  made  at  sea  were  for- 
merly held  to  be  the  property  of  the  captors  after 
a  possession  of  twenty-four  hours;  but  the  mo- 
dern authorities  require,  that  before  the  property 
can  be  changed,  the  goods  must  have  been 
brought  into  port,  and  have  continued  a  night 
intra  prasidia,  in  a  place  of  safe  custody,  so  that 
all  hope  of  recovering  them  was  lost.  Capture 
is  likewise  used  for  an  arrest  or  seizure  of  a  cri- 
minal, debtor,  &c.  at  land. 

CAPUA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  very  ancient 
city  of  Italy,  in  Campania,  anil  capital  of  that 
district.  It  was  a  settlement  of  the  Osci  before 
the  foundation  of  Rome,  and  as  the  amazing  fer- 
tility of  the  land,  and  a  lucrative  commerce, 
poured  immense  wealth  upon  its  inhabitants,  it 
became  one  of  the  most  extensive  and  magnifi- 
cent cities  in  the  world.  With  riches  excessive 
luxury  crept  in,  and  the  Capuans  soon  lost  the 
power  of  repelling  those  nations  whom  their  in- 
solence had  exasperated.  Roman  aid  was  asked 
and  granted,  but  the  soldiers  sent  to  defend  it 
wished  to  make  it  their  prey.  Jealous  of  the 
avarice  and  ambition  of  Rome,  the  Capuans 
warmly  espoused  the  quarrel  of  Carthage,  and 
Hannibal  made  Capua  his  winter  quarters  after 
the  battle  of  Cannae;  and  there  his  hitherto  in- 
vincible soldiers  were  enervated  by  pleasure  arid 
indolence.  When,  through  a  failure  of  supplies 
from  Carthage,  Hannibal  was  under  the  necessity 
of  leaving  the  Capuans  to  defend  themselves,  this 
city,  which  had  long  been  invested,  was  surren- 
dered at  discretion  to  the  consuls  Appius  Clau- 
dius and  Q.  Fulvius  Flaccus.  The  senators 


CAP 


146 


CAO 


were  put  to  death,  the  nobles  imprisoned  for  life, 
and  all  the  citizens  sold  and  dispersed,  except 
Yibius  and  his  friends,  who  killed  themselves. 
The  buildings  were  spared  by  the  victor ;  and 
Capua  was  left  to  be  a  harbour  for  the  husband- 
men, a  warehouse  for  goods,  and  a  granary  for 
corn.  Colonies  were  sent  to  inhabit  it,  and  in 
process  of  time  it  regained  a  degree  of  its  impor- 
tance. But  Genseric  the  Vandal  was  more  cruel 
than  the  Romans,  for  he  massacred  the  inhabi- 
tants, and  burned  the  town.  Narses  rebuilt  it ; 
but  in  841  it  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Sara- 
cens, and  the  inhabitants  driven  to  the  moun- 
tains. Since  the  foundation  of  the  new  city,  the 
ancient  Capua  has  remained  in  ruins. 

CAPUA,  in  modern  geography,  is  a  neat  little  city 
of  Naples,  in  Terra  di  Lavoro,  built  on  part  of  the 
site  of  old  Capua.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  Lom- 
bard inhabitants  of  the  old  city,  who,  some  time 
after  the  departure  of  the  Saracens,  ventured 
down  again  into  the  plain  ;  but,  not  deeming  their 
force  equal  to  the  defence  of  their  former  exten- 
sive circuit,  built  a  smaller  town  on  the  banks 
of  the  Volturno,  and  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Casilinum.  In  856  Landulph  formed  here  an 
independent  earldom,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few 
generations  Capua  acquired  the  title  of  a  princi- 
pality. In  the  eleventh  century  the  Normans 
of  Aversa  expelled  the  Lombard  race  of  princes, 
and  Richard  their  chief  became  prince  of  Capua. 
The  grandson  of  Tancred  of  Hauteville  drove 
out  the  descendants  of  Richard,  and  united  this 
state  to  the  rest  of  his  possessions.  Capua  is  at 
present  fortified  according  to  the  rules  of  modern 
art,  and  may  be  considered  as  the  key  of  the 
kingdom ;  though  far  removed  from  the  frontier, 
it  is  the  only  fortification  that  really  covers  the 
approach  to  Naples.  It  was,  however,  taken  by 
the  French,  under  general  Championnet,  on  the 
1 1  th  January,  1797.  It  is  fifteen  miles  north- 
east of  Naples,  and  100  south-east  of  Rome. 
Long.  15°  7'  E.,  lat.  11°  26'  N. 

CAPUCHINS,  religious  of  the  order  of  St. 
Francis  in  its  strictest  observance ;  deriving  their 
name  from  capuce,  or  capuchon,  a  stuff  cowl, 
wherewith  they  cover  their  heads.  They  are 
clothed  with  brown  or  gray  ;  always  bare-footed ; 
never  go  in  a  coach,  nor  ever  shave  their  beards. 
They  are  a  reform  from  the  order  of  Minors, 
commonly  called  cordeliers,  set  on  foot  in  the  six- 
teenth century  by  Matthew  Baschi,  who  pretended 
to  have  been  advised  from  heaven  to  practise  the 
rule  of  St.  Francis  to  the  letter.  Pope  Clement 
VII,  in  1525,  gave  him  permission  to  retire  into 
solitude,  with  as  many  others  as  chose  to  embrace 
the  strict  observance,  and  in  1 528  they  obtained 
his  bull.  In  1529  the  order  was  brought  into 
complete  form ;  Matthew  was  elected  general, 
and  the  chapter  made  constitutions. 

CAPUENA,  in  icthyology,  a  fish  caught  in  the 
American  seas,  and  esteemed  very  delicate.  It  is 
round  shaped,  and  usually  about  five  inches 
long. 

CAPURA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  belonging  to  the  hexandria  class  of 
plants.  C.purpurata,  is  a  nativeof  the  East  Indies. 

CAPUT,  the  head.    See  HEAD,  SKULL,  FACE, 
and  ANATOMY. 

CAPUT  BARONIJE,  the  head  of  the  barony,  or 


CAPUT  HONORIS,  the  head  of  the  honor,  in  ancient 
customs,  denoted  the  chief  seat  of  a  nobleman, 
where  he  made  his  usual  residence,  and  held  his 
court.  It  could  not  be  settled  in  dowry ;  nor 
could  be  divided  among  the  daughters,  in  case 
there  were  no  son  to  inherit;  but  was  to  descend 
entire  to  the  eldest  daughter,  caeteris  filiabus 
aliunde  satisfactis. 

CAPUT  GALLINAGINIS,  in  anatomy,  is  a  kind 
of  septum,  or  spongious  border,  at  the  extremi- 
ties or  apertures  of  each  of  the  vesiculae  seminales; 
serving  to  prevent  the  semen  coming  from  one 
side,  from  rushing  upon,  and  so  stopping  the 
discharge  of  the  other. 

CAPUT  LUPINUM,  a  term  anciently  applied  to 
an  outlawed  felon,  who  might  be  knocked  on  the 
head  like  a  wolf,  by  any  one  that  met  him ;  be- 
cause, having  renounced  all  law,  he  was  to  be 
dealt  with  as  in  a  state  of  nature,  when  every  one 
that  should  find  him  might  slay  him.  But  now 
it  is  holden  that  no  man  is  entitled  to  kill  him 
wantonly  and  wilfully;  but  in  so  doing  he  is 
guilty  of  murder,  unless  it  is  done  in  the  endea- 
vour to  apprehend  him. 

CAPUT  MORTUUM,  a  name  given  by  old  che- 
mists to  fixed  and  exhausted  residuums  remaining 
in  retorts  after  distillations.  As  these  residuums 
are  very  different,  according  to  the  substances  dis- 
tilled, and  the  degree  of  heat  employed,  they  are 
by  the  more  accurate  modern  chemists  particu- 
larly specified. 

CAQUETA,  a  river  of  South  America,  which 
rises  in  the  province  of  Quito,  near  the  ancient 
city  of  Macao  at  the  western  base  of  the  Andes, 
in  the  lat.  of  2°  N.,  from  whence  it  runs  in  an 
E.  S.  E.  direction  towards  the  equator.  Before 
it  crosses  the  equator  it  communicates  with 
another  stream  or  channel  of  .waters,  running  in 
a  north-east  direction ;  this  channel  is  called  the 
Negro,  and  is  supposed  to  communicate  with  the 
Orinoco,  whilst  the  main  branch  runs  in  a  south- 
east direction  to  the  Amazons,  into  which  it  falls 
in  the  lat.  of  4°  S. ;  this  branch  of  the  Caquetais 
sometimes  called  the  Japura  Yupina,  and  some 
Portuguese  adventurers  in  1744  are  said  to  have 
reached  the  Orinoco  from  the  Amazons  by  this 
stream  and  that  of  the  Negro ;  a  circumstance 
which  the  Prussian  traveller  Humboldt  has  since 
said  to  have  confirmed  as  practicable;  having 
himself  passed  from  one  river  to  another  in  a 
canoe,  he  no  doubt  believes  that  there  is  a  union 
of  the  waters  of  those  two  noble  rivers ;  but  high 
as  his  authority  stands,  further  evidence  is  still 
wanting,  as  the  Negro  after  running  north-east 
for  about  160  miles,  then  runs  east,  bearing  a 
little  south  for  upwards  of  100  miles,  when  it 
takes  a  course  parallel  with  the  Japura  into  the 
Amazons  about  eighty  miles  lower  down,  first 
receiving  the  waters  of  lake  Parima  ;  this  branch 
in  its  south-east  course  is  called  the  Great  Negro, 
and,  being  far  more  capacious  than  the  Japura, 
has  probably  been  mistaken  for  the  Orinoco. 
It  is  not  impossible,  however,  but  that  some  of 
the  collateral  streams  of  this  branch  may  in  the 
rainy  season  communicate  with  some  of  the  col- 
lateral branches  of  the  Orinoco  in  the  lat.  of  about 
3°  N.  From  the  point  where  the  Negro  branches 
off  to-  the  north-east,  another  stream  diverges 
more  to  the  west,  and  runs  parallel  with  the 


147 


CAR 


Japura  at  a  distance  of  about  eighty  miles  into 
the  Amazons. 

CAR,  CHAR,  in  the  names  of  places,  seems  to 
have  relation  to  the  Britisn  caer,  a  city.  Gib- 
son's Camden. 

CAR,  n.  \  Lat.  carrus ;  Fr.  char;  Ital. 
CAR'MAN,  s.  }  and  Sp.  carro ;  Welsh  and  Ar- 
mor, car ;  Sw.  karra  ;  Ger.  and  Dut.  karre.  A 
small  carriage  of  burden,  says  Johnson,  usually 
drawn  by  one  horse  or  two.  I  suspect  that  the 
word  is  now  seldom  employed  in  this  sense  in  Eng- 
land ;  its  diminutive,  cart,  being  the  denomination 
of  such  vehicles;  though  the  name  is  still  retained  in 
the  compound,  car-man.  In  Ireland,  however,  car 
is  in  common  use,  and  is  applied  to  various  sorts 
of  conveyances;  among  which  is  the  jaunting 
car,  a  kind  of  carriage  for  excursions  of  plea- 
sure. The  word  is  more  extensively  known  in 
its  poetical  meaning,  that  of  a  dignified  or 
splendid  vehicle  ;  a  war  or  triumphal  chariot. 
The  car  of  day  is  the  solar  luminary  ;  the  '  silver 
car'  of  Cynthia  is  the  moon.  Dryden  gives  the 
name  of  the  northern  car  to  the  constellation, 
Charles'  wain,  or  the  bear. 

Henry  is  dead,  and  never  shall  revive  : 
Upon  a  wooden  coffin  we  attend, 
And  death's  dishonorable  victory, 
We  with  our  stately  presence  glorify, 
Like  victors  bound  to  a  triumphal  car. 

Shalupeare. 

Wilt  thou  aspire  to  guide  the  heavenly  car, 
And  with  thy  daring  folly  burn  the  world  ?         Id. 

And  the  gilded  car  of  day, 
His  glowing  axle  doth  allay 
In  the  sfeep  Atlantic  stream.  Milton. 

Every  fixt  and  every  wandering  star, 
The  Pleiads,  Hyads,  and  the  Northern  Car. 

Dryden. 

See  where  he  comes,  the  darling  of  the  war ! 
See  millions  crowding  round  the  gilded  car. 

Prior. 

When  a  lady  comes  in  a  coach  to  our  shop,  it  must 
be  followed  by  a  car  loaded  with  Wood's  money. 

Swift. 

If  the  strong  cane  support  thy  walking  hand, 
Chairmen  no  longer  shall  the  wall  command  j 
Even  sturdy  carmen  shall  thy  nod  obey, 
And  rattling  coaches  stop  to  make  a  way. 

Gay.      Trivia. 

Now  Venus  mounts  her  car  ;  she  shakes  the  reins, 
And  steers  her  turtles  to  Cythera's  plains  ; 
Straight  to  the  grot  with  graceful  step  she  goes, 
Her  loose  ambrosiac  hair  behind  her  flows.  Gay. 

And  many  a  band  of  ardent  youths  were  seen, 

Some  in  rapture  fired  by  glory's  charms  ; 
Or  hurled  the  thundering  car  along  the  green, 
Or  march'd  embattled  on  in  glittering  arms. 

Beattie. 

CAR,  in  archaeology,  a  sort  of  carriage  drawn 
by  beasts  of  burden;  a  war  chariot.  In  different 
ancient  examples,  cars  are  represented  either  with 
two  or  four  wheels,  drawn  by  different  animals ;  as 
horses,  mules,  elephants,  lions,  panthers,  &c.  The 
invention  of  cars  is  attributed  by  someto  Erichtho- 
nius,  king  of  Athens,  whose  distorted  legs  pre- 
vented his  walking ;  by  others  to  Triptolemus,  or 
Trochilus.  The  Athenians  dedicated  them  to  Pal- 
las. The  coursing  cars  or  chariots  were  also  used 
in  public  festivities  and  games;  these  were  in  the 
form  of  a  shell  mounted  upon  two  wheels,  higher 


before  than  behind,  and  ornamented  with  painting 
and  sculpture.  When  they  were  drawn  by  two 
horses,  they  were  called  bigae,  wher»  with  three 
trigae,  and  quadrigae  when  they  were  drawn  by 
four  horses,  which  were  always  abreast. 

The  covered  cars  (currus  arcuati),  which  were 
in  use  among  the  Romans,  differed  from  the 
others  only  by  having  an  arched  covering  above 
Some  of  the  eastern  nations  used,  in  their  wars, 
cars  armed  with  scythes  and  other  cutting  instru- 
ments on  the  wheels ;  they  were  drawn  by  strong 
horses,  and  made  dreadful  havoc  in  the  army  of 
their  enemies.  Triumphal  cars  were  often  exe- 
cuted in  marble.  One  is  preserved  in  the  museum 
of  the  Vatican  at  Rome.  The  use  of  triumphal 
cars  was  introduced,  according  to  some,  by 
Romulus,  and  to  others  by  Tarquin  the  elder,  o"r 
Valerius  Poplicola. 

The  cars  of  the  different  divinities  are  drawn 
by  those  animals  which  are  sacred  to  each  ;  as 
that  of  Mercury  by  rams,  of  Minerva  by  owls, 
that  of  Venus  by  swans  or  doves,  that  of  Apollo 
by  griffins,  of  Juno  by  peacocks,  and  that  of 
Diana  by  stags. 

CARA,  a  river  of  European  Russia,  which, 
directs  its  course  towards  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and 
forms  the  boundary  between  Asia  and  Europe, 
for  the  space  of  about  140  miles  ;  the  Arabian 
chain  terminating  so  far  from  the  sea  of  Cara- 
skoi,  or  Karskoi. 

CAR'ABINE,or-\      Fr.   carabine;    Ital.   ca- 

CAR'BINE,  n.        f  rabino ;     Ger.     carabiner  ; 

CARABIN'IER,  or  f Swed.  karbin;  diminutive, 

CAREIN'IER,  n.  J  says  Thompson,  of  carraba- 
listan,  a  field  bow  mounted  on  a  carriage,  at- 
tached formerly  to  cavalry.  The  carabine,  called 
also  a  petronel,  is  a  small  sort  of  fire  arm,  shorter 
than  a  fusil,  and  carrying  a  ball  of  twenty-four 
in  the  pound,  hung  by  the  light  horse  at  a  belt 
over  the  left  shoulder.  It  is  a  kind  of  medium 
between  the  pistol  and  the  musket,  having  its  barrel 
two  feet  and  a  half  long.  It  is  generally  rifled. 

He  with  his  whole  troop  advanced  from  the  gross 
of  their  horse,  and  discharging  all  their  pistols  on 
the  ground,  within  little  more  than  carabine  shot  of 
his  own  body,  presented  himself  and  his  troop  to 
Prince  Rupert ;  and  immediately,  with  his  highness, 
charged  the  enemy.  Clarendon. 

CARABINS,  otherwise  called  argoulets,  were 
a  species  of  hussars  in  the  ancient  French 
militia,  and  sometimes  acted  on  foot.  They 
•were  chosen  and  resolute  men.  All  the  princi- 
pal officers  of  the  army  used  to  have  them  as 
their  guards.  And  they  were  often  stationed  at 
the  outposts  for  the  purpose  of  harassing  the 
enemy,  guarding  narrow  passes,  &c.  In  action 
they  generally  engaged  in  front  of  the  dragoons, 
or  on  the  wings  of  the  first  line.  The  term 
comes  from  the  Arabian  word  Karab,  which  sig- 
nifies generally  a  warlike  instrument  of  any 
kind. 

CARABUS,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  insects  of 
the  order  of  coleoptera,  or  the  beetle.  The  feelers 
are  bristly ;  the  breast  is  shaped  like  a  heart,  and 
marginated  ;  and  the  elytra  are  likewise  margi- 
nated.  There  are  324  known  species  of  this 
genus,  mostly  distinguished  by  their  color.  The 
most  remarkable  is  C.  crepitans,  the  bombardier, 
with  the  breast,  head,  and  legs,  ferruginous  or 

L  2 


148 


C  A  R  A  C  C  A  S. 


iron  colored,  and  the  elytra  black.  It  keeps  it- 
self concealed  among  stones,  and  seems  to  make 
little  use  of  its  wings  :  when  it  moves,  it  is  by  a 
sort  of  jump;  and,  whenever  it  is  touched,  one  is 
surprised  to  hear  a  noise  resembling  the  dis- 
charge of  a  musket,  in  miniature,  during  which  a 
blue  smoke  may  be  perceived  to  proceed  from  its 
anus.  It  may  be  made  at  any  time  to  play  off 
its  artillery,  by  scratching  its  back  with  a  needle. 
Rolandet,  who  first  made  these  observations,  says 
it  can  give  twenty  discharges  successively.  A 
bladder  placed  near  the  anus  is  the  arsenal  whence 
it  derives  its  store ;  and  this  is  its  chief  defence 
against  an  enemy,  although  the ,  smoke  emitted 
seems  to  be  altogether  inoffensive,  except  by 
causing  a  fright,  or  concealing  its  course.  Its 
chief  enemy  is  another  species  of  the  same  genus, 
but  four  times  larger:  when  pursued  and  fatigued, 
the  bombardier  has  recourse  to  this  stratagem, 
by  lying  down  in  the  path  of  the  large  carabus, 
which  advances  with  open  mouth  and  claws  to 
seize  it ;  but,  on  this  discharge  of  the  artillery, 
suddenly  draws  back,  and  remains  awhile  con- 
fused :  during  which  the  bombardier  conceals 
himself  in  some  neighbouring  crevice.  If  he 
does  not  find  one,  the  large  carabus  returns,  takes 
the  insect  "by  the  head,  and  tears  it  off. 

CARACALLA  (M.  Antoninus  Bassianus), 
succeeded  his  father  Severus,  on  the  imperial 
throne  of  Rome,  A.  D.  2 1 1 ,  and  put  the  physicians 
to  death  for  not  despatching  him  as  he  would 
have  had  them.  He  killed  his  brother  Geta ;  and 
put  Papinianus  to  death  because  he  would  not 
defend  his  parricides.  He  married  Julia,  his 
father's  widow.  Going  to  Alexandria,  he  mas- 
sacred almost  the  whole  of  the  inhabitants.  See 
ALEXANDRIA.  In  short,  no  fewer  than  20,000 
persons  were  murdered  by  his  orders.  At  last, 
going  from  Edessa  to  Mesopotamia,  one  of  his 
captains  slew  him  in  the  seventh  year  of  his 
reign. 

CARACALLA,  in  antiquity,  a  long  garment, 
having  a  sort  of  capuchin,  or  hood  a-top,  and 
reaching  to  the  heels  ;  worn  among  the  Romans 
by  both  men  and  women,  in  the  city  and  the 
camp.  Spartian  and  Xiphilin  represent  the  em- 
peror Caracalla  as  the  inventor  of  this  garment, 
and  hence  suppose  that  appellation  was  first 
given  him.  Others,  with  more  probability,  make 
the  caracalla  originally  a  Gallic  habit  brought  to 
Rome  by  that  emperor,  who  first  enjoined  the 
soldiery  to  wear  it,  and  from  whom  the  people 
also  called  it  antoninian.  St.  Jerome  informs  us 
that  the  caracalla,  with  a  retrenchment  of  the 
capuchin,  became  an  ecclesiastical  garment.  It 
is  described  as  made  of  several  pieces  cut  and 
sewed  together,  and  hanging  down  to  the  feet. 

CARACCAS,  or  CARACAS,  a  department,  pro- 
rince,  and  city,  of  Colombia,  South  America. 
The  department  of  Caraccas  includes  the  pro- 
vinces of  Caraccas  Proper  and  Barinas :  the  re- 
sidence of  the  intendancy  or  departmental  go- 
Ternment  being  in  the  city  of  Caraccas.  The 


population  of  this  department  is  about  550,000' 
The  province  of  Caraccas  in  its  climate,  natural 
scenery,  and  fertility,  is  nowhere  transcended. 
On  the  coasts  the  heat  is  indeed,  at  particular 
seasons,  almost  overpowering  to  Europeans, — La 
Guayra  being,  according  to  Humboldt's  observa- 
tions, one  of  the  hottest  places  on  the  earth ;  but 
in  the  mountain  valleys  of  the  interior,  and  be- 
side its  refreshing  streams,  the  atmosphere  is 
mild,  pure,  and  exquisitely  sweet.  The  soil 
yields  all  the  usual  productions  of  the  West 
Indies  in  rich  abundance,  and  is  exceedingly 
favorable  to  cochineal,  dye-woods,  gums,  resins, 
sarsaparilla,  sassafras,  liquorice,  squills,  storax, 
cassia,  aloes,  and  medicinal  drugs :  as  also  to 
maize,  vanilla,  cotton,  indigo,  sugar,  tobacco, 
and  coffee ;  but  its  staple  article  is  cocoa,  of  a 
very  superior  quality.  Immense  herds  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  deer,  graze  on  the  plains  of  the  in- 
terior, where  also  horses  and  mules  are  found  in 
considerable  numbers,  and  all  kinds  of  game.  The 
forests  produce  every  kind  of  useful  and  orna- 
mental wood — black,  red,  and  yellow  ebony; 
mahogany  and  cedar  are  very  common,  so  that 
the  last  is  used  for  door-posts  and  window- 
frames  as  frequently  as  deal  with  us.  The  Spa- 
niards first  introduced  cocoa-trees  and  indigo 
here ;  the  former  at  an  early  period  of  their  con- 
quest; the  latter  in  1774. 

La  Guayra  is  the  principal  port  of  the  pro- 
vince, and  only  five  leagues  from  the  capital, 
with  which  it  communicates  by  a  noble  road.  A 
chain  of  mountains,  which  separate  it  from  the 
high  valley  of  Caraccas,  descends  directly  into 
the  sea ;  so  that  the  houses  of  La  Guayra  are 
backed  with  almost  perpendicular  rocks,  and 
stones  rolling  from  them  frequently  occasion 
accidents  to  the  town.  It  contains  but  two  pa- 
rallel streets,  running  east  and  west,  and  about 
7000  inhabitants.  The  streets  are  ill-paved  arid 
narrow,  and  the  houses  generally  mean.  The 
only  singular  objects  here  are  the  batteries,  which 
are  well  disposed  and  kept  in  good  order :  that  of 
Cerrocoloredo  commands  the  roadstead.  This 
is  open  to  all  winds,  never  exceeds  eight  fathoms 
in  depth  at  a  quarter  of  a  league  from  the  beach, 
and  the  sand  so  quickly  buries  the  anchors  of 
vessels  remaining  here,  that  they  are  obliged  to  be 
removed  every  eight  days.  The  annual  amount 
of  its  exports  is  said  to  be  about  £347,000,  in 
cocoa,  indigo,  coffee,  and  hides;  and  the  im- 
ports about  520,000,  all  the  goods  being  pur- 
chased as  well  as  sold  at  Caracas,  and  only  loaded 
or  unloaded  here.  The  men  who  carry  the  cocoa 
on  board  the  ships  are  remarkable  for  their  mus- 
cular strength  ;  and,  though  they  frequently  wade 
up  to  their  breasts  in  the  water,  are  never  mo- 
lested by  the  sharks  that  are  so  abundant  in 
this  part.  The  inhabitants  say  that  a  bishop 
once  gave  his  benediction  to  all  who  should 
appear  here,  and  thus  tamed  their  nature !  We 
are  indebted  to  colonel  Hale's  interesting  little 
work  entitled  Colombia,  for  the  following : — 


CARACCAS. 


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C  A  R  A  C  C  A  S. 


II.  Revenue  of  the  Port  of  La  Guayra,  from  the 
1st  of  January  to  the  31st  of  October,  1823, 
taken  from  the  OFFICIAL  RETURN. 

Dollars. 

Import  Duties 515,609  0£ 

Export  ditto 153,101  3£ 

Tonnage  ditto 5,778  3£ 

Salt  ditto 4,083  1$ 

Anchorage  ditto 414  0 

Prizes 105,552  3 

Duties  appropriated  to  the  Military 

Hospital      . 6,038  OJ 

790,576  2£ 


The  city  of  Caraecas  is  situate  in  10°  30'  15" 
N.  lat.,  and  67°  4'  45"  W.  long.,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  plain  of  Chacao,  which  extends  three 
leagues  east  towards  Cauriman  and  the  Cuesta 
de  Auyamas,  and  is  two  leagues  and  a  half 
broad.  This  plain,  through  which  runs  the  river 
Guayra,  is  414  toises  above  the  level  of  the  sea ; 
three  other  rivers  (very  small)  cross  the  town 
from  north  to  south.  Its  climate  has  been  called 
a  perpetual  spring.  -  The  temperature  is  gene- 
rally between  20°  and  26°  in  the  day,  and  16° 
and  18°  at  night.  But  this  general  mildness  is 
connected  with  great  fluctuations  in  the  weather. 
Humboldt  sometimes,  among  the  vapors  of  No- 
vember and  December,  could  scarcely  think  him- 
self in  one  of  the  temperate  valleys  of  the  torrid 
zone ;  but  rather  in  the  north  of  Germany,  among 
the  pines  and  the  larches  overshadowing  the 
mountains  of  the  Hartz.  The  following  have 
been  given  as  the  differences  of  climate  between 
Caraecas  and  La  Guayra : — 


Caraecas. 

LaGuayra. 

Height 

Level  of 

454  Toises. 

the  Sea. 

Mean  temp,  of  the  year 

21°  to  22° 

28° 

Mean  temp,  of  the  hot 

season      .     .     . 

24 

29 

Mean  temp,  of  the  cold 

season      .     .     . 

19 

23-5 

Maximum  .... 

29 

35 

Minimum   .... 

11 

21 

The  streets  of  Caraecas  are  straight,  well  paved, 
and  well  built,  intersecting  each  other  at  right 
angles,  and  at  a  distance  of  about  three  hundred 
feet  :  there  are  eight  squares,  if  such  they  may 
be  called,  five  of  them  being  very  irregular  enclo- 
sures ;  but  the  pla£a  major,  occupying  about  300 
square  feet,  and  the  great  market  of  the  city,  is  a 
respectable  collection  of  buildings,  public  and 
private.  On  the  east  is  the  cathedral,  and  on 
the  same  side  begin  the  barracks,  continued 
round  to  the  south.  In  the  market  abundance  of 
every  kind  of  provision  is  to  be  found.  Fruits, 
vegetables,  meat,  salted  provisions,  poultry,  fish, 
game,  bread,  monkeys,  parrots,  &c.  The  churches 
of  Candelana  and  St.  Paul  are  the  only  distinc- 
tions of  the  other  squares  worth  naming.  The 
houses  of  many  individuals  are  well  built,  and  of 
Jiandsome  appearance ;  being  generally  of  ma- 


sonry, with  frame-work,  after  the  Roman  man- 
ner, or  of  brick.  Humboldt  thought  them  only 
too  high  in  a  region  so  subject  to  earthquakes  as 
Caraecas.  Those  of  the  respectable  inhabitants 
are  neatly  and  even  superbly  furnished.  '  We 
behold  in  them,'  says  an  anonymous,  but  re- 
spectable description  of  Colombia,  '.  beautiful 
glasses;  at  the  windows,  and  over  the  inside 
doors,  elegant  curtains  of  crimson  damask ; 
chairs,  and  sofas  made  of  wood,  the  seats  of 
which,  covered  with  leather  or  damask,  are 
stuffed  with  hair  and  adorned  with  Gothic  work, 
but  overloaded  with  gilding;  bedsteads  with 
deep  headboards,  showing  nothing  but  gold,  co- 
vered by  superb  damask  counterpanes,  and  a 
number  of  down  pillows  in  fine  muslin  cases, 
trimmed  with  lace.  There  is  seldom,  it  is  true, 
more  than  one  bed  of  this  magnificence  in  each 
house,  which  is  in  general  the  nuptial  couch, 
and  afterwards  serves  as  a  bed  of  state.  The  eye 
wanders  also  over  tables  with  gilded  feet ;  chests 
of  drawers,  on  which  the  gilder  has  exhausted  all 
the  resources  of  his  art;  brilliant  lustres,  sus- 
pended in  the  principal  apartments;  cornices, 
which  seem  to  have  been  dipped  in  gold ;  and 
rich  carpets,  covering  at  least  ail  that  part  of  the 
room  where  the  seats  of  honor  are  placed :  for 
the  parlour  furniture  is  disposed  in  such  a  man- 
ner, that  the  sofa,  which  constitutes  the  most 
essential  article  of  household  attire,  is  situate  at 
one  end,  with  the  chairs  arranged  on  the  right 
and  left ;  and  opposite,  the  principal  bed  of  the 
house,  placed  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  room, 
in  a  chamber,  the  door  of  which  is  open,  unless 
it  be  fixed  in  an  alcove  equally  open,  and  by  the 
side  of  the  seats  of  honor, 

'  Except  the  barracks,Caraccas  possesses  scarce- 
ly any  public  edifices  but  those  dedicated  to  reli- 
gion, viz.  eight  churches  and  five  convents.  The 
barracks,  which  will  hold  2000  men,  are  hand- 
some, and  situate  on  a  spot  commanding  beau- 
tiful views.  They  are  storied,  with  a  double 
yard,  and  occupied  by  the  troops  of  the  line 
alone.  The  militia  have  their  barracks  in  the 
opposite  part  of  the  city.  Here  is  also  a  college, 
founded  in  1778  by  the  bishop  Antonio  Gon- 
zalez d'Acuna,  and  converted  into  a  university 
in  1792 ;  and  a  theatre,  which  will  hold  1500  or 
1800  persons.-  The  population  in  1812  was 
50,000,  when,  in  the  great  earthquake  on  the 
12th  of  March,  12,000  are  supposed  at  once  to 
have  perished.  The  late  political  convulsions 
are  supposed  to  have  farther  reduced  the  present 
population  of  the  city  to  20,000. 

'  It  is  divided  between  whites,  negroes,  and  a 
few  Indians.  The  first  are  either  merchants, 
planters,  professional,  or  military  men ;  very 
proud,  and  disdaining  all  kinds  of  labor.  '  The 
women  of  Caraecas  are  seldom  -  blondes ;  but, 
with  hair  of  the  blackness  of  jet,  they  have  the 
white  of  alabaster.  Their  eyes,  large  and  finely 
shaped,  speak,  in  an  expressive  manner,  that 
language  which  is  of  all  countries.  The  carna- 
tion of  their  lips  is  finely  softened  by  the  white- 
ness of  their  skins,  and  concurs  to  form  that 
ensemble  which  we  denominate  beauty.  Their 
stature  does  not  correspond  with  their  shape:  we 
see  few  above  the  middle  size,  many  below.  It 
would  be  losing  time  to  search  for  pretty  feet : 


CAR 


151 


CAR 


as  they  pass  a  great  portion  of  their  lives  at  their 
windows,  one  would  say,  that  nature  had  wished 
to  embellish  only  that  part  of  their  bodies  which 
they  expose  to  view.  Their  gait  also  is  deficient 
in  grace.' 

The  luxury  of  European  capitals  is  by  no 
means  unattainable  at  CaYaccas.  The  Spanish  gra- 
vity and  the  Creole  voluptuousness  are  seen  in 
singular  combination.  The  inhabitants  of  this 
and  the  other  towns  of  Colombia  seldom  dine 
with  each  other,  and  are  on  the  whole  temperate ; 
but  they  give  frequent  collations  of  coffee,  cho- 
colate, tea,  cakes,  and  wine,  when  they  display 
their  porcelain  and  fine  glass,  and  the  ladies, 
both  old  and  young,  appear  in  all  their  attrac- 
tions. 

Before  the  revolution  every  house  of  respec- 
tability was  encumbered  by  a  vast  train  of  do- 
mestic slaves.  Religious  festivals  are  so  frequent 
at  Caraccas,  that  there  are  very  few  days  in  the 
year  on  which  they  do  net  celebrate  some  saint, 
and  what  multiplies  them  almost  to  infinity  is, 
that  every  festival  is  preceded  by  a  neuvaine,  or 
succession  of  nine  days,  consecrated  to  prayer ; 
and  followed  by  an  octave,  or  succession  of  eight 
days,  during  which  to  their  prayers  the  faithful 
join  public  amusements,  such  as  fire-works, 
concerts,  &c. :  the  most  brilliant  part  of  their 
festivals  is  the  procession  of  the  saint  who  is  cele- 
brated. \Vhen  the  men  go  to  church  they  must 
always  wear  a  coat,  great  coat,  or  cloak,  and  the 
women,  rich  or  poor,  especially  the  whites,  are 
rigorously  rtquired  to  be  in  black.  Their  dress 
on  this  occasion  generally  consists  in  a  petticoat 
and  veil  of  black.  Negroes  only  have  a  white 
veil.  Posts  are  now  forwarded  regularly  and 
periodically,  from  the  capital  only,  for  Mara- 
caibo,  Porto  Cavello,  Santa  Fe,  Cumana,  and 
Guiana.  All  the  towns  lying  on  the  road  to 
these  places  enjoy  the  advantages  of  the  mail. 
All  the  roads  of  the  country  are  under  the  direct 
control  of  the  Government. 

The  coast  of  the  Caraccas  was  discovered  by 
Columbus  in  1498,  during  his  third  voyage  to 
the  western  world.  In  1550  the  former  captain- 
generalship  of  the  Caraccas  was  established,  and 
ultimately  contained  nearly  48,000  square  leagues 
(twenty-five  to  a  degree)  and  a  million  of  inha- 
bitants. It  existed,  with  some  slight  variations  of 
territory,  to  the  revolution  in  1810,  see  CO- 
LOMBIA, and  comprehended  the  province  of  Ve- 
nezuela, in  the  centre  ;  the  government  of  Mara- 
caibo,  westward ;  Guiana,  south ;  Cumana,  east ; 
and  the  island  of  Margaretta. 

CARACCI  (Lewis,  Augustin,  and  Hannibal), 
three  celebrated  painters  of  Bologna.  Lewis  was 
born  in  1555;  and  was  cousin-german  to  Angus- 
tin  and  Hannibal,  who  were  brothers,  the  sons  of 
a  tailor,  who  gave  them  a  liberal  education. 
They  were  both  disciples  of  their  cousin  Lewis. 
Augustin  gained  a  knowledge  of  mathematics, 
natural  philosophy,  music,  poetry,  and  most  of 
the  liberal  arts :  'but,  though  painting  was  his 
principal  pursuit,  he  learned  the  art  of  engraving 
from  Cornelius  Cort,  and  surpassed  all  the  mas- 
ters of  his  time.  Hannibal  never  deviated  from 
his  pencil.  These  three  painters,  at  length  formed 
a  plan  of  association,  and  founded  that  celebrated 
school,  called  Caracci's  Academy.  Hither  the 


young  students  resorted  to  be  instructed  in  the 
rudiments  of  painting ;  here  the  Caracci  taught 
freely  all  that  came.  Lewis's  charge  was  to  make 
a  collection  of  antique  statues  and  bas-reliefs. 
They  had  designs  of  the  best  masters ;  a  collec- 
tion of  curious  books  on  all  subjects  relating  to 
their  art ;  and  a  skilful  anatomist  to  teach  what 
belonged  to  the  knitting  and  motions  of  the 
muscles,  &c.  There  were  often  disputations  in 
the  academy ;  and  the  literati,  as  well  as  painters, 
proposed  questions,  which  were  always  decided 
by  Lewis.  The  fame  of  the  Caracci  reaching 
Rome,  the  cardinal  Farnese  sent  for  Hannibal, 
to  paint  the  gallery  of  his  palace.  Hannibal 
willingly  went,  having  a  great  desire  to  see  Ra- 
phael's works,  with  the  antique  statues,  &c.  The 
gusto  which  he  took  there  from  the  ancient  sculp- 
ture, made  him  change  his  Bolognian  manner  for 
one  more  learned,  but  less  natural  in  the  design 
and  coloring.  Augustin  followed  Hannibal,  to 
assist  him  in  the  Farnese  gallery  ;  but  the  bro- 
thers not  agreeing,  Farnese  sent  Augustin  to  the 
court  of  Parma,  where  he  died  in  1602,  aged 
forty-five.  His  most  celebrated  piece  is  the 
communion  of  St.  Jerome,  in  Bologna.  In  the 
meanwhile,  Hannibal  continued  working  in  the 
Farnese  gallery  at  Rome;  and,  after  eight  years 
labor,  finished  the  painting?  in  the  perfection  in 
which  they  are  still  to  be  seen ;  but  the  cardinal, 
influenced  by  ignorance  and  avarice,  gave  him 
but  a  little  above  £200.  This  confirmed  him  in 
a  melancholy,  to  which  his  temper  naturally  in- 
clined, and  made  him  resolve  never  more  to 
touch  his  pencil;  which  resolution  he  had  un- 
doubtedly kept,  if  his  necessities  had  not  com- 
pelled him  to  break  it.  It  is  said  that  his  melan- 
choly gained  so  much  upon  him,  that  at  times  it 
affected  his  reason.  It  did  not,  however,  put  a 
stop  to  his  amours;  and  his  debaucheries  at 
Naples,  whither  he  had  retired  for  the  recovery 
of  his  health,  brought  a  distemper  upon  him,  of 
which  he  died  in  1609,  in  his  forty-ninth  year. 
His  veneration  for  Raphael  was  so  great,  that  it 
was  his  death-bed  request  to  be  buried  in  the 
same  tomb  with  him;  which  was  accordingly 
done  in  the  pantheon  at  Rome.  There  are  ex- 
tant several  prints  of  the  Virgin,  and  some  other 
subjects  etched  by  him.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
an  open-hearted  man;  very  communicative  to 
his  scholars;  and  so  extremely  kind  to  them, 
that  he  generally  kept  his  money  in  the  same  box 
with  his  colors,  that  they  might  have  recourse  to 
either  as  they  had  occasion.  While  Hannibal 
worked  at  Rome,  T>ewis  was  courted  from  all 
parts  of  Lombardy,  especially  by  the  clergy; 
and  we  may  judge  of  his  capacity  and  facility, 
by  the  great  number  of  his  works.  In  the  midst 
of  these  employments  Hannibal  solicited  him  to 
come  and  assist  him  in  the  Farnese  gallery,  so 
earnestly,  that  he  went  to  Rome  and  corrected 
several  things  in  that  gallery ;  but,  after  painting 
a  figure  or  two,  he  returned  to  Bologna,  where 
he  died  in  1619,  aged  sixty-four. 

CAR'ACK,  n.  Span,  carraca ;  Old.  Fr.  car- 
raque  ;  Ger.  caracke  ;  low  Lat.  carraca.  But 
Minsheu  derives  the  word  from  the  Ital.  carico, 
a  freight  or  burden.  A  carack,  often  spelt  car- 
rack  and  carrick,  is  a  large  ship  of  burden,  the 
same  with  those  that  are  now  called  galleons 


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Oh,  sir,  upon  her  nose,  all  o'er  embellished  with 
rabies,  carbuncles,  sapphires,  declining  their  rich  as 
pect  to  the  hot  breath  of  Spain  ;  who  sent  whole  anna, 
does  of  carrackf  to  be  ballasted  at  her  nose.  Shahtpeare 

In  which  river,  the  greatest  carack  of  Portuga, 
may  ride  afloat  ten  miles  within  the  forts.  Raleigh. 

The  bigger  whale  like  some  huge  carack  lay, 
Which  wanteth  sea  room  with  her  foes  to  play. 

Waller. 

CA'RACOL,  v.  &  n.  )      Sp.  caracolear,  from 
CA'RACOLE.  j  caracal,   a  snail ;    with 

reference  to  the  spiral  turns  in  the  snail's  shell. 
But  the  Spanish  itself  is  derived  from  Heb.  carac, 
through  Ar.  garagal.  In  horsemanship,  an  ob- 
lique tread,  traced  out  in  semi-rounds,  changing 
from  one  hand  to  the  other,  without  observing  a 
regular  ground.  The  half  turn,  which,  after  his 
discharge,  a  horseman  makes  to  pass  from  the  front 
of  the  squadron  to  the  rear  is  called  caracole. 
The  caracole  is  also  made  by  a  whole  troop  of 
cavalry,  for  the  purpose  indicated  in  the  fol- 
lowing quotation. 

When  the  horse  advance  to  charge  in  battle,  they 
ride  sometimes  in  caracoles,  to  amuse  the  enemy,  and 
put  them  in  doubt  whether  they  are  about  to  charge 
them  in  the  front  or  on  the  flank. 

Farrier's  Dictionary. 

CAR'ACT,  n.  1       Kepariov.      Lat.   ceratium  ; 

CAR'AT,  n.  $  Arab,  keerat,  Per.  charat ; 
Fr.  carat ;  Ital.  caratto.  Rennet  derives  it  from 
carracta,  which  anciently  signified  any  weight. 
Besides  the  two  spellings  already  given,  this  word 
is  spelt  in  a  variety  of  ways ;  carract,  karract, 
carrat,  and  karrat.  It  denotes  a  four-grain 
weight,  for  weighing  diamonds,  the  grains  of 
which  are  somewhat  lighter  than  common  grains ; 
an  imaginary  weight  by  which  the  degree  of 
purity  in  gold  is  indicated ;  and,  figuratively, 
the  value  of  anything. 

A  mark,  being  an  ounce  troy,  is  divided  into 
twenty-four  equal  parts,  called  caracti,  and  each  caract 
into  four  grains  :  by  this  weight  is  distinguished  the 
different  fineness  of  their  gold  ;  for,  if  to  the  finest 
gold  be  put  two  cat  xtt  of  alloy,  both  making,  when 
cold,  but  an  ounce,  or  twenty-four  caractt,  then  this 
gold  is  said  to  be  twenty-two  caracti  fine.  Cocker. 

Thou  best  of  gold,  art  worst  of  gold  ; 
Other,  less  fine  in  caract,  is  more  precious. 

Shaktpearc. 

They  are  men  that  set  the  caract  and  value  upon 
things  as  they  love  them ;  but  science  is  not  every 
man's  mistress.  Ben  Jonson. 

CARACT  AC  US,  a  renowned  king  of  the  an- 
cient British  people,  called  SilureF,  inhabiting 
South  Wales.  Having  valiantly  oeienaeu  ms 
country  seven  years  against  the  Romans  fie  was 
at  last  defeated  ;  and  flying  to  Oarusmanaua, 
queen  of  the  Brigantes,  was  by  ner  treacnerousiy 
delivered  up  to  the  Romans  and  led  in  triumph 
to  the  emperor  Claudius,  then  a:  York :  where 
his  noble  behaviour,  and  heroic  but  pathetic 
speech,  obtained  him  not  only  his  liberty,  but 
the  esteem  of  the  emperor,  A.D.  52.  Buchanan, 
Monipenny,  and  the  other  ancient  Scots  histo- 
rians, make  this  heroic  prince  one  of  the  Scots 
monarchs;  nephew  and  successor  to  king  Me- 


tellanus:  and  jay  that  he  was  elected  general  of 
the  united  army  of  Scots,  Picts,  and  Britons. 

CARAMANIA,  an  interior  province  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  east  of  Natolia,  comprising  about  35,000 
square  miles  of  surface  ;  it  is  excluded  from  the 
Mediterranean  by  Itchiil,  a  very  rugged  and 
mountainous  district,  but  which  is  commonly 
considered  as  forming  part  of  the  province  of 
Caramania;  but  be  that  as  it  may,  the  Alpine 
character  of  the  part  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, precludes  it  from  deriving  much  advan- 
tage from  the  water  communication  on  that  side. 
It  is  intersected  by  the  Kisil  Jermak,  which, 
after  a  course  of  about  350  miles,  flows  north 
into  the  Black  Sea,  it  has  a  salt  water  lake  of 
considerable  extent  in  the  north-west  part  of  the 
province  ;  and  in  the  south-west  are  several  lakes 
of  fresh  water,  which  yield  abundance  of  fish  ; 
the  equilibrium  of  the  waters  of  all  these  lakes 
seems  to  be  maintained  by  evaporation,  no  visible 
outlet  appearing ;  the  forests  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  the  province  yield  abundance  of  the 
finest  timber,  both  oak  and  pine,  and  the  vine 
and  fig-tree,  with  innumerable  varieties  of 
flowering  and  odoriferous  shrubs,  luxuriate  in 
every  part.  Caramania  comprehends  the  ancient 
Pamphylia, and  a  great  part  of  Cilicia,  Pisidiaand 
Cappadocia  II.  Bajazet  united  it  to  the  Ottoman 
Empire  in  1488,  and  thus  a  country  once  teeming 
with  population,  and  studded  with  numerous 
fine  cities  and  towns,  is  again  a  desert  inhabited 
by  tribes  of  Turcomans,  partaking  more  of  a 
negro  mode  than  a  settled  life.  They,  however, 
carry  on  some  external  traffic,  in  camels'  hair, 
goats'  wool,  and  opium.  Of  the  number  of  i»s 
inhabitants  there  is  no  account  worthy  of  atten- 
tion ;  but  they  probably  do  not  exceed  from  150 
to  200,000.  Cogni  or  Konich,  in  the  lat.  of  38° 
10'  N.  and  32°  25'  of  E.  long.,  308  miles  east 
of  Smyrna,  and  150  north  of  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean  is  the  capital ;  the  other  principal 
towns  are  Erekli,  Akserai,  and  Ker-shehr  on  the 
banks  of  the  Kisil  Jermak;  and  Kaisarich,  to- 
wards the  eastern  extremity  of  the  province. 
Konich  and  Erekli  are  on  the  route  of  the  cara- 
vans from  Constantinople  to  Aleppo. 

CARAPACE,  the  thick,  solid  shell,  which 
covers  the  turtle ;  and  to  which  adhere  those  fine 
transparent  shells,  called  tortoise  shells,  of  which 
snuff-boxes,  &c.  are  made. 

CARAPOPEBA,  in  zoology,  a  small  species 
of  lizard,  common  in  the  Brasils,  and  esteemed 
poisonous.  Its  body  is  of  a  liver  color,  and  has 
several  white  spots.  There  are  marks  of  white 
on  the  tail,  variegated  with  yellow.  Its  eyes  are 
brierht  and  vivid. 

CAR'AVAN,  n.     )      Ar.  and  Per.  kerwan  ; 

CARAVAN  SARY,TI.  >  Turk,  kervan  ;  Fr.  eara- 
vanne •-  Ital.  caravana.  Its  tmmarv  meaning  is 
a  troop  of  persons  assemoled  to  journey  toge- 
ther, either  for  commercial  purposes,  or  in  pil- 
grimage. Secondarily,  it  denotes  a  large  co- 
vered conveyance  for  goods ;  the  name  of  which 
is  sometimes  abbreviated  into  van.  A  caravan- 
sary, Per.  kerwansura,  is  a  house  built  in  the 
eastern  countries,  chiefly  in  dry,  barren,  desert 
places,  for  the  reception  of  travellers.  It  differ* 
however,  from  an  inn,  by  affording  onlv  shelter 
except  in  some  few  cases. 


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153 


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They  set  forth 

Their  airy  caravan,  high  over  seas 
Flying,  and  over  lands,  with  mutual  wing 
Easing  their  flight.  Paradise  Lost. 

Sir,  what  ill  chance  hath  brought  thee  to  this  place, 
So  far  from  path  or  road  of  men,  who  pass 
In  troop  or  caravan?  Paradise  Regained. 

When  Joseph,  and  the  blessed  virgin  mother,  had 
lost  their  most  holy  son,   they  sought  him  in   the  re- 
tinues of  their  kindred,  and  the  caravans  of  the  Gali- 
lean pilgrims.  Bishop  Taylor. 
The  inns  which  receive  the  caravans  in  Persia,  and 
the  eastern  countries,  are  called  by  the  name  of  cara- 
vantariet.  Spectator. 
The  spacious  mansion,  like  a  Turkish  caravansary, 
entertains  the  vagabond  with  only  bare  lodging. 

Pope's  Letters. 

There,  deadly  Sumiel  striding  o'er  the  land, 
Sweeps  his  red  wing,  and  whirls  the  burning  sand  j 
As  winds  the  weary  caravan  along, 
The  fiery  storm  involves  the  hapless  throng. 

Scott. 

League  after  league,  through  many  a  lingering  day, 
Steer  the  swart  caravans  their  sultry  way  ; 
O'er  sandy  wastes,  on  gasping  camels  toil, 
Or  print  with  pilgrim  steps  the  burning  soil. 

Darwin. 

CARAVAN,  or  KARAVAN,  in  Africa  and  the 
east,  derived  from  the  Persian  word  which  sig- 
nifies a  merchant,  is  a  company  of  travellers  and 
pilgrims,  more  particularly  of  merchants,  who, 
for  their  greater  security,  and  to  assist  each  other, 
march  in  a  body  through  the  deserts,  and  other 
dangerous  places,  which  are  infested  with  Arab 
and  native  robbers.  There  are  four  regular  ca- 
ravans which  go  yearly  to  Mecca ;  the  first  from 
Damascus,  composed  of  pilgrims  and  merchants 
from  Europe  and  Asia ;  the  second  from  Cairo, 
for  the  Mahommedans  of  Barbary;  the  third 
from  Zibith,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Red  Sea, 
where  those  of  Arabia  and  India  meet;  the  fourth 
from  Babylon,  where  the  Persians  assemble. 
Most  of  the  inland  commerce  of  the  east  is 
carried  on  by  caravans.  Peter  the  Great  esta- 
blished a  trade  between  Russia  and  China  by 
means  of  a  caravan.  Bougnon,  geographer  to 
the  duke  of  Lorraine,  published  a  treatise  of  the 
caravans  of  merchants  in  Asia.  There  are  com- 
monly four  chief  officers  of  a  caravan,  viz.  the 
caravan  bachi,  or  chief;  the  captain-guide ;  cap- 
tain of  the  rest;  and  captain  of  distribution. 
The  first  has  absolute  command  over  all  the  rest : 
the  second  is  absolute  in  the  march  :  the  office  of 
the  third  only  commences  when  the  caravan  stops 
and  makes  a  stay :  to  the  fourth  it  belongs  to 
dispose  of  every  part  of  the  corps,  in  case  of  an 
attack  or  battle  ;  he  has  also  the  inspection  over 
the  distribution  of  provisions,  which  is  made 
under  him  by  several  distributors,  who  give  se- 
curity to  the  master  of  the  caravan,  and  hav?  each 
of  them  a  certain  number  of  persons,  elephants, 
iromedaries,  &c.  to  take  care  of  at  their  own 
peril.  The  treasurer  of  the  caravan  makes  a 
•^fth  officer,  who  has  under  him  several  agents 
and  interpreters,  who  keep  journals  of  all  that 
lasses,  for  the  satisfaction  of  all  concerned.  Any 
dealer  is  at  liberty  to  form  a  caravan.  He  in 
whose  name  it  is  raised,  is  considered  as  the  chief 
of  the  caravan,  unless  he  appoint  some  other  in 
his  place.  If  there  are  several  merchants  equally 


concerned,  they  elect  a  caravan  bachi ;  after 
which,  they  appoint  officers  to  conduct  the  cara- 
van and  decide  all  controversies.  There  have 
been  also  sea  caravans,  established  on  the  same 
footing,  and  for  the  same  purposes. 

CARAVA'NCE,  >     Span,  garbanzo,  a  species 

CARABA'NCE,  n.  J  of  kidney-bean,  with  pods 
like  the  carob. 

CARAVANSARY,  or  CARAVANSERA^  in  ar- 
chitecture, a  large  house  or  public  building, 
erected  for  the  reception  of  travellers.  These 
buildings  are  seldom  more  than  one  story  high, 
and  are  usually  of  a  quadrangular  form,  with 
porticos  in  the  interior  for  the  horses  and  camels; 
chambers  for  the  merchants  and  travellers,  and 
warehouses  for  the  merchandise. 

CAR'AVEL,  or  )      Fr.    caravelle  ;    Basque, 

CAR'VEL,  n.  J  carabella  ;  Span,  caravel- 
la  ;  Ital.  caravela ;  Ger.  karfe ;  Lat.  cara- 
bas.  Carvel  is  the  spelling  most  in  use,  but 
the  word  is  sometimes  spelt  carveil.  A  swift 
bark  ;  a  light,  round,  old-fashioned  ship,  of 
120  or  140  tons  burden,  with  a  square  poop, 
rigged  and  fitted  out  like  a  galley,  formerly  used 
in  Spain  and  Portugal.  It  is  also,  as  appears 
from  Sir  T.  Herbert's  Travels,  an  old  name  of 
the  urtica  marina,  or  sea  blubber. 

I  gave  them  orders  if  they  found  any  Indians  there, 
to  send  in  the  little  fly  boat,  or  the  carvel,  into  the  river  ; 
for,  with  our  great  ships,  we  durst  not  approach  the 
coast.  Raleigh. 

She  may  spare  me  her  misen  and  her  bonnets, 
strike  her  main  petticoat,  and  yet  outsail  me.  I  am 
a  carvel  to  her.  Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 

In  an  obstinate  engagement  with  some  Venetian 
caravels,  the  vessel  on  board  which  he  served  took  fire. 

Robertson, 

The  con;eZ  is  a  sea  fome,  floating  on  the  ocean,  of  a 
globous  form.  Sir  T.  Herbert. 

CARAVEL,  a  small  vessel  on  the  coast  of 
France,  used  in  fishing  herrings  on  the  banks 
They  are  commonly  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
tons  burden. 

CAR' AW  AY,  n.  Fr.  carvi ;    Ital.  alcaravea 
Span,  alcarahueya ;  Lat.  carum.     A  plant  pro- 
ducing warm  aromatic  seeds,  which  are  used  in 
medicine  and  confectionary.     See  CARUM. 
CAR'BON,  n.  ~\      Yr.carbone ;  Lat.ear- 

CARBONA'CEOUS,  adj.   >  bo.     Carbon  is  one  of 
CARBON'IC.  j  the  simple  bodies  of 

chemistry  ;  carbonaceous  is  that  which  contains 
carbon ;  carbonic  that  which  relates  to  carbon. 

CARBON.  Charcoal  is  a  word  often  em- 
ployed synonymously  with  carbon :  but,  although 
charcoal  is  the  form  under  which  carbon  most 
commonly  occurs,  yet  it  is  in  this  form  mixed 
with  several  extraneous  ingredients.  The  dia- 
mond was  concluded,  by  Guyton  Morveau,  to  be 
the  only  form  of  pure  carbon ;  but  the  experi- 
ments of  Allen  and  Pepys  have  tended  to  show 
that  these  hard  substances,  although  so  widely 
different  in  external  character  and  appearance, 
are  chemically  the  same  ;  the  difference  between 
them  seeming  to  result  from  the  different  state  of 
aggregation  of  their  particles.  It  further  seems 
that  the  diamond  is  absolutely  free  from  both 
water  and  hydrogen ;  and  it  is  in  this  particular, 
as  well  as  in  the  mode  by  which  its  particles  are 
aggregated,  that  the  difference  seems  to  obtain 


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154 


CAR 


between  charcoal  and  the  diamond.  Diamond 
converts  iron  into  steel ;  which  power  is  likewise 
characteristic  of  charcoal.  See  DIAMOND. 

Charcoal  appears  to  be  the  same  substance 
from  whatever  wood  it  is  procured,  but  it  is 
usually  made  upon  a  large  scale  from  oak,  chest- 
nut, elm,  beech,  or  ash-wood.  Lamp  black  may 
be  regarded  as  a  very  pure  carbon,  after  it  has 
been  heated  red  hot  in  a  very  close  vessel.  This 
is  prepared  by  causing  the  dense  smoke,  arising 
from  refuse  resin  burnt  in  a  furnace,  to  be  col- 
lected. 

Although  charcoal,  as  we  have  said,  is  the 
same  in  principle  from  whatever  source  it  may 
have  been  obtained,  some  woods  give  much  more 
of  it  than  others.  From  100  parts  of  the  follow- 
ing woods,  Messrs.  Allen  and  Pepys  obtained 
the  quantities  of  charcoal  as  stated  in  the  an- 
nexed table : — 


Beech  .  .  15-00 
Mahogany  .  15-75 
Lignum  Vita  17-25 


Oak 

Fir 

Box 


17-40 
18-17 
20-25 


Charcoal  conducts  electricity,  although  the 
wood  from  which  it  has  been  procured,  if  simply 
deprived  of  its  moisture  by  evaporating  it,  is  a 
non-conductor.  It,  however,  conducts  caloric 
very  slowly.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  hence 
charring  wood  preserves  it  from  the  effects  of 
moisture  in  some  measure ;  but  it  has  an  attrac- 
tion for  a  given  portion  of  water,  which  it  retains 
with  force,  and  when  heated  nearly  red  hot  it  has 
the  power  of  decomposing  the  fluid,  forming  with 
its  oxygen  either  carbonic  oxide  or  carbonic  acid, 
according  to  the  quantity  employed ;  it  also  com- 
bines with  the  hydrogen  of  the  water  and  forms 
carburetted  hydrogen. 

Charcoal  possessing  a  powerful  affinity  for  oxy- 
gen, becomes  useful  in  deoxygenating  metallic 
oxides,  and  thus  reviving  the  metal.  It  com- 
bines also  with  sulphur  and  hydrogen.  With 
iron,  as  above  intimated,  it  forms  steel. 

It  has  an  antiseptic  power,  and  hence  its  uti- 
lity in  correcting  the  smell  of  foul  ulcers ;  '  on 
this  account,'  says  Dr.  Ure,  '  it  is  the  best  denti- 
frice.' It  enters  into  the  composition  of  gun- 
powder; and  in  its  finer  states,  as  in  ivory  black, 
lamp  black,  8cc.  it  constitutes  the  basis  of  black 
paints,  of  printers'  ink,  and  of  Indian  ink. 

Carbon,  in  its  union  with  different  bases,  forms 
important  compounds,  which  will  be  elsewhere 
noticed.  See  CHEMISTRY. 

CARBONA'DE,  n.  \      Fr.  carbonade ;  from 

CARBONA'DO,  v.  &n.  i  Lat.  c arbo,  a  coal.  Meat 
cut  across,  to  be  broiled  on  the  coals.  Cotgrave 
and  Sherwood  define  it  to  mean  also  a  '  slash 
over  the  face,  which  fetcheth  the  flesh  with  it.' 
By  an  extension  of  this  meaning,  the  verb  signi- 
fies to  cut  and  hack  any  part  of  the  body ;  but, 
thus  applied,  it  is  used  only  in  a  ludicrous  or 
contemptuous  sense. 

If  I  come  in  his  way  willingly,  let  him  make  a  car- 
bonado of  me.  Shaltspeare. 

CARBONARI,  a  sect  of  Italian  and  German 
freemasons. 

CARBON  ARIA,  in  ancient  geography,  one  of 
the  mouths  of  the  Eridanus  in  Italy,  mentioned 
by  Pliny  :  new  II  Porto-di-Goro 


CARBONATES  are  neutral  salts,  composed 
of  the  carbonic  acid,  and  certain  bases.  See 
CHEMISTRY. 

CARBONIC  ACID.  In  the  article  AIR,  and 
in  the  history  of  chemical  science,  it  will  be  seen 
what  an  important  part  the  discovery  of  this  acid 
performed,  in  aiding  the  progress,  and  altering 
the  complexion,  of  chemical  science. 

This  acid  is  produced  abundantly  by  various 
processes  of  nature ;  the  best  method  of  obtain- 
ing it  artificially  for  the  purposes  of  experiments, 
is  that  of  pouring  dilute  muriatic  acid  upon  mar- 
ble, which  is  a  carbonate  of  lime;  in  this  way 
the  carbonic  acid  is  set  at  liberty,  and  it  may  be 
collected  over  water. 

Most  of  the  carbonates  will,  indeed,  give  out 
their  carbonic  acid  by  being  treated  with  heat, 
even  without  the  assistance  of  another  acid,  since 
the  affinity  by  which  it  is  retained,  with  its  several 
bases,  is  for  the  most  part  feeble.  Chalk,  for 
instance,  or  unslaked  lime,  soon  becomes  quick- 
lime by  the  application  of  heat,  which  causes  the 
separation  of  the  carbonic  acid  from  the  material, 
and  thus  leaves  it  in  a  caustic,  or  pure,  or  quick 
condition. 

Carbonic  acid  may  be  analysed  by  the  action 
of  the  metal  potassium,  which  is  capable  of  ab- 
stracting its  oxygen  (it  is  a  compound  of  oxygen 
and  carbon),  and  with  the  aid  of  heat  burns  it 
with  great  splendor ;  charcoal  is  deposited,  and 
an  oxide  of  potassium  is  formed.  In  this,  and 
in  some  other  cases,  oxygen  is  seen  alternate'y 
producing  acid  and  alkali.  If  carbonic  acid,  ob- 
tained by  burning  the  diamond  in  oxygen,  be 
thus  decomposed  by  potassium,  the  carbon  makes 
its  appearance  in  the  form  of  charcoal,  equal  in 
weight  to  the  diamond  consumed. 

There  are  some  other  substances  which  at  high 
temperatures  are  capable  of  decomposing  car- 
bonic acid,  and  abstracting  part  of  its  oxygen ; 
thus,  if  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  hydrogen  and 
one  of  carbonic  acid,  by  volume,  be  passed 
through  a  red  hot  tube  with  a  proper  apparatus, 
water  is  formed,  and  carbonic  oxide  passes  into 
the  receiver,  mixed  with  the  excess  of  hydrogen. 

If  carbonic  acid  be  passed  over  red  hot  char- 
coal, it  becomes  converted  into  carbonic  oxide  by 
taking  up  an  additional  portion  of  base.  The 
blue  flame,  often  seen  upon  the  surface  of  a 
charcoal  fire,  arises  from  the  combustion  of  the 
carbonic  oxide  formed  in  this  way ;  the  air  en- 
tering at  the  bottom  forms  carbonic  acid,  which, 
passing  through  the  red  hot  charcoal,  becomes 
converted  into  carbonic  oxide. 

At  a  bright  red  heat,  iron  decomposes  car- 
bonic acid,  by  abstracting  a  portion  of  its  oxy- 
gen, and  forming  oxide  of  iron  and  carbonic 
oxide  (Brande). 

For  the  various  combinations  of  carbonic  acid 
with  bases,  see  CHEMISTRY,  and  the  respective 
articles. 

CAR'BUNCLE,  n.       ^     Fr.  carbuncle  ;Ita.. 

CAR'BUNCLED,  adj.          t  carbonchio  ;     Span. 

CARBU'NCULAR,  adj.       icarbunculo^at.car- 

CARBUNCULA'TION,  n.  *  bunculus.  A  gem, 
once  believed  to  shine  in  the  dark,  like  a  glow- 
ing coal,  whence  its  name,  from  the  diminutive 
of  carbo :  red  spots  or  pimples  on  the  face  and 
body,  very  commonly  one  of  the  merited  brands 


155 


CAR 


and  punishments  of  a  drunkard.  Carbuncular 
signifies  belonging  to  a  carbuncle;  or  red,  like 
that  gem.  Carbunculation  is  applied  to  the  blast- 
ing of  young  plants,  whether  effected  by  excessive 
heat  or  by  an  opposite  cause,  when  '  the  parching 
air  burns  frore,  and  cold  perform  the  effect  of 
fire.' 

A  carbuncle  entire,  as  big  as  thou  art, 
Were  not  so  rich  a  jewel.  Shalupeare. 

An  armour  all  of  gold  ;  it  was  a  king's — 
He  has  deserved  it,  were  it  carbuncled 
Like  holy  Phoebus'  car.  Id. 

His  head 

Crested  aloft,  and  carbuncle  his  eyes, 
V'ith  burnished  neck  of  verdant  gold. 

Paradise  Lost. 

It  was  a  pestilent  fever,  but  there  followed  no  car- 
buncle, no  purple  or  livid  spots,  or  the  like,  the  mass 
of  the  blood  not  being  tainted.  Bacon. 

It  is  believed  that  a  carbuncle  doth  shine  in  the 
dark  like  a  burning  cole,  from  whence  it  hath  its  name, 

Wilhins. 

Red  blisters  rising  on  their  paps  appear, 
And  flaming  carbuncles  and  noisome  sweat. 

Vryden. 

Carbuncle  is  a  stone  of  the  ruby  kind,  of  a  rich 
blood-red  colour  Woodward. 

CARBUNCLE,  in  heraldry,  a  charge  or  bearing, 
consisting  of  eight  radii,  four  whereof  make  a 
common  cross,  and  the  other  four  a  saltier. 
Some  call  these  radii,  bartons-  or  staves,  because 
round,  and  enriched  with  buttons,  or  pearled 
like  pilgrim's  staves. 

CARBUNCLE,  in  medicine.  See  ANTHRAX. 
CARBUNCLE,  in  natural  history,  a  very  elegant 
gem,  whose  color  is  deep  red,  with  an  admixture 
of  scarlet.  This  gem  was  known  among  the  an- 
cients by  the  name  of  anthrax.  It  is  usually 
found  pure,  and  of  the  same  degree  of  hardness 
with  the  sapphire.  It  is  naturally  of  an  angular 
figure ;  and  is  found  adhering,  by  its  base,  to  a 
heavy  and  ferruginous  stone  of  the  emery  kind  : 
its  usual  size  is  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length,  and  two-thirds  of  that  in  diameter  in  its 
thickest  parts :  when  held  up  against  the  sun  it 
loses  its  deep  tinge,  and  becomes  exactly  of  the 
color  of  a  burning  charcoal,  whence  the  name. 
It  bears  the  fire  unaltered.  It  is  found  only  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  there  but  very  rarely. 

CARBURET  OF  SULPHUR,  8cc.  See  CHE- 
MISTRY, and  HYDROGEN. 

CARBURETTED  HYDROGEN  GAS.  See  CHE- 
MISTRY. 

CA'RCANET,  or  \  Fr.  carcan ;  Belg.  kar- 
CA'RKNET,  n.  \kant;  Swed.<?uar/c;  Mid. 
Lat.  carcarum.  Menage,  with  less  force  than  he 
sometimes  employs,  refers  its  derivation  to  the 
Gr.  icipicij/oc,  a  species  of  chain.  It  is  a  neck- 
chain  ;  a  necklace.  As  its  immediate  parent  is 
the  Fr.  carcan,  it  can  only  be  applied  to  that  which 
goes  round  the  neck. 

Say  that  I  lingered  with  you  at  your  shop, 
To  see  the  making  of  her  carcanet.       Shahspeare. 
I  have,  seen  her  beset  and  bedect  all  over  with  eme- 
ralds and  pearls,  and  a  carcanet  about  her  neck. 

Hakewell. 

CA'RCASS,  n.          )      Fr.    carquasse,     car- 

CA'RCASS-LIKE,  adj.  $  casse;  Mid.  La.t.  carca- 

sium.     By  some  etymologists,  a  violent  attempt 

has  been  made  to  derive  the  word  from  carquois, 


a  quiver ;  than  which  nothing,  it  seems,  can  well 
be  more  '  false  and  forced.'  Minsheu  finds  its 
origin  in  carocassa,  flesh  decayed,  or  deprived  of 
life.  Its  meanings  are,  a  dead  body  ;  ludicrously, 
a  living  body ;  the  decayed  parts,  the  ruins,  the 
remains,  of  anything;  the  uncompleted,  unorna- 
mented  parts  of  anything,  as  of  a  house  ;  lastly, 
an  oblong  iron  shell,  filled  with  combustibles, 
to  be  thrown  from  a  mortar. 

But  when  this  carcass  here  to  earth  shall  be  refard, 
I  do  bequeath  myweried  ghost  to  serve  her  afterward. 

Surrey. 

To  blot  the  honour  of  the  dead, 
And  with  foul  cowardise  his  carcass  shame, 
Whose  living  hands  immortalized  his  name. 

Spenser. 
Here's  a  stay, 

That  shakes  the  rotten  carcass  of  old  death 
Out  of  his  rags !     Here's  a  large  mouth,  indeed, 
That  spits  forth  death,  and  mountains,  rocks,  and 
seas !  Id. 

To-day  how  many  would  have  .given  their  honours 
To've  saved  their  carcassei !  Id. 

4.  rotten  carcass  of  a  boat,  not  rigged. 
Nor  tackle,  sail,  nor  mast.  Id. 

Where  cattle  pastured  late,  now  scattered  lies, 
With  carcasses  aiud  arms,  the  insangnined  field. 

Milton. 

If  a  man  visits  his  sick  friend  in  hope  of  a  le- 
gacy, he  is  a  vulture,  and  only  waits  for  the  carcass. 

Tayler. 

What  could  be  thought  a  sufficient  motive  to  have 
had  an  eternal  carcass  of  an  universe,  wherein  the 
materials  and  positions  of  it  were  eternally  laid  to- 
gether. Hole's  Origin  of  Mankind. 

The  scaly  nations  of  the  sea  profound, 
Like  shipwrecked  carcasses  are  driven  aground. 

Dryden. 

He  that  finds  himself  in  any  distress,  either  of  car- 
cass or  of  fortune,  should  deliberate  upon  the  matter 
before  he  prays  for  a  change.  L' Estrange. 

Methinks  I  scent  some  some  rich  repast, 
The  savor  strengthens  with  .the  blast, 
Snuff  then,  the  promised  feast  inhale, 
I  taste  the  carcass  in  vhe  gale.  Gay. 

This  penknife  keen  my  windpipe  shall  divide, 
What  shall  I  fall  as  squeaking  pigs  have  dyed, 
No — To  some  tree  this  carcats  I'll  suspend, 
But  worrying  curs  find  such  untimely  end.  Id. 

CARCASS,  a  kind  of  combustible,  consisting  of 
an  iron  case  filled  with  composition,  and  so  called 
because  the  circles  that  pass  from  one  plate  to 
another  seem  to  represent  the  ribs  of  a  skeleton 
or  carcass.  Carcasses  were  formerly  made  ob- 
long as  well  as  round,  but  these  have  been  found 
so  uncertain  in  their  flight  that  they  are  now  en- 
tirely rejected.  The  composition  with  which 
they  are  filled  is  thus  made: — boil  15  Ibs.  of 
pitch  in  a  glazed  earthen  pot,  and  mix  with  it 
3  Ibs.  of  tallow,  30  Ibs.  of  powder,  6  Ibs.  of  salt- 
petre, and  as  many  slopins  as  can  be  put  in : 
the  case  is  then  filled  with  this ;  loaded  pistol 
barrels,  and  grenades,  are  put  in  with  it,  and  it 
is  wrapped  in  a  cloth  and  well  pitched  ;  lastly, 
three  or  four  holes  are  bored  in  it,  and  filled  with 
fuse  composition :  from  these  the  long  flame 
issues,  and  will  set  anything  on  fire  within  six 
feet  of  its  range.  Carcasses  are  thrown  out  ot 
mortars,  and  weigh  from  fifty  to  230  Ibs  accord- 


CAR 


156 


CAR 


ing  to  the  size  of  the  mortars  out  of  which  they 
are  to  be  thrown.  There  are  other  carcasses  for 
the  sea-service,  which  so  nearly  resemble  these, 
that  any  further  description  will  be  needless. 

CARCASSONE,  an  ancient  city  and  bishop's 
see  of  France,  the  capital  of  the  present  depart- 
ment of  the  Aude,  a  river  which  divides  it  into 
the  upper  and  lower  town.  The  former,  which 
is  by  far  the  more  ancient,  and  contains  the  ca- 
thedral, bears  exclusively  the  name  of  the  city : 
the  lower  town  is  of  modern  erection,  and  on  the 
whole  better  built.  Together  they  now  contain 
about  15,000  inhabitants,  who  manufacture  cloth 
for  the  Levant,  and  conduct  a  considerable  ex- 
port trade  by  means  of  the  canal  of  Languedoc, 
which  runs  within  a  mile  of  this  place.  When, 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  Innocent  III.  had  pro- 
scribed the  Albigenses  for  heresy,  Raymond,  the 
reigning  viscount  of  Carcassone,  was  included  in 
that  proscription.  Simon  de  Montfort,  general 
of  the  army  of  the  church,  invested  Carcassone 
in  1209.  The  inhabitants,  terrified  at  the  fate  of 
other  places  where  the  most  dreadful  massacres 
had  been  committed,  demanded  leave  to  capitu- 
late ;  but  this  act  of  mercy  was  only  extended  to 
them  under  a  condition  equally  cruel,  unparal- 
leled, and,  indeed,  incredible,  if  we  had  not  the 
unanimous  testimony  of  all  the  contemporary 
writers.  The  people  were  all  obliged,  without 
exception  of  rank  or  sex,  to  evacuate  it  in  a  state 
of  nudity ;  and  Agnes,  the  viscountess,  was  not 
exempted,  though  young  and  beautiful,  from  this 
ignominious  and  shocking  disgrace.  Carcassone 
is  thirty-six  miles  west  of  Narbonne,  and  fifty 
south-east  of  Toulouse. 

CAR'CELAGE,  Lat.  career.     Prison  fees. 
CAR'CERAL,  Lat.  career.     Belonging  lo  a 
prison. 

CARCERES,  in  the  ancient  Circensian  games, 
were  enclosures  in  the  circus,  wherein  the  horses 
were  restrained  till  the  signal  was  given  for  start- 
ing, when  they  at  once  flew  open. 

CARCIIJO'MA,  n.'      )      From    icapcivoc,    a 

CARCINOM'ATOUS,  adj.  J  crab.      A   cancer;    a 

disease  in  the  horny  coat  of  the  eye  ;  cancerous ; 

having  a  tendency  to  cancer. 

CARCINOMA.     See  CANCER. 

CARD,  v.  &  n.          ~\      Fr.  carte ;  Ital.  carta  ;. 

CARD-TABLE,  n.          j  Lat.    charta;     x"P7r'K< 

CAR'DER,  n.  I  The     most     extensive 

CAP/DING,  n.  [meaning  of  the   word 

CARD-DEVOTED,  adj.  [card  is  a  stiff  kind  of 

CARD-MAKER,  n.         I  paper     painted     with 

CARD-MATCH,  n.         \  figures,  a  certain  num- 

CARD-TABLE,  n.        J  ber  of  pieces  of  which 

is  called  a  pack,  and  is  used  in  games  of  chance 

or  skill.     By  means  of  this  pack,  health,  temper, 

fortune,  and  often  honor,  are  made  a  sacrifice 

by  the  card-devoted  throng.     A  more  honorable 

appropriation  of  the  word  is  to  the  paper  placed 

under  the  mariner's  needle,  and  marked  with  the 

various  winds- ;  and  to  the  instrument  with  which 

wool  is  carded.  These  cards  contribute  to  remedy 

the  evils  which  are  inflicted  by  the  other  species. 

Card  is  also  a  short  note,  written  in  the  third 

person,   and    on   card   paper.       To    card,    as 

derived  from  the  noun,  is  to  play  much  at  cards; 

but  the  verb  is  disused  in  this  sense.     In  its 

usual  acceptation  it  rneaji3  to  romb  wool  with  a 


piece  of  wood,  thick  set  with  crooked  wirp« 
It  then  has  its  origin  from  Fr.  carder ;  Lat.  car- 
duus,  teazle;  the  teazle  having  been  originally 
employed  for  this  purpose.  In  old  writers  we 
find  it,  too,  with  the  opposite  meanings  of  blend- 
ing together  and  disentangling. 

A  thousand  wayes  he  them  could  entertame, 
With  all  the  thriftles  games  that  may  be  found  ; 
With  mumming  and  with  masking  all  around, 
With  dice,  with  cards,  with  biliards  farre  unfit, 
With  shuttlecocks,  raissecming  manlie  wit. 

Spenser.     Mother  Hubberd's  Tale 
As  pilot  well  expert  in  perilous  wave, 
That  to  a  steadfast  star  his  course  hath  bent, 
When  foggy  mistes  or  cloudy  tempest  have 
The  faithful  light  of  that  faire  lampe  yblent, 
And  cover'd  heaven  with  hideous  dreriment 
Upon  his  card  and  compass  firmes  his  eye, 
(The  masters  of  his  long  experiment) 
And  to  them  does  the  steddy  helme  apply, 
Bidding  his  winged  vessell  fairely  forward  fly. 

Scatter 

The  lilly,  lady  of  the  flowery  field, 
The  flower-de-luce  her  lovely  paramoure, 
Bid  thee  to  them  thy  fruitlesse  labors  yield, 
And  soone  leave  off  this  toylsome  weary  stoure  - 
Loe  !  loe  !  how  brave  she  decks  her  bounteous  boure, 
With  silken  curtens  and  gold  coverletts, 
Therein  to  shrowd  her  sumptuous  belamoure  ' 
Yet  neither  spinnes  nor  cards,  ne  cares  nor  fretts. 
But  to  her  mother  Nature  all  her  care  she  letts.       Id. 

A  vengeance  on  your  crafty  withered  hide ' 
Yet  I  have  faced  it  with  a  card  of  ten. 

Shalapeare. 

Am  not  I  Christophero  Sly,  by  occupation   a  card 
maker.  Id. 

The  very  quarters  that  they  blow, 
All  the  quarters  that  they  know, 
I'  th'  shipman's  card.  Id. 

How  absolute  the  knave  is !  we  must  speak  by  the 
card,  or  equivocation  will  undo  us.  Id. 

The  clothiers  all  have  put  off, 
The  spinsters,  carders,  fullers,  weavers.        Id. 

The  while  their  wives  do  sit 
Beside  them,  carding  wool.       May's  Virgil. 
It  is  an  excellent  drink  for  a  consumption,  to  bo 
drank  either  alone,  or  carded  with  some  other  beer. 

Bacon. 

It  is  necessary  that  this  book  be  carded  and  purged 
of  certain  base  things. 

Skelton.  Translation  of  Don  Quixote. 
Many  too  nicely  take  exceptions  at  cardes,  tables, 
and  dice,  and  such  mixt  lusorious  lots  (whom  Gata- 
ker  well  confutes),  which  though  they  be  honest  in 
themselves,  yet  may  justly  be  otherwise  excepted  at, 
as  they  are  often  abused,  and  forbidden  as  things 
most  pernicious.  Burton.  Anat.  Mel 

Go  card  and  spin, 
And  leave  the  business  of  the  war  to  men. 

Dryden 

Well  he  the  title  of  St.  Alban's  bore, 
For  never  Bacon  studyed  nature  more  ; 
But  age  allaying  now  that  youthful  heat, 
Fits  him  in  France  to  play  at  cards  and  cheat. 

HJarvell. 

Soon  she  spreads  her  hand,  the  aerial  guard 
Descend,  and  sit  on  each  important  card ; 
First,  Ariel  perched  upon  a  matadore.  •  Pupe. 

See  how  the  world  its  veterans  rewards . 
A  youth  of  frolics,  an  old  age  of  cards.  Id. 

On  life's  vast  ocean  diversely  we  sail, 
Reason  the  card,  but  passion  is  the  gale.  /'.«. 


GAR 


157 


CAR 


Take  care,  that  those  may  not  make  the  most  noise 
•who  have  the  least  to  sell,  wh'ch  is  very  observable 
in  the  venders  of  cnrd  matches.  Add'aon. 

Whe'-her  there  be  not  every  year  more  cash  circu- 
lated at  the  card-tables  of  Dublin,  that  at  all  the  fairs 
of  Ireland?  Berkley. 

Sure  cards  he  has  for  every  thing, 

Which  well  court-card*  they  name, 
And  statesmanlike  calls  in  the  king, 

To  help  out  a  bad  game.  Gay 

The  cards  are  dealt,  the  bett  is  made 
And  the  wide  park  hath  lost  its  shade.  Id 

The  pilot's  fair  machinery  strews  the  deck, 
And  cards  and  needles  swim  in  floating  wreck. 

Falconer. 

Cards  were  superfluous  here,  with  all  the  tricks 
That  idleness  has  ever  yet  contrived 
To  fill  the  void  of  an  unfurnished  brain, 
To  palliate  dulness,  and  give  time  a  shove. 

Cotoper. 

As  he  that  travels  far,  oft  turns  aside 
To  view  some  rugged  rock  or  mouldering  tower, 
Which  seen  delights  him  not  : — 
So  I  with  brush  in  hand  and  palette  spread, 
Paint  cards,  and  dolls,  and  every  idle  thing, 
That  fancy  finds  in  her  excursive  nights.  Id. 

CARDS,  PLAYING.  Playing  cards  were  in- 
vented in  France,  about  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  the  Fifth.  No  mention  is  made  of  them 
previous  to  that  found  in  the  Chronicle,  written 
by  Petit  Jehan  de  Saintre,  at  the  time  he  was 
page  to  that  prince.  The  ordinances  of  St. 
Louis,  of  Charles  IV.,  and  of  Charles  V.  at 
the  beginning  of  his  reign,  in  mentioning  the 
different  games  in  vogue,  only  speak  of  dice 
and  back-gammon,  without  naming  cards.  Under 
Charles  VI.,  a  painter,  named  Jacquemin  Grin- 
gonneau,  who  resided  at  Paris,  in  the  Rue 
de  la  Verrerie,  manufactured  cards.  In  an  ac- 
comit-book  of  Charles  Poupart,  superintend- 
ent of  finance,  and  hanker  to  Charles  VI. 
there  is  an  entry  of  fifty-six  Paris  sous  paid 
to  Jacquemin  Gringonneur,  the  painter,  for 
three  packs  of  cards,  gilded  and  colored,  and  of 
various  devices,  to  be  presented  to  our  lord  the 
king,  for  his  diversion,  during  the  intervals  of 
his  unfortunate  malady.  Probably  it  is  in  this 
circumstance  that  the  generally  received  tradition, 
which  rigid  moralists  have  turned  to  so  much 
account,  of  cards  having  been  first  invented  for 
the  amusement  of  an  idiot,  originated.  After 
what  has  been  stated  above,  it  is  unnecessary  to 
observe  that  this  tradition  is  unfounded.  Like 
many  other  popular  errors,  however,  it  has  been 
productive  of  so  much  inslruction  that  its  exist- 
ence can  hardly  be  a  subject  of  regret. 

All  the  early  games  of  cards  are  of  French  in- 
vention, and  most  of  these  retain,  in  all  coun- 
ries  where  they  are  played,  the  whole  or  greater 
part  of  the  terms  in  the  original  language.  The 
names  by  which  the  playing  cards  are  at  present 
known  in  France  were  given  to  them  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  VII. ;  and  the  game  of  picquet, 
the  oldest  of  any  known,  was  invented  at  the 
same  period. 

The  mode  of  manufacturing  playing  cards  is 
simple  and  may  be  easily  explained :  indeed  it 
nearly  resembles  the  early  mode  of  book  print- 
ing, being  performed  by  means  of  blocks  or  on- 
graved  moulds,  and  a  sheet  of  wet  or  mcist 


card  is  laid  on  the  form  or  block,  which  is  first 
lightly  brushed  over  with  an  ink,  made  of  lamp 
black  mixed  with  starch  and  water ;  and  then 
rubbed  off  witli  a  round  list,  in  the  hand.  The 
court-cards  they  color  by  help  of  several 
patterns  called  *  stanefiles,'  consisting  of  papers 
cut  through  with  a  penknife :  within  the  aper- 
tures or  incisions  of  which  the  several  colors,  as 
red,  &c.  are  severally  applied,  for  at  the  first 
printing  the  card  has  only  a  mere  outline.  These 
patterns  are  painted  with  oil-colors,  to  keep 
Ihem  from  wearing  out  by  the  brushes :  being 
laid  on  the  paste-board  they  slide  a  brush  full  of 
color  loose  over  the  pattern,  which  leaving  the 
color  within  the  apertures,  forms  the  face  or 
figure  of  the  card. 

In  the  manufacture  of  cards  the  ingenuity  of 
the  artisaa  is  sometimes  employed  to  aid  the 
arts  of  the  sharper  and  professional  gambler. 
Thus  we  find  that  there  are  marked  and  brief 
cards :  the  first  of  these  are  so  called  when  the 
aces,  kings,  queens,  and  knaves,  are  marked  on 
the  corners  of  the  backs  with  spots  of  different 
number  and  order,  either  with  clear  water,  or 
water  tinged  with  pale  Indian  ink,  that  those  in 
the  secret  may  distinguish  them.  Aces  are 
marked  with  single  spots  on  two  corners  oppo- 
site, diagonally  ;  kings  with  two  spots  at  the 
same  corners ;  knaves  with  the  same  number 
trans  versed,  &c.  Brief  cards  are  those  which 
are  either  longer  or  broader  than  the  rest, 
chiefly  used  at  whist  and  picquet.  The  broad 
cards  are  usually  for  kings,  queens,  knaves,  and 
aces ;  the  long  for  the  rest.  Their  design  is  to 
direct  the  cutting,  to  enable  him  in  the  secret  to 
cut  the  cards  disadvantageously  to  his  adversary, 
and  draw  the  person  unacquainted  with  the 
fraud  to  cut  them  favorably  for  the  sharper.  As 
the  pack  is  placed  either  endways  or  sideways  to 
him  that  is  to  cut,  the  long  or  broad  cards  natu- 
rally lead  him  to  cut  to  them. 

CARDAMINE,  in  botany,  lady's  smock,  a 
genus  of  the  siliquosa  order,  and  the  tetradyna- 
mia  class  of  plants,  natural  order  thirty-ninth, 
siliquosa.  The  siliqua  parts  asunder  with  a 
spring,  and  the  valves  roll  spirally  backward ; 
the  stigma  is  entire,  and  the  calyx  a  little  gap- 
ing. Of  this  there  are  twenty-two  known  spe- 
cies ;  but  the  most  remarkable  is  the  C.  praten- 
sis,  with  a  large  purplish  flower.  It  grows 
naturally  in  many  parts  of  Britain,  and  is  also 
called  cuckow-flower.  The  single  sorts  are  not 
admitted  into  gardens,  but  the  double  deserve  a 
place,  as  making  a  pretty  appearance  during  the 
time  they  are  in  flower.  The  flower  of  this  spe- 
cies has  a  place  in  the  Materia  Medica,  upon  the 
authority  of  Sir  George  Baker,  who  has  published 
five  cases,  two  of  chorea  sancti  viti,  one  of  spas- 
modic asthma,  an  hemiplegia,  and  a  case  of 
spasmodic  affections  of  the  lower  limbs,  wherein 
the  flores  cardamines  were  supposed  to  have 
been  successfully  used. 

CARDAMOMUM.  SeeAwoMUM 
CARDAN  (Jerome),  one  of  the  most  extraor- 
dinary geniuses  of  his  age,  was  born  at  Pavia, 
24th  Sept.  1501.  He  was  born  with  his  head 
covered  with  black  curled  hair.  When  four 
years  old  he  was  carried  to  Milan,  where  his 
father  was  an  advocate.  At  twenty  he  entered 


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the  university,  and  two  years  afterwards  lectured 
on  Euclid.  In  1523  he  went  to  Padua,  and  was 
admitted  M.  A. ;  and,  in  1525,  M.D.  He  mar- 
ried about  1531.  At  the  age  of  thirty-two  he 
became  professor  of  mathematics  at  Milan.  In 
1539  he  was  admitted  0*"  the  college  of  physi- 
cians at  Milan ;  and  in  1543  read  public  lec- 
tures on  medicine  in  that  city,  and  at  Pavia  in 
1544  ;  but  discontinued  them,  because  he  could 
not  get  payment  of  his  salary,  and  returned  to 
Milan.  In  1552  he  went  into  Scotland,  having 
been  sent  for  by  the  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews, 
then  forty  years  old,  and  who  had  for  ten  years 
been  afflicted  with  a  shortness  of  breath.  He 
began  to  recover  from  the  moment  that  Cardan 
prescribed  for  him.  Cardan,  in  his  journey  to 
Scotland,  crossed  France,  and  returned  through 
Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  along  the  Rhine. 
On  this  occasion  he  went  to  London,  and  calcu- 
lated king  Edward's  nativity.  Returning  to 
Milan,  he  continued  there  till  October  1552, 
and  thence  proceeded  to  Pavia,  whence  he  was  in- 
vited to  Bologna  in  1562.  He  taught  in  this 
city  till  1570,  but  left  it  in  1571,  and  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  lived  for  some  time  without 
public  employment.  He  was,  however,  ad- 
milted  a  member  of  the  college  of  physicians, 
and  received  a  pension  from  the  pope.  He  died 
at  Rome,  according  to  Thuanus,  21st  September, 
1575.  Cardan  asserted  that  he  was  always  at- 
tended by  an  aerial  spirit,  emanated  partly  from 
Saturn,  and  partly  from  Mercury,  who  was  the 
constant  guide  of  his  actions.  He  was  exceed- 
ingly vain  of  his  acquirements,  and  odd  in  his 
temper.  Scaliger  says,  that,  having  fixed  the 
time  of  his  death,  he  abstained  from  food  that 
his  prediction  might  be  fulfilled,  and  that  his 
continuance  to  live  might  not  discredit  his  art. 
The  Lyons  edition  of  his  works,  published  in 
1663,  consist  of  10  vols.  fol. 

CARDFACAL,  adj.  )      Old   Fr.   cardiaque; 

CAR'DIACK,  adj.  >  from  icap&a,  the  heart. 
Cordial ;  having  the  quality  of  invigorating  the 
spirits.  It  was  used  by  some  of  our  old  writers 
to  express  a  sensation  of  pain  in  or  about  the 
heart. 

The  stomachick,  cafdiack,  and  diuretic  qualities  of 
this  fountain  somewhat  resemble  those  of  tar  water. 

Bishop  Berkeley. 
CARDIACS,  in  medicine.     See  CORDIALS. 

CARDIACUS  PLEXUS  in  anatomy,  is  formed 
oy  the  nerves  which  supply  the  heart,  and  which 
are  derived  from  the  superior  and  inferior  cer- 
vical, and  first  dorsal  ganglia  of  the  great  sympa- 
thetic nerve,  from  the  par  vagum  and  the  recur- 
rent nerve. 

CAR'DIALGY,  n.  from  KapSia,  the  heart,  and 
aXyoc,  pain.  The  heart-burn ;  a  pain  supposed 
to  he  felt  in  the  heart,  but  more  properly  in  the 
stomach,  which  someiimes  rises  all  along  from 
thence  up  to  the  oesophagus,  occasioned  by  some 
acrimonious  matter.  Quincy. 

CARDIALGIA.    See  MEDICINE. 

CARDIFF,  a  borough  and  sea-port  of  South 
Wales,  capital  of  Glamorganshire.  It  is  seated 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  River  Taafe  or  Tay,  near 
its  entrance  into  the  mouth  of  the  Severn.  It 


was  first  founded  in  1080.  In  1100  Robert 
Fitshammon,  a  Norman,  built  and  strongly  for- 
tified a  castle,  and  surrounded  it  by  a  wall,  but 
it  was  taken  soon  after  by  the  native  Britons 
In  the  tower  of  the  castle,  Robert,  Duke  of  Nor 
mandy,  brother  of  William  Rufus  and  Henry  I. 
was  kept  a  close  prisoner  twenty-six  years,  and 
was  afterwards  interred  in  Gloucester  cathedral. 
The  castle  was  again  taken  by  a  Norman  force, 
assisted  by  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  in  1232.  It 
early  surrendered  to  the  parliamentary  forces  in 
the  contest  which  placed  the  sovereignty  of  the 
kingdom  in  the  hands  of  Cromwell ;  it  was  con- 
stituted a  royal  garrison  at  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.;  it  is  now  fast  mouldering  to  decay, 
part  of  its  stone  walls  having  been  appropriated 
to  build  dwellings  in  the  town.  Cardiff  had 
formerly  two  religious  houses  of  black  and  of 
white  friars,  and  two  churches,  one  of  which 
was  destroyed  by  an  inundation  in  1607,  to- 
gether with  many  other  buildings  ;  the  remain- 
ing church  has  a  high  tower,  of  light  and  elegant 
architecture.  The  town  is  compact  and  well 
built;  the  town-hall  is  a  respectable  modern 
edifice,  contiguous  to  it  is  the  county  gaol,  and 
there  is  an  elegant  bridge  of  five  arches  over 
the  Taaf.  Four  miles  north  of  the  town,  at  Melyn 
Griffin,  is  an  extensive  manufacture  of  tin-plates, 
and  twenty-one  miles  further  north  is  Merthyr 
Tydvil,  where  there  are  the  most  extensive  iron 
works  in  the  world,  the  produce  of  which  is 
conveyed  by  a  canal,  having  a  fall  of  568  feet, 
into  the  tide  lock  at  Cardiff,  from  whence  it  is 
shipped  to  London,  Bristol,  and  other  parts. 
In  addition  to  the  activity  which  these  convey- 
ances occasion,  Cardiff  also  ships  a  considerable 
quantity  of  butter  and  grain  to  Bristol.  It- 
markets  on  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays  are  nu 
merously  attended,  as  are  also  three  fairs  on  the 
second  Wednesday  in  March,  April,  and  May, 
and  again  in  June,  September,  and  November. 
The  advantages  which  it  derives  from  this  traffic 
have  occasioned  a  considerable  increase  of  popu- 
lation since  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century ;  the  number  in  1801  having  been  only 
1870,  and  in  1821,  3521.  The  assizes  for  the 
county  of  Glamorgan  are  held  here,  and,  in  con- 
junction with  seven  other  towns,  it  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.  Cardiff  is  forty  miles 
west  of  Bristol,  forty-seven  east  of  Swansea,  and 
160  west  of  London.  Long.  3°  12'  W.,  lat.  51° 
28' N. 

CARDIGAN,  a  maritime  county  of  South 
Wales,  extending  for  about  fifty  miles  along  the 
shore  of  St.  George's  Channel,  from  the  river 
Tievy,  which  divides  it  from  Pembroke  and 
Caermarthenshires  on  the  south,  to  the  Dovey, 
which  divides  it  from  Merionethshire,  north ; 
being  about  thirty  miles  in  mean  breadth,  bound- 
ed on  the  east  by  the  counties  of  Montgomery, 
Radnor,  and  Brecknock.  The  Rheidol  and  one 
or  two  other  rivers  intersect  the  county  from  east 
to  west.  Parts  of  this  county  are  very  fertile, 
both  in  tillage  and  pasture,  which  enables  the 
inhabitants  to  produce  a  considerable  surplus  of 
grain,  and  small  black  cattle,  with  which,  and 
some  few  sheep  and  wool,  they  obtain  a  tolerable 
supply  of  manufactured  and  colonial  produc- 
tions. Poultry  and  wild  fowl  are  also  abundant, 


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^nd  the  herring  fishery  has  of  late  years  been 
'iirsued  with  considerable  success.  Its  area 
Comprises  675  square  miles,  divided  into  sixty- 
five  parishes,  which  in  1821  contained  11,304 
inhabited  houses,  and  57,784  inhabitants,  being 
an  increase  of  thirty  per  cent,  since  1801.  The 
principal  towns  besides  Cardigan  are  Aberystwith 
and  Llanbeder. 

CARDIGAN,  the  chief  town  of  the  preceding 
county,  is  situate  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tieve, 
over  which  is  a  handsome  bridge  of  seven  arches, 
at  the  south-west  extremity  of  the  county.  It 
had  formerly  a  strong  and  extensive  castle,  of 
which  but  little  now  remains.  It  was  from 
hence  that  the  first  descent  upon  Ireland  was 
made  by  the  English.  The  church  is  a  spacious 
edifice ;  the  county  gaol  and  hall  have  been  re- 
built within  the  present  century.  It  is  a  corpo- 
rate town  governed  by  a  mayor,  twelve  alder- 
men, &c.,  and  unites  with  Aberystwith  and 
Llanbeder  in  returning  one  member  to  parliament. 
Holds  a  market  day  on  Wednesdays  and  Sa- 
turdays. It  is  twenty-five  miles  E.  N.  E. 
of  Saint  David's  Head,  132  miles  west  of 
Gloucester,  and  about  the  same  distance  due 
east  of  Waterford,  in  Ireland.  Its  commerce  by 
sea  is  confined  to  the  coast.  It  owns,  however, 
a  considerable  amount  of  shipping,  employed 
chiefly  in  carrying. 

CARDIGAN  BAY  is  formed  by  St.  David's 
Head,  the  western  point  of  Pembrokeshire,  south, 
in  the  latitude  of  51°  44'  N.  and  5°  17'  of  W. 
longitude,  and  Bardsey  Island,  off  the  south- 
west point  of  Caernarvonshire,  north,  in  the 
latitude  of  52°  44'  and  4°  30'  of  W.  long. ;  the 
main  coast  of  Caernarvonshire  being  in  the  lon- 
gitude of  about  four  degrees ;  it  gives  a  stretch 
of  about  forty  miles  from  west  to  east,  and  fifty 
from  south  to  north,  within  the  bay. 

CAR'DINAL,  n.  &  adj.~\    Fr. cardinal;  Lat. 
CAR'DINALATE,  (cardinalis,      princi- 

CAR'DINALSHIP,  £  pal,   chief.     A  car- 

CAR'DINALIZE,  v.  .)  dinal  is  one  of  the 

governors  of  the  Romish  church,  by  whom  the  pope 
is  elected  out  of  their  own  number.  See  the  next 
article.  Ayliffe  says  that  '  a  cardinal  is  so  styled, 
because  serviceable  to  the  apostolick  see,  as  an  axle 
or  hinge  on  which  the  whole  government  of  the 
church  turns;  or  as  they  have,  from  the  pope's 
grant,  the  hinge  and  government  of  the  Romish 
church.'  A  woman's  cloke  was  at  one  period 
called  a  cardinal,  probably  from  its  being  made 
of  red  or  scarlet,  the  color  worn  by  cardinals. 
Cardinalate  and  cardinalship  indicate  the  office 
and  rank  of  a  cardinal.  Sheldon,  in  his  Mira- 
cles of  Antichrist,  uses  the  verb  cardinalize,  to 
signify  the  making  cardinals.  Principal  or  chief 
is  expressed  by  the  adjective,  as  in  the  instances 
cardinal  virtues,  winds,  and  signs. 

Bulles  of  popes  and  of  cardinales, 
Of  patriarches  and  bishoppes  eke  I  shewe, 
And  in  Latin  I  speke  a  wordes  few 
To  saffron  with  my  predication, 
And  for  to  stere  men  to  devotion. 

Chaucer.   Canterbury  Tales. 
You  hold  a  fair  assembly  ; 
You  are  a  churchman,  or  I'll  tell  you  cardinal, 
I  should  judge  now  unhappily.  Sftaktpeare. 

The   divisions   of  the    year    in    frequent  use  with 
Astronomers,   according  to  the  cardinal  intersections 


of  the  zodiack  ;  that  is,  the  two  equinoctials,  and  bofli 
the  solstitial  points.  Browne.. 

His  cardinal  perfection  was  industry.         Clarendon. 

An  ingenious  cavalier,  hearing  that  an  old  friend  of 
his  was  advanced  to  the  cardinalate,  went  to  congratu- 
late his  eminence  on  his  new  honour.  L' Estrange. 

Whether  he  should  divest  the  cardinakhip,  or  rule 
with  a  double  greatness.  Wotton. 

A  peaceful  and  perpetual  succession  was  ascer- 
tained by  Alexander  the  third,  who  finally  abolished 
the  tumultary  votes  of  the  clergy  and  people,  and  de- 
nned the  right  of  election  in  the  sole  college  of  ear. 
dinals.  Gibbon. 

CARDINALS,  in  their  first  institution,  were 
only  the  principal  priests  of  the  parishes  of 
Rome  ;  the  chief  priest  of  a  parish  next  the 
bishop,  being  called  presbyter  cardinalis,  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  the  other  petty  priests  who 
had  no  church.  It  is  uncertain  when  thetermwas 
first  applied.  Leo  IV.  in  the  council  of  Rome, 
held  in  853,  calls  them  presbyteros  sui  cardinis; 
and  their  churches,  parochias  cardinales.  The  car- 
dinals continued  on  this  footing  till  the  eleventh 
century  ;  it  was  a  considerable  time  before  they 
had  the  precedence  over  bishops,  or  the  election  of 
the  pope.  It  was  not,  however,  only  at  Rome  that 
priests  bore  this  title ;  for  there  were  cardinal  priests 
in  France :  thus,  the  curate  of  the  parish  of  St. 
John  de  Vignes  is  called  in  old  charters  the  car- 
dinal priest  of  that  parish.  The  title  is  also 
given  to  some  bishops,  quatenus  bishops ;  e.  g. 
to  those  of  Mentz  and  Milan :  the  archbishop  of 
Bourges  is  also,  in  ancient  writings,  called  cardi- 
nal. The  sacred  college  consists  of  seventy  car- 
dinals, divided  into  three  classes ;  viz.  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons.  They  compose  the  pope's 
council  or  senate ;  in  the  Vatican  is  a  constitution 
of  pope  John,  which  regulates  the  rights  and 
titles  of  the  cardinals ;  and  which  declares,  that 
as  the  pope  represents  Moses,  so  the  cardinals 
represent  the  seventy  elders,  who,  under  the 
pontifical  authority,  decide  private  differences. 
The  cardinal  bishops,  who  are  the  pope's  vicars, 
bear  the  titles  of  the  bishoprics  assigned  to  them ; 
the  rest  take  such  titles  as  are  given  them  :  the 
number  of  cardinal  bishops  has  been  fixed ;  but 
that  of  cardinal  priests  and  deacons,  and  conse- 
quently the  sacred  college  itself,  has  often  fluc- 
tuated. Till  1125  the  college  only  consisted  of 
fifty-two  or  fifty-three ;  the  council  of  Constance 
reduced  them  to  twenty-four ;  but  Sixtus  IV. 
about  1480,  raised  them  again  to  fifty-three,  and 
Leo  X.  to  sixty-five.  The  dress  of  a  cardinal 
is  a  red  soutane,  a  rochet,  a  short  purple  man- 
tle, and  a  red  hat.  The  cardinals  began  to  wear 
the  red  hat  at  the  council  of  Lyons,  in  1243. 
The  decree  of  pope  Urban VIII.,  whereby  it  is  ap- 
pointed that  the  cardinals  be  addressed  under  the 
title  of  eminence,  is  dated  1630;  till  then  they 
were  called  illustrissimi.  When  cardinals  are  sent 
to  the  courts  of  princes,  it  is  in  quality  of  legates 
a  latere ;  and,  when  they  are  appointed  governors 
of  towns,  their  government  is  called  by  the  name 
of  legation.  The  income  of  a  cardinal  at  present 
is  not  equal,  we  are  told,  to  that  of  many  Eng- 
lish benefices.  At  the  period  of  the  first  direct 
attack  of  France  on  the  papal  power,  they  had 
rarely  more  than  4000  piastres,  about  £900  or 
£1000  sterling  per  annum,  independently  of 


CAR 


160 


CAR 


other  benefices.  At  present  their  income  is  not 
above  half  that  amount.  But  their  expenses  are 
not  large,  consisting  chiefly  of  an  old  gilt  coach, 
dirty  laquais,  and  very  inferior  horses. 

CARDINAL  POINTS,  in  cosmography,  are  the 
four  intersections  of  the  horizon  with  the  meri- 
dian, and  the  prime  vertical  circle.  Of  these, 
two,  viz.  the  intersection  of  the  horizon  and  me- 
ridian, are  called  north  and  south,  with  regard 
to  the  poles  they  are  directed  to.  The  other  two, 
viz.  the  intersections  of  the  horizon,  and  first  ver- 
tical, are  called  east  and  west.  The  cardinal 
points,  therefore,  coincide  with  the  four  cardinal 
regions  of  the  heavens  ;  and  are  90°  distant  from 
each  other.  The  intermediate  points  are  called 
collateral. 

CARDING,  a  preparation  of  wool,  cotton, 
hair,  or  flax,  by  passing  it  between  the  iron 
points,  cr  teeth,  of  two  instruments,  called  cards, 
to  comb,  disentangle,  and  range  the  hairs  or 
fibres  thereof,  and  to  dispose  it  for  spinning,  &c. 
Before  the  wool  be  carded,  it  is  oiled,  or  greased 
with  oil,  whereof  one-fourth  of  the  weight  of  the 
wool  is  required,  for  wool  destined  for  the  woof 
of  stuff's ;  and  one-eighth  for  that  of  the  warp. 

CARDIOID,  in  the  higher  geometry,  an  alge- 
braical curve,  so  called,  by  Castillioni,  from  its 
an  heart. 

CARDIOSPERMUM,  in  botany,  heart  pea, 
a  genus  of  the  trigynia  order,  and  octandria  class 
of  plants;  natural  order  thirty-ninth,  trihilatae : 
CAL.  tetraphyllous,  petals  four;  the  nectarium 


class  of  plants  ;  order  forty-ninth,  composite . 
CAL.  ovate,  imbricated  with  prickly  scales,  and 
the  receptacle  hairy.  Of  this  genus  there  are 
thirty-six  species,  ten  of  which  are  natives  of 
Britain,  and,  being  troublesome  well-known 
weeds,  require  no  description.  Some  of  the  ex- 
otics are  propagated  in  gardens  for  the  sake  of 
variety. 

CARDUGS  BENEDICTUS. 

CA'RE,  v.  &  n. 

CA'REFUL,  adj. 

CA'REFULLY,  adv. 

CA'REFULNESS,  n. 

CA'RELESS,  adj. 

CA'RELESSLY,  adv. 

CA'RELESS  NESS,  n. 

CA'RE-BEGUILING,  adj. 

CA'RE-CRAZEP,  adj. 

CA'RE-.OEFYING,  adj. 

CA'RE-TUNED,  adj. 

CA'RE- WOUNDED,  adj.  J  perturbation  ;  con- 
cern ;  regard ;  and  having  charge  of :  it  is  used 
to  give  cautions,  as  in  take  care ;  and,  familiarly, 
to  manifest  some  degree  of  affection,  and  also 
defiance,  as  '  he  cares  not  for  me  now' — '  I  care 
not  for  your  threats ;'  and  it  also  denotes  the 
object  of  our  attention  and  anxiety.  The  verb 
and  its  offspring,  of  course,  partake  of  the 
nature  of  the  noun.  When  the  verb  signifies  to 
be  inclined,  to  be  disposed,  it  takes  for  before 
nouns,  and  to  before  verbs ;  when  it  means  to  be 
affected  with,  or  to  have  a  regard  for,  it  takes 


See  CNICUS. 

Maes.  Goth,  kara , 
Ang.-Sax.  care,cear; 
Lat.  cura.  The  ap- 
plications of  the 
noun,  the  verb,  and 
the  adjectives  and 
adverbs  which  are 
formed  from  them, 
are  numerous.  The 
noun  expresses  so- 
licitude ;  anxiety ; 


Behold,  thou  hast  been  careful  for  us  with   all  this 
care,  what  is  to  be  done  for  thee  ?         2  Kings  iv.  13. 

Hear  now  this,  thou  that  art  given   to  pleasures, 

Isaiah  xlvii.  8. 

Martha,  thou  art  careful  and  troubled  about  many 

Luke  x.  41. 


Arviragus  in  all  this  care. 


tetraphyllous  and  unequal :  the  CAPS,  three,  for.  Careless,  which  is  frequently  synonymous 
grown  together,  and  inflated.  There  are  four  with  cheerful,  undisturbed,  is  combined  with  of 
species,  natives  of  the  East  and  West  Indies.  and  about.  Careful,  when  it  stands  for  provident 

CARDITO,  in  geography,  a  town  of  Naples,  or  diligent,  is  followed  by  of  or  for ;  when  it  de- 
in  the  province  of  Calabria  ultra,  eight  miles  notes  watchful,  cautious,  it  precedes  of.  Care- 
E.S.E.  of  Reggio.  faltyj  besides  its  obvious  significations,  has  been 

CARDIUM,  the  cockle,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of    employed,   though   not   commonly,  to   mark  a 
insects  belonging  to  the  order  of  vermes  testacea?.    countenance   wearing  the  lines  of   care.      The 
The  animal   is  a  tethys;  shell  bivalve,   nearly    compounds  do  not  need  any  explanation, 
equilateral ;  equivalve,  longitudinally  ribbed,  or 
grooved,  with  a  toothed  margin  ;  hinge  with  two 
teeth  near  the  beak,  and  a  larger  remote  lateral 

one  on  each  side,  each  locking  into  the  'opposite.  that  dwellfcst  careleis>y. 
rifty-two  species,  inhabiting  the  shores  of  all 
parts  of  the  globe.  The  common  cockle,  or  car- 
dium  edule,  may  serve  as  a  general  specimen  of  tlimSs- 
the  whole.  In  this  the  shell  is  antiquated,  with 
twenty-eight  depressed  ribs,  with  obsolete,  re- 
curved scales.  Found  on  all  the  sandy  coasts 
in  great  abundance,  lodged  a  little  beneath  the 
sand ;  its  burrow  pointed  out  by  a  round  de- 
pressed spot ;  shell  generally  white,  with  some- 
times a  bluish  or  yellowish  cast ;  the  ribs  a  little 
rough  near  the  circumference.  The  fish  affords 
a  wholesome  and  nutritive  food.  Most  of  the 
species  are  edible:  but  chiefly  this  and  C.  rnsti- 
cum,  which  is  also  chiefly  found  on  the  European 
and  especially  on  the  Mediterranean  coast. 

CARDONA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Catalonia, 
with  a  castle.  Near  it  is  a  mountain  of  solid 
rock  salt,  of  which  are  made  vases,  snuff-boxes, 
and  trinkets  ;  and  there  are  vineyards  that  pro- 
duce excellent  wine.  It  is  seated  on  the  Car- 
denero,  thirty-six  miles  north-west  of  Barcelona. 

CARDUUS,  in  botany,  the  thistle  ;  a  genus 
of  the  polygamia  sequalis  order,  and  syngenesia 


Hath  sent  his  lettres  home  of  his  welfare, 
And  that  he  wol  come  hastily  again, 
Or  elles  had  this  sorwe  hire  herte  slain. 

Chawxr.   Cant.  Talcs. 

And  in  his  way,  it  happed  him  to  ride 
In  all  his  care,  under  a  forest  side.  Ir^ 

The  piteous  maiden,  careful,  comfortless, 
Does  throw  out  thrilling  shrieks,  and  shrieking  cries. 

Spenser. 

There  he  him  found  all  carelessly  displayed, 
In  secret  shadow  from  the  sunny  ray.  Id. 

Knowing  that  if  the  worst  befal  them,  they  shall 
lose  nothing  but  themselves,  whereof  they  seem  very 
careless.  Id.  On  Ireland. 

O  my  poor  kingdom,  sick  with  civil  blows  ; 
When  lhat  my  care  could  not  withhold  thy^  riots, 
What  wilt  thou  do,  when  riot  is  thy  care  ? 

Sltakspcare. 

Well,  sweet  Jack,  have  a  care  of  thyself.  1JL 


CAR 


You  dote  on  her  that  cares  not  for  your  love.  Id. 
By  him  that  raised  me  to  this  careful  height, 

F»OHI  that  contented  hap  which  I  enjoyed.  Id. 

You  come  most  carefully  upon  your  hour.  Id. 

Nor  lose  the  good  advantage  of  his  grace, 

By  seeming  cold,  or  careless  of  his  wilL  Id. 

Many  young  gentlemen  flock  to  him  every  day ; 
«id  fleet  the  time  carelessly,  as  they  did  in.  the  golden 
world.  Id, 

Tor  Coriolanus,  neither  to  care  whether  they  love 
OT  hate  him,  manifests  the  true  knowledge  he  has  of 
their  disposition,  and,  out  of  his  noble  carelessness, 
i*iN  them  plainly  see  it.  Id. 

These  both  put  off  a  poor  petitioner, 
The  care-crazed  mother  of  a  many  children.        Id. 

She  cared  not  what  pain  she  put  her  body  to,  since 
the  better  part,  her  mind,  was  laid  under  such  agony. 

Sidney, 

Every  word  he  speaks  is  a  syren's  note 
To  drown  the  careless  hearer. 

Beaumont's  Sea  Voyage. 

A  woman,  the  more  curious  she  is  about  her  face, 
is  commonly  the  more  careless  about  her  house. 

Ben  Jonson 

As  the  Germans,  both  in  language  and  manners, 
differed  from  the  Hungarians,  so  were  they  always  at 
variance  with  them  ;  and  therefore  much  cared  not, 
though  they  were  by  him  subdued.  Knollet. 

The  death  of  Selymus  was,  with  all  carefulness, 
Concealed  by  Ferhates.  Id. 

Who,  in  the  other  extreme,  only  doth 
Call  a  rough  carelessness  good  fashion  ; 
Whose  cloak  his  spurs  tear,  or  whom  he  spits  on, 
He  cares  not.  Donne. 

Welcome,  thou  pleasing  slumber  ; 
Awhile  embrace  me  in  thy  leaden  arms, 
And  charm  my  careful  thoughts.  Denham. 

Not  caring  to  observe  the  wind, 
Or  the  new  sea  explore.  Waller. 

Not  content  to  see, 
That  others  write  as  carelessly  as  he.  Id. 

These  are  the  effects  of  doting  age  ; 
Vain  doubts,  and  idle  cares,  and  over  caution. 

Dryden. 

Or  if  I  would  take  care,  that  care  should  be, 
For  wit  that  scorned  the  world,  and  lived  like  me. 

Id. 

Flushed  were  his  cheeks,  and  glowing  were  his  eyes  : 
Is  she  thy  care  ?  is  she  thy  care  ?  he  cries  ?  Id. 

Well,  on  my  terms  thou  wilt  not  be  my  heir  ; 
If  thou  carett  little,  less  shall  be  my  care.  Id. 

To  cure  their  mad  ambition  they  were  sent 
To  rule  a  distant  province,  each  alone  : 
What  could  a  careful  father  more  have  done.  Id. 

By  consideiing  him  so  carefully  as  I  did  before  my 
attempt,  I  have  made  some  faint  resemblance  of  him. 

Id. 

The  foolish  virgins  had  taken  no  care  for  a  further 
supply  after  the  oil,  which  was  at  first  put  into  their 
lamps,  was  spent,  as  the  wise  had  done.  Tillotson. 

The  remarks  are  introduced  by  a  compliment  to  the 
works  of  an  author,  who,  I  am  sure,  would  not  care 
for  being  praised  at  the'expence  of  another's  reputa- 
tion, Addison. 

Having  been  now  acquainted,  the  two  sexes  did  not 
care  to  part.  Id. 

Envy,  how  carefully  does  it  look  !  how  meagre  and 
ill-complexioned \  Collier. 

VOL   V. 


161  CAR 

The  solemn  notes  bid  earthly  passions  fiy, 
Lull  all  my  cares,  and  lift  my  soul  on  high. 


Swift. 

Pope 


None  taught  the  trees  a  nobler  race  to  bear, 
Or  more  improved  the  vegetable  care. 

Thus  wisely  careless,  innocently  gay, 
Cheerful  he  played.  Id. 

The  freedom  of  saying  as  many  careless  things  as 
other  people,  without  being  so  severely  remarked  on. 

Id. 

I  who  at  sometimes  spend,  at  others  spare, 
Divided  between  carelessness  and  care.  Id. 

Where  few  are  rich,  few  care  for  it,   where  many 
are  so,  many  desire  it.  Temple. 

Begone  !  the  priest  expects  you  at  the  altar. 
But,  tyrant,  have  a  care,  I  come  not  thither. 

A.  Philip*. 

Careless  of  thunder  from  the  clouds  that  break, 
My  only  omens  from  your  looks  I  take.          Granville. 

The  court  he  quits  to  fly  from  care, 
And  seeks  the  peace  of  rural  air ; 
His  groves,  his  fields,  amused  his  hours, 
He  pruned  his  trees,  he  raised  his  flowers  ; 
But  care  again  his  steps  pursues, 
Warns  him  of  blasts,  of  blighting  dews, 
Of  plundering  insects,  snails,  and  rains, 
And  droughts  that  starved  the  laboured  plains  : 
Abroad,  at  home,  the  spectre's  there, 
In  vain  we  seek  to  fly  from  care.  Gay. 

Soon  as  the  morning  lark  salutes  the  day, 
Through  dewy  fields  I  take  my  frequent  way, 
Where  I  behold  a  farmer's  early  care, 
In  the  revolving  labours  of  the  year.  Id. 

Martha  (her  careful  mother's  name)  she  bore, 
But  now  her  careful  mother  was  no  more.  Id. 

O  what  passion  then, 
What  melting  sentiments  of  kindly  care, 
On  the  new  parents  seize .  Thomson. 

In  my  cheerful  morn  of  life, 
When  nursed  by  careless  solitude  I  lived, 
And  sung  of  nature  with  unceasing  joy, 
Pleased  how  I  wandered  through  your  rough  domain. 

Id. 

Then,  pilgrim,  turn,  thy  cares  forego, 

All  earth-born  cares  are  wrong  : 
Man  wants  but  little  here  below, 

Nor  wants  that  little  long.   Goldsmith's  Hermit. 
She  loves  to  wander  on  the  untrodden  lawn, 

Or  the  green  bosom  of  reclining  hill, 
Soothed  by  the  careless  warbler  of  the  dawn. 
Or  the  lone  plaint  of  ever-murmuring  rill. 

Beattie. 

From  such  apostles,  oh  ye  mitred  heads, 
Preserve  the  church  !  and  lay  not  careless  hands 
On  sculls  that  cannot  teach  and  will  not  learn. 

Cowper- 

Thnse  eyes  that  tell  us  what  the  sun  is  made  of, 
Born  to  be  ploughed  with  years,  and  sown  with  cares, 
And  reaped  by  death,  lord  of  the  human  soil. 

Byron. 

CARE'EN,  v.  a.  &.  n.  >      Fr.  carener,  from 
CARE'ENAGE,  n.  3  Lat.  carina,  a   heel. 

Trimming  and  repairing  the  bottom  of  a  vessel. 
See  the  next  article.  The  neuter  verb  signifies 
to  be  in  a  state  of  careenage.  When  the  work- 
men cannot  come  at  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  and 
therefore  can  only  careen  part  of  her,  it  is  called 
a  half-careen.  Careenage  is  the  place  where  the 
operation  is  performed,  and  also  the  money  giver, 
for  careening. 

M 


CAR 


162 


CAR 


The  fleet  careened,  the  winds  propitious  filled 
The  swelling  sails,  the  glittering  transports  waved 
Their  pennons  gay,  and  halcyon's  azure  wing 
With  flight  auspicious  skimmed  the  placid  main. 

Shenstone. 

CAREENING.  A  ship  is  said  to  be  brought 
to  the  careen,  when  most  of  her  lading  being 
taken  out,  she  is  is  hulled  down  on  one  side,  by 
a  small  vessel,  as  low  as  necessary ;  and  there 
kept  by  the  weight  of  the  ballast,  ordnance,  &c. 
as  well  as  by  ropes,  lest  her  masts  should  be 
strained  too  much ;  in  order  that  her  sides  and 
bottom  may  be  trimmed,  seams  caulked,  or  any 
thing  that  is  faulty  under  water  mended.  Hence, 
when  a  ship  lies  on  one  side  when  she  sails,  she 
is  said  to  sail  on  the  careen. 

CAR  E'ER,  v.  &  n.  Fr.  carriere  ;  Ital.  carriera ; 
Span,  carrera  ;  Lat.  currere.  To  career  is  to  move 
with  a  rapid  motion.  The  noun  denotes  the 
ground  on  which  a  race  is  run ;  the  space  run 
over;  the  act  of  running  swiftly;  fulness  of 
speed;  velocity  of  motion;  an  uninterrupted 
course  of  action. 

They  had  run  themselves  too  far  out  of  breath  to  go 
back  the  same  career.  .  Sidney. 

What  reign  can  hold  licentious  wickedness, 
When  down  the  hill  he  holds  his  fierce  career. 

Shakspeare. 

Shall  qaips  and  sentences,  and  these  paper  bullets 
of  the  brain,  undo  a  man  from  his  c.ireer  of  humour. 

Id. 

The  sun 

Declined,  was  hasting  now  with  prone  career, 
To  the  ocean  isles,  and  in  the  ascending  scale 
Of  heaven,  the  gtars  that  usher  evening  rose. 

Milton. 

With  eyes,  the  wheels 

Of  beryl,  and  careering  fires  between.  Id, 

Through  optick  trunck  the  planet  seemed  to  hear, 
And  hurls  them  off  e'er  since  in  his  career.  Marvell. 

Knights  in  knightly  deeds  should  persevere, 
And  still  continue  what  at  first  they  were  ; 
Continue  and  proceed  in  honour's  fair  career. 

Dryden. 

Practice  them  now  to  curb  the  turning  steed 
Mocking  the  foe  ;  now  to  his  rapid  speed 
To  give  the  rein,  and,  in  the  full  career, 
To  draw  the  certain  sword,  or  send  the  pointed  spear. 

Prior. 

And  but  Guajthirerus'  ready  aid  was  near, 
(His  father's  offspring  by  a  foreign  bed) 
Here  he  had  run  his  last  of  life's  career, 

And  swelled  the  growing  number  of  the  dead. 

Gay. 
While  storms  remote  but  murmur  in  thy  ear, 

Nor  waves  in  ruinous  uproar  round  thee  roll, 
Yet  yet  a  moment  check  thy  proud  career, 

And  curb  the  keen  resolve  that  prompts  thy  soul. 

Beattie. 

Or  rein  the  planets  in  their  swift  careers, 
Gilding  with  borrowed  light  their  twinkling  spheres. 

Darwin. 

CARELIA,  the  eastern  province  of  Finland, 
extending  from  Savolaxia  on  the  north,  to  the 
gulf  of  Finland  on  the  south.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  it  became  subject  to  Sweden,  but  in 
1309  was  ceded  to  Russia.  It  is  now  almost  en- 
tirely included  in  the  government  of  Wiborg  • 


and  is  thinly  peopled,  abounding  in  lakes  and 
marshes. 

CARENTAN,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Channel,  and  chief  place  of  a 
canton,  in  the  district  of  St.  L6,  situate  in  a 
marshy  soil,  which  makes  the  air  insalubrious. 
It  has  a  port  for  small  vessels ;  its  principal  com- 
merce consists  of  butter  and  cattle.  Lat.  49°  18' 
N.,  long.  1°  21'  50"  W. 

CA'RENTANE,  n.  quarantine  ;  Lat.  quudra- 
gena,  or  quarantena.  A  papal  indulgence,  mul- 
tiplying forty-fold  the  remission  of  penance. 

CARES,  or  KARES,  a  town  of  European  Tur- 
key, seated  on  Mount  Athos,  in  an  elevated  and 
pleasant  situation ;  it  has  several  convents,  and 
a  market  every  Saturday  for  corn  and  other  pro- 
visions. It  is  seventeen  miles  south-east  of  Sa- 
loniki. 

CARESAN,  or  CASSEN,  a  sea-port  town  of 
Arabia  Felix,  seated  on  the  Indian  Ocean, 
100  leagues  north-east  from  Aden.  Lat.  16°  5' 
N.,  long.  52°  7'  E. 

CARE'SS,  v.  &  n.  Fr.  caresser ;  Ital.  ca- 
rezzare  ;  Sp.  acariciar.  This  word,  which  seems 
not  to  have  been  in  use  in  our  language  much 
more  than  a  century  and  a  half,  has  given  risa  to 
disputes  among  the  etymologists.  Skinner  sharply 
reprehends  Junius  for  deriving  it  from  Xapi£t<r- 
Gat,  and  declares  that  it  is  manifestly  from  the 
Latin  cams;  while  Lye  as  vehemently  censures 
him,and  contends  for  its  Armoiican  origin.  Ca- 
saubon  also  is  of  a  different  opinion  from  Ju- 
nius, and  derives  the  word  from  Karapt&iv,  and 
with  him  Mr.  Todd  agrees.  In  Welsh,  caredig, 
is  beloved,  loving,  kind  ;  and  cares  is  excess  of 
love ;  which  gives  some  countenance  to  Lye's 
opinion.  To  caress  is  to  treat  with  endearments, 
with  blandishments ;  to  fondle ;  and,  as  we  say 
in  familiar  language,  to  make  much  of. 

He  she  knew,  would  intermix 
Grateful  digressions,  and  solve  high  dispute 
With  conjugal  caresses.  Milton. 

If  I  can  feast,  and  please,  and  carets  my  mind  with 
the  pleasures  of  worthy  speculations,  or  virtuous  prac- 
tises, let  greatness  and  malice  vex  and  abridge  me  if 
they  can.  South. 

After  his  successor  had  publicly  owned  himself  a 
Roman  Catholick,  he  began  with  his  first  caresses  to 
the  church  party.  Swift. 

A  snappish  cur  alone  carest, 
By  lies  had  banished  all  the  rest.  Gay. 

On  Latmos'  top  see  young  Endymion  lies, 
Feigned  sleep  hath  closed  the  bloomy  lover's  eyes, 
See  to  her  soft  embraces  how  she  steals, 
And  on  his  lips  her  warm  caresses  seals.  Id. 

Drear  anguish  urged  her  on  to  press 

Full  many  a  hand,  as  wild  she  mourned  ; 
Of  comfort  glad,  the  drear  caress 

The  damp,  chill,  dying  hand  returned. 

Penrose. 

Pale  are  those  lips  where  soft  caresses  hunt, 
Wan  the  warm  cheek,  and  mute  the  tender  tongup, 
Cold  rests  that  feeling  heart  on  Dcrwent's  shore. 
And  those  love-lighted  eye-balls  roll  no  more. 

Darwin. 

Ah  !  fondly  youthful  hearts  can  press, 
To  seize  and  share  the  dear  caress. 

liyrafr  Giacv. 


CAR 


163 


CAR 


CA  RET,  n.  Lat.  caret,  there  is  wanting.  A 
note,  like  an  inverted  capital  A»  between  two 
words,  to  denote  that  something  has  been  omitted, 
and  is  interlined. 

CAREW  (George),  an  eminent  commander  in 
Ireland,  born  in  Devonshire,  in  1557.  He  was 
made  president  of  Munster  by  queen  Elizabeth  ; 
•when,  joining  his  forces  with  the  earl  of  Tho- 
mond,  he  reduced  the  Irish  insurgents,  and 
brought  the  earl  of  Desmond  to  his  trial.  King 
James  I.  made  him  governor  of  Guernsey,  and 
created  him  baron.  He  was  an  elegant  scholar,  and 
wrote  Pacata  Hibernia,  a  history  of  the  late 
wars  in  Ireland,  printed  after  his  death  in  1633. 
He  made  several  collections  for  a  history  of 
Henry  V.  which  are  digested  into  Speed's  His- 
tory of  Great  Britain.  Besides  these,  he  collected 
materials  of  Irish  history,  in  four  large  MS.  vo- 
lumes, now  in  the  Bodleian  library,  Oxford. 

CAREW  (Richard),  the  eldest  son  of  Thomas 
Carew,  of  East  Anthony,  and  author  of  the  Sur- 
vey of  Cornwall,  was  born  in- 1555.  When  very 
young  he  became  a  commoner  of  Christ  Church 
College,  Oxford ;  and  at  fourteen  years  of  age 
had  the  honor  of  disputing,  extempore,  with  the 
afterwards  famous  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  in  the  pre- 
sence of  the  earls  of  Leicester,  Warwick,  and 
other  nobility.  After  spending  three  years  at  the 
university,  he  spent  other  three  at  the  Middle 
Temple,  and  then  travelled.  Not  long  after  his 
return  to  England,  he  married,  in  1577,  Juliana 
Arundel,  of  Trerice.  In  1581  he  was  made  jus- 
tice of  the  peace,  and,  in  1586,  high  sheriff  of 
Cornwall.  In  1589  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  College  of  Antiquaries.  His  Survey  of 
Cornwall  was  published,  in  4to.  at  London,  in 
1602;  and  has  been  twice  reprinted,  in  1723, 
and  1769.  Of  this  work  Camden  has  spoken  in 
high  terms.  He  translated  a  work  from  the 
Italian,  entitled,  The  Examination  of  Men's 
Wits :  in  which,  by  discovering  the  variety  of 
natures,  is  showed  for  what  profession  each  one  is 
apt,  and  how  far  he  shall  profit  therein.  This 
was  published  at  London,  1594  and  1604  ;  but 
has  been  principally  ascribed  by  some  to  his  fa- 
ther. Carew  wrote  also,  The  true  and  ready 
Way  to  Learn  the  Latin  Tongue.  He  was  a 
gentleman  of  abilities  and  literature,  and  was 
held  in  great  esteem  by  the  most  eminent  scholars 
of  his  time,  particularly  Sir  Henry  Spelman. 

CAREW  (Sir  George),  younger  brother  of 
Richard,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  studied  the 
law  in  the  inns  of  court,  and  then  travelled  for 
farther  improvement.  On  his  return  he  was 
called  to  the  bar,  and  after  some  time  appointed 
secretary  to  Sir  Christopher  Hatton,  lord  chan- 
cellor, by  the  special  recommendation  of  queen 
Elizabeth,  who  gave  him  a  prothonotaryship  in 
the  chancery,  and  conferred  on  him  the  honor  of 
knighthood.  In  1597  he  was  sent  ambassador 
to  the  king  of  Poland.  Under  king  James  I.  he 
was  one  of  the  commissioners  for  treating  with 
the  Scots  concerning  a  union  between  the  two 
kingdoms;  after  which  he  was  appointed  am- 
bassador to  France,  where  he  continued  from 
the  end  of  1605  till  1609.  He  there  formed  an 
intimacy  with  Thuanus,  to  whom  he  communi- 
cated an  account  of  the  transactions  in  Poland, 
whilst  he  was  employed  there,  which  was  of 


great  service  to  that  admirable  author  in  drawing 
up  the  twenty-first  book  of  his  history.  After 
Sir  George's  return  from  France,  he  was  ap- 
pointed master  of  the  court  of  Wards,  which  he 
did  not  long  live  to  enjoy,  for  it  appears  by  a 
letter  from  Thuanus  to  Camden,  in  1613,  that 
he  was  then  lately  deceased.  Sir  George  married 
Thomasine,  daughter  of  Sir  Francis  Godolphin, 
great-grandfather  of  the  lord  treasurer  Godol- 
phin, and  had  by  her  two  sons  and  three  daugh- 
ters. When  Sir  George  returned  from  his  French 
embassy,  he  drew  up,  and  addressed  to  James  L 
A  Relation  of  the  State  of  France,  with  the  cha- 
racters of  Henry  IV.  and  the  principal  Persons 
of  that  Court.  The  characters  are  drawn  from 
personal  knowledge  and  close  observation,  and 
might  be  of  service  to  an  historian.  The  compo- 
sition is  perspicuous  and  manly,  and  entirely  free 
from  the  pedantry  which  prevailed  in  the  reign 
of  James  I.  This  valuable  tract  lay  long  in 
MS.  till  Dr.  Birch  published  it  in  1749,  at  the 
end  of  his  Historical  View  of  the  Negociations 
between  the  Courts  of  England,  France,  and 
Brussels,  from  1592  to  1617. 

CAREW  (Thomas),  descended  from  the  family 
of  Carew,  in  Gloucestershire,  was  gentleman  of 
the  privy  chamber  to  Charles  I.  who  always 
esteemed  him  one  of  the  most  celebrated  wits  of 
his  court.  He  was  the  companion  of  Ben  Jon- 
son  and  Sir  William  Davenant,  and  left  behind 
him  several  poems,  and  a  masque,  called  Caslum 
Britannicum,  performed  at  Whitehall  by  the  king 
and  several  of  his  nobles,  with  their  sons.  Carew 
was  assisted  in  the  contrivance  by  Inigo  Jones, 
and  the  music  was  set  by  Henry  Lawes.  He 
died  in  the  prime  of  life,  about  1639. 

CAREX,  sedge  grass,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
plants,  of  themonoecia  order,  in  the  triandria  class 
of  plants,  natural  order  third,  calamariae.  The 
characters  are  male  flowers,  digested  into  a  long 
spike  :  CAL.  an  oblong  and  imbricated  omentum, 
consisting  of  acute,  hollow,  and  lanceolated  scales, 
each  containing  one  flower  :  COR.  none  ;  the  sta- 
mina are  three  erect  setaceous  filaments  of  the 
length  of  the  calyx  ;  the  antherae  are  oblong  and 
erect.  In  the  female  flowers  the  CAL.  the  same 
as  in  the  male ;  there  are  no  petals,  but  an  in- 
flated oblong  nectarium ;  the  germen  is  triangu- 
lar, and  is  placed  within  the  nectarium;  the 
style  is  very  short;  the  stigmata  are  two  or  three, 
long,  crooked,  pointed,  and  hoary.  The  necta- 
rium grows  larger  when  the  flower  is  fallen,  and 
contains  the  seed,  which  is  single,  of  an  acute 
ovate  form,  triangular,  and  has  one  of  its  angles 
usually  much  smaller  than  the  others.  There 
are  ninety-eight  species,  too  well  known  to  need 
any  description. 

CARGADORS,  a  name  which  the  Dutch  give 
to  those  brokers  whose  business  is  to  find  freight 
for  ships  outward  bound,  and  to  give  notice  to  the 
merchants,  who  have  commodities  to  send  by 
sea,  of  the  ships  that  are  ready  to  sail,  and  of  the 
places  for  which  they  are  bound. 

CA'RGASON,  n.  a       Fr.    charge,   says    Dr. 

CA'RGO,  n.  5J°bnson.  Todd  refers  to 

Old  Fr.  cargue,  and  the  Ital.  carico  or  carco,  a 
burden.  Skinner  goes  to  the  Lat.  carrus.  In 
Span,  cargo,  and  eargazon.  But  the  original 
may  be  traced  to  the  Welsh  tars,  pl.cargoz,  a 

M  2 


CAR 

charge,  load,  or  cargo.    A  ship's  lading;  the  mer- 
chandise conveyed  in  her. 

My  body  is  a  cargtuon  of  ill-humours. 

Howell. 

A  ship  whose  cargo  was  no  less  than  a  whole 
world,  that  carried  the  fortune  and  hopes  of  all  pos- 
terity. Durnet's  Theory. 
This  gentleman  was  then  a  young  adventurer  :n 
the  republic  of  letters,  and  just  fitted  out  for  the  uni- 
versity with  a  good  cargo  of  Latin  and  Greek. 

Addison. 
One  gang  of  people  instantly  was  put 

Upon  the  pumps,  and  the  remainder  srt 
To  get  up  part  of  the  cargo,  and  what  not, 
But  they  could  not  come  at  the  leak  as  yet. 

Byron's  Don  Juan. 

CARGILLITES,  a  denomination  given  to  a 
religious  sect  in  Scotland,  more  generally  known 
by  that  of  Cameronians.  See  CAMERONIANS. 

CARIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  country  of 
Asia,  whose  limits  are  extended  by  some,  and 
contracted  by  others.  Mela  and  Pliny  extend 
the  maritime  Caria  from  Jasusand  Halicarnassus, 
to  Calynda,  and  the  borders  of  Lycia.  Ptolemy 
extends  the  inland  Caria  to  the  Meander  and 
beyond. 

CARIACO,  a  city  in  the  Colombian  new  pro- 
vince of  Orinoco,  containing  a  population  of 
about  6000.  Tt  is  seated  near  the  shore  of  the 
Carrihean  Sea,  but  is  approached  np  a  gulf  or 
bay,  extending  from  west  to  east  about  forty 
miles ;  on  the  south  shore  of  the  entrance  to 
this  gulf,  is  the  city  of  Cumana,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  the  great  out-port  of  the  country, 
bordering  on  the  river  ?.nd  gulf  of  Cariaco,  as 
well  as  of  that  town,  see  therefore  CUMANA. 

CARIANS,  CARIATES,  or  CARIATIDES,  the 
inhabitants  of  Caria,  called  also  Cares,  Ca- 
rissae,  Carides,  and  Carise.  The  Carians  being 
the  Swiss  of  those  days,  were  hired  and  placed 
in  the  front  of  the  battle.  Cum  care  Carissa,  de- 
noted the  behaviour  of  clowns.  The  Carians  are 
said  to  have  come  originally  from  the  islands  to 
the  continent,  and  to  have  been  formerly  subject 
to  Minos,  and  called  Leleges.  They  are  of  a 
common  original  with  the  Mysi  and  Lydi,  hav- 
'ng  a  common  temple,  of  very  ancient  standing, 
at  Melassa,  a  town  of  Caria,  called  Jovis  Carii 
Delubrum.  Homer  calls  them  barbarians  in 
language. 

CARIATIDES.  See  CARIANS  and  CARYA- 
TIDES. • 

CARIBBEE  ISLANDS,  a  chain  of  islands, 
forming  the  south-eastern  boundary  of  the  West 
India  Seas,  lying  between  the  island  of  Trinidad 
in  the  lat.  of  10°  N.  and  Porto  Rico,  or  the 
Virgin  Islands,  in  the  lat.  of  18°  N.  The  fol- 
lowing list  exhibits  the  several  islands  in  geo- 
graphical order,  beginning  in  the  south  ;  with 
the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  principal  town 
or  port  of  each  island,  viz. 

WINDWARD. 

Lat.  Long. 

1.  Tobago        .     .     11°  22'  N.  60°  32'  W. 

2.  Grenada      .      .     12        3  —  61      50  — 

3.  Barbadoes        .13        5  —  59     43  — 

4.  St.  Vincent       .13        9  —  61      15  — 

5.  St.  Lucia     .     .     13      57  --  61        7  — 

6.  Martinique       .     14      36  —  61       7  — 


CAR 

LEEWARD. 


7. 

Dominica    .     . 

15° 

18'  N. 

61° 

28' 

W 

ft 

Mariegalante    . 

15 

52    — 

61 

22 

— 

.0. 

Guadaloupe 

16 

0   — 

61 

48 

— 

— 

Deseada      .     . 

16 

20    — 

61 

7 

— 

10. 

Montserrat  .     . 

16 

48   — 

62 

17 

— 

11. 

Antigua       .     . 

17 

3    — 

61 

50 

— 

1:2. 

Nevis      .     .     . 

17 

10   — 

62 

43 

— 

13. 

St.  Kitts      .     . 

17 

19    — 

62 

49 

— 

14. 

St.  Eustatia 

17 

29   — 

63 

4 

— 

15. 

Barbuda      .     . 

17 

47   — 

62 

2 

— 

16, 

St.Bartholomew 

17 

54    — 

62 

52 

— 

17. 

St.  Martin  .     . 

18 

1    — 

63 

7 

— 

18. 

Anguilla      .     . 

18 

11    — 

63 

16 

— 

In  addition  to~  the  above,  there  are  several 
small  islands  dependent  on  Grenada,  and  two 
or  three  more  dependent  on  Guadaloupe.  This 
groupe  of  islands  was  discovered  by  Columbus 
on  his  second  voyage ;  he  made  the  island  of 
Deseada  on  the  26th  of  September,  1493,  after 
which  he  successively  visited  Dominica,  Gua- 
daloupe, and  several  others ;  the  whole  of  the 
Islands  in  the  American  Seas  were  originally 
designated  the  West  Indies ;  but  the  above 
groupe  were  found  inhabited  by  a  numerous  race 
of  men,  more  robust  and  energetic  than  those  of 
the  large  islands  of  Cuba,  Hayti,  Jamaica,  and 
Porto  Rico,  though  apparently  of  the  same 
common  origin  or  stock ;  the  people  being  called 
Caribs  has  occasioned  the  islands  to  be  distin- 
guished by  their  name,  of  the  Caribbees. 
Those  north  of  Martinique  are  denominated 
by  nautical  men,  the  leeward  ;  and  those  on  the 
south,  the  windward  ;  and  they  are  sometimes 
called  the  Greater  Antilles,  to  distinguish  them 
from  another  groupe  of  islands  which  flank  the 
coast  of  Caraccas,  or  what  is  now  the  north 
coast  of  Columbia,  which  is  called  the  Lesser 
Antilles.  Originally  the  whole  of  the  islands  in 
the  American  Seas  were  granted  by  the  pope  of 
Rome,  in  full  title  to  Spain  ;  but  the  Caribbees 
appear  not  to  have  been  taken  possession  of,  or 
even  claimed  by  them,  until  the  English,  French 
and  Dutch  severally  contended  for  empire  in 
the  west.  The  period  of  their  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  different  European  powers,  and 
which  of  those  powers,  will  be  found  under  the 
heads  of  the  respective  islands,  as  will  also  the 
extent,  several  local  properties,  and  produc- 
tions of  each  ;  the  native  inhabitants  will  be  seen 
to  have  fallen  a  sacrifice  to  the  cruelty,  avarice, 
and  contending  passions  of  the  several  Euro- 
peans who  alternately  held  possession  of  the  dif- 
ferent islands,  until,  in  1660,  the  whole  of  the  re- 
maining native  inhabitants  were  concentrated 
upon  the  island  St.  Vincent,  where  scarce  an 
individual  now  remains.  The  race  as  in  all  the 
larger  islands  may  be  said  to  be  extinct.  At 
present,  1826,  of  the  Caribbees,  Martinique, 
Guadaloupe,  Deseada,  and  its  other  depen- 
dancies,  are  held  by  the  French  ;  St.  Eustatia  by 
the  Dutch ;  St.  Bartholomew  by  the  Swedes ; 
and  the  remainder  by  the  English.  •  See  WEST 
INDIES. 

CARIBBEAN  SEA,  is  that  part  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  within,  or  west  of  the  Caribbee  Isles,  in 
the  long,  of  62°  W. ;  or,  as  laid  down  in  the  pre- 
ceding article,  extending  west  to  the  bay  of  lion- 


CAR 


165 


CAR 


duras,  in  long.  04°  W. ;  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Jamaica,  St.  Domingo,  Porto  Rico,  and  the 
Virgin  Islands,  and  south  by  the  Spanish  main, 
or  north  coast  of  the  new  republic  of  Colombia, 
comprising  a  surface  of  water  exceeding  500,000 
geographical  miles. 

CARICA,  the  papaw,  a  genus  of  the  decan- 
dria  order,  and  dioecia  class  of  plants,  natural, 
order,  thirty-eighth,  tricoccse:  CAL.  of  the  male, 
almost  none:  COR.  quinquefid  and  funnel- 
shaped  ;  the  filaments  in  the  tube  of  the  corolla, 
a  longer  and  shorter  one  alternately  :  CAL.  of  the 
female  quinquedentated :  COR.  pentapetalous, 
with  five  stigmata ;  the  fruit  an  unilocular  and 
polyspermous  berry.  1.  C.  papaya,  rises  with  a 
thick,  soft,  herbaceous  stem,  to  the  height  of 
eighteen  or  twenty  feet,  naked  till  within  two  or 
three  feet  of  the  top.  The  leaves  come  out  on 
every  side,  upon  very  long  foot-stalks.  Those 
undermost  are  almost  horizontal,  but  those  on 
the  top  are  erect ;  in  full  grown  plants  they  are 
very  large,  and  divided  into  many  lobes  deeply 
sinuated.  The  flowers  of  the  male  plant  are 
produced  from  between  the  leaves  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  plant :  these  are  of  a  pure  white, 
and  have  an  agreeable  odor.  The  flowers 
of  the  female  papaya  also  come  out  from  between 
the  leaves  towards  the  upper  part  of  the  plant ; 
they  are  large,  bell-shaped,  composed  of  six  pe- 
tals, and  commonly  yellow ;  when  these  fall 
away,  the  germen  swells  to  a  large  fleshy  fruit, 
of  the  size  of  a  small  melon.  These  fruits  are  of 
different  forms,  some  angular  and  compressed  at 
both  ends  ;  others  oval  or  globular,  and  some 
pyramidal.  When  the  roundish  fruit  are  nearly 
ripe,  the  inhabitants  of  India  boil  and  eat  them 
with  their  meat,  as  we  do  turnips.  They  have 
somewhat  the  flavor  of  a  pompion.  Previous  to 
boiling  they  soak  them  for  some  time  in  salt  and 
water,  to  extract  the  corrosive  juice ;  but  they 
mostly  pickle  the  long  fruit,  and  thus  they  make 
no  had  succedaneum  for  mango.  The  buds  of 
the  female  flowers  are  gathered,  and  made  into  a 
sweet  meat ;  and  the  shells  of  the  ripe  fruit  are 
boiled,  and,  with  the  insides,  are  eaten  with  sugar 
and  pepper,  like  melons.  2.  C.  prosoposa  dif- 
fers from  the  other  in  having  a  branching  stalk, 
the  lobes  of  the  other  shaped  like  a  pear,  and  of 
a  sweeter  flavor  than  the  papaya.  Both  species 
being  natives  of  hot  countries,  they  cannot  be 
preserved  in  Britain  unless  constantly  kept  in  a 
warm  stove.  They  are  easily  propagated  by 
seeds,  which  are  annually  brought  in  plenty  from 
the  West  Indies,  though  the  seeds  of  the  Euro- 
pean plants  ripen  well.  When  grown  to  a  large 
size,  they  make  a  noble  appearance  with  their 
strong  upright  stems,  garnished  on  every  side 
near  the  top  with  large  shining  leaves,  spreading 
out  nearly  three  feet  all  round  the  stem  :  the  flowers 
of  the  male  sort  coming  out  in  clusters  on  every 
side,  and  the  fruit  of  the  female  growing  round 
the  stalks  between  the  leaves,  are  so  different 
from  anything  of  European  production,  as  well 
to  entitle  these  plants  to  a  place  in  the  gardens  of 
the  curious. 

CARICATURA,  in  painting,  denotes  the 
concealment  of  real  beauties,  and  the  exaggera- 
tion cf  blemishes,  but  still  so  as  to  preserve  a 
resemblance  of  the  object.  It  was  practised  by 


the  ancients,  as  well  as  by  many  eminent  modern 
artists  ;  there  are  several  on  the  walls  of  Ilereu- 
laneum,  one  of  which  in  particular  represented 
./Eneas,  Anchises,  and  Ascanius,  with  the  heads 
of  hogs  and  an  ape.  English  artists  have  long 
been  celebrated  for  indulging  the  satirical  vein  in 
painting,  and  multitudes  of  caricatures  are  daily 
making  their  appearance  on  public  men  and 
manners.  If  Hogarth  is  excepted  as  a  painter  of 
a  higher  class,  no  one  has  excelled  Gillray  in  this 
branch  of  art.  The  two  Cruikshanks  at  present 
are  at  the  head  of  this  department,  and  have  often 
approached  the  best  of  Gillray's  works. 


CARICATUR'E,  v.  &  n.  * 

>  to   load   or  over- 


Ital.  caricatura, 
CARICATU'RA,  n. 
CARICATU'RIST,  n.  j  charge.      A   cari- 

cature is  a  colored  or  distorted  representation, 
which  exaggerates  defects  of  person  or  style,  to 
a  ridiculous  excess,  yet  preserves  a  resemblance 
of  the  object.  The  caricaturist  is  an  artist,  who 
may  often  make  us  laugh,  but  whom  we  seldom 
esteem.  It  is  in  the  service  of  politics  that  this 
defoiming  art  is  most  frequently  employed. 

CA'RICOUS  TUMORS,  n.  Lat.  carica,  a  fig. 
A  tumor  in  the  form  of  a  fig. 

CARIDES,  or  CARIDA,  a  town  of  Asia 
Minor,  in  Phrygia. 

CARIDIEN,  an  island  of  Asia,  in  the  Indian 
Sea,  near  the  west  coast  of  the  island  of  Ceylon  ; 
twelve  miles  long  and  two  wide. 

CA'RIES,  n,       ^      Lat.  caries.     The  rotten- 
CARIO'SITY,  n.     Sness   peculiar  to  a   bone; 
CA'RIOUS,  adj.    j  rottenness  ;     rotten.       See 
MEDICINE  and  SURGERY.     Indexes. 

Fistulas  of  long  continuance,  are,  for  the  most  part, 

accompanied  with  ulcerations  of  the  gland,  and  caries 

in  the  bone.  Wiseman. 

This  is  too  general,  taking  in  all  cariosity  and  ulcers 

of  the  bones.  Id. 

I  discovered  the  blood  to  arise  by  a  carious   tooth. 

Id. 

CARILLONS,  a  species  of  chimes  frequent  in 
the  ci-devant  Netherlands,  particularly  at  Ghent 
and  Antwerp,  and  played  on  a  number  of  bells 
in  a  belfrey,  forming  a  complete  scale  of  tones 
and  semitones,  like  those  on  the  harpsichord  and 
organ.  There  are  pedals  communicating  with 
the  great  bells,  upon  which  the  carilloneur  with 
his  feet  plays  the  base  to  sprightly  airs  performed 
with  the  two  hands  upon  the  upper  species  of 
keys.  These  keys  are  projecting  sticks,  wide 
enough  asunder  to  be  struck  with  violence  and 
velocity  by  either  of  the  hands  edgeways,  with- 
out danger  of  hitting  the  neighbouring  key.  The 
player  is  provided  with  a  thick  leather  covering 
for  the  little  finger  of  each  han-l,  to  guard  against 
the  violence  of  the  stroke.  They  are  heard 
through  a  large  town.  The  music  bells  of  Edin- 
burgh are  a  species  of  carillons 

CARINA,  Lat.  The  keel  of  a  ship,  or  that  long 
piece  of  timber  running  along  the  bottom  of  the 
ship  from  head  to  stern,  upon  which  the  whole 
structure  is  built.  It  is  also  used  for  the  whole 
capacity  of  a  ship,  containing  all  the  space  below 
the  decks;  and  sometimes  for  the  whole  ship. 
Among  anatomists  it  is  used,  1.  to  denote  the 
spina  dorsi ;  2.  the  embryo  of  a  chick  appearing 
in  an  incubated  egg.  It  consists  of  the  er.tire 
vertebrae,  as  they  appear  after  ten  or  twelve  day* 


CAR 


166 


CAR 


ncubatlon.  It  is  thus  called,  because  crooked 
in  the  form  of  the  keel  of  a  ship.  Among  bota- 
nists it  is  used  for  the  lower  petalura  of  a  papi- 
lionaceous flower. 

CARINJE,  women  hired  among  the  ancient 
Romans  to  weep  at  funerals :  thus  called  from 
Caria,  the  country  whence  most  of  them  came. 

CA'RINATED,  adj.  Lat.  carina.  Bent  like 
the  hull  of  a  ship  ;  whence,  in  botany,  a  leaf,  a 
scale,  a  nectary,  is  said  to  be  carinated,  when  it 
is  longitudinally  hollow  above,  and  has  a  corre- 
sponding sharpish  protuberance  beneath. 

CARINTHIA,  DUCHY  OF,  an  interior  pro- 
vince or  division  of  the  Austrian  empire,  lying 
between  the  lat.  of  46°  21'  and  47°  6'  N.  and 
12°  30'  to  14°  50'  of  E.  long,  comprising  an  area 
of  about  3500  English  square  miles ;  the  west 
end  borders  on  the  Tyrol,  and  it  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  bishopric  of  Saltzburgh  and 
Upper  Styria,  east  by  Lower  Styria,  and  south 
by  Upper  Carniola,  and  the  Venetian  territory. 
The  river  Drave,  which  rises  in  the  Tyrol  and 
falls  into  the  Danube  at  Belgrade,  intersects 
Carinthia;  its  whole  extent  from  west  to  east 
receiving  several  tributary  streams,  both  from  the 
north  and  south.  There  are  also  several  lakes, 
which,  as  well  as  the  rivers,  yield  abundance  of 
excellent  fish.  It  is  a  mountainous  and  woody 
district,  the  mountains  yielding  abundance  of 
iron,  lead,  and  copper,  as  well  as  quicksilver, 
bismuth,  and  zinc,  and  also  the  purest  marbles, 
and  a  variety  of  gems ;  whilst  the  forests  abound 
with  the  finest  timber,  the  valleys  afford  some 
excellent  pasturage,  as  well  as  fertile  lands  for 
tillage ;  but  being  edged  in  by  mountains  both 
on  the  north  and  south,  whilst  the  remoteness  of 
the  course  of  the  Drave  precludes  it  from  being 
made  available  as  a  channel  of  conveyance,  the  rich 
store  of  natural  products  which  this  district  con- 
tains are  of  little  advantage  either  to  the  inhabi- 
tants or  to  the  world.  Could  a  water  communi- 
cation be  obtained  with  the  Adriatic,  which,  by 
a  social  and  reciprocal  order  of  society,  might 
be  effected  with  the  west  end  of  the  province, 
either  by  the  Tajamento,  or  the  Piave,  Carinthia 
might  then  rank  among  the  most  interesting  and 
important  districts  of  Europe;  but  under  the 
bigoted,  blind,  and  passive  policy  of  Austria,  the 
inhabitants  of  Carinthia  pass  away  their  time  in 
indolence  and  apathy ;  such  supply  of  foreign 
productions  as  they  do  get  being  obtained  in 
exchange  for  the  cattle  which  are  driven  to  the 
markets  of  the  towns  of  Italy.  Carinthia  at  one 
time  formed  part  of  the  territory  of  Bavaria,  but 
on  Rodolphus  attaining  the  imperial  dignity,  he 
conferred  it  in  1282  on  Maynard,  count  of  Tyrol, 
on  condition  that  it  should  revert  to  the  house  of 
Austria,  in  default  of  Maynard's  male  issue,  which 
happened  in  1331.  It  was  overrun  by  the 
French  under  Buonaparte,  during  his  campaign 
in  Italy ;  he  had  his  head  quarters  at  Villach  in 
March  1797,  but  it  has  since  reverted  again  to 
Austria,  and  is  divided  for  local  jurisdiction  into 
two  parts,  Upper  and  Lower ;  the  former  on  the 
west,  containing  about  175,000  inhabitants,  and 
the  latter  on  the  east,  about  105,000.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  in  the  upper  part  are  Gmund  and 
Villach ;  and  in  the  lower,  Clagenfurt  (which  is 


the  capital  of  the  duchy),  Wolfsberg,  Wolfen- 
marck,  Pleyburg,  &c.  The  inhabitants,  who 
speak  chiefly  the  Sclavonian  language,  are  bigot- 
ed adherents  to  the  ceremonies  of  the  Romish 
church,  and  contribute  to  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment an  impost  of  about  £250,000  English  per 
annum. 

CARIOSUS,  rotten  stone,  in  oryctology,  a 
genus  of  argillaceous  earths  ;  consisting  of  alu- 
mine,  silica,  and  carbonate  of  lime,  with  a  small 
portion  of  iron  ;  light,  soft,  falling  to  powder  in 
water;  effervescing  with  nitric  acid;  hardening 
a  little  red  in  the  fire.  One  species  only.  Found 
in  Derbyshire  and  other  coal  countries ;  gene- 
rally over  veins  of  coal ;  colors  dirty  yellow,  dull 
brown,  or  gray.  It  easily  moulders  in  the  open 
air,  for  which  reason  it  has  been  denominated 
rotten-stone.  It  is  principally  used  for  polishing 
metals  and  other  substances. 

CARIPI,  a  kind  of  cavalry  in  the  Turkish 
army.  Of  these  about  1000  are  not  slaves,  nor 
bred  up  in  the  seraglio,  like  the  rest ;  but  are 
generally  Moors  or  renegado  Christians,  who, 
being  poor,  and  having  their  fortune  to  seek  by 
their  dexterity  and  courage,  have  arrived  at  the 
rank  of  horse  guards  to  the  grand  seignior. 

CAR1SBROOK,  a  village  contiguous  to 
Newport,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  remarkable  for 
its  castle  and  church,  which  are  both  very  ancient. 
The  church  had  once  a  convent  of  monks  annex- 
ed, part  of  which  is  now  a  farm-house,  still  re- 
taining the  name  of  the  priory.  The  castle,  which 
is  a  picturesque  edifice,  stands  on  an  eminence, 
and  was  the  prison  of  Charles  I.  in  1647,  be- 
fore he  was  delivered  to  the  parliament  forces. 
It  is  now  nominally  the  seat  of  the  governor  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight.  See  ISLE  OF  WIGHT. 

CARISSA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order  and  pentandria  class  of  plants ;  natural 
order  thirtieth,  contortae :  COR.  twisted ;  berries 
one  or  two ;  many-seeded.  Five  species ;  some 
spinous,  others  unarmed ;  all  Indian  plants.  The 
fruit  of  C.  carandus  is  eaten  by  the  natives,  and 
is  of  pleasant  taste. 

CARITATIS  POCULUM,  the  grace  cup,  was 
an  extraordinary  allowance  of  wine  or  other 
liquors,  wherein  the  religious  at  festivals  drank 
in  commemoration  of  their  founder  and  bene- 
factors. 

CA'RK,  v.  &  n.  •>      Welsh,  &  Ang.-Sax.  care. 

CA'RKING,  n.  3  This  seems  a  sufficiently 
satisfactory  derivation ;  but  Junius  chooses  to  go 
further  a  field,  and  makes  Kapic<upo>  the  parent 
word,  though  with  no  small  portion  of  etymolo- 
gical distortion.  Care  in  the  Welsh  means  care, 
solicitude,  anxiety;  carcus,  solicitous,  anxious, 
careful.  The  sense  of  the  English  word  is  the 
same.  Cark  as  a  noun  is  obsolete ;  the  verb  is 
nearly  so,  and  is  always  used  in  an  ill  sense. 
Unconnected  with  this,  and  whence  derived  I 
know  not,  is  carke ;  denoting,  says  Minsheu,  '  a 
quantity  of  wool,  whereof  thirty  make  a  sarpler,' 
equal  to  half  a  sack. 

What  pathe  listc  you  to  treade  ?  what  trade  will  you 

assay  ? 

The  courts  of  plea  by  braule  and  bate  drive  gecie  peace 
away. 


CAR 


167 


CAR 


In  house  for  wife  and  childe  there  is  but  earlte  and 

care, 

With  travel  and  with  toyle  enough  in  fields  we  used 
to  fair.          Man't  Life ;  in  Uncertaine  Auctor*. 

He  down  did  lay 
His  heavy  head,  devoid  of  careful  cark. 

Spenser. 

And  Klaius  taking  for  his  younglings'  carte, 
Lest  greedy  eyes  to  them  might  challenge  lay, 
Busy  with  oker  did  their  shoulders  mark. 

Sidney. 

Hark,  my  husband,  he's  singing  and  hoiting  -, 
And  I'm  fair  to  carhe  and  care,  and  all  little  enough. 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 

What  can  be  vainer,  than  to  lavish  out  our  lives 
in  the  search  of  trifles,  and  to  lie  carking  for  the  un- 
profitable goods  of  this  world  ?  L' Estrange. 

CA'RLE,  v.  &  n.^  Goth,  karl,  in  which 
CA'RLISII,  adj.  f  language  it  meant  simply  a 
CA'RLISHNESS,  71.  £  man  ;  Welsh,  carl,  acovet- 
C A'RLOT,  n.  J  ous  man ;  Ang.-Sax.  carl,  a 

miser,  a  rustic,  a  male.  Its  usual  acceptation, 
in  English,  is  a  mean,  uncivilised,  rough,  brutal, 
man.  In  England  this  word  is  now  superseded 
by  churl  it  still  obtains  in  Scotland.  Carle, 
Johnson  tells  us,  is  also  the  name  of  a  kind  of 
hemp.  Tusser  has  '  the  finable,  to  spin,  and  the 
carl  for  her  seed;'  from  which  it  is  evident  that 
carle  is  female  hemp.  Carlot  signifies  a  country- 
man, says  Todd ;  and  in  the  quotation  from 
Shakspeare  it  undoubtedly  is  so,  but  it  will  not 
bear  such  a  construction  in  the  extract  from 
Drayton,  the  person  there  alluded  to  being  a 
peer. 

His  knave  was  a  strong  carle  for  the  nones, 
And  by  the  haspe  he  haf  it  of  at  ones  ; 
Into  the  flore  the  dore  fell  anon. 

Cftaucer.     Cant.  Tales. 

Right  in  the  midst,  whereas  they  breast  to  breast, 

Should  meet  a  trap  was  letten  downe  to  fall 
Into  the  floud  ;  straight  leapt  the  carle  unblest, 

Well  weening  that  his  foe  was  falne  withall ; 

But  he  was  well  aware  and  lept  before  his  fall. 

Spenser. 

The  next  year  Hardicanute  sending  his  house 
carles,  so  they  called  his  officers,  to  gather  the  tribute 
imposed  ;  two  of  them  rigorous  in  their  office  were 
slain  at  Worcester  by  the  people  ;  whereat  the  king 
enraged  sent  Leofric,  duke  of  Mercia,  and  Seward  of 
Northumberland,  with  great  forces  and  commission 
to  slay  the  citizens,  rifle  and  burn  the  city,  and  waste 
the  whole  province.  Milton.  Hist,  of  Eng. 

Answer,  thou  carle,  and  judge  this  riddle  right, 
111  frankly  own  thee  for  a  cunning  wight.  Gay. 

The  editor  was  a  covetous  earle,  and  would  have 
bis  pearls  of  the  highest  price.  Bentley. 

CARLEBY,  OLD  AND  NEW,  two  towns  on 
the  coast  of  West  Bothnia,  about  fifty  miles  north 
of  Wasa. 

CARLETON  (George),  a  learned  bishop  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  born  at  Norham,  in 
Northumberland,  in  1559.  He  was  principally 
indebted  for  his  education,  both  at  school  and  at 
the  university,  to  the  liberality  of  Bernard  Gil- 
pin.  Upon  quitting  the  university,  he  was 
advanced,  in  1617,  without  any  previous  ecclesi- 
astical preferment,  to  the  bishopric  of  Llandaff. 
He  was  a  person  of  solid  judgment,  and  various 


reading.  To  the  papists  he  -was  a  bitter  foe 
and  with  regard  to  the  doctrine  of  predestination, 
a  rigid  Calvinistn.  He  published  many  works, 
both  in  English  and  Latin,  the  principal  among 
which  are  his  Heroici  Characteres,  or  Heroic 
Characters,  Oxon.  4to.  1603;  Tythes  Examined, 
and  proved  to  be  due  to  the  Clergy  by  a  Divine 
Right,  Lond.  Ho.  1606-1611  ;  Jurisdiction 
Royal,  Episcopal  and  Papal,  wherein  is  declared 
how  the  Pope  hath  intruded  upon  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  temporal  princes,  and  of  the  church,  &c. 
Lond.  4to.  1610 ;  Astrologimania,  a  treatise 
against  Judicial  Astrology,  4to.  1624  ;  Vita  Ber- 
nardi  Gilpin,  4to.  1626 ;  this  work  was  translated 
into  English  in  1629.  He  sat  in  the  Short  Par- 
liament, for  Arundel  in  Sussex. 

CARLINA,  the  carline  thistle :  a  genus  of  the 
polygamia  sequalis  order,  and  syngenesia  class  ot 
plants ;  natural  order  forty-ninth,  composite :  CAL. 
is  radiated  with  long  colored  marginal  scales.  There 
are  twelve  known  species.  C.  vulgaris  is  the 
only  one  that  is  a  native  of  Britain.  All  the 
others  are  natives  of  the  south  of  France  or  Italy ; 
and  are  very  easily  propagated  in  this  country  by 
seeds,  which  must  be  sown  on  a  bed  of  fresh  un- 
dunged  earth,  where  they  are  to  remain,  as  they 
do  not  bear  transplanting.  The  second  year  most 
of  them  will  flower ;  but  rarely  produce  good 
seeds  in  this  country,  and  some  of  the  plants 
decay  soon  after  they  have  flowered,  so  that  it  is 
difficult  to  maintain  them  here.  The  roots  are 
used  in  medicine,  and  for  that  purpose  are  im- 
ported. As  w«  receive  them  they  are  about  an 
inch  thick,  externally  of  a  rusty  brown  color 
corroded  as  it  were  on  the  surface,  and  perfo- 
rated with  numerous  small  holes,  appearing  as 
if  worm  eaten.  They  have  a  strong  smell,  and 
a  sub-acid,  bitterish,  weakly  aromatic  taste. 
They  are  reckoned  warm  alexipharmics  and  dia- 

E heretics.  Hoffman  the  Elder  relates  that  he 
as  observed  a  decoction  of  them  in  broth  occa- 
sion vomiting.  They  have  been  for  some  time 
greatly  esteemed  among  foreign  physicians ;  but 
never  were  much  in  use  in  this  country.  The 
present  .practice  entirely  rejects  them,  nor  are 
they  often  to  be  met  with  in  the  shops. 

CARLINE  KNEES  are  timbers  going  athwart 
a  ship,  from  the  sides  to  the  hatch-way,  serving 
to  sustain  the  deck  on  both  sides. 

CARLINGFORD,  a  populous  parish  and 
town  in  the  county  of  Louth,  Ireland.  The 
parish  comprises  a  promontory  between  Dun- 
dalk  and  Carlingford  Bay.  The  town  is  situate 
on  the  south  shore  of  the  bay  of  Carlingford, 
and  is  noted  for  its  oyster  fishery ;  it  is  a  corpo- 
rate town,  and  returns  two  members  to  the  Irish 
parliament.  It  is  eight  miles  south  of  Newry, 
and  fifty-two  north  of  Dublin. 

CARLINWARK  LOCH,  a  lake  in  Kirkcud- 
brightshire, originally  116  square  acres  in  extent; 
but  reduced  in  1765  to  eighty,  ten  feet  of  water 
being  then  taken  off  by  a  canal  to  the  Dee.  It 
is  a  great  source  of  improvement  to  the  adjacent 
grounds,  as  it  contains  an  inexhaustible  fund  of 
the  very  best  shell  marl.  It  was  sold  in  1788, 
for  £2000  sterling.  Before  it  was  drained  there 
were  two  isles  in  it,  at  the  north  and  south  ends, 
on  which  water  fowls  bred  in  great  abundance. 
Many  antiquities  were  found  in  it,  particularly  a 


168 


CARLISLE. 


brass  dagger,  plated  with  *old,  twenty-two  inches 
Ions?,  and  several  canoes  hollowed  out  like  those 
of  the  American  Indians. 

CARLISLE,  a  city,  bishop's  see,  and  capital 
of  the  county  of  Cumberland,  England,  is  situ- 
ate at  the  junction  of  three  rivers,  Calder,  Petter- 
ill,  and  Eden,  about  six  miles  above  the  entrance 
of  the  united  streams  into  Solway  Frith,  and 
thirteen  miles  from  the  south-west  frontier  of 
Scotland.  Carlisle  has  held  a  distinguished  rank 
among  the  cities  of  England,  in  every  period  of 
British  history,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
first  founded  by  Luil,  a  native  Briton,  long 
before  the  irruption  of  the  Romans  into  England. 
The  contiguity  of  Carlisle  to  Scotland,  during 
the  less  social  habits,  and  distinctiveness  of  inter- 
est, of  the  people  of  that  country,  frequently  ex- 
posed it  to  their  depredations ;  to  avoid  which,  the 
Romans,  on  their  possessing  themselves  of  this 
part  of  England,  erected  a  wall  from  Solway 
Frith  to  the  German  Ocean,  which  included  on 
one  side  Carlisle,  and  on  the  other,  Newcastle 
within  its  southern  limits.  After  the  departure 
of  the  Romans  from  England,  the  Roman  wall 
did  not  prevent  the  Scots  and  Picts  from  renewing 
their  incursions,  and  they  soon  reduced  Carlisle 
to  a  heap  of  ruins,  in  which  state  it  continued 
till  680,  when  Egbert  king  of  Northumberland 
encompassed  it  with  a  wall,  and  repaired  its 
church  ;  but  it  was  again  doomed  to  destruction 
in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  by  the  Norwe- 
gians and  Danes,  and  it  remained  in  this  state 
until  after  the  Norman  conquest,  when  it  was 
further  protected  by  a  citadel  and  castle,  built  by 
William  Rufus,  having  three  gates,  called  the 
English,  Irish,  and  Scotch,  with  reference  to 
their  bearing  on  the  side  of  each  respective  coun- 
try. These  defences,  however,  did  not  prevent 
it  from  falling  into  the  possession  of  the  Scots,  who 
held  it  alternately  with  the  English  from  the  period 
of  William  Rufus,  to  that  of  Henry  VII.  It 
was  constituted  a  bishop's  see  by  Henry  I.,  de- 
stroyed by  fire  by  the  Scots,  in  the  reign  of  Hen- 
ry HI.,  and  experienced  the  same  disaster  twice 
in  the  following  reign.  In  1568  the  castle  was 
made  the  prison  house  of  the  unfortunate  Mary 
of  Scotland;  in  1645  it  surrendered,  through 
famine,  to  the  parliamentary  force;and  in  1745  fell 
into  the  possession  of  the  partizans  of  the  Pre- 
tender, but  was  immediately  after  retaken  by  the 
duke  of  Cumberland,  who  demolished  the  gates 
and  part  of  the  wall ;  and  it  has  since  that  period 
enjoyed  an  uninterrupted  tranquillity.  Since  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  it  has 
undergone  great  improvements :  and  on. the  site 
of  the  citadel  two  commodious  court  houses  have 
been  erected,  the  county  gaol  rebuilt,  a  handsome 
stone  bridge  built  over  the  Eden,  with  other  im- 
provements have  contributed  to  render  it  one  of 
the  most  agreeable  and  interesting  cities  of  Eng- 
land. The  castle  is  still  kept  in  repair,  and 
serves,  with  other  purposes,  for  a  magazine,  and 
an  armoury  of  about  10,000  stand  of  arms. 
The  cathedral  is  a  stately  and  venerable  edifice, 
partly  of  Saxon  and  partly  of  Gothic  architecture ; 
there  are  two  other  churches,  as  well  as  several 
meeting  houses.  The  markets,  on  Wednesdays  and 
Saturdays,  are  well  supplied  with  every  thing  ne- 
cessary for  subsistence  and  comfort.  The  cotton 


manufacture  has  established  itself  upon  an  extend- 
ed scale  in  this  city ,whilst  the  architectural  and  ex- 
ternal appearances  of  the  city  have  indicated  great 
social  improvement  and  national  prosperity. 
The  conveyance  of  its  commodities  of  commerce 
has  been  facilitated  by  a  canal  to  the  Solway  Frith, 
and  it  is  a  point  of  union  and  interchange  for  the 
mails  to  all  parts  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
land. Its  corporation  consists  of  a  mayor,  twelve 
aldermen,  &c.  It  returns  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment, and  is  101  miles  south-east  of  Glasgow, 
ninety-one  south  by  east  of  Edinburgh,  and  303 
N.  N.  W.  of  London. 

CARLISLE,  a  town  of  Schoarie  county,  state  of 
New  York.  Population  in  1820,  1583  ;  forty 
miles  west  of  Albany. 

CARLISLE,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  capital  of 
Cumberland  county,  with  a  college,  and  four  edi- 
fices for  public  worship.  It  is  situate  near  a 
creek  of  the  Susquehannah,  100  miles  west  by 
north  of  Philadelphia. 

CARLISLE  BAY,  on  the  south  coast  of  Jamaica  ; 
west  coast  of  Barbadoes,  and  island  of  Antigua. 

CARLISLE  (Frederic  Howard),  earl  of,  was 
born  in  May  1748,  his  mother  being  Isabella 
Byron,  sister  of  Admiral  Byron,  whose  life  we 
have  sketched.  He  was  brought  up  at  Eton  with 
Mr.  Fox;  and  finished  his  education  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  In  1777  he  was  appointed 
treasurer  of  the  royal  household,  and  appointed 
in  the  following  year  one  of  the  British  commis- 
sioners to  adjust  the  differences  between  the  mo- 
ther country  and  her  then  revolted  American 
colonies :  but  the  mission,  it  is  well  known, 
proved  wholly  abortive.  In  1780  he  was  vice- 
roy of  Ireland.  As  a  writer  he  is  known  by  a 
tragedy  called  the  Father's  Revenge,  which  re- 
ceived the  decided  approbation  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
the  Stepmother,  a  tragedy,  and  some  Poems. 
His  nephew,  Lord  Byron,  as  we  have  shown, 
treated  the  poetical  character  of  this  nobleman 
with  great  contempt  in  his  English  Bards  and 
Scotch  Reviewers :  but  there  was  evidently  more 
of  private  pique  in  the  affair,  than  any  steadiness 
of  judgment.  See  BYRON.  Lord  Carlisle  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  the  marquis  of  Stafford,  by 
whom  he  had  a  son,  born  in  1773.  The  coun- 
tess died  January  27th,  1824;  and  the  earl,  Sep- 
tember 4th,  1825. 

CARLOCK,  in  commerce,  a  sort  of  isinglass, 
made  of  the  sturgeon 's  bladder,  imported  from 
Archangel.  The  chief  use  of  it  is  for  clarifying 
wine,  but  it  is  also  used  by  the  dyers.  The  best 
carlock  comes  from  Astracan,  where  great  num- 
bers of  the  fish  are  caught. 

CARLOS,  ST.,  a  city  in  the  interior  of  the 
new  Colombian  province  of  Apure,  situate  on 
one  of  the  branches  of  the  Apure  river,  about 
eighty-five  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Valencia.  The  in- 
habitants are  principally  descendants  of  settlers 
from  the  Canary  Isles,  who  are  more  industrious 
and  social  than  those  from  Old  Spain.  Under 
the  newly  formed  government  of  Colombia,  St. 
Carlos  promises  to  become  a  flourishing  place, 
being  situate  in  a  very  fertile  country,  affording 
great  inducements  to  agricultural  enterprise. 
Population  in  1826,  about  10,000. 

CARLOS  DE  MONTEREY,  SAN,  the  principal 
settlement  of  New  California,  on  the  west  coast 


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of  North  America,  in  the  lat.  of  36°  36'  N.,  and 
121°  34' of  W.  long.  It  is  beautifully  situated 
within  a  small  bay  of  the  same  name,  first  dis- 
covered by  Cabrillo  in  1542,  who  named  it 
Bahia  de  Finos,  on  account  of  the  graceful 
aspect  of  the  forest  of  pines,  intermixed  with 
oaks,  which  covered  the  mountains  of  St.  Lucia, 
rising  with  gentle  ascent  from  the  bay.  It  was 
afterwards  visited  by  the  Count  de  Monterey, 
from  whom  it  received  its  present  name.  The 
Jesuits  in  their  turn  became  enamoured  with  the 
spot,  and  formed  a  settlement  here.  The  forests 
and  mountains  which  rise  immediately  from  the 
coast,  preclude  much  intercourse  with  the  inte- 
rior; nor  does  it  appear  that  there  is  any  river 
of  magnitude,  either  north  or  south,  for  some 
distance,  otherwise  it  would  be  an  inviting  spot 
for  colonisation. 

CARLOW,  anciently  called  Catherlogh,  an 
interior  county  of  the  province  of  Leinster,  in  the 
south-east  part  of  Ireland  ;  it  is  bounded  on  the 
west  by  the  Barrow  River,  which  divides  it  from 
the  county  of  Kilkenny,  afterwards  flowing  past 
New  Ross  into  Waterford  harbour ;  on  the  east  it 
is  intersected  by  the  Slaney  River,  which  falls 
into  Wexford  Haven ;  a  small  portion  of  the 
county  lies  west  of  the  Barrow,  and  the  portion 
east  of  the  Slaney  borders  on  the  county  oc 
Wicklow,  and  partakes  of  the  mountainous  cha- 
racter of  that  county,  as  does  also  the  portion 
west  of  the  Barrow,  and  the  south-east  part  bor- 
dering on  the  county  of  Wexford ;  the  part  be- 
tween the  two  rivers  is  beautifully  undulated 
and  exceedingly  fertile,  both  in  tillage  and  pas- 
ture, and  produces  the  best  butter  in  all  Ireland. 
It  contains  inexhaustible  quarries  of  excellent 
limestone,  and  beds  of  marl  and  clays,  and  in  the 
mountains  are  iron  ore  and  oxide  of  manganese. 
Carlovv  county  contains  137,050  Irish  planta- 
tion acres ;  is  divided  into  six  baronies  and 
forty-six  parishes.  The  only  towns  of  note 
in  the  county,  besides  Carlow,  the  capital, 
are  Tullow  and  Racket's  Town;  in  that  part  of 
the  county  west  of  the  Barrow  is  the  ecclesias- 
tical see  of  Leighlin,  now  united  to  Ferns  in  the 
county  of  Wexford. 

CARLOW,  the  chief  and  assize  town  of  the  pre- 
ceding county,  is  situate  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Barrow  River,  at  the  north-west  extremity  of  the 
county,  bordering  on  Queen's  and  Kildare  coun- 
ties. The  remains  of  a  castle  overhanging  the 
river,  the  ruins  of  a  very  fine  abbey,  a  convent,  and 
Roman  Catholic  college,  are  the  principal  objects 
of  interest  in  the  town.  It  has  also  a  respectable 
market- house,  county  court-house,  gaol,  and 
cavalry  barracks,  and  manufactures  some  woollen 
cloths.  The  castle  is  supposed  to  have  been 
erected  by  king  John  of  England,  to  secure  the 
passage  of  the  Barrow;  it  continued  for  several 
centuries  a  fortress  of  much  importance.  In  the 
reign  of  Richard  II.  it  was  surprised  by  Donald 
M'Art  O'Kavanagh,  king  of  Leinster,  and  re- 
mained in  his  possession  a  considerable  time. 
In  1577  the  tower  and  castle  surrendered,  after 
a  long  and  desperate  siege,  to  Rory  Oge  O'Moore, 
who  inflicted  great  cruelty  on  the  inhabitants. 
In  1642,  500  Englishmeii,  imprisoned  in  the 
castle,  were  rescued  by  a  detachment  of  the  duke 


of  Ormond's  army  ;  and  in  1650  it  surrendered  to 
the  parliamentary  forces.  In  an  effort  since  that 
time  to  renovate  the  building,  the  foundation 
gave  way,  and  it  has  since  remained  a  heap  of 
ruins.  On  the  27th  of  May,  1798,  the  town  was 
furiously  assailed  at  two  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
by  a  large  body  of  Irish,  who,  after  ,a  most 
sanguinary  conflict,  were  routed  by  the  English 
cavalry  stationed  in  the  barracks,  aided  by  the 
yeomanry.  Some  coarse  woollen  cloth  is  manu- 
factured in  the  town  and  its  vicinity ;  some  of 
the  inhabitants  carry  on,  by  means  of  the  Barrow, 
an  extensive  traffic  in  lime,  and  stone  coal,  ob- 
tained just  within  Queen's  county.  Carlow  is 
one  of  the  thirty-one  places  in  Ireland  each  of 
which  returned  a  member  to  the  parliament  of 
the  United  Kingdom.  It  is  eighteen  miles  north- 
east of  the  city  of  Kilkenny,  and  thirty-nine  south- 
west of  Dublin. 

CARLOWITZ,  a  town  of  Sclavonia,  where  a 
peace  was  concluded  between  the  Turks  and 
Germans  in  1669.  It  is  seated  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Danube,  just  below  Peterwarjen, 
thirty-eight  miles  north-west  of  Belgrade.  Popu- 
lation about  5600. 

CARLSBAD,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  in  the  circle 
of  Saatz,  celebrated  for  its  hot  baths,  discovered 
by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  as  he  was  hunting. 
It  is  seated  on  the  Topel,  near  its  confluence 
with  the  Egra,  twenty-four  miles  E.  N.  E.  of 
Eger,  and  seventy  south -east  of  Dresden.  It  is 
very  celebrated  for  its  mineral  waters. 

CARLSCRONA,  or  CARLSCROON,  a  sea-port 
of  Sweden,  in  the  province  of  Blekingen,  on  the 
Baltic.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  governor  of  the 
province,  and  was  founded  by  Charles  IX  ;  but, 
for  its  present  rank  as  a  sea-port,  is  indebted  to 
Charles  XI.  It  has  long  been  the  principal 
rendezvous  of  the  Swedish  navy.  The  harbour 
is  commanded  by  two  forts,  and  other  fortifica- 
tions ;  but  the  docks  are  the  chief  objects  of  in- 
terest. One  of  them,  constructed  in  the  year 
1714,  was  excavated  from  the  solid  rock;  its 
length  is  190  feet,  its  breadth  forty-six,  and  its 
depth  thirty-three.  The  new  semicircular  dock  is 
of  greater  dimensions ;  it  is  divided  into  four  com- 
partments, each  of  which  has  five  slips  for  vessels, 
a  gate  forty-eight  feet  in  width,  and  nearly  thirty  in 
height,  and  an  edifice  over  it  with  a  copper  roof. 
The  walls  are  of  granite,  and  nearly  forty  feet 
thick,  being  filled  up  in  the  middle  with  earth. 
The  harbour  will  hold  altogether  about  100  ves- 
sels. The  Swedish  admiralty  had  once  its  seat 
here,  but  removed  to  Stockholm  in  1776.  Here 
is  an  anchor  foundry.  The  exports  are  timber, 
tar,  potash,  tallow,  and  marble.  Population 
13,800.  .  It  is  220  miles  S.S.W.  of  Stockholm. 

CARLSHRUE,  a  town  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  territory  of  the  grand  duke  of  Baden,  and 
now  the  ducal  residence.  It  was  first  laid  out 
in  1715;  the  original  plan  included  thirty-two 
streets,  and  a  palace  in  the  centre.  It  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  French  in  1796,  when  only 
nine  of  the  streets  were  built ;  nor  was  it  of  much 
note  till  after  the  final  termination  of  the  war  in 
1814  :  since  which  it  has  become  the  permanent 
residence  of  the  grand  duke.  The  palace  is  a 
spacious  and  elegant  edifice,  the  centre  sur 


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mounted  with  a  lofty  spire;  on  one  side  is  a 
chapel,  and  on  the  other  a  librarj,  containing 
40,000  volumes  of  valuable  books,  and  a  collec- 
tion of  minerals  and  medals.  A  philosophical 
apparatus,  and  an  extensive  botanic  garden,  ad- 
joins the  palace.  Carlshrue  has  churches  for  the 
Lutherans,  Calvinists,  and  Catholics ;  and  also  a 
Jews'  synagogue  ;  all  religionists  being  on  equal 
terms  in  the  Baden  territory.  The  other  public 
buildings  are  a  town  hall,  courts,  an  academy, 
poor-houses,  and  barracks ;  and  most  of  the  build- 
ings, private  as  well  as  public,  being  of  stone, 
the  whole  make  a  respectable,  and  rather  an  im- 
posing appearance.  The  chief  dependence  of 
the  inhabitants  is  on  the  court,  and  public  busi- 
ness of  the  dukedom,  and  foreign  embassies. 
The  population  has  been  progressively  increasing 
since  1810,  and  in  1825  amounted  to  16,030. 
It  is  about  forty  miles  north  by  east  of  Stras- 
burgh,  and  about  the  same  distance  west  by 
north  of  Stutgard. 

CARLSTADT,  a  town  of  Franconia,  in  the 
principality  of  Wurtzburg,  seated  on  the  Maine, 
thirteen  miles  north  by  west  of  Wurtzburg.  It 
is  now  included  in  the  Bavarian  circle  of  the 
Lower  Maine.  Population  about  2200. 

CARLSTADT,  the  capital  of  Croatia,  with  a  for- 
tress ;  seated  on  the  Kulpa,  a  branch  of  the  Save, 
at  the  influx  of  the  Corona,  180  miles  south  by 
west  of  Vienna,  and  forty-five  E.  N.  E.  of  Fiume. 

CARLSTADT,  a  town  of  Sweden,  capital  of 
Wermeland,  and  a  bishop's  see.  It  stands  on 
the  north  side  of  the  lake  Wenner,  and  on  the 
island  of  Tingwalla,  which  is  formed  by  two 
branches  of  the  Clara.  The  houses  are  built  of 
wood  and  painted ;  the  episcopal  palace  is  also 
of  wood,  and  has  an  extensive  front.  The  in- 
habitants carry  on  a  trade  in  copper,  iron,  and 
wood,  across  the  lake.  It  is  155  miles  west  of 
Stockholm.  Population  about  1500. 

CARLYLE  (Joseph  Dacres),  an  English  di- 
vine, famous  for  hi»  oriental  learning,  was  born 
at  Carlisle  in  1759,  where  his  father  practised 
physic  with  considerable  reputation.  After  re- 
ceiving the  usual  course  of  grammar-school  edu- 
cation in  Carlisle,  he  was  removed  to  Christ's 
College,  Cambridge ;  and  having  resided  about 
two  years  there,  he  was  admitted  of  Queen's  Col- 
lege, and  obtained  a  fellowship.  He  now  began 
to  study  the  Arabic  language,  in  which  he  made 
uncommon  progress ;  and,  with  the  assistance  of 
David  Zabio,  an  Asiatic,  born  at  Bagdad,  then 
residing  at  Cambridge,  he  entered  on  the  study 
of  the  other  oriental  tongues.  Having  continued 
about  ten  years  in  college,  during  which  he  pro- 
ceeded to  his  degree  of  B.  D.,  he  married  and 
settled  at  Carlisle.  He  was  chosen  professor  of 
Arabic  on  the  resignation  of  Dr.  Craven  in  1794; 
and  collated  to  the  chancellorship  of  Carlisle  in 
1795.  In  1796  he  published  Specimens  of 
Arabian  Poetry,  with  elegant  translations, .and 
brief  memoirs  of  the  authors.  In  1799  he  ac- 
companied lord  Elgin  in  his  embassy  to  Constan- 
tinople; where  he  gained  admittance  to  the 
libraries,  and  made  catalogues  of  the  works  they 
contained  ;  and  from  whence  he  made  excursions 
into  Asia  Minor,  and  explored,  with  interesting 
accuracy,  the  site  of  ancient  Troy.  Having  visited 
Egypt,  Syria,  and  the  Holy  Land,  gleaning  lite- 


rary treasures  wherever  he  went,  he  returned  to 
Constantinople,  from  whence  he  travelled  through 
Italy  and  Germany  to  England,  where  he  landed 
in  the  end  of  1801.  The  bishop  of  Carlisle  soon 
after  presented  him  to  the  rich  rectory  of  New- 
castle upon  Tyne ;  but  his  travels  had  injured  his 
constitution,  and  this  worthy  and  ingenious  man 
died  at  Newcastle  in  1804.  About  the  time  of 
his  death  he  was  engaged  in  superintending  an 
edition  of  the  Arabic  Bible ;  a  Dissertation  on  the 
Troad ;  and  Observations  made  during  his  Tour 
in  the  East. 

CARMAGNOLA,  a  fortified  town  of  Italy, 
in  Piedmont.  It  was  taken  by  the  French,  and 
retaken  by  Prince  Eugene  in  1691.  It  is  seated 
in  a  country  abounding  in  corn,  flax,  and  silk, 
near  the  Po.  Here  is  an  annual  fair,  which  is 
much  frequented  from  Savoy  and  Dauphine". 
Early  in  the  revolution  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  French,  and  gave  its  name  to  one  of  the  most 
popular  republican  songs.  Population  about 
12,000.  It  is  twelve  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Turin. 

CARMANIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  country 
of  Asia,  east  of  Persia,  having  Par'.hia  on  the 
north,  Gedrosia  on  the  east,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
the  Indian,  or  the  Carmanian,  Sea  on  the  south. 
Its  name  was  derived  from  the  Syriac,  carma,  a 
vine,  for  which  it  was  famous,  yielding  clusters 
of  grapes  three  feet  long.  It  is  now  called  Ker- 
man,  or  Carimania,  and  is  a  province  of  modern 
Persia.  It  was  anciently  divided  into  Carmania 
Deserta,  south  of  Parthia  ;  and,  Carmania  Pro- 
pria,  south  of  Carmania  Deserta,  quite  to  the 
sea. 

CAERMARTHEN,  or  CARMARTHEN,  the 
chief  town  in  the  county  of  Caermarthen,  South 
Wales,  situated  at  the  distance  of  218  miles 
west  of  London.  It  is  also  a  borough  containing 
a  population  of  9995  souls,  holds  markets  every 
Wednesday  and  Saturday,  and  fairs  on  the 
3rd  and  4th  of  June,  10th  of  July,  12th  of 
August,  9th  of  October,  and  1 4th  of  November. 
The  chancery  and  exchequer  for  South  Wales 
were  established  here,  and  here  the  ancient 
Britons  held  their  patriarchal  synods.  —  The 
present  town  occupies  a  commanding  position 
on  the  northern  bank  of  the  river  Towy,  which 
is  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  seven  arches ;  and 
the  bay  of  Caermarthen  into  which  the  river 
falls,  is  included  between  Caldy  Island  and 
the  Worm's  Head,  distant  from  each  other  just 
fourteen  miles. — Henry  VIII.  granted  the  in- 
habitants the  privilege  of  being  represented  in 
parliament.  The  corporation  consists  of  a 
mayor,  recorder,  town  clerk,  six  peers,  and  two 
sheriffs,  the  last  being  the  returning  officers  at 
the  elections  for  appointing  a  burgess  to  parlia- 
ment. The  great  sessions  for  the  county  are 
held  here,  as  well  as  a  mayor's  court,  and  quarter 
sessions  alternately,  with  Llandilo.  The  trade 
consists  principally  in  the  manufacture  and 
export  of  tin,  coal,  and  iron,  and  an  extensive 
and  improving  traffic  is  established  between  this 
town  and  Bristol.  The  Towy  is  navigable  up 
to  the  town  by  vessels  of  300  tons  burden  ;  and 
the  quay  is  spacious  and  convenient.  Amongst 
its  public  buildings  the  most  important  are  the 
church  of  St.  Peter,  a  chapel  of  ease,  besides 
meeting  houses,  the  county  gaol,  town  hall,  &c. 


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Caermarthen  boasts  the  possession  of  several 
literary  societies,  and  two  public  journals  issue 
from  its  press.  A  handsome  monument  to  the 
memory  of  the  gallant  Sir  Thomas  Picton 
stands  near  the  town ;  and  that  remarkable 
person  Mefddyn,  or  Merlin,  the  prophet,  was 
born  here.  He  flourished,  A.  D.  480,  and  has 
left  the  name  of  Caer-merddyn  (Caermarthen) 
i.  e.  the  city  of  Merlin,  to  fix  the  place  of  his 
nativity. — The  duke  of  Leeds  takes  the  title  of 
marquis  from  this  place. 

CARMARTHENSHIRE,  one  of  the  six 
counties  comprehended  within  South  Wales. 
It  was  anciently  called  Dimetia,  and  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Cardiganshire,  on  the  east  by 
Brecon,  on  the  west  by  Pembroke,  and  the 
south  by  Glamorganshire  and  the  Bristol  chan- 
nel. The  surface  presents  considerable  variety, 
undulating  generally,  sometimes  very  hilly,  and, 
occasionally,  even  swelling  into  mountains.  The 
area  covers  590,640  acres,  which  sustain  a  popu- 
lation of  100,800.  It  is  separated  into  eight 
hundreds,  viz. :  Carnwallon,  Cathinog,  Caeo, 
Derllys,  Elvet,  Iskennen,  Cidwelly,  and  Perfedd. 
In  these  are  the  market  towns  of  Caermarthen, 
the  capital,  Llandovery,  Cidwelly,  Llandeilo  fawr, 
Llanelly,  Newcastle-in-Emlyn,  and  Llangadoc. 
There  are  eighty-seven  parishes  within  the  shire, 
all  under  the  control  of  the  diocese  of  St.  Davids. 
Tin  plates  and  woollen  stockings  are  amongst 
the  manufactures,  the  latter  disposed  of  in  every 
market  town,  the  former  shipped  principally  at 
Llanelly.  Many  British  and  Roman  antiquities 
are  scattered  over  the  face  of  the  county,  and  some 
few  places  are  consecrated  to  history  and  poetry. 
Grongar  hill  possesses  a  classical  notoriety,  and 
Llandeilo  fawr  witnessed  the  fall  of  Cambrian 
independence  in  the  final  struggle  between 
Llewellyn  and  King  Edward  I.,  of  England. 
An  ancient  Roman  road  is  still  distinct  near  to 
Llandovery,  and  many  coins  of  that  victorious 
people  have  been  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
Whitland  and  elsewhere.  Llanegwad  parish 
abounds  in  antique  remains,  both  Roman  and 
British,  and  to  the  north  of  the  town  of  Caer- 
marthen stands  a  remarkable  cairn,  150  feet  in 
circumference,  and  eighteen  in  height,  enclosing 
a  stone  chest  nine  feet  in  length,  the  lid  of 
which  is  entire.  Other  cairns  of  less  magnitude, 
bnt  containing  sepulchral  remains,  have  also  been 
met  with  in  other  places  in  this  county.  Caer- 
marthen borough  sends  one  member  to  parlia- 
ment, and  a  second  is  returned  by  the  county. 

CARMEL,  a  high  mountain  of  Palestine, 
standing  on  the  skirts  of  the  sea,  and  forming  the 
most  remarkable  head-land  on  all  that  coast.  It 
extends  east  as  far  as  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and 
from  the  city  of  that  name  quite  to  Caesarea  on 
the  south.  It  seems  to  have  had  the  name  of 
Carmel  from  its  great  fertility ;  this  word,  in  He- 
brew, signifying  the  vine  of  God,  and  being  used 
in  Scripture  to  denote  any  useful  spot.  Carmel 
has  been  greatly  revered  both  by  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians, from  its  having  been  the  residence  of  the 
prophet  Elijah,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
there  in  a  cave  (which  is  there  shown)  before  he 
was  taken  up  into  heaven. 

CARMELITES,  one  of  the  four  tribes  of  men- 
dicant  friars;  so  named  from  mount  Carmel. 


They  pretend  to  descend  in  an  uninterrupted 
succession  from  Elijah,  Elisha,  and  the  sons  of 
the  prophets.  Phocas,  a  Greek  monk,  speaks  the 
most  reasonably.  He  says  that  in  his  time,  1 1 85, 
Elias's  cave  was  still  extant  on  the  mountain ; 
near  which  were  the  remains  of  a  building,  which 
intimated  that  there  had  been  anciently  a  monas- 
tery™ that  some  years  before,  an  old  monk,  a 
priest  of  Calabria,  by  revelation,  as  he  pre- 
tended, from  the  prophet  Elias,  fixed  there, 
and  assembled  ten  brothers.  In  1209  Albert, 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  gave  the  solitaries  a 
rigid  rule,  which  Papebroch  has  since  printed. 
This  rule  contained  sixteen  articles.  These  con- 
fined them  to  their  cells ;  enjoined  them  to 
continue  day  and  night  in  prayer;  prohibited 
their  having  any  property ;  enjoined  fasting  from 
the  feast  of  the  holy  cross  till  Easter,  except  on 
Sundays ;  abstinence  at  all  times  from  flesh ; 
obliged  them  to  manual  labor ;  imposed  a  strict 
silence  on  them  from  vespers  till  the  tierce  the 
next  day.  After  the  establishment  of  the  Car- 
melites in  Europe,  their  rule  was  in  some  res- 
pects altered  ;  the  first  time,  by  pope  Innocent 
IV.,  who  added  to  the  first  article  a  precept  of 
chastity,  and  relaxed  the  eleventh,  which  enjoins 
abstinence  at  all  times  from  flesh,  permitting 
them,  when  they  travelled,  to  eat  boiled  flesh. 
The  rule  was  again  mitigated  by  the  popes  Eu- 
genius  IV.,  and  Pius  II.  The  habit  of  the  Car- 
melites was  at  first  white,  and  the  cloak  laced  at 
the  bottom  with  several  lists,.  But  Pope  Hono- 
rius  IV.  commanded  them  to  change  it  for  that 
of  the  Minims.  Their  scapulary  is  a  small 
woolen  habit  of  a  brown  color,  thrown  over  their 
shoulders.  They  wear  no  linen  shirts ;  but 
instead  of  them  linsey  wolsey,  which  they  change 
twice  a  week  in  the  summer  and  once  a  week  in 
the  winter. 

CARMEN,  an  ancient  term  among  the  Latins, 
used  in  various  senses ;  as  1 .  a  verse :  2.  a 
spell,  charm,  form  of  expiation  or  execration, 
couched  in  few  words,  in  a  mystic  order,  on 
which  its  efficacy  depended. 

CARMENTA,  or  CARMETIS,  in  fabulous  his- 
tory, a  prophetess  of  Arcadia,  and  the  mother  of 
Evander,  with  whom  she  came  into  Italy  sixty 
years  before  the  Trojan  war. 

CARMINATIVES  comprehend  coriander- 
seeds,  aniseed,  peppermint,and  the  like  medicines, 
used  in  colics,  or  other  flatulent  disorders,  to 
dispel  wind.  The  word  comes  from  the  Latin 
carmen,  a  charm  ;  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  general  name  for  all  medicines  which  operated, 
like  charms,  in  an  extraordinary  manner.  Hence, 
as  the  most  violent  pains  frequently  arose  from 
wind,  and  immediately  ceased  upon  its  disper- 
sion, the  term  carminative  was  applied  to  medi- 
cines which  gave  relief  in  windy  cases,  as  if  they 
cured  by  enchantment.  It  is  now  almost  obsolete. 

CARMINE,  a  powder,  of  a  very  beautiful 
red  color,  partaking  of  the  shades  of  scarlet  and 
purple.  It  is  used  by  painters  in  miniature; 
but,  on  account  of  its  high  price,  they  are  often 
induced  to  substitute  lake.  The  manner  of  pro- 
ducing it  is  preserved  a  secret  by  color-makers ; 
and,  though  many  receipts  have  been  published, 
none  has  ever  been  found  to  answer  the  purpose. 
See  PAINTING. 


CAR 


172 


CAR 


CAR'NAGE,  n. 
CAR'NAL,  adj. 
CAR'JJALIST,  n. 
CAR'NALITE,  n. 
CARNAL'ITY,  n. 
CAR'NALIZE,  v. 
CAR'NALLY,  adj. 
CAR'NALNESS,  n. 
CAR'NAL-MINDED,  adj. 
CAR'NAL-MINDEDNESS,W.J 


note  belonging  to  the  flesh  ;  addicted  to  fleshly 
practices  ;  unspiritual ;  sensual ;  gross  ;  and  in 
their  worst  sense,  libidinous,  lustful,  lecherous. 
A  carnalite  is  a  worldly-minded  man ;  a  carna- 
list  seems  to  be  some  shades  darker  in  character ; 
to  carnalise  is  to  degrade  the  mind  by  employing 
it  in  ministering  only  to  the  lusts  of  the  flesh  ; 
reducing  it  to  that  state  in  which',  as  Milton 
beautifully  expresses  it, 

The  soul  grows  clotted  by  contagion, 
Imbodies  ami  imbrutes,  till  she  quite  lose 
The  divine  property  of  her  first  being. 

For  to  be  carnally -minded  is  death  ;  but  to  be  spi- 
ritually minded  is  life  and  peace.  •  Because  the 
carnal  mind  is  enmity  against  God  :  for  it  is  not 
subject  to  the  law  of  God,  neither  indeed  can  be. 

Romans  viii.  7. 

So  as  fortune  wold  that  was  Isopes  frend, 
This  worthy  king  that  same  yere  made  his  carnal  end. 
Chaucer.  Cant.  Tales. 

CARNARVON,    a  town    in   the  parish  of 
Llanbeblig,  hundred  of  Is-gorfai,  and  county 
of  Caernarvon,  in  North  Wales.    It  is  a  borough 
town,  the  capital  of  the  county,  and  of  the  northern 
principality,  and  is  beautifully  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  the  river  Seiont  with  the  straits  of 
Menai.      Here  are  held  the  great  and  quarter 
sessions.     Markets  on  Wednesdays  and  Satur- 
days, and  five  fairs  in  each  year.  It  lies  235  miles 
north-west  by  west  of  London.    The  population 
is  estimatedat  5,788.  The  public  buildings  are  not 
architectural  although  convenient.    The  hotel  is  a 
handsome  design,  and  the  English  chapel  ap- 
propriate, but  the  county  court,  market  house, 
gaol,  and  custom  house,  have  only  the  excel- 
lence of    their  accommodation  to   recommend 
them.    The  guild,  or  town  hall,  is  a  handsome 
apartment  occupying  the  ancient  flanking  towers 
of   the  principal  gate.      It   was    restored  and 
decorated  at  the  expense  of  Sir  Watkyn  Williams 
Wynne,  bart.      Three    excellent  and  spacious 
inns  are    provided   for  the  accommodation  of 
visiters,  exclusive  of  several  comfortable  houses 
of  less  pretensions.  The  domestic  or  country  trade 
of  this  town  is  considerable,  but  its  prosperity 
and  wealth  are  attributable  to  the  large  exports 
of  slate  made  annually  from  the  quays.     The 
metal  of  Cylgwyn  and  Llanllyffni  quarries  is 
superior  to  the  smooth  pink  slate  exported  from 
other  places,    a    circumstance    seldom    known 
beyond  the  vicinity  of  the  slate  country.     Ships 
are  repaired  here,  and  vessels  occasionally  built, 
a  trade  much  promoted  by  the  advantage  of  a 
patent  slip.     The  noble  castle  of  Caernarvon, 
the    birth    place   of   Edward   II.  is  the    most 
spacious  and  elegant  of  the  first  Edward's  mili- 
tary structuies,  being  intended  for  the  residence 
of  the  royal  family.     It  appears  as  a  figure-head 


This  whole  class  of  the  harp-like  form  into  which  the  ancient 
of  words  descends  walls  are  disposed,  a  design  artfully  adopted, 
from  Lat.  caro,  car-  like  the  accouchement  of  Queen  Eleanor  in 
nis,  flesh.  Carnage  Caernarvon  castle,  to  soothe  and  win  over  his 
means  slaughter;  lately  conquered  subjects.  Caernarvon  is  governed 
massacre;  and  also,  by  a  mayor,  who  is  constable  of  the  castle,  by 
poetically,  heaps  patent,  one  alderman,  and  two  bailiffs,  &c.,  and, 
of  flesh.  Carnal,  in  conjunction  with  Pwllheli  and  other  ancient 
and  the  words  places,  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  Near 
formed  from  it,  de-  the  site  of  King  Edward's  fortifications  stood  the 
ancient  Roman  Segoritium,  some  small  remains 
of,  which  still  exist,  a  Roman  road  may  also  be 
traced,  and  several  camps  or  stations  are  yet 
quite  perfect  at  small  distances  around.  Plus 
Mawr,  within  the  walls,  a  mansion  belonging 
to  one  of  the  earliest  Saxon  settlers  walls,  may 
be  classed  amongst  the  antiquities.  The  Her- 
bert family  take  the  title  of  earl  from  this  ancient 
town. 

CARNARVONSHIRE,  a  county  of  North 
Wales.      It  is  bounded  by  the  sea  on  the  north, 
by  Denbighshire  on  the  east,  by  Merionethshire 
and  the  sea  on  the  south,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Menai  straits  and  the  Irish  Sea.      It  extends 
forty-five  miles  in  length,  but  varies  exceedingly 
in  breadth,   and  occupies  an  area  of  260,000 
acres  of  land.      It  is  divided  into  ten  hundreds, 
viz. :   Commitmaen,  Creuddyn,  Dinllaen,  Effi- 
onydd,  Gafflogian,  Isaf,  Is-gorfai,  Nant-Conway, 
Uchaf,  Uwch-gorfai,  and  the  separate  jurisdiction 
of  Bangor  city.     It  includes  the  market  towns 
of  Caernarvon,  Pwllheli,  and  Nevin,  and  em- 
braces   seventy-one    parishes,    subject    to    the 
control  of  the  bishop  of  Bangor.     The  popu- 
lation is  estimated  at  66,500.     This  is  one  of  the 
most  mountainous  and  romantic  districts  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  here  the  great  chain  of 
mountains,  which  appears  to  rise  from  the  sea 
at  Penmaen-mawr  and  the  Rifaels,  attains  its 
maximum  height,  3759  feet  in  the  summit  of 
Snowdon,  the   loftiest  of  the  Cambrian    Alps. 
The  general  composition  of  the  Caernarvonshire 
hills  is  clay  slate,   including  copper  and  lead 
ores,  the  principal  mines  of  which  are  situated 
at    Llanberis,   Nantle-pooles,  and    Beddgelert, 
besides    pure    slate    at    Llandegai,  Llanberis, 
Llanllyffni,  and  other  places.     In  the  export  of 
slates,  ores,  light  cattle,  and  some  woollen,  the 
chief  trade  consists,  and  the  accommodation  of 
tourists  forms  a  profitable  occupation  to  num- 
bers.    Many  rivers  and  rivulets  descend  from 
the  mountains,  and  either  proceed  with  short 
courses  to  the  sea  or  meander  into  the  adjoining 
counties.  The  Conway  is  the  most  important,  and 
perhaps  the  next  in  magnitude  are  the  Ogwen, 
Llugwy,  Lleder,  Seiont,  and  Coluryn.  Lakes  are 
also  numerous,  almost  every  hollow  amongst  the 
hills  constitutes  a  draining  reservoir  of  an  ex- 
tensive district.      Llanberis  and   Nantgwynant 
lakes  are  celebrated  for  the  sublimity  of  the 
accompanying  scenery,  to  which  may  be  added, 
as  not  inferior  in  grandeur,  Llyn  Idwal,  Ogwren, 
and  Crafnant.     Strangers  have  been  admitted 
to  an  inspection  of  the  wildest  districts  of  this 
county  by  the  construction  of  excellent  roads 
through  Llanberis   and  Nant  Francon,  and    a 
free  intercourse  is  opened  with  Anglesea  by  the 
erection  of  the  Menai  suspension  bridge.     The 
remains  of  antiquity  are  various  and  many.   The 


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173 


CAR 


Cairn,  Cromlech,  and  Roman  camp  are  still 
distinguishable.  Ancient  British  castles  remain 
at  Dolwydellan,  Nant  Francon,  Criccieth,  and 
Dolbadarn,  while  the  noble  ruins  of  Caernarvon 
and  Conway  castles  evince  the  power  and 
resources  of  the  English  prince  by  whom  Cam- 
bria was  finally  subdued. 

CARNATIC,  a  territory  of  Hindostan,  ex- 
tending along  the  east  coast  from  Cape  Comorin, 
the  southern  extremity  of  Asia,  in  8°  4'  N.  lat. 
to  near  the  mouth  of  theKistnain  16°N.  lat.  vary- 
ing in  breadth  from  fifty  to  100  miles,  bounded 
on  the  west  by  the  Mysore,  and  on  the  east  for 
about  two  degrees  of  latitude,  by  the  gulf  of 
Manara  and  Palk's  Strait,  which  divides  it  from 
the  north  end  of  the  island  of  Ceylon,  the  re- 
mainder of  its  eastern  boundary  being  better 
known  by  the  name  of  the  coast  of  Coromandel. 
The  principal  towns  on  the  coast,  beginning  from 
the  south,  are  Negapatam,  Pondicherry,  Madras, 
Pullicat,  and  Gangapatam;  and  those  in  the  in- 
terior, beginning  also  from  the  south,  are  Tinevelly, 
Madura,  Tritchinopoly,  Tanjore,  Atcot,  Nellore, 
and  Ongole.  Numerous  streams  and  rivers  from 
the  westward  intersect  this  territory,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  are  the  Cauvery,  Cuddalore,  Paliare, 
and  Pennar.  The  soil  is  various  in  quality, 
being  in  some  places  exceedingly  fertile,  and  in 
others  sandy  and  barren ;  and  the  inhabitants 
occasionally  exposed  to  great  privation  for  want 
of  water.  Numerous  fortresses,  and  monuments 
of  art,  are  spread  over  every  part  of  this  territory, 
indicating  long  continued  civilisation  and  opu- 
lence, more  so  than  in  most  other  parts  of  Hin- 
dostan. The  Carnatic  was  formerly  the  domi- 
nion of  the  nabob  of  Arcot,  who  became  one  of 
the  earliest  and  apparently  most  faithful  allies  of 
the  British  in  their  career  of  conquest  in  the  east. 
The  nabob  of  Arcot's  dominions  were  guaranteed 
to  him,  on  condition  of  paying  a  subsidy  of  fif- 
teen lacks  of  pagodas  annually,  afterwards  re- 
duced to  nine  lacks,  and  further  not  to  enter  into 
alliance  with  any  European  or  other  power,  with-, 
out  the  consent  of  the  British.  But,  on  the  sur- 
render of  Seringapatam  to  the  British  in  1800, 
there  was  found,  among  the  records  of  the  sultan, 
papers  confirmatory  of  the  secret  violation  of  the 
treaty  of  the  nabob  of  Arcot  with  the  British, 
who  consequently  dispossessed  the  nabob  of  his 
authority,  and  since  1801  the  Carnatic  has  been 
uninterruptedly  possessed  by  the  British,  and 
included  in  the  presidency  of  MADRAS,  which 
see. 

CARNATION,  n.s.  >       ~Fr.incarnadin;    Ital. 

CARNA'TIONED,  adj.  \incarnatino,  incarnato; 
Span,  encarnado ;  Lat.  caro,  carnis.  The  natural 
flesh  color  ;  the  name  of  a  flower.  The  adjec- 
tive denotes  colored  like  the  flower.  When  the 
flesh  is  well  executed,  and  has  the  natural  tint, 
painters  say,  '  the  carnation  is  very  good.' 

And  lo  the  wretch !  whose  vile,  whose  insect  lust 
Laid  this  gay  daughter  of  the  spring  in  dust : 
O  punish  him  !  or  to  the  Elysian  shades 
Dismiss  my  soul,  where  no  carnation  fades.          Pope. 

While  the  hues  of  youth, 
Carnationed  like  a  sleeping  infant's  cheek, 
Rocked  by  the  beating  of  her  mother's  heart, 
Or  the  rose  tints  that  summer  twilight  leaves 
Upon  the  lofty  glacier's  virgin  snow, 


The  blush  of  earth  embracing  with  her  heaven, 
Tinge  thy  celestial  aspect,  and  make  tame 
The  beauties  of  the  sun-bow  which  bends  o'er  theo. 

Byron's  Manfred, 

CARNATION,  in  botany.     See  DIANTHUS. 

CARNATION,  among  painters,  is  understood  of 
all  the  parts  of  a  picture,  in  general,  which 
represent  flesh,  or  which  are  naked  and  without 
drapery.  Titian  and  Corregio  in  Italy,  and  Ru- 
bens and  Vandyke  in  Flanders,  excelled  in 
carnations.  In  coloring  for  flesh,  there  is  so  great 
a  variety,  that  it  is  hard  to  lay  down  any  general 
rules  for  instruction  therein;  neither  are  there 
any  regarded  by  those  who  have  acquired  a  skill 
this  way.  The  various  coloring  for  carnations 
may  be  easily  produced,  by  taking  more  or  less 
red,  blue,  yellow,  or  bistre,  whether  for  the  first 
coloring,  or  for  the  finishing :  the  color  for 
women  should  be  bluish ;  for  children  a  little 
red,  both  fresh  and  gay  ;  and  for  the  men  it 
should  incline  to  yellow,  especially  if  they  are 
old. 

CARNATION,  SPANISH.     See  POINCIANA. 

CARNATION  TREE.     See  CACALIA. 

CARNEADES,  a  celebrated  Greek  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Cyrene  in  Africa,  and  founder  of 
the  third  academy.  He  was  an  antagonist  of  the 
Stoics ;  and  applied  himself  with  great  eagerness 
to  refute  the  works  of  Chrysippus,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  philosophers  of  their  sect.  The 
power  of  his  eloquence  was  dreaded  even  by  the 
Roman  senate.  The  Athenians  being  condemned 
by  the  Romans  to  pay  a  fine  of  500  talents  for 
plundering  the  city  of  Oropus,  sent  Carneades, 
Diogenes,  and  Critolaus,  to  Rome,  as  ambassa- 
dors, who  got  it  mitigated  to  100  talents.  Be- 
fore they  had  an  audience  of  the  senate,  they 
harangued  to  great  multitudes,  in  different  parts 
of  the  city.  Carneades  excelled  in  the  vehe- 
ment, and  rapid  Critolaus  in  the  correct  and 
elegant,  and  Diogenes  in  the  simple  and  modest 
kind  of  eloquence.  The  former  having  one  day 
harangued  before  Galba,  and  Cato  the  censor 
with  great  variety  of  thought,  and  copiousness 
of  diction,  in  praise  of  justice,  undertook  the 
next  day,  with  a  view  of  establishing  the  doc- 
trine of  the  uncertainty  of  human  knowledge, 
to  refute  all  his  former  arguments.  Cato 
moved,  that  these  ambassadors  should  be  im- 
mediately sent  back,  as  it  was  very  difficult  to 
discern  the  truth  through  the  arguments  of  Car- 
neades. He  was  afraid  of  that  subtlety  of  wit, 
with  which  Carneades  maintained  either  side  of 
a  question.  His  grand  principle  was,  trnt  there 
are  only  resemblances  of  truth  in  the  mind  of 
man;  so  that  of  two  things  directly  opposite, 
either  may  be  chosen  indifferently.  Quintilian 
remarks,  that  though  Carneades  argued  in  favor 
of  injustice,  yet  he  himself  acted  according  to 
the  strictest  rules  of  justice.  Carneades  lived  to 
be  eighty-five  years  old ;  some  say  ninety :  his 
death  is  placed  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  162d 
Olympiad. 

CARNEDDE,  in  British  antiquity,  heaps  of 
stones,  supposed  to  be  druidical  remains,  and 
thrown  together  at  confirming  a  covenant.  Gen. 
xxxi.  46.  They  are  very  common  in  the  isle  of 
Anglesey. 


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174 


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CARNEIA,  in  antiquity,  a  festival  in  honor 
of  Apollo,  surnamed  Carneus,  held  in  most  cities 
of  Greece,  but  especially  at  Sparta,  where  it  was 
first  instituted.  The  reason  of  the  name,  as  well 
as  the  occasion  of  the  institution,  is  controverted. 
It  lasted  nine  days,  beginning  on  the  thirteenth 
day  of  the  month  Carneus.  The  ceremonies 
were  an  imitation  of  the  method  of  living  and 
discipline  used  in  camps. 

CARNEL;  the  building  of  ships,  first  with 
their  timber  and  beams,  and  after  bringing  on 
their  planks,  is  called  camel  work,  to  distinguish 
it  from  clinch  work.  Vessels  also,  which  go  with 
mizen  sails  instead  of  main  sails,  are  by  some 
called  camels. 

CARNELIAN,  or  CORNELION,  in  natural 
history,  a  sub-species  of  calcedony,  of  which 
there  are  three  kinds,  distinguished  by  three 
colors,  a  red,  a  yellow,  and  a  white.  The  red  is 
very  well  known  among  us ;  is  found  in  round- 
ish or  oval  masses,  like  our  common  pebbles, 
and  is  generally  met  with  between  one  inch  and 
two  or  three  inches  in  diameter :  it  is  of  a  fine, 
compact,  and  close  texture  ;  of  a  glossy  surface ; 
am1  of  all  the  degrees  of  red,  from  the  palest 
flesi  color  to  the  deepest  blood  red.  It  has  a 
conchoidal  fracture,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  2'6. 
It  is  semitransparent,  and  has  a  glistening  lustre. 
It  consists  of  94  silica,  3'5  alumina,  and  0'75 
oxide  of  iron.  It  is  generally  free  from  spots, 
clouds,  or  variegations;  but  sometimes  it  is 
veined  very  beautifully  with  an  extremely  pale 
red,  or  with  white ;  the  veins  forming  concentric 
circles,  or  other  less  regular  figures,  about  a  nu- 
cleus, in  the  manner  of  those  of  agates.  The 
pieces  of  carnelian  which  are  all  of  one  color, 
and  perfectly  free  from  veins,  are  those  which 
our  jewellers  generally  make  use  of  for  seals, 
though  the  variegated  ones  are  much  more  beau- 
tiful. For  this  purpose  it  is  excellently  adapted, 
being  not  too  hard  for  cutting,  and  yet  hard 
enough  not  to  be  liable  to  accidents,  to  take  a 
good  polish,  and  to  separate  easily  from  the  wax. 
It  is  not  at  all  affected  by  acid  menstruums : 
the  fire  divests  it  of  a  part  of  its  color,  and  leaves 
it  of  a  pale  red ;  but  a  strong  and  long  continued 
heat  will  reduce  it  to  a  pale  dirty  gray.  The 
finest  carnelians  are  those  of  the  East  Indies ; 
but  there  are  very  beautiful  ones  found  in  the 
rivers  of  Silesia  and  Bohemia;  and  we  have 
some  good  ones  in  Britain. 

CARNESVILLE.  See  FRANKFORT. 
CARNEW,  a  parish  and  town  of  Ireland;  the 
parish  is  partly  in  the  county  of  Wicklow,  and 
partly  in  Wexford,  and  in  1821  contained  a  po- 
pulation of  5328.  The  town  is  in  the  county  of 
Wicklow  forty-four  miles  S.S.W.  of  Dublin,  and 
sixteen  north  of  Enniscorthy,  and  in  1821  con- 
tained 855  inhabitants ;  it  has  some  manufactures 
of  coarse  woollens.  It  is  distinguished  for  the 
defeat  of  the  king's  troops  by  the  insurgents  in 
1798. 

CARNHAWL,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the 
province  of  Delhi.  Here,  in  1739,  Kouli  Khan 
gained  a  victory  over  the  army  of  the  great 
mogul;  and  in  1761  the  Seiks,  under  Abdalla, 
defeated  the  Mahrattas.  It  is  seated  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Hissar  canal  with  the  Jumna.  It  is 
eighty  miles  north-west  of  Delhi. 


CARNIFEX,  among  the  Romans,  the  common 
executioner.  By  reason  of  the  odiousness  of  his 
office,  he  was  expressly  prohibited  from  having 
his  dwelling  house  within  the  city.  In  middle 
age  writers,  carnifex  denotes  a  butcher.  Under 
the  Anglo-Danish  kings,  the  carnifex  was  an  offi- 
cer of  great  dignity;  being  ranked  with  the 
archbishop  of  York,  earl  Goodwin,  and  the  lord 
steward.  Flor.  Wigorn.  Anno.  1040.  The  pub- 
lic executioner  was  also  an  office  of  dignity  y 
under  the  kings  of  Israel. 

CA'RNIFY,v.        ^j      All   from  Lat.  caro, 

CARNIFICA'TION,  n.  I  carnis.     To  carnifyis  to 

CARNI'VOROUS,  adj.  I  generate  flesh  ;  to  con- 

CARNO'SITY,  n.          j  vert  nutriment  into  flesh; 

CA'RNOUS,  adj.          \  carnificating  is  the  ac- 

CA'RNEOUS,  adj.       j  tion  of  so  generating  or 

converting.     Carnivorous  is  flesh-eating ;    car- 

nosity  is  a  fleshy  excrescence  ;  and  carnous  and 

carneous  are  fleshy. 

At  the  same  time,  I  think,  I  deliberate,  I  purpose, 
I  command  ;  in  inferior  faculties,  I  walk,  I  see,  I 
hear,  I  digest,  I  sanguify,  I  carnify. 

Hale.   Origin  of  Mankind. 

The  first  or  outward  part  is  a  thick  and  carnous 
covering,  like  that  of  a  walnut ;  the  second,  a  dry 
and  flosculous  coat,  commonly  called  mace. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

In  a  calf,  the  umbilical  vessels  terminate  in  certain 
bodies,  divided  into  a  multitude  of  carneous  papillae. 

Ray. 

The  muscle  whereby  he  is  enabled  to  draw  himself 
together,  the  anatomists  describe  to  be  a  distinct  car- 
nous  muscle,  extended  to  the  ear.  Id. 

In  birds  there  is  no  mastication  or  comminution  of 
the  meat  in  the  mouth ;  but,  in  such  as  are  not  carni- 
vorous, it  is  immediately  swallowed  into  the  crop  or 
craw.  Id. 

By  this  method,  and  by  this  course  of  diet,  with 
sudorificks,  the  ulcers  are  healed,  and  that  carnosity 
resolved.  Wiseman, 

Man  is  by  his  frame,  as  well  as  by  his  appetite, 
a  carnivorous  animal.  Ar  but  knot. 

But  man  is  a  carnivorous  production, 

And  must  have  meals,  at  least  one  meal  a  day  ; 
He  cannot  live  like  woodcocks  upon  suction, 

But,  like  the  shark  and  tiger,  must  have  prey. 

Byron's  Don  Juan. 

CARNIOLA,  a  ducny  of  Germany,  anciently 
Carnia,  from  the  Carni,  a  tribe  of  Scythians,  is 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and 
part  of  Istria;  on  the  north  by  Carinthia  and 
Stiria;  on  the  east  by  Sclavonia  and  Croatia; 
on  the  west  by  Friuli,  the  county  of  Gorz  or 
Goritz,  and  a  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Venice ;  ex- 
tending in  length  about  110  miles,  and  in  breadth 
about  fifty.  It  is  very  mountainous :  some  of 
its  hilly  parts  being  cultivated  and  inhabited, 
others  covered  with  wood,  and  others  buried  in 
perpetual  snow.  The  valleys  are  remarkably 
fruitful.  Here  are  also  mines  of  iron,  lead,  and 
copper;  but  salt  is  an  imperial  monopoly.  It 
contains  many  medicinal  springs  and  inland 
lakes.  The  common  people  are  very  hardy,  go- 
ing barefooted  in  winter  through  the  snow,  with 
open  breasts,  and  sleeping  on  a  hard  bench, 
without  bed  or  bolster.  Their  food  is  also  very 
coarse  and  mean.  In  winter,  when  tho.  snow 


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175 


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lies  deep  on  the  ground,  the  mountaineers  bind 
either  small  baskets,  or  long  thin  narrow  boards, 
like  the  Laplanders,  to  their  feet,  on  which,  with 
the  help  of  a  stout  staff,  they  descend  with  great 
velocity  from  the  mountains.  When  the  snow 
is  frozen,  they  make  use  of  a  sort  of  skaits.  In 
different  parts  the  inhabitants  differ  greatly  in 
their  dress,  language,  and  manner  of  living.  In 
Upper  and  Lower  Carniola  they  wear  long 
beards.  The  languages  chiefly  in  use  are  the 
Sclavonian  and  German.  The  duchy  is  divided 
into  the  Upper,  Lower,  Middle,  and  Inner,  Car- 
niola. The  principal  commodities  exported  are 
iron,  steel,  lead,  quicksilver,  white  and  red 
wine,  oil  of  olives,  cattle,  sheep,  cheese,  linen, 
and  a  kind  of  woollen  stuff  called  mahalan,  Spa- 
nish leather,  honey,  walnuts,  and  timber ; 
together  with  all  manner  of  wood  work,  as  boxes, 
dishes,  &c.  Christianity  was  first  planted  here 
in  the  eighth  century.  Lutheranism  made  a  con- 
siderable progress  in  it;  but,  excepting  the 
Wallachians  or  Uskokes,  who  are  of  the  Greek 
church,  and  style  themselves  staraverzi,  i.  e.  old 
believers,  all  the  inhabitants  are  Roman  Catho- 
lics. Carniola  was  long  a  marquisate,  but  in 
1231  was  erected  into  a  duchy.  As  its  propor- 
tion towards  the  maintenance  of  the  army,  it 
pays  annually  363,171  florins;  but  only  two 
regiments  of  foot  are  quartered  in  it.  Lay- 
bach,  170  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Vienna,  and 
twenty-eight  north-east  of  Trieste,  is  the  capital 
of  the  duchy.  The  other  principal  towns  are 
Ratmansdorf,  Kramburg,  Stein,  and  Ydria,  in  the 
North  or  Upper  Carniola ;  Weichselburg,  Gu- 
rikfield,  Landstratz,  and  Rudolfweith,  in  the 
south-east,  or  Lower ;  Trieste  in  the  south-west, 
or  Inner ;  and  Laas,  Gottlchee,  Tscherment,  and 
Mouling  in  the  Middle  district.  For  commer- 
cial purposes  it  has  the  advantage  of  the  port  of 
Fiume,  in  Austrian  Istria,  as  well  as  Trieste. 

CA'RNIVAL,  n.  Fr.  carnaval ;  Ital.  carnevale. 
A  popish  feast  before  Lent;  a  time  of  luxury 
See  the  next  article. 

The  whole  year  is  but  one  mad  carnival,  and  we 
are  voluptuous  not  so  much  upon  desire  and  appetite, 
as  by  way  of  exploit  and  bravery. 

Decay  of  Piety. 

0  great  man-eater ! 

Whose  every  day  is  carnival,  not  sated  yet  ? 
Unheard  of  epicure !  without  a  fellow ! 

Blair's  Grave. 

CARNIVAL,  or  CARNAVAL,  was  formerly  ob- 
served with  great  solemnity  by  the  Italians, 
particularly  at  Rome  and  Venice,  from  the 
twelfth  day  till  Lent.  Mr.  Du  Cange  derives 
the  word  from  Cam  a-val,  by  reason  the  flesh 
then  goes  to  pot,  to  make  amends  for  the  season 
of  abstinence  next  ensuing.  Accordingly  in  the 
corrupt  Latin,  he  observes,  it  was  called  carnel- 
evamen,  and  carnisprivium ;  as  the  Spaniards 
still  denominate  it  carnes  tollendas.  Feasts, 
balls,  operas,  concerts  of  music,  marriages,  in- 
trigues, &c.  are  chiefly  held  in  carnival  times. 
It  begins  at  Venice  the  second  holiday  in  Christ- 
mas. Lady  Morgan  gives  the  following  lively 
picture  of  the  carnival  at  Rome  in  1820  : — 

'  To  the  ceremonies  and  festivities  of  Christ- 


mas succeeds  the  carnival:  that  season  of 
enjoyment  over  which  concience  holds  no 
jurisdiction,  and  care  no  sway. 

'  On  the  first  day  of  the  Corso  few  of  the  re- 
gular forces  are  assembled;  but  all  Rome  is 
already  a  masquerade  rehearsal.  Old  women 
are  patching  harlequin's  jackets  before  their 
doors.  Young  ones  assume  the  innocent  waxen- 
faced  mask,  white  trowsers,  and  shirt  hanging 
loosely  over  every  thing,  with  its  sleeves  tied 
with  colored  ribbons — the  common  disguise  of  all 
those  who  can  afford  no  other.  Already  they 
try  the  point  of  their  yet  unexercised  wit,  and 
'  intriguent'  and  '  danno  guai,'  (i.  e.  tease  and 
torment)  all  who  pass  on  foot  or  in  carriages ; 
but  more  especially  the  forestieri,  who  are  usuallv 
taken  for  English.  Children  are  every  where 
busy  making  or  tying  on  their  paper  masks, 
and  girding  their  wooden  swords.  At  the  sound 
of  the  cannon,  which  fired  from  the  Piazza  di 
Venezia,  each  day  announce  the  commencement 
of  the  amusements,  shops  are  closed,  palaces  de- 
serted, and  the  Corso's  long  and  narrow  defile 
teems  with  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Roman 
population.  The  scene  then  exhibited  is  truly 
singular ;  and  for  the  first  day  or  two  infinitely 
amusing.  The  whole  length  of  the  street,  from 
the  Porta  del  Popolo  to  the  foot  of  the  Capitol, 
a  distance  of  considerably  more  than  a  mile,  is 
patrolled  by  troops  of  cavalry,  the  windows  and 
balconies  are  crowded  from  the  first  to  the  sixth 
story  by  spectators  and  actors,  who  from  time  to 
time  descend,  and  take  their  place  and  parts  in 
the  procession  of  carriages,  or  among  the  maskers 
on  foot.  Here  and  there  the  monk's  crown  and 
cardinal's  red  skull-cap  are  seen  peeping  among 
heads  not  more  fantastic  than  their  own.  The 
chairs  and  scaffolding  along  the  sides  of  the 
street  are  filled  to  crushing  with  maskers,  and 
countryfolk  in  their  gala  dresses  (by  far  the  most 
grotesque  that  the  Carnival  produces).  The 
centre  of  the  Corso  is  occupied  by  the  carriages 
of  princes,  potentates,  the  ambassadors  of  all 
nations,  and  the  municipality  of  Rome ;  and 
two  lines  of  carriages,  moving  in  opposite  di- 
rections on  each  side,  are  filled  by  English  peers, 
Irish  commoners,  Polish  counts,  Spanish  gran- 
dees, German  barons,  Scotch  lairds,  and  French 
marquises ;  but  above  all,  by  the  hired  jobs  of 
the  badauds  and  pizzicaroli  of  Rome.  These 
form  not  the  least  curious  and  interesting  part  of 
the  procession,  and  best  represent  the  Carnival, 
as  it  existed  a  century  back.  In  an  open  car- 
riage sits,  bolt  upright,  la  signora  padrona,  or 
mistress  of  the  family,  nearly  the  whole  of  her 
beautiful  bust  exposed,  or  only  covered  by  rows 
of  coral,  pearl,  or  false  gems  :  her  white  satin 
robe  and  gaudy  head-dress  left  to  *  the  pitiless 
pelting  of  the  storm,'  showered  indiscriminately 
from  all  the  houses  and  by  the  pedestrians  on 
the  occupants  of  carriages,  in  the  form  of  sugar- 
plums, but  in  substance  of  plaster  of  paris  or 
lime.  Opposite  to  her,  sits  her  caro  sposo,  the 
model  of  all  those  cari  sposi,  of  whom  Jerry 
Sneak  is  the  abstract  and  type.  He,  good  man 
is  dressed  as  a  grand  sultan  or  Muscovite  czar  : 
his  hands  meekly  folded,  his  eyes  blinded  with 
lime,  and  his  face  unmasked,  to  show  that  it  is 


CAR 

ta  him  belongs  the  gay  set-out,  the  handsome 
wife,  the  golden  turban,  and  crimson  caftan. 
The  cavalier  pagante,  if  there  is  one  in  the  family, 
or  the  favorite  Abate,  if  there  is  not,  occupies 
the  place  next  the  lady,  snugly  hidden  under  the 
popular  dress  of  Pierrot  or  Pagliaccio  ;  while 
all  the  little  signorini  of  the  family,  male  and 
female,  habited  as  harlequins,  columbines,  and 
kings  and  queens,  are  stuffed  in  without  mercy. 
Even  the  coachman  is  supplied  with  a  dress, 
and  straddles  over  the  box  as  an  elderly  lady,  or 
an  Arcadian  shepherdess ;  and  the  footman  (or 
the  shop  'prentice,  or  the  scroccone,  who  assumes 
his  place  behind  the  carriage)  takes  the  guise  of 
an  English  miss,  or  a  French  court  lady ;  and 
figures  in  a  spencer  and  short  petticoat,  with  an 
occasional  '  god-dam ;'  or,  accoutred  with  an 
hoop  and  a  fan,  salutes  the  passers-by  with 
'  Buon  giour,.  Messieurs.' 

'  The  carriages  of  a  few  of  the  princes,  of  the 
governor  of  Rome,  and  of  Monsieur  Blacas,  the 
French  ambassador,  were  conspicuous  for  their 
gaudy  splendor;  while  the  morris-dancers  of 
Europe,  the  most  thinking  people  of  England, 
always  foremost  in  the  career  of  amusement, 
made  more  noise,  occasioned  more  bustle,  and 
threw  more  lime,  than  all  the  rest  of  the  popu- 
lation put  together. 

'  At  the  Ave  Maria,  or  fall  of  day,  the  cannon 
again  fire  as  a  signal  to  clear  the  street  for  the 
horse-course.  All  noise  then  ceases ;  the  car- 
riages file  off  by  the  nearest  avenue,  their  owners 
scramble  to  their  windows,  balconies,  chairs,  or 
scaffolds;  while  the  pedestrians,  that  have  no 
such  resources,  driven  by  the  soldiery  from  the 
open  street,  are  crowded  on  the  footways  to  suf- 
focation. But  no  terror,  no  discipline,  can  res- 
train their  ardor  to  see  the  first  starting  of  the 
horses ;  and  lives,  constantly  risked,  are  fre- 
quently lost  in  this  childish  eagerness  for  a 
childish  amusement. 

'  A  temporary  barrier,  erected  near  the  Porta 
del  Popolo,  is  the  point  from  which  the  race 
commences :  another  on  the  Piazzi  di  Venezia  is 
the  termination  of  the  course.  The  horses  are 
small,  and  of  little  value.  They  have  no  rider, 
but  are  placed  each  in  a  stall  behind  a  rope, 
which  is  dropped  as  soon  as  the  moment  for 
starting  arrives ;  when  the  animals  seldom 
require  to  be  put  in  motion  by  force.  A  number 
of  tin  foil  and  paper  flags  are  stuck  over  their 
haunches,  small  pointed  bodies  are  placed  to 
operate  as  a  spur ;  and  the  noise  and  the  pain  of 
these  decorations  serve  to  put  the  horse  on  his 
full  speed,  to  which  it  is  further  urged  by  the 
shouting  of  the  populace.  At  the  sound  of  the 
trumpet  (the  signal  for  starting),  even  at  the 
approach  of  the  officer  who  gives  the  order,  the 
animals  exhibit  their  impatience  to  be  off;  and 
they  continue  their  race,  or  rather  their  flight, 
amidst  the  screams,  plaudits,  and  vivats  of  the 
people  of  all  ranks.  This  scene  forms  the  last 
act  of  each  day's  spectacle ;  when  every  one  is 
obliged  to  quit  his  Carnival  habit ;  for  it  is  only 
on  one  or  two  particular  evenings  that  there  is  a 
masked  ball  at  the  Alberti  Palace.' 

CABNOSITY  is  used  by  some  authors  for  a 
little  tubercle  or  wen,  formed  in  the  urethra,  ihe 


OAR 

neck  of  the  bladder,  or  yard,  which  stops  the 
passage  of  the  urine.  Carnosities  are  very  dif- 
ficult of  cure  :  they  are  not  easily  known  but 
by  introducing  a  probe  into  the  passage,  which 
there  meets  with  resistance.  They  usually  arise 
from  some  ill  managed  venereal  malady. 

CARNOT  (L.  N.),  a  distinguished  revolu- 
tionist of  France,  was  born  in  Burgundy,  ana 
entered  the  corps  of  engineers  while  very  young. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  revolution  he  was  a 
knight  of  the  order  of  St.  Louis,  and  a  deputy 
to  the  national  convention.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  committee  of  public  safety,  in  the 
days  of  Robespierre,  Barrere,  Couthon,  and 
St.  Just,  and  had  the  chief  direction  of  military 
affairs.  When,  on  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  the 
convention  arrested  the  other  members  of  the 
committee,  he  insisted  on  sharing  their  fate. 
From  1795  to  1797  he  was  one  of  the  five 
members  of  the  directory,  but  being  charged  in 
the  latter  year  with  a  royalist  conspiracy,  though 
he  was  through  life,  perhaps,  the  steadiest  ot 
modern  republicans,  he  was  sentenced  to  banish- 
ment from  France,  and  Buonaparte,  on  becoming 
first  consul,  recalled  him,  and  made  him  minis- 
ter of  the  war  department.  He  voted  against 
the  establishment  of  the  imperial  government, 
but  this  piece  of  political  honesty  his  master  never 
resented,  and  afterwards  appointed  him  chief 
inspector  of  reviews.  On  his  retiring,  he  re- 
ceived a  pension  of  20,000  francs.  After  the 
campaign  in  Russia,  he  wrote  a  noble  letter  to 
the  now  falling  emperor  of  France,  offering  his 
services  to  his  country,  and  was  made  governor 
of  Antwerp.  During  the  Hundred  Days  Carnot 
was  the  minister  of  the  interior,  and  displayed 
his  previous  probity  and  honor.  In  June  1815  he 
was  a  leading  member  of  the  provisional  go- 
vernment, and  heartily,  but  vainly,  endeavoured 
to  prevent  the  re-establishment  of  monarchy  in 
France,  from  which  he  finally  retired  at  that 
period,  and  died  in  1823,  in  exile.  Buonaparte,  it 
is  said,  spoke  slightingly  of  his  military  opi- 
nions :  but  he  was  certainly  a  superior  military 
mathematician.  His  works  are,  Reflexions  sur  la 
Metaphysique  duCalcul  Infinitesimal,  1 797,8 vo. 
De  la  Correlation  des  Figures  de  Geometric, 
1801,  8vo  ;  La  Geometric  de  Position,  1803, 4to; 
Me  moire  sur  la  Relation  qui  existe  entre  les 
Distances  respectives  de  cinq  Points  quelconques 
pris  dans  1'  Espace,  suivi  d'un  Essai  sur  les 
Transversales,  1806,  4to.  He  also  wrote  On  the 
Defence  of  Fortified  Places. 

CARO  (Annibal),  a  celebrated  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Civita  Nuova  in  1507.  He  was  secre- 
tary to  the  duke  of  Parma :  afterwards  to  car- 
dinal Farnese  ;  and  was  also  a  knight  of  Malta. 
He  translated  Virgil's  yEneid  into  Italian,  and 
was  said  by  some  to  have  equalled  the  original. 
He  also  translated  Aristotle's  Rhetoric,  two  Ora- 
tions of  Gregory  Nazianzen,  |and  a  discourse  of 
Cyprian.  He  wrote  a  comedy ;  and  a  miscellany 
of  his  poems  was  printed  at  Venice  in  1584. 
He  died  in  Rome  in  1566. 

CA'ROB,  s.  A.T.  karob,  garoba ;  Syr.  c/iaronba; 
Mod.  Gr.  icapa/3o\oc,  Span,  carabo ;  Ital.  carru.- 
ba ;  Fr.  carrov.be.  A  tree  bearing  large  pods, 
called  St.  John's  breed,  or  locust.  See  CEUATOMIA. 


CAROLINA. 


177 


CAROCHA,  a  name  which  the  Spaniards  aud 
Portuguese  give  to  a  mitre  made  of  pasteboard, 
on  which  are  painted  flames  and  figures  of  de- 
mons, worn  by  those  who  are  condemned  to 
death  by  the  infernal  tribunal  of  the  inquisition. 

CARO'CHE,  s.  >      Fr.  carosse  ;  Ital.  carroz- 

CARO'CHED,  adj.  \  za;  Lat.  caruca;  napaxiov. 
A  coach;  a  pleasure  carriage.  Minsheu  says,  a 
great  coach.  The  word  is  frequent  in  our  old 
writers,  but  is  now  obsolete.  Mr.  Todd  thinks, 
that  the  modern  unauthorised  term  barouch, 
may  have  been  introduced  by  some  learned 
charioteer,  with  a  retrospective  view  to  caroche.-' 

CAROENON,  in  antiquity,  icapoivov,  or  Ca- 
renum,  names  given  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
to  wine  boiled  over  a  slow  fire,  till  only  a  half, 
third,  or  fourth  part  remained,  and  then  mixed 
with  honey  or  spices.  Wine  thus  improved  ac- 
quired several  other  names,  such  as  mustum,  mul- 
sum,  sapa,  defrutum,  &c.  At  this  time  the  same 
operation  is  performed  with  respect  to  sack, 
Spanish,  Hungarian,  and  Italian  wines.  In 
Italy,  new  wine  which  has  been  thus  boiled,  is 
put  into  flasks,  and  used  for  sallad  and  sauces. 
In  Naples  it  is  called  musto  collo,  but  in  Florence 
it  still  retains  the  name  of  sapa.  Plin.  1.  xxii.  c. 
2.  Columella,  de  re  rustica,  1.  xii.  c.  20. 

CA'ROL,  v.  &  n.  ?      Fr.  carolle  ;  Ital.  carola; 

CA'ROLIXG,  n.  5  Lat.  choraula.  There  is  no 
lack  of  imputed  parents  for  this  word.  .Somner 
thinks  it  probable,  though  it  is  not  easy  to  see 
the  probability,  that  the  words  /cvpte  t\ir}<rov, 
may  have  been  corrupted  into  kyrielle,  whence 
carol.  Menage,  somewhat  more  feasibly,  gives 
choreola,  a  diminutive  of  chorea.  Skinner  sup- 
poses it  to  be  derived  '  a  Fr.  Gall,  carol.le ;  genus 
saltus  modulati;  item  canticum  quoddam  fes- 
tivum,  pnesertim  festo  natalis  usitatum :  forte  & 
Gr.  xaPa>  gaudium,  %atpw,  gaudeo.'  Cleland 
fetches  it  from  the  Celtic,  car,  or  cir,  a  circle ;  be- 
cause k  is  a  song  sung  in  a  round ;  while  Min- 
sheu derives  it  'of  singing,  rola,  rola,  that  is 
bearing  the  burden  of  the  song,  as  they  tearme 
it ;'  and  Mr.  Brande  partly  agrees  with  him,  as 
he  deduces  it  from  cantare  and  rola.  Carolle, 
say  Sherwood,  is  '  a  kind  of  daunce  wherein 
many  daunce  together.'  None  of  them,  how- 
ever, have  noticed  that  the  Welsh  carawl,  a 
love  song,  a  carol,  though  not  bearing  quite  as 
close  a  resemblance  in  the  pronunciation  as 
as  it  does  to  the  eye,  may  possibly  be  the  ori- 
ginal. To  carol  is  to  sing;  to  warble;  to  sing 
joyously ;  to  sing  in  praise  of.  •  A  carol,  in  a  re- 
stricted sense,  is  a  devotional  or  joyous  song ; 
generally,  any  song. 

And  let  the  graces  dance  unto  the  rest, 
For  they  can  do  it  best ; 
The  whiles  the  maidens  do  their  Carols  sing, 
To  which  the  woods  shall  answer,  and  their  echo 
ring.  Spenser. 

The  fields  did  laugh,  the  flowres  did  freshly  spring, 
The  trees  did  bud,  and  early  blossomes  bore, 
And  all  the  quire  of  birds  did  sweetly  sing, 
And  told  the  gardin's  pleasures  in  their  caroling.     Id. 

And  hear  such  heavenly  notes  and  carolings 
Of  God's  high  praise,  that  tills  the  broken  sky.       Id. 
No  night  is  now  with  hymn  or  carol  blest.  Shakfpeare. 

The  carol  they  began  that  hour, 
How  that  life  was  but  a  flower.  Id. 

VOL.  V. 


Even  in  the  Old  Testament,  If  you  listen  to  David's 
harp,  you  shall  hear  as  many  hearse-like  airs  as  carol*. 

Bacon. 

They  gladly  thither  haste  ;  and,  by  a  choir 
Of  squadroned  angels,  hear  his  carol  sung. 

Milton. 

She  with  precious  violed  liquors  heals, 
For  which  the  shepherds  at  their  festivals 
Carol  her  goodness  loud  in  rustic  lays.  Id. 

Opposed  to  her,  on  t'other  side  advance, 
The  costly  feast,  the  carol  and  the  dance, 
Minstrels  and  music,  poetry  and  play. 
And  balls  by  night,  and  tournaments  by  day. 

Dryden. 

This  done,  she  sung,  and  carolled  out  so  clear, 
That  men  and  angels  might  rejoice  to  hear.          Id. 

Come,  let's  in  some  carol  new 
Pay  to  love  and  them  their  due.  Marvell. 

Young  Colin  Clout,  a  lad  of  peerless  meed, 
Full  well  could  dance,  and  deftly  tune  the  reed, 
In  every  wood  his  carols  sweet  were  known, 
At  every  wake  his  nimble  feats  were  shown.      Gay9 
Deep  mourns  the  turtle  in  sequestered  bower, 
And  shrill  lark  carols  clear  from  her  aerial  towe*. 

Beattie. 
Her  influence  oft  the  festive  hamlet  proves, 

Where  the  high  carol  cheers  the'  exulting  ring  ; 
And  oft  she  roams  the  maze  of  wildering  groves, 
Listening  the'  unnumbered  melodies  of  spring. 

Id. 

Methought  she  carolled  blithely  in  her  youth, 
As  the  couched  nestling  trills  his  vesper  lay  j 
But  song  and  smile,  beauty  and  melody, 
And  youth  and  happiness,  are  gone  from  her. 

Maturin. 

CAROLATH,  a  town  and  principality  of  Si- 
lesia, in  the  circle  of  Glogau,  on  the  Oder,  three 
miles  N.N.W.  of  Beuthen. 

CAROLINA,  an  extensive  country  of  North 
America,  originally  comprehending  the  west 
part  of  Florida,  and  lying  between  29°  and  36° 
30'  lat.  N.  It  was  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Atlantic,  on  the  west  by  the  river  Mississippi,  on 
the  north  by  Virginia,  and  on  the  south  of  Geor- 
gia by  the  Floridas.  It  is  seated  between  the 
extremities  of  heat  and  cold,  though  the  heat  is 
more  troublesome  in  summer  than  the  cold  in 
winter,  the  winters  being  very  short,  and  the 
frosty  mornings  frequently  succeeded  by  warm 
days.  The  air  is  generally  serene  and  clear  the 
greatest  part  of  the  year,  but  has  heavy  rains  both 
in  winter  and  at  midsummer.  Westerly  winds 
bring  very  pleasant  weather.  The  depth  of 
winter  is  towards  the  end  of  February,  but  even 
then  the  ice  is  not  strong  enough  to  bear  a  man. 
In  August  and  September  there  are  sometimes 
winds,  which  are  so  violent  as  to  make  lanes  of 
100  feet  wide,  through  the  woods,  tearing  up  the 
trees  by  the  roots.  They  commonly  happen 
about  the  time  of  the  hurricanes  which  rage  so 
fatally  among  the  islands  between  the  tropics. 
The  soil  on  the  coast  is  sandy ;  but  farther  up 
the  country  is  so  fruitful  that  they  are  at  little 
trouble  to' manure  their  land.  The  grain  most 
cultivated  is  Indian  corn  and  rice,  but  any  sort 
will  thrive.  There  are  also  pulse  of  several  sorts, 
little  known  in  England.  All  kinds  of  garden 
vegetables  may  be  had  in  great  plenty.  Cotton, 
has  been  planted  here  of  late  with  great  success; 
but  the  pitch  pine  tree  forms  the  staple  commo- 

N 


178 


CAROLINA. 


dity  of  the  country,  affording  pitch,  tar,  and 
turpentine,  besides  its  value  as  timber.  Fine 
white  and  red  oak  is  also  abundant,  and  cypress 
and  bay  trees  crowd  the  swamps.  The  long 
spongy  moss  of  these  parts  is  said,  in  a  remark- 
able way,  to  absorb  the  deleterious  vapors,  and 
contribute  to  the  health  of  the  inhabitants.  In 
the  back  country  the  misletoe  is  found.  An  in- 
ferior kind  of  indigo,  and  various  gums  and 
medicinal  drugs  are  also  cultivated.  Firs  are 
bought  of  the  Indians  with  vermillion,  gunpow- 
der, coarse  cloth,  iron,  &c.  and  form  a  consider- 
able article  in  trade.  Carolina  is  adorned  with 
many  beautiful  rivers,  among  which  the  Ten- 
nessee is  the  most  conspicuous  ;  and  woods,  which 
afford  delightful  seats  for  the  planters,  and  ren- 
der the  enclosure  of  their  lands  very  easy.  As 
they  have  plenty  of  fish,  wild  fowl  and  venison, 
besides  other  necessaries,  produced  naturally, 
they  live  easy  and  luxuriously  ;  and  are  not  very 
refined  in  their  manners.  The  chief  mountains 
are  the  APALACHIAN,  which  see. 

Carolina  was  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot, 
about  A. D.I 500;  but  the  settling  being  ne- 
glected by  the  English,  a  colony  of  French  Pro- 
testants were  transported  thither,  and  named  the 
place  of  their  settlement  Carolina,  in  honor  of 
Charles  IX.  of  France;  but  in  a  short  time  the 
colony  was  destroyed  by  the  Spaniards ;  and  no 
other  attempt  was  made  by  any  European  power 
to  settle  there  till  1664,  when  800  English  landed 
at  Cape  Fear,  and  took  possession  of  the  country. 
In  1670,  Charles  II.  of  Britain  granted  Carolina 
to  lords  Berkeley,  Clarendon,  Craven  and  Ash- 
ley, Sir  George  Carteret,  Sir  William  Berkley, 
and  Sir  John  Colliton.  The  plan  of  government 
for  this  new  colony  was  drawn  up  by  the  cele- 
brated Mr.  Locke,  who  proposed  a  universal 
toleration  in  religious  matters,  the  only  restric- 
tion being,  that  every  person  claiming  the  pro- 
tection of  the  settlement,  should,  at  the  age  of 
seventeen,  register  himself  in  some  communion. 
The  code  of  Carolina  gave  the  eight  proprietors, 
and  their  heirs,  not  only  all  the  rights  of  a  mo- 
narch, but  all  the  powers  of  legislation.  This 
sovereign  body,  called  the  Palatine  Court,  was 
Invested  with  the  right  of  nominating  to  all  em- 
ployments and  dignities,  and  even  of  conferring 
nobility,  but  with  new  and  unprecedented  titles. 
They  were,  for  instance,  to  create  in  each  county 
two  caciques,  each  of  whom  was  to  be  possessed 
of  24,000  acres  of  land ;  and  a  landgrave,  who 
was  to  have  80,000.  The  persons  on  whom  these 
honors  should  be  bestowed,  were  to  compose  the 
upper  house,  and  their  possessions  were  made 
unalienable.  They  had  only  the  right  of  letting 
out  a  third  part  of  them  at  the  most  for  three 
lives.  The  lower  house  was  composed  of  the 
deputies  from  the  several  counties  and  towns. 
The  number  of  this  representative  body  was  to 
be  increased  as  the  colony  grew  more  populous. 
No  tenant  was  to  pay  more  than  about  one  shil- 
ling per  acre,  and  even  this  rent  was  redeemable. 
All  the  inhabitants,  both  slaves  and  freemen, 
were  under  an  obligation  to  take  up  arms  upon 
the  first  order  from  the  palatine  court.  The  de- 
fects of  this  constitution  soon  became  apparent. 
The  proprietary  lords  endeavoured  to  establish  an 
arbitrary  government ;  and  the  colonists  exerted 


themselves  with  great  zeal  to  avoid  servitude' 
In  consequence  of  this  struggle,  the  whole  pro- 
vince, distracted  with  tumults  and  dissensions, 
became  incapable  of  making  any  progress,  though 
great  things  had  been  expected  from  its  peculiar 
advantages  of  situation.  In  1705  Carteret, 
afterwards  lord  Granville,  who,  as  oldest  proprie- 
tor, was  sole  governor,  formed  a  design  of  ob- 
liging all  the  non-conformists  to  declaie  them- 
selves of  the  Church  of  England.  This  act  of 
violence,  though  disavowed  by  the  mother  coun- 
try, inflamed  the  minds  of  the  people.  In  1720 
the  province  was  attacked  by  several  bands  of 
savages,  driven  to  despair  by  a  continued  course 
of  the  most  atrocious  violence  and  injustice. 
These  unfortunate  wretches  were  all  put  to  the 
sword;  but  in  1728  the  lords  proprietors  having 
refused  to  contribute  towards  the  expenses  of  an 
expedition,  of  which  they  were  to  share  the  im- 
mediate benefits,  were  all  deprived  of  their  pre- 
rogative, except  lord  Granville.  The  colony 
was  taken  under  the  immediate  protection  of  the 
crown,  and  from  that  time  began  to  flourish. 
The  settlement  of  Georgia  commenced  in  1752, 
and  the  division  took  place  between  North  and 
South  Carolina,  about  three  years  earlier. 

CAROLINA,  NORTH,  one  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  situated  between  1°  1'  and  6°  35' 
W.  long,  of  Washington,  and  between  33°  51' 
and  36°  30'  N.  lat.  It  is  450  miles  long  from 
east  to  west,  and  180  broad  from  north  to  south, 
being  bounded  on  the  north  by  Virginia,  on  the 
east  and  south-east  by  the  Atlantic,  on  the  south 
by  South  Carolina,  and  on  the  west  by  the  new 
state  of  Tennessee.  This  last  was  originally  a 
part  of  North  Carolina,  but  was  given  up  to  the 
United  States  in  1789,  and  since  erected  into  a 
separate  state.  See  TENNESSEE.  North  Carolina 
is  divided  into  eight  districts,  viz.  Edenton,  New- 
bern,  and  Wilmington,  which  extend  along  the 
coast;  and  Halifax,  Hillsborough,  Salisbury, , 
Morgan,  and  Fayetteville,  the  greater  part  of 
which  extend  across  the  state  from  north  to  south. 
These  districts  are  subdivided  into  sixty-two  coun- 
ties, which  will  be  described  in  their  order ;  their 
aggregate  superficies  amounting,  according  to 
American  computation,  to  43,800  square  miles. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Chowan,  Roanoke,  Pam- 
lico,  Yadkin,  Catawba,  Neuse,  Cape  Fear,  Pas- 
quotank,  &c.  The  chief  sounds  are  Albemarle, 
Pamlico,  and  Core.  Although  North  Carolina 
has  upwards  of  200  miles  of  sea-coast,  besides 
being  indented  by  three  very  large  inlets  called 
sounds,  it  does  not  afford  one  good  harbour; 
indeed,  a  ledge  of  sand  banks  flank  the  coast  in  its 
whole  extent,  rendering  the  navigation  very  dan- 
gerous in  stormy  weather,  and  almost  inaccessible 
at  all  times ;  it  consequently  partakes  more  of 
the  character  of  an  interior  than  a  maritime  state. 
Some  little  external  intercourse,  however,  is  main- 
tained through  Wilmington,  situated  on  Cape 
Fear  River,  which  intersects  the  centre  of  the 
state  from  north  to  south,  falling  into  the  sea  in 
the  lat.  of  34°  N,.  and  the  productions  of  the 
western  part  of  the  state  are  facilitated  in  their 
conveyance  to  market  by  the  Yadkin  and  Catawba 
Rivers,  which  intersect  that  part  between  the 
long,  of  3°  and  4°  W.  running  south  into  South 
Carolina.  The  Neuse,  Tar,  Roanoke,  and  Cho- 


CAROLINA. 


179 


wan,  are  other  rivers  which  intersect  the  north- 
cast  part  of  the  state  falling  into  the  great  inlets 
cf  Pamlico  and  Albermarle  Sounds,  which  it  is 
proposed  to  connect  with  Chesapeake  Bay,  by 
rreans  of  the  Pasquotank,  and  a  canal  through 
the  Dismal  Swamp.  The  coast  for  about  seventy 
m.'les  from  tho  shore  is  level  and  swampy,  but 
westward  the  ground  gradually  rises  into  a  moun- 
tainous country,  being  in  parts  beautifully  diver- 
sified. Ground  peas  run  along  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  and  are  covered  by  hand  with  a  light 
mould.  The  pods  run  under  ground.  They 
taste  like  nuts  and  are  eaten  raw  or  roasted.  The 
country  suits  the  breeding  of  sheep,  but  their 
wool  is  neither  good  nor  plentiful  on  the  low 
lands.  Black  cattle  are  easily  raised,  requiring 
little  provision  in  winter,  and  in  summer  nothing 
but  a  little  salt  occasionally.  Pork  is  also  raised 
with  little  trouble.  The  hogs  are  allowed  to  roam 
at  large  in  the  woods,  and  grow  fat  on  acorns 
and  roots.  The  climate  is  said  to  be  peculiarly 
favorable  to  the  vine.  A  species  of  rock,  sup- 
posed to  be  a  concretion  of  marine  shells,  sup- 
plies the  want  of  lime-stone,  and  the  state 
abounds  with  iron  ore.  The  annual  exports 
amounted  on  the  30th  Sept.  1791,  to  524,548 
dollars,  and  in  1823  to  only  482,417,  the  ship- 
ping belonging  to  the  state  in  1821  was  38,864 
tons.  In  1820  the  population  was  638,829,  of 
whom  14,612  were  free  blacks,  and  205,01 7  were 
slaves.  The  north  Carolinians  are  mostly  plan- 
ters, and  have  little  intercourse  with  strangers,  but 
have  a  natural  fondness  for  society  which  renders 
them  hospitable  to  travellers.  In  the  maritime 
districts,  the  prevailing  religious  sects  are  the 
Episcopalians  and  Methodists  ;  but  in  the  wes- 
tern, the  Presbyterians  and  Moravians  are  most 
numerous.  Quakers  and  Baptists  are  also  inter- 
spersed through  the  state.  All  persons  in  public 
offices,  and  all  who  deny  the  being  of  a  God,  are 
excluded  from  sitting  in  either  house  of  assembly. 
Newbern  is  the  largest  town  of  North  Carolina, 
and  was  formerly  the  residence  ,of  the  governor. 
Each  of  the  other  six  above  mentioned,  however, 
had  their  turns  at  the  seat  of  the  general  assem- 
bly, till  lately  that  Releigh,  situate  near  the 
centre  of  the  state,  has  been  established  as 
the  metropolis.  In  1789  the  general  assembly 
passed  a  law  incorporating  forty  gentlemen,  five 
from  each  district,  as  trustees  of  the  University 
of  North  Carolina;  to  whom  in  December  1791, 
they  granted  a  fcan  of  £5000  to  enable  them  to 
proceed  with  their  buildings.  There  is  a  very 
good  academy  at  Warenton,  another  at  Williams- 
borough,  in  Granville,  and  several  others  of  con- 
siderable note,  in  different  towns  in  the  state.  In 
the  south-west  part  of  the  state  is  a  very  singular 
mountain. 

CAROLINA,  SOUTH,  another  of  the  United 
States  of  North  America,  being  divided  from 
North  Carolina  by  a  conventional  line,  and  by 
the  Atlantic  coast,  in  a  S. S.W.  direction;  from 
the  lat.  of  33°  50'  to  the  Savannah  River,  in  the 
lat.  of  32°  2'  N. ;  and  by  the  Savannah  River,  in 
a  N.N.W.  direction,  until  it  cuts  the  south-west 
point  of  North  Carolina,  which  separates  it  from 
the  state  of  Georgia,  its  area  being  30,800  square 
miles.  The  general  features,  character  of  the 
soil,  and  productions  of  this  state  are  very  simi- 


lar to  North  Carolina,  but  having  the  advantage 
of  several  fine  navigable  rivers  and  some  tolera- 
bly good  harbours,  to  facilitate  an  external  com- 
merce, whilst  North  Carolina  ranks  among  the 
least,  South  Carolina  ranks  among  the  most  im- 
portant states  of  the  Union.  The  Yadkin  River, 
rising  in  the  north-east,  which  when  it  enters  this 
state  is  called  the  Great  Pedee,  and,  after  being' 
joined  by  several  tributary  streams,  falls  into 
George-town  Bay;  and  the  Catawba,  which  also 
rises  in  the  north-east,  and  in  this  state  is  first 
called  the  Wateree,  and  afterwards  the  Santee, 
is  united  by  ^a  canal  to  Cooper  River,  which  falls 
into  Charleston  harbour.  Numerous  streams, 
intersecting  all  the  north-west  part,  unite  with 
the  Santee  about  the  centre  of  the  state  ;  and  be- 
tween the  Santee  and  the  Savannah  are  the 
Edisto,  Bigslake,  and  Coosawhatchie  Rivers  ;  so 
that  there  is  hardly  five  miles  in  the  state  without 
the  advantage  of  water  communications :  be- 
tween the  mouths  of  the  Santee  and  Savannah 
rivers,  the  coast  is  flanked  by  a  chain  of  islands, 
on  which  is  produced  the  valuable  cotton  called. 
Sea  Island.  The  swamps  produce  vast  quantities 
of  the  finest  rice,  the  seed  of  which  was  first  in- 
troduced from  Madagascar  at  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  previous  to  1790  indigo 
'  was  cultivated  to  a  great  extent,  and  with  pro- 
portionate advantage ;  but,  since  that  period,  the 
culture  of  the  cotton  plant  in  the  upland  country 
has  superseded  every  other  pursuit,  and  has  been 
carried  to  an  extent  without  any  precedent.  The 
value  exported,  including  rice,  in  1823  amounted 
to  6,898,814  dollars ;  whilst  the  value  of  the 
merchandise  imported  direct  did  not  exceed 
2,419,100  dollars,  the  balance  being  equalised 
through  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore. 
South  Carolina  is  divided  into  thirty  districts, 
and  the  population,  which  in  1790  was  only 
240,073,  in  1820  was  502,741,  of  whom  6806 
were  free  blacks,  and  258,475  slaves.  Columbia, 
nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  state,  506  miles  south- 
west by  south  of  Washington,  is  the  seat  of  its 
legislative  assembly. 

Charleston,  which  was  formerly  the  capital  of 
all  Carolina  before  the  division,  is  still  reckoned 
the  chief  town ;  but  Columbia  is  the  seat  of  go- 
vernment. The  public  offices  have,  however,  in 
some  measure  been  divided  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  of  the  lower  counties,  and 
a  branch  of  each  retained  in  Charleston.  There 
are  several  respectable  academies  in  Charleston, 
one  in  Beaufort,  on  Port  Royal  Island,  and  se- 
veral others  in  different  parts  of  the  state.  Three 
colleges  have  lately  been  incorporated  by  law ; 
one  at  Charleston,  one  at  Winnsborough,  in  the 
district  of  Camden,  and  the  other  at  Cambridge, 
in  the  district  of  Ninety-Six.  The  legislature,  in 
their  session  in  January  1795,  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  enquire  into  the  practicability  of,  and  to 
report  apian  for  the  establishment  of  schools  in 
different  parts  of  the  state.  The  Presbyterians 
are  the  most  numerous  religious  sect. 

CAROLINE,  a  county  of  the  state  of  Mary- 
land, bounded  on  Uie  east  by  Kent  county,  state 
of  Delaware,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Tuckapo 
and  Choptank  Rivers,  which  fall  into  Chesa- 
peake Bay.  Also  an  interior  county  in  the  east 
part  of  Virginia,  bounded  on  the  north-east  by 

N  2 


CAR 


180 


CAR 


the  Rappahannack  River,  and  south-west  by  the 
North  Anna  River. 

CAROLIVE  AMELIA  ELIZABETH,  late  queen  of 
England,  and  consort  of  his  late  majesty  king 
George  IV.  was  born  on  the  17th  of  May,  1768. 
Her  father,  Charles  William  Ferdinand,  heredi- 
tary prince  of  Brunswick,  succeeded  to  the 
dukedom  in  1780,  and  died  10th  November, 
1806.  See  BRUNSWICK.  This  princess,  in  com- 
mon with  her  sisters,  received  her  education  al- 
most entirely  under  the  inspection  of  the  duchess  : 
she  was  from  her  youth  of  a  gay  and  lively  dis- 
position, and  particularly  attentive  to  the  English 
visitors  at  her  father's  court ;  whom  she  called, 
*  The  good  and  brave  English  ! ' 

Some  months  after  the  French  revolution,  she 
had  a  personal  interview  with  her  cousin  the 
duke  of  York,  and  from  that  period  the  family 
alliance  appears  to  have  been  in  contemplation. 
Negociations  for  a  marriage  between  his  present 
majesty,  then  prince  of  Wales,  and  the  princess 
Caroline  of  Brunswick,  were  accordingly  entered 
into  ;  and  every  arrangement  having  been  com- 
pleted, on  the  morning  of  the  20th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1794,  the  princess,  now  become  by  contract 
princess  of  Wales,  accompanied  by  her  mother 
and  a  numerous  retinue,  departed  from  Bruns- 
wick for  Vienna.  Here,  on  their  arrival,  the 
duchess  was  indisposed ;  but  having  revived,  they 
proceeded  to  the  palace  of  Harrenhausen,  near 
Hanover;  where  the  royal  party  dined.  On  the 
3d  of  Jannary  1795,  they  reached  Osnaburg, 
where  a  messenger  met  them  from  lord  St.  He- 
lens, to  announce  the  return  of  commodore 
Payne's  squadron  to  England,  and  the  danger  of 
«ntering  Holland.  The  bishop's  palace  had  been 
prepared  for  their  reception ;  and  after  a  resi- 
dence of  a  few  weeks  stay  at  Hanover,  they  pro- 
ceeded to  Cuxhaven,  and  the  princess  embarked 
March  28th,  on  board  his  Majesty's  ship  Jupiter. 
She  landed  from  this  vessel  at  Greenwich  in  the 
afternoon  of  the  4th  April.  Magnificent  prepa- 
rations had  been  made  for  her  reception  :  on  the 
8th  of  April,  was  celebrated  her  marriage  with 
the  Prince  of  Wales.  But  the  union  was  never, 
personally,  a  happy  one.  Its  principal  impor- 
tance to  the  nation  arose,  of  course,  from  the  ex- 
pectation of  a  family  in  the  direct  line  of  the 
crown,  and  in  the  ensuing  year  was  born  the 
princess  Charlotte,  the  joy,  the  pride  of  the  coun- 
try ;  and  in  her  early  death,  the  object  of  its  live- 
liest grief. 

We  draw  a  vail  over  the  circumstance  known 
at  the  time,  as  the  '  Delicate  Investigation,'  in 
which  the  princess  of  Wales  was  fully  acquitted 
of  all  serious  charges,  by  the  most  impartial 
judges.  In  August  1814  she  went  abroad,  con- 
trary to  the  advice  of  her  confidential  friends  ;  if 
such  she  ever  possessed.  Her  conduct  in  this 
memorable  absence  became  publicly  scrutinised 
on  her  return ;  and  a  bill  of  pains  and  penalties 
on  the  direct  charge  of  adultery,  was  introduced 
into  Parliament  by  his  Majesty's  ministers,  and 
read  a  first  and  second  time  in  the  house  of 
lords.  The  majority,  however,  in  its  favor  was 
so  small,  and  the  whole  measure  evidently  so 
repugnant  to  the  feelings  of  the  country  that  it 
was  finally  withdrawn. 

lii  less  than  a  fortnight  after  the  coronation  of 


the  king,  her  majesty  was  taken  dangerously  ill, 
in  consequence  of  having  taken  a  very  large  dose 
of  magnesia.  On  Thursday  the  2d  of  August, 
she  was  attended  by  three  physicians,  Dr.  Maton, 
Dr.  Warren,  and  Dr.  Holland,  and  copiously 
bled ;  she  passed  a  quiet  night,  but  her  symp- 
toms remained  the  same.  The  following  day  she 
was  immersed  for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  in  a 
warm  bath,  which  moderated  the  pain,  but  in 
other  respects  was  unavailing.  Connected  with 
inflammation  of  the  bowels  was  a  nausea  at  the 
stomach,  which  repelled  both  food  and  medicine. 
Another  physician,  Dr.  Ainslie,  was  now  called 
in ;  her  majesty's  legal  advisers  also  attended 
for  the  management  of  her  property  and  other 
legal  matters.  Towards  the  morning  of  Saturday 
she  obtained  some  tranquil  sleep  ;  but  her  dis- 
order, with  some  fluctuations,  increased  speedily, 
and  on  the  7th,  during  the  king's  absence  in 
Ireland,  she  died  at  Brandenburgh  House,  Ham- 
mersmith. Her  funeral  was  conducted  by  the  go- 
vernment ;  and  the  populace  evinced  a  singular 
attachment  to  her  memory  by  compelling  it,  con- 
trary to  the  public  orders  given,  to  pass  through 
the  city  of  London.  The  body  was  finally  con- 
veyed, agreeably  to  her  own  request,  to  the  family 
vault  of  her  ancestors  at  Brunswick. 

CAROLINE  ISLANDS,  a  range  of  thirty  islands 
in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  discovered  in  1686, 
by  the  Spaniards.  They  lie  to  the  east  of  the 
Philippines,  between  138°  and  155°  E.  long, 
and  8°  and  1 1°  N.  lat.  The  natives  resemble 
those  of  the  Philippines.  The  most  considera- 
ble island  is  Hogoleu,  about  ninety  miles  long 
and  forty  broad  :  the  next  is-Yap,.  at  the  west 
extremity  of  the  chain,  but  not  above  a  third 
part  of  the  size  of  Hogoleu.  They  have  been 
little  visited  by  recent  navigators. 

CAROLINEA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
class  monadelphia,  order  polyandria :  CAL.  sin- 
gle, truncate;  filaments  branched;  STYLE  very 
long :  STIG.  six :  CAPS,  woody,  one-celled, 
many-seeded.  Species  two;  one  a  Guiana 
tree  with  very  entire  leaves;  flowers  solitary, 
very  large  and  yellow  ;  filaments  red  ;  antherae 
purple.  The  other,  denominated  also  bombax, 
a  South  American  plant  of  less,  consequence. 

CAROLOSTADIANS,  or  CARLOSTADIANS, 
an  ancient  sect  of  Lutherans,  who  denied  .the 
real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist;  thus 
denominated  from  their  leader  Carolostadius. 
They  are  the  same  with  the  Sacramentarians, 
and  agree  in  most  things  with  the  Zuinglians. 

CAROLOSTADIUS  (Andrew),  archdeacon 
of  Wittenberg,  was  converted  by  Luther,  and 
was  the  first  of  all  the  reformed  clergy  who  took 
a  wife ;  but  afterwards  disagreed  with  Luther, 
chiefly  on  the  point  of  the  sacrament. 

CAROLUS,  an  ancient  English  gold  coin, 
broad  and  thin,  struck  under  Charles  I.  Its  va- 
lue has  of  late  been  at  twenty-three  shillings, 
though  at  the  time  it  was  coined  it  was  rated  at 
twenty. 

CAROTIDS.     See  ANATOMY. 

CARORA,  a  city  of  Colombia,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Venzuela,  situate  about  forty-five  miles 
from  the  strait  that  separates  the  gulf  from  the 
lake  of  Maracaibo,  and  150  miles  west  of  Va- 
lencia, It  is  intersected  by  a  stream  called  the 


CAR 


181 


CAR 


Morera,  that  runs  east  into  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
The  inhabitants,  about  6000  in  number,  subsist 
principally  by  means  of  cattle  and  mules,  which 
they  drive  to,  the  coast  for  transhipment  to  the 
West  India  islands.  The  surrounding  country 
produces  a  variety  of  odoriferous  balsams  and 
aromatics. 

CA'ROTID,   adj.-i      Lat.    carotides.       Two 

CARO'TIDAL,  adj.  \  arteries,  from  the  aorta 
ascendens,  which  have  their  origin  near  the  sub- 
clavian  arteries. 

The  carotid,  vertebral,  and  splenick  arteries,  are 
not  only  variously  contorted,  but  also  here  and  there 
dilated,  to  moderate  the  motion  of  the  blood.  Ray. 

The  two  carotidal  and  the  two  vertebral  arteries,  are 
this  golden  quaternion.  Smith, 

CARO'USE,  v.  &  n.  ^     Fr.  carouse,  carous- 
CARO'USER,  n.  >ser;  Span,  caraos.  Dr. 

CARO'USAL,  n.  j  Johnson,  after  Menage 

and  Skinner,  derives  the  French  from  the  Ger- 
man, gar  ausx,  all  out,  meaning  '  empty  it 
entirely.'  The  Spanish  caraos  signifies  the  act 
of  drinking  a  person's  health  in  a  bumper.  The 
origin  of  the  word  has  also  been  sought  in  the 
Dutch  ruischen,  to  roar ;  and  in  the  Celtic  car, 
a  circle,  because  carousing  is  the  custom  of  drink- 
ing round.  To  carouse  is  to  quaff  copious  cups ; 
to  imbibe  drink  lavishly.  A  carouse  denotes  a 
drinking  match  ;  a  hearty  dose  of  liquor.  Ca- 
rousal, which  was  formerly  accented  on  the  first 
syllable,  is  a  festival ;  and  that  too  common  cha- 
racter, a  toper,  is  entitled  to  the  more  poetical 
appellation  of  a  carouser. 

Now,  my  sick  fool,  Roderigo, 

Whom  love  hath  almost  turned  the  wrong  side  out, 
To  Desdemona  hath  to-night  carttused 
Potations  pottle  deep.  Shakspeare, 

He  calls  for  wine,  a  health,  quoth  he,  as  if 
H'ad  been  aboard  carousing  to  his  mates 
After  a  storm.  Id. 

Please  you,  we  may  contrive  this  afternoon, 
And  quaff  carouses  to  our  mistress'  health.  Id. 

Learn  with  how  little  life  may  be  preserved, 
In  gold  and  myrrh  they  need  not  to  carouse. 

Raleigh. 

Now  hats  fly  off,  and  youths  carouse, 
Healths  first  go  round,  and  then  the  house, 
The  brides  came  thick  and  thick.  Suclding. 

He  had  so  many  eyes  watching  over  him,  as  he 
could  not  drink  a  full  carouse  of  sack,  but  the  state 
was  advertised  thereof  within  few  hours  after. 

Davies  ott  Ireland, 

Our  cheerful  guests  carouse  the  sparkling  tears 
Of  the  rich  grape,  whilst  musick  charms  their  ears. 

Denham. 

This  game,  these  carousals  Ascanius  taught, 
And  building  Alba  to  the  Latins  brought. 

Dryden. 

Waste  in  wild  riot  what  your  land  allows, 
There  ply  the  early  feast  and  late  carouss. 

Pope. 

The  bold  carouser,  and  adventuring  dame, 
Nor  fear  the  fever,  nor  refuse  the  flame  ; 
Safe  in  his  skill,  from  all  constraint  set  free, 
But  conscious  shame,  remorse,  and  piety. 

Granville. 

Death  leads  the  dance,  or  stamps  the  deadly  die, 
Nor  ever  fails  the  midnight  bowl  to  crown, 
Gaily  carousing  to  his  gay  compeers, 
Inly  he  laughs,  to  see  them  laugh  at  him 
Aa  absent  fur.    •  Young's  Night  Thoughts. 


CARP.  Fr.  carpe  ;  Ital.  carpione.  A  fresh- 
water fish,  usually  kept  in  ponds. 

Nor  drain  I  ponds,  the  golden  carp  to  take, 
Nor  trowl*  for  pikes,  dispeoples  of  the  lake. 

Gay's  Rural  Sports. 

CA'RP,  v.  &  n.      -\      Fr.  charpir;   Ital.   cnr- 
CA'RPER,  t  pire ;    Lat.     carpo.      The 

CA'RPING,  adj.  £  French  signifies  to  comb 
CA'RPINGLY,  adv.  )  wool,  to  hackle  flax ;  the 
Italian  expresses  to  snatch  away,  to  wrest.  In 
Welsh  carpiaw  means  to  tear,  to  tear  away ;  and 
carp  is  that  which  is  torn  away.  In  all  these 
words  the  analogy  with  the  English  may  be 
traced.  To  carp  is  to  censure  ;  to  cavil  at ;  to 
find  fault  with ;  which  may  be  considered  as  a  sort 
of  snatching  at ;  wresting  ;  pulling  to  pieces . 
Carping  is  equivalent  to  captious  and  cen- 
sorious. 

Tertullian,  even  often  through  discontentment, 
carpeth  injuriously  at  them,  as  though  they  did  it  even 
when  they  were  free  from  such  meaning.  Hooker, 
His  mouth  a  poisonous  quiver,  where  he  hides 

Sharp  venomed  arrows,  which  his  bitter  tongue, 

With  squibs,  carps,  jests,  unto  their  objects  guides ; 

Nor  fears  he  gods  on  earth,  or  Heaven  to  wrong. 

Fletcher's  Purple  Island. 
This  your  all-licensed  fool 
Doth  hourly  carp  and  quarrel,  breaking  forth 
In  rank  and  not  to  be  endured  riot.       Shakspeara. 

I  have  not  these  weeds,  ' 
By  putting  on  the  cunning  of  a  carper.          Id. 

We  derive  out  of  the  Latin  at  second  hand  by  the 
French,  and  make  good  English,  as  in  these  ad  verbs  f 
carpingly,  currently,  actively,  colourably.  Camd-?n. 

When  (  spoke, 

My  honest  homely  words  were  eurped  and  censured, 
For  want  of  courtly  style.  Dryden. 

No  carping  critick  interrupts  his  praise, 
No  rival  strives  but  for  a  second  place. 

Granville- 

Lay  aside  therefore  a  carping  spirit,  and  read  even 
an  adversary  with  an  honest  desire  to  find  out  out  his 
true  meaning  ;  do  not  snatch  at  little  lapses  and  ap- 
pearances of  mistake.  Wat's^ 

CARP,  in  ichthyology.  See  CYPRINUS,  and 
ANGLING. 

CARP^EA,  KcrpTraia,  a  kind  of  dance  anciently 
in  use  among  the  Athenians  and  Magnesians, 
performed  by  two  persons,  the  one  a  laborer,  the 
other  acting  as  a  robber.  The  laborer  laying  by 
his  arms,  went  to  ploughing  and  sowing,  still 
looking  warily  about  him  as  afraid  of  being  sur- 
prised j  the  robber  at  length  appeared,  and  the 
laborer  quitting  his  plough,  betook  himself  to 
his  arms,  and  fought  in  defence  of  his  oxen. 
The  whole  was  performed  to  the  sound  of  flutes, 
and  in  cadence.  Sometimes  the  robber  was 
overcome,  and  sometimes  the  laborer ;  the  vic- 
tor's reward  being  the  oxen  and  plough.  The 
design  of  the  exercise  was  to  teach  and  accustom 
the  peasants  to  defend  themselves  against  the 
attacks  of  ruffians. 

CARPATHIAN  MOUNTAINS,  a  grand  chain 
•which  divides  Hungary  and  Transylvania  from 
Poland  on  the  north  and  north-east,  and  from 
Moravia  on  the  north-west,  extending  about  500 
miles.  See  BASTARKIC.C  ALPS. 

CARPATHIAN  SEA,  or  CARPATHIUM  MARE, 
the  sea  that  washes  the  coast  of  Carpathus. 


183 


CARPENTRY. 


CARPATHUS,  orCARPATHOS,  an  island  on  the 
coast  of  Asia,  200  stadia  or  furlongs  in  compass, 
and  100  in  length.  Its  name  is  said  to  be  from  its 
situation  on  the  coast  of  Caria.  It  lies  between 
Rhodes  and  Crete,  in  the  Carpathian  Sea,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  first  inhabited  by  some 
Cretan  soldiers  of  Minos.  According  to  Strabo 
it  had  anciently  four  cities  ;  according  to  Scy- 
lax  only  three,  whilst  Ptolemy  mentions  but 
one,  which  he  calls  Posepum.  The  island  is 
now  called  Scarpanto. 

CARPENDOLO,  a  town  of  Italy,  seated  on 
the  Miese,  in  the  Veronese,  included  in  the 
Italian  republic.  A  battle  was  fought  at  this 
place  in  'January  1797,  between  the  French 
and  Austrians,  wherein  the  republicans  under 
general  Menard  were  victorious,  and  took  900 
prisoners. 

CARPENTARIA,  a  large  bay  on  the  north 
coast  of  New  Holland,  discovered  in  1618,  by  a 
Dutch  captain,  named  Carpenter.  That  part  of 
the  country  which  borders  on  the  east  side  of 
the  ^>ay  is  also  called  Carpentaria.  It  has  about 
1200  miles  of  coast,  and  some  good  harbours. 
It  is  frequented  by  Chinese  junks  to  fish  for  the 
the  :Beche-le-mar,  'one  of  the  most  delicious  of 
the  finny  tribe,  which  superabound  at  the  en- 
trance of  this  bay. 

CA'RPENTER,  n.  >      Fr.  charpentier ;  Span. 

CA'RPENTRY,  n.  $  carpintero ;  low  Lat. 
carpentarim.  An  artificer  in  wood,  as  far  as 
relates  to  the  largest  and  strongest  part  of  the 
wood  work  in  houses  and  ships.  The  finer 
work  belongs  to  the  joiner.  The  trade  or  art  of 
a  carpenter. 

This  work  performed  with  advisement  good, 

Godfrey  his  carpenters,  and  men  of  skill 

In  all  the  camp,  sent  to  an  aged  wood. 

Fairfax's  Tasso. 

In  building  Hiero's  great  ship,  there  were  three 
hundred  carpenters  employed  for  a  year  together. 

Wilkins. 

In  burdened  vessels  first  with  speedy  care, 

His  plenteous  stores  do  seasoned  timbers  send ; 

Whither  the  brawny  carpenters  repair, 

And,  as  the  surgeons  of  maimed  ships,  attend. 

Dry  den. 

It  had  been  more  proper  for  me  to  have  introduced 
carpentry  before  joinery,  because  necessity  did  doubt- 
less compel  our  forefathers  to  use  the  conveniency  of 
the  first,  rather  than  the  extravagancy  of  the  last. 

Mozon's  Mechanical  Exerciset, 

CARPENTER,  SHIP,  an  officer  appointed  to 
examine  and  keep  in  order  the  frame  of  a  ship, 
together  with  her  masts,  yards,  boats,  and  all 
other  wooden  machinery.  It  is  his  duty  in  par- 
ticular to  ke&p  the  ship  tight;  to  review  the 
decks  and  sides,  and  to  caulk  them  when  it  is 
necessary.  In  the  time  of  battle,  he  is  to  ex- 
amine, with  all  possible  attention,  the  lower 
apartments  of  the  ship,  to  stop  any  holes  that 
may  have  been  made  by  shot,  with  wooden  plugs 
provided  r,f  yeveral  sizes. 

CARPENTRAS,  a  beautiful  town  of  France, 
in  Provence,  standing  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Anson,  at  the  foot  of  Mont  Ventoux.  It  was 
once  the  capital  of  the  papal  county  of  Ve- 
naissin,  and  the  see  of  a  bishop,  but  became 
incorporated  with  France  at  the  revolution,  and 
now  belongs  to  the  department  of  Vaucluse.  It 
hns  a  good  public  library,,  bequeathed  originally 


to  the  town  by  one  of  its  bishops ;  a  Roman 
triumphal  arch  in  tolerable  preservation ;  and 
several  remarkable  Roman  antiquities.  Wine, 
brandy,  and  fruit,  are  its  staple  articles  of  trade. 
In  the  neighbourhood  is  a  fine  modern  aqueduct 
of  forty-eight  arches.  Population  about  9000, 
including  perhaps  2000  Jews.  Distant  twelve 
miles  east  of  Orange,  and  thirty-eight  north-west 
of  Aix. 

CARPENTRY.  The  art  of  carpentry,  generally 
speaking,  includes  every  method  of  working  or 
employing  timber  in  the  construction  of  build- 
ings ;  but,  as  it  is  evident  that  coarse  rough 
work  requires  very  different  management  from 
the  delicate  finish  of  interior  arrangement,  it  is 
usually  divided  into  two  classes.  Carpentry, 
properly  so  called,  to  which  belongs  flooring, 
roofing,  and  the  working  of  all  large  pieces  of 
wood  ;  and  Joinery,  which  includes  the  various 
ornamental  works  in  wood,  (except  cabinet- 
making),  besides  doors,  window  sashes,  and  other 
objects  intended  for  close  inspection.  The  mode 
of  constructing  roofs  has  already  been  examined 
under  the  article  ARCHITECTURE,  which  see. 
Joinery  will  also  form  a  distinct  subject  in  our 
arrangement ;  we  commence,  therefore,  with  the 
more  elementary  parts  of  the  art. 

The  modes  by  which  timbers  are  connected  to- 
gether are,  generally  speaking,  perpendicularly, 
obliquely,  sideways,  and  endways.  When  tim- 
bers are  joined  perpendicularly,  the  fibres  and 
joints  of  one  piece  run  perpendicularly  to  the 
fibres  of  the  other ;  and  the  joint  may  then  be 
termed  a  transverse  or  a  perpendicular  joint. 
When  they  are  connected  obliquely,  the  fibres  of 
the  one  piece  run  in  an  oblique  direction  to- 
wards those  of  the  other ;  and  for  this  reason  i* 
is  called  oblique  joining,  and  the  joint  is  termed 
an  oblique  joint.  Timbers  are  joined  sideways 
when  their  joints  are  parallel  to  the  fibres  of 
each  piece;  and  therefore  it  is  termed  lateral, or 
longitudinal,  joining,  and  the  joint  is  called  a 
lateral  or  a  longitudinal  joint.  When  timbers 
are  joined  edgeways,  their  common  seam  or 
joint  is  perpendicular  to  the  fibres  of  each  piece, 
and  the  joint  is  then  said  to  be  a  butting  joint. 

With  respect  to  joining  timbers  perpendicular- 
ly, fig.  1.  plate  I.  CARPENTRY,  represents  a  sec- 
tion of  a  trimmer,  and  a  part  of  the  joist,  framed 
with  a  simple  mortise  and  tenon  in  a  longitudi- 
nal direction.  The  teuoti  is  usually  made  in  the 
middle  with  a  plain  shoulder. 

Fig.  3  represents  a  section  of  a  girder  through 
its  mortises,  and  figs.  2  and  4  delineate  part  of 
the  joist  in  a  longitudinal  direction.  The  best 
method,  in  order  to  give  strength  to  the  tenons, 
is  to  make  a  rest  of  a  short  length  under  it,  with 
a  sloping  shoulder  above,  extending  in  a  line 
from  the  extremity  of  the  rest,  to  the  perpendicu- 
lar of  the  square  shoulder  below  at  the  upper 
edge  of  the  joist. 

Fig.  4,  plate  I.  of  CARPENTRY,  represents  the 
section  of  a  double  floor,  with  a  girder  taken  in 
a  transverse  direction  to  the  bridging  joists. 

A  shows  the  section  of  the  girder  ;  DE,  D  E, 
the  binding  joists;  a,  a,  a,  represent  also  the 
ends  of  bridging  joists;  b,  b,  b,  the  ends  of  ceil- 
ing joists,  chased,  mortised  into  binding  joists, 
by  a  method  which  will  be  hereafter  described 

Fig.  5,  of  the  same  plate,  shows  the  section  ef 


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PLATE  JI 


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CARPENTRY. 


183 


a  double  floor,  taken  in  a  transverse  direction  to     timber  to   another,  by  dove-tailing,  so  that  the 
the   binding  joists.      A,  A,   exhibit  sections  of    surface  of  the  one  may  be  parallel  and  perpendi- 


the  binding  joists  ;  D  E,  part  of  abridging  joist ; 
M,  N,  ceiling  joists ;  and  E  F,  EF,  parts  of  ceil- 
ing joists.  It  may  be  readily  seen  that  the 
tenons  of  the  binding  joists  are  made  in  the  same 
manner  as  described  in  the  preceding  design  for 
a  girder  and  joists. 

Fig.  6  exhibits  a  method  whereoy  a  piece  of 


cular  to  that  of  the  other ;  these  figures  also  re- 
present various  forms  of  cutting  tne  dovetail,  and 
are  very  useful  in  showing  the  mode  of  fixin^ 
angle-ties  to  wall  plates,  &c.  &c.  It  is  evident 
that  timbers  can  be  joined  by  this  method  either 
perpendicularly  or  obliquely. 

Fig.  20,  CARPENTRY,  plate  II.,  exhibits  another 


timber  may  be  framed  between  two  parallel  method  of  fixing  beams  to  wall  plates,  in  order 
pieces,  which  are  supposed  immoveable.  In  to  bind  the  sides  of  the  building  together, 
order  to  make  close  work,  the  extremity  of  the  A  piece  of  timber  may  be  joined  at  ritrht 
tenon,  and  the  bottom  of  the  mortise  at  one  end,  angles  to  another  in  the  manner  of  fig.  21,  which 
are  made  to  assume  the  arc  of  a  circle,  with  its  is  a  longitudinal  section  in  the  direction  of  the 
centre  in  one  edge  of  the  mortise  ;  and  the  ex-  fibres  of  both  pieces.  A  mortise  is  made  in  the 
trerr-ity  of  the  tenon,  and  the  bottom  of  the  mor-  one  piece  to  correspond  with  its  breadth,  which 
tise  at  the  other  end,  in  a  concentric  arc  from  is  to  form  the  perpendicular;  the  edge  of  the 
the  same  centre.  The  mortise  at  this  end  being  tenon  is  then  cut  with  a  dove-tail  notch,  so  that 
much  longer  than  the  breadth  of  the  tenon,  there  the  piece  may  be  at  right  angles  with  the  other, 
will  be  a  large  part  of  the  mortise  still  open,  and  a  wedge  or  key  is  next  driven  from  the 
which  may  be  afterwards  filled  up.  Instead  of  other  edge  of  the  tenon,  which  forces  it  quite 
the  bottom  of  the  mortise,  in  this  instance,  be-  close.  When  the  timber  of  which  the  piece 
ing  formed  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  it  may  be  cut  containing  the  dovetail  may  be  formed,  is  not 
parallel  to  the  edge,  at  the  deepest  part,  as  it  quite  dry,  the  tenon  will  shrink  in  proportion 
will  not  impede  the  transverse  piece  going  into  to  its' breadth,  by  which  circumstance  the  per- 
ils place.  In  forming  the  mortise  and  tenon,  at  pendicular  piece  will  become  liable  to  be  drawn 
the  'end  where  the  centre  is  placed,  there  is  no  out  from  the  other  to  a  certain  degree.  This 
necessity  for  tke  mortise  and  tenon  to  form  an  defect  is  remedied  in  the  section  exhibited  at 
entire  quadrant,  but  the  bottom  may  be  parallel,  fig.  22,  where,  instead  of  the  edge  of  the  tenon 
and  the  edge  only  which  is  opposite  the  centre  being  cut  in  the  form  of  a  dovetail,  a  notch  is 
made  circular.  This  useful  mode  of  framing  is  made  in  it.  Fig.  23,  shows  another  view  of  the 
much  used  in  ceiling,  joisting  for  double  floors,  perpendicular  piece  with  the  wedge. 
&c.  and  the  long  mortises  cut  in  this  manner  are  Figs.  24,  25,  26,  exhibit  the  methods  used  for 
called  chase  mortises.  the  meeting  of  a  brace  and  straining  piece  under 

If  it  be  required  to  notch  one  piece  of  timber  a  truss  beam.  Of  these  methods  the  first  is  the 
to  another,  or  to  connect  the  two,  so  as  they  may  best. 

form  one  right  angle,  with  an  equal  degree  of  Fig.  27  exhibits  a  method  of  securing  a  collar 
strength  in  each,  then  each  piece  should  be  beam  at  one  extremity,  and  preventing  it  from 
notched  half  through,  and  afterwards  the  two  being  pulled  away  at  the  joint,  by  a  bolt  made 
should  be  nailed  01  pinned  together.  Fig.  7  to  pass  through  the  rafter,  at  the  angle  formed  by 
represents  two  pieces  of  timber  framed  after  this  their  meeting. 

manner ;  and  fig.  8  shows  the  socket  of  one  Fig.  28  represents  one  form  of  the  heel  of  a 
piece,  which  receives  the  neck  or  substance  of  principal  rafter,  with  the  socket  cut  in  the  end  of 
the  other.  the  tie  beam  to  receive  it;  this  method,  however, 

By  making  a  corresponding  notch  at  any  con-  is  defective  in  strength,  because  the  small  part 
venient  distance  from  the  end  in  each  piece,  two  cut  across  the  fibres  of  the  beam  being  too  near 
pieces  may  be  connected  together,  so  as  to  form  its  extremity,  it  will  become  liable  to  be  forced 
four  right  angles.  Fig.  9  shows  two  pieces  away,  in  consequence  of  its  having  to  sustain  the 
framed  as  above,  and  fig.  10  exhibits  the  socket  entire  force  of  the  rafter. 

of  one  of  the  pieces,  which  is  cut  out  to  receive  Fig.  29  is  intended  to  remedy  this  detect,  by 
the  part  remaining  in  the  other,  after  its  socket  forming  two  abutments  equally  deep  into  the 
is  also  cut  out.  By  this  mode  of  joining  tim-  beam;  a  mode  which  not  only  produces  a  re- 
bers,  the  pieces  may  be  so  notched  as  to  have  sistance  to  the  rafter,  fully  equal  to  that  in  the 
their  surfaces  in  the  same  plane,  or  one  above  the  former  method,  but  adds  to  it  the  strength  of  the 
other,  as  may  be  found  convenient.  intermediate  part  contained  between  the  two 

These  methods  are  used  to  connect  bond  abutments.  The  intermediate  part  in  this  mode, 
timbers  at  the  corners  of  a  building.  Fig.  11  from  having  the  fibres  cut  across,  is  easily  split 
represents  an  excellent  mode  of  fitting  beams  away. 

to  wall  plates,  when  the  walls  are  affected  by  Another  mode  of  forming  a  douole  resistance, 
lateral  pressure.  A  small  notch  is  cut  out  of  is  shown  at  fig.  30.  In  this  figure  it  will  be  ob- 
the  beam,  and  the  contrary  parts,  forming  a  served  that  the  heels  of  the  rafter  and  the  socket 
double  notch,  are  cut  in  the  wall  plate  to  receive  are  cut  parallel  to  the  fibres  of  the  tie  beam,  the 
it.  Fig.  11  represents  a  longitudinal  part  of  the  end  of  the  rafter  forming  one  abutment,  and  the 
beam  upon  a  transverse  section  of  the  wall  plate ;  tenon  the  other,  which  has  the  effect  of  removing 
and  fig-  12  shows  the  upper  part  of  the  wall  it  farther  from  the  extremity, 
plate,  wherein  the  two  notches  are  made;  fig.  Fig.  3 1  represents  the  best  mode  of  forming  a 
13,  lower  side  of  the  beam,  exhibiting  the  notch,  resistance  on  the  heel  of  the  rafter  and  socket  at 
Figs.  14, 15, 16,  17,  18,  19,  CARPENTRY,  plate  the  extremity  of  the  beam.  The  abutment,  by 
I.  represent  methods  of  joining  one  piece  of  this  plan,  is  brought  nearer  to  the  inner  pan  of 


184 


CARPENTRY. 


the  heel,  which  of  course  leaves  a  greater  length 
on  the  end  of  the  beam,  and  renders  the  resist- 
ance still  greater  than  that  produced  by  the 
wood.  In  order  still  further  to  strengthen  and 
secure  it,  a  strap  may  be  placed  round  the  extre- 
mity of  the  rafter,  and  the  two  ends  may  be 
bolted  together,  through  the  beam,  as  is  repre- 
sented in  figs.  31  and  32. 

Fig.  33  represents  the  mode  of  forming  a 
junction  of  the  rafters,  and  the  joggle-head  of 
the  king-post,  together  with  the  manner  of  strap- 
ping them.  This  mode,  however,  will  be  found 
defective  when  the  joggle-head  of  the  king-post 
should  happen  to  shrink ;  for  it  is  evident,  that 
in  that  case,  the  roof  will  descend,  and  conse- 
quently put  it  out  of  shape. 

Fig.  34,  introduced  by  Mr.  Nicholson,  shows 
a  mode  of  forming  a  junction  by  making  the 
rafters  meet  each  other,  without  the  intervention 
of  the  joggle-head,  which  is  usually  made  to  the 
king-post,  and  of  course  it  has  a  great  advantage 
over  the  preceding  method. 

Fig.  35,  introduced  by  Mr.  Nicholson,  represents 
another  mode  of  hanging  king-posts  to  their  prin- 
cipal rafters,  which  meet  each  other,  as  in  fig.  11. 
Instead  of  the  forked  strap,  a  bolt  is  used  in 
this  case  with  a  spreading  head,  so  as  to  form  a 
shoulder  perpendicular  to  the  rafters,  which  are 
notched  on  purpose  to  receive  it.  This  has  the 
effect,  also,  of  preventing  the  rafters  of  a  roof 
from  sinking  in  the  middle.  The  whole  may  be 
made  of  iron,  consisting  of  two  parts  connected 
together  by  means  of  a  screw,  which  will  draw 
the  beam  as  high  as  may  be  required.  No.  1 
is  part  of  the  king-post  with  the  bolt.  Nos.  2 
and  3  are  parts  of  the  rafters,  and  No.  4  pre- 
sents a  view  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  rafters. 

Figs.  36  and  37  exhibit  the  most  approved 
forms  for  the  abutments  of  the  braces,  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  kind's  post. 

Fig.  38  shows  the  form  of  an  abutment,  when 
the  part  which  makes  the  resistance  in  the  dir^c- 
tion  of  the  king-post  is  perpendicular  to  it,  and 
sometimes  another  form  of  the  abutment  is  used 
where  the  part  of  the  shoulders  which  makes  the 
resistance  is  perpendicular  to  the  brace. 

Mr.  P.  Nicholson  has  introduced  a  very  valua-« 
ble  mode  of  connecting  two  braces  with  an  iron 
king-post.  It  is  effected  by  employing  a  smaU 
rod  of  iron  sufficiently  strong  to  bear  qp  the 
middle  of  the  beam,  and  to  resist  the  force,  pf  the 
braces  by  the  weight  of  the  middle  rafters.  The 
strap,  which  prevents  the  braces  from  being 
pushed  downwards,  has  an  eye  through  each 
side,  and  the  bottom  of  the  king-rod  is  formed 
with  a  cross,  equal  in  length  to  the  thickness  of 
the  braces ;  this  cross  is  perforated  \n  its  length 
to  receive  the  bolt. 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  floors 
A  floor,  in  carpentry,  is  the  timber-work  for  sup- 
porting the  boards  upon  which  we  walk.  A  row 
of  timbers  employed  in  floors  is  called  joisting. 
When  a  floor  consists  only  of  one  row  of  timbers, 
it  is  called  a  common  joist  floor. 

Framed  floors  are  those  where  the  ends  of 
joists  are  supported  by  a  large  beam  of  timber, 
called  a  girder,  which  is  mortised  from  a  .eh  ver- 
tical side  to  receive  the  tenons  which  are  cut  on 
the  ends  of  the  joists.  When  a  framed  floor 


consists  of  only  one  row  of  joists,  the  floor  is  said 
to  be  single  framed.  When  the  joists  on  each 
side  of  the  girder  support  another  row  of  tim- 
bers, parallel  to  the  girder,  the  floor  is  called  a 
doable  floor.  The  row  of  timbers  which  are  fas- 
tened to  the  girder  by  mortise  and  tenons  are 
called  binding  joists,  and  those  timbers  which 
are  supported  by  the  binding  joists,  are  called 
bridging  joists.  To  a  double  framed  floor  there 
is  another  row  of  small  timbers,  attached  to  the 
binding  joists,  for  supporting  the  lath  and  plas- 
ter ;  and  are  either  nailed  to  the  underside  of 
the  binding  joists,  or  fixed  to  them  by  means  of 
mortise  a.id  tenon. 

In  some  single  joisted  floors  every  third  or 
fourth  joist  is  made  deeper  than  the  intermediate 
joists,  and  the  ceiling  joists  are  fixed  to  the  deep 
joists,  the  one  crossing  the  other  at  right  angles. 
This  construction  is  adapted  to  the  prevention  of 
sound,  which  must  suffer  an  intermission  by 
reason  of  the  space  between  the  timbers.  As  no 
timbers  must  enter  a  wall  where  there  are  fire- 
places or  flues,  the  ends  of  the  joists,  instead  of 
being  supported  by  the  wall  at  such  places,  must 
be  supported  by  a  piece  of  timber  parallel 
thereto  by  mortise  and  tenons,  and  this  piece  of 
timber  must  be  fixed  by  mortise  and  tenons  at 
each  end,  to  the  nearest  joists  to  such  fire-place 
or  flue  ;  each  of  these  joists  is  called  a  trimming 
joist,  and  the  piece  of  timber  which  supports  the 
joists  leading  to  the  fire-place  or  flues,  is  called 
a  trimmer.  As  the  trimming  joists  have  also  to 
support  the  intermediate  joists,  they  ought  to  be 
in  thickness  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  common 
joists,  increased  by  a  sixth  part  of  that  breadth. 
In  double  floors,  the  under  sides  of  the  bind- 
ing joists  are  frequently  framed  flush  with  the 
under-side  of  the  girder,  and  about  three  or  four 
inches  below  the  top,  in  order  to  receive  the 
bridging  joists.  Some  old  authors  direct  that 
the  bridging  joists  should  be  pmned  down  to  the 
binding  joists ;  but  this  is  unnecessary,  and  be- 
sides, it  weakens  the  binding  joists;  this  prac- 
tice is  therefore  inadmissible. 

It  was  formerly  the  practice  to  place  the'bind- 
ing  joists  about  three  feet  or  three  feet  six  inches 
,  distant  from  each  other ;  the  mean  distance  of 
the  present  practice  is  about  five  feet.  Single 
floors,  consisting  of  the  same  quantity  of  timber, 
are  much  stronger  than  framed  floors ;  but  a  pre- 
ference is  sometimes  given  to  framed  floors  in 
superior  buildings,  on  account  that  they  are  not 
so  liable  to  fracture  the  ceilings,  and  because  they 
conduct  sound  more  imperfectly  than  a  common 
joist  floor,  and  hence  it  is  that  single  floors  can 
only  be  employed  in  inferior  buildings. 
^Framed  floors  differ  from  double  floors  only  in 
the  binding  joists  being  framed  to  girders.  In 
single  floors,  where  the  joists  exceed  eight  feet 
bearing,  pieces  of  board  ought  to  be  inserted  in 
the  spaces  between  the  joists  in  a  vertical  posi- 
tion, and  nearly  the  whole  depth  of  the  joists, 
and  in  one  continued  line  at  right  angles  to  the 
joisting.  The  pieces  of  timber  thus  inserted  are 
called  struts,  and  the  floor  is  said  to  be  strutted , 
the  struts  ought  not  to  be  driven  in  with  great 
force,  but  their  ends  should  be  in  close  contact 
with  the  vertical  sides  of  the  joists,  and  should  be 
fixed  thereto  with  a  nail  at  each  end. 


CARPENTRY. 


185 


The  strutting  of  a  floor  is  of  great  use  when  the 
joists  are  thin  and  deep,  in  preventing  their  buck- 
ling pressure ;  but  for  this  purpose  there  is  another 
method  called  keying,  which  consists  in  framing 
short  pieces  of  timber  between  the  joists  ;  but  as 
the  mortises  which  receive  the  tenons  weaken  the 
joists,  and  as  the  keys  cannot  be  in  a  straight  line, 
and  since  this  method  adds  considerably  to  the 
expense,  this  practice  is  not  so  eligible  as  that 
of  strutting.  Single  joist  flooring  may  be  used 
to  any  extent  not  exceeding  sixteen  feet ;  but 
when  it  is  desirable  to  preserve  the  ceiling  free 
from  cracks,  and  to  prevent  the  passage  of  sound, 
a  framed  floor  is  necessary. 

The  ceiling  joists  in  double  floors  are  gene- 
rally put  in  after  the  building  is  up ;  if,  therefore, 
they  are  fixed  by  means  of  mortises  in  the  sides 
of  the  binding  joists,  to  relieve  tenons  on  their 
ends,  the  space  between  every  other  two  mortises 
must  be  grooved  out  alternately  upon  the  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  two  adjacent  binding  posts ;  by 
this  means  the  ceiling  posts  may  easily  be  put  in 
their  places  by  inserting  the  tenon  in  each  ceiling 
joist  in  the  mortises  at  one  end,  and  sliding  the 
tenon  on  the  other  end  along  the  groove  in  the 
arc  of  a  circle,  until  the  ceiling  joist  come  at  a 
right  angle  with  the  binding  joist.  The  long 
mortises  or  grooves  in  the  sides  of  the  binding 
joists  are  called  chace  mortises  or  pulley  mor- 
tises. The  ceiling  joists  may  be  thirteen  or 
fourteen  inches  apart ;  the  thickness  of  the  bridg- 
ing joists  and  ceiling  joists  need  not  be  greater 
than  what  is  sufficient  to  resist  splitting  by  the 
driving  in  of  the  nails  in  order  to  fix  them.  It 
has  been  found  by  experience,  that  two  inches  is 
a  sufficient  thickness  for  the  purpose. 

In  double  framed  floors,  the  distance  of  bridg- 
ing joists  in  the  clear  ought  to  be  about  twelve 
inches,  and  should  never  exceed  thirteen.  It  is 
a  good  practice  to  plane  the  upper  edges  of  the 
bridging  joists  straight,  because,  when  the  board- 
ing is  laid,  the  faces  for  walking  upon  will  be 
more  regular  than  if  the  boards  had  been  laid 
down  upon  the  edges  of  the  bridging  joists  when 
rough  from  the  saw. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  subject  of  the 
strength  of  timber,  one  of  the  most  important  in 
the  art  of  carpentry ;  since,  without  a  due  regard 
to  it,  no  erections  can  possibly  be  made,  but 
what  depend  solely  on  chance  for  their  success. 
Yet,  of  all  the  branches  of  the  science  of  archi- 
tecture, none,  perhaps,  has  received  so  little  elu- 
cidation from  the  investigations  of  the  learned. 
Nor  will  the  cause  of  this  seeming  neglect  appear 
problematical,  when  it  is  considered  that  there 
is  none  requiring  such  vast  and  expensive  appa- 
ratus, more  close  and  continued  application,  or 
more  judgment  and  practical  experience  to  obtain 
any  decisive  conclusions.  Accordingly,  in  our 
own  country,  experiments  have  never  been  made 
on  a  scale  sufficiently  large  to  be  of  much  impor- 
tance as  a  guide  in  practice ;  and  we  owe  to  the 
liberality  of  the  ancient  monarchy  of  France 
nearly  all  the  knowledge  we  possess  on  this 
most  interesting  subject.  Messrs.  Buffbn  and 
Du  Hamel,  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century, 
were  directed  by  that  government  to  make  a 
variety  of  experiments ;  they  were  furnished  with 
ample  funds  and  apparatus,  and  all  the  forests  of 


France  were  at  their  disposal  for  subjects.  The 
reports  of  M.  de  Buffbn  may  be  found  in  the 
Memoirs  of  the  French  Academy  for  the  years 
1740,  1741,  1742,  and  1760;  and  those  of  M. 
Du  Hamel  in  his  work,  Sur  1'Exploitation  des 
Arbres,  and  sur  le  Conservation  et  la  Transpor- 
tation de  Bois.  The  essential  parts  of  them  we 
shall  notice  presently. 

The  strength  of  all  bodies  consists  in  the  cohe- 
sion of  their  particles,  and  as  this  cohesion  ad- 
mits of  many  modifications,  in  its  various  appear- 
ances of  hardness,  elasticity,  and  softness,  the 
texture  of  bodies  must  be  taken  into  account  be- 
fore we  can  arrive  at  mathematical  demonstrations 
on  the  subject :  and  the  experiments  recorded, 
have  been,  for  the  reasons  before  assigned,  so 
few,  limited,  and  doubtful,  as  to  produce  no 
principles  on  which  to  ground  our  future  cal- 
culations. 

A  general  idea  of  the  force  of  the  attraction  of 
cohesion  may  be  obtained  from  the  instance  of  a 
lever,  in  which,  by  the  compression  of  one  end, 
a  strain  is  occasioned  in  a  distant  part.  In  order 
to  understand  its  nature  with  precision  it  will  be 
necessary  to  review  such  general  laws  as  are 
immediately  necessary  as  a  guide  in  mechanical 
operations. 

First.  We  have  presumptive  evidence  to  prove 
that  all  bodies  are  elastic  in  a  certain  degree,  that 
is,  when  their  form  or  bulk  is  changed  by  cer- 
tain moderate  compressions,  it  requires  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  force  producing  the  change,  in 
order  to  continue  the  body  in  its  altered  state, 
and,  when  the  compressing  force  is  removed,  the 
body  recovers  its  original  form  and  tension. 

Secondly.  That  whatever  may  be  the  situation 
of  the  particles  composing  a  body,  with  respect 
to  each  other  when  in  a  state  of  quiescence, 
they  are  kept  in  their  respective  places  by  the 
balance  of  opposing  forces. 

Thirdly.  It  is  an  established  fact,  that  every 
body  has  some  degree  of  compressibility,  as  well 
as  of  dilatability ;  and  when  the  changes  produ- 
ced in  its  dimensions  are  so  moderate,  that  the 
body  completely  recovers  its  original  form  on  the 
cessation  of  the  changing  force,  the  extensions  or 
compressions  bear  a  sensible  proportion  to  the 
extending  or  compressing  forces ;  and,  therefore, 
the  connecting  forces  are  proportioned  to  the  dis- 
tance, at  which  the  particles  are  diverted,  or  se- 
parated, from  their  usual  state  of  quiescence. 

Fourthly.  It  is  universally  observable,  that 
when  the  dilatations  have  proceeded  to  a  certain 
length,  a  less  addition  of  force  is  afterwards  suf- 
ficient to  increase  the  dilatation  in  the  same  de- 
gree. For  instance,  when  a  pillar  of  wood  is 
overloaded,  it  swells  out,  and  small  crevices  ap- 
pear in  the  direction  of  the  fibres.  After  this,  it 
will  not  bear  half  of  the  previous  load. 

Fifthly.  That  the  forces  connecting  the  parti- 
cles composing  tangible  or  solid  bodies,  are 
altered  by  a  variation  of  distance,  not  only  in 
degree,  but  also  in  kind. 

Having  now  enumerated  the  principal  modes, 
in  which  cohesion  confers  strength  on  solid  bodies, 
we  proceed  to  consider  the  strains  to  which  this 
strength  may  be  opposed. 

These  strains  are  three  in  number,  viz. — 
First.  A  piece  of  matter  may  be  torn  asunder : 


186 


CARPENTRY. 


— to  this  strain  king-posts,  tie-beams,  stretchers, 
&c.  &c.  are  liable. 

Second.  It  may  be  crushed : — as  in  the  case  of 
pillars,  truss  beams,  &c.  &c. 

Third.  It  may  be  broken  across,  as  may  hap- 
pen to  a  joist  or  lever  of  any  kind. 

With  respect  to  the  first  strain,  it  may  be  ob- 
served, that  it  is  the  simplest  of  all  strains,  and 
that  the  others  are  but  modifications  of  it ;  it 
being  directly  opposed  to  the  force  of  cohesion, 
without  being  influenced,  except  in  a  slight  degree, 
in  its  action,  by  any  particular  circumstances. 
When  a  body  of  considerable  length,  such  as  a 
rope,  or  a  rod  of  wood,  or  metal,  has  any  force 
exerted  on  one  of  its  ends,  it  will  naturally  be 
resisted  by  the  other,  from  the  effect  or  operation 
of  cohesion.  When  this  body  is  fastened  at  one 
end,  we  may  conceive  all  its  parts  to  be  in  a 
similar  state  of  tension,  since  all  experiments  on 
natural  bodies  concur  to  prove,  that  the  forces 
which  connect  their  particles  in  any  way  whate- 
yer,  are  equal  and  opposite. 

If,  therefore,  the  cohesion  be  equal,  that  is,  if 
the  body  be  of  a  homogeneous  texture,  the  par- 
ticles will  be  changed  from  their  natural  state, 
and  separated  to  equal  distances.  Of  course  the 
connecting  powers  of  cohesion  thus  excited  and 
exerted,  in  opposition  to  the  straining  force,  are 
also  equal.  This  force,  therefore,  may  be  so 
increased  as  gradually  to  separate  the  particles  of 
the  body  more  and  more  from  each  other :  and, 
in  a  relative  proportion,  the  power  of  cohesion 
will  be  weakened,  till  a  fracture  ensues,  and  the 
body  itself  is  quickly  broken  in  all  its  parts.  If 
the  external  force  be  only  sufficient  to  produce 
such  a  curvature  on  the  body  that  when  it  is 
withdrawn  it  will  recover  its  former  state,  it  is 
clear  that  this  strain  may  be  repeated  as  often  as 
is  required,  and  that  the  body  which  has  with- 
stood it  once  will  always  withstand  it.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  we  here 
speak  only  of  occasional  strains,  for  it  is  a  fact 
no  less  well  known  than  important,  that  a  body 
will  not  suffer  a  permament  strain  of  more  than 
one  half  of  what  it  will  bear  when  first  imposed 

In  stretching  and  breaking  fibrous  bodies, 
though  the  visible  extension  is  frequently  very 
considerable,  it  does  not  solely  arise  from  the  in- 
creasing the  distance  of  the  particles  composing 
the  cohering  fibre,  but  is  chiefly  occasioned  by 
drawing  the  crooked  fibre  straight.  In  this  res- 
pect a  great  diversity  prevails,  as  well  as  in  the 
powers  required  to  withstand  a  strain.  In  some 
woods,  such  as  fir,  the  fibres  on  which  the 
strength  most  depends,  are  very  straight,  and 
woods  of  this  nature,  it  should  be  remarked,  are 
generally  very  elastic,  and  break  abruptly  when 
overstrained ;  others,  as  oak,  have  their  resisting 
fibres  very  crooked,  and  stretch  very  sensibly 
when  subjected  to  a  strain.  These  kinds  of 
woods  do  not  break  so  suddenly,  but  exhibit 
visible  signs  of  a  derangement  of  texture. 

With  respect  to  the  absolute  force,  it  seems 
hardly  necessary  to  mention,  that  the  trunk  of  a 
tree  is  formed  of  numerous  longitudinal  fibres, 
which,  by  annual  growth,  are  formed  in  rings,  or 
nearly  in  the  form  of  concentric  circles.  These, 
by  their  united  force  of  cohesion,  resist  separa- 
tion, and  the  strength,  therefore,  is  proportioned 


to  the  area  of  the  section  opposed  to  the  resisting 
force. 

The  following  are  a  few  useful  facts  concern- 
ing the  tenacity  of  wood :  It  is  generally  agreed 
that  the  heart  of  a  tree  is  the  weakest  part,  and 
that  this  weakness  increases  with  the  age  of  the 
tree.  The  fact  is  denied  by  Buffon,  who,  however, 
does  not  prove  his  assertion. 

The  outer  fibres  called  the  blea,  are  also 
weaker  than  the  rest. 

The  wood  is  stronger  in  the  middle  of  the 
trunk  than  at  the  root,  or  the  springing  of  the 
branches,  and  the  wood  of  the  branches  is  weaker 
than  that  of  the  trunk. 

The  wood  on  the  northern  side  of  European 
trees  is  weaker  than  the  rest,  and  that  on  the 
southern  is  the  strongest. 

The  heart  of  a  tree  is  never  in  its  centre,  but 
always  nearer  the  north  side,  and  the  annual 
plates  are  consequently  thinner  on  that  side. 
The  tree  is  strongest  where  the  annual  plates  are 
thickest;  the  reason  of  which  is,  that  the  trachea 
or  air-vessels,  which  form  the  separation  between 
these  plates,  are  weaker  than  the  simple  ligneous 
fibres. 

From  the  experiments  of  Muschenbroek  we  ' 
have  some  useful  information  as  to  the  absolute 
strength  of  different  woods.  They  were  all 
formed  into  convenient  slips,  and  part  of  the 
slip  was  cut  away  to  a  parallelepiped,  one-fifth 
of  an  inch  square,  and  therefore  the  twenty-fifth 
part  of  a  square  inch  in  section.  The  following 
is  the  table  in  which  the  number  of  pounds  de- 
notes the  absolute  strength  of  a  square  inch : — 

Pounds. 

Locust  tree 20100 

Jujeb 18500 

Beech  and  Oak 17300 

Orange 15500 

Alder 13900 

Elm  - 13200 

Mulberry 12500 

Willow 12500 

Ash 12000 

Plum     ...'....  11800 

Elder 10000 

Pomegranate 9750 

Lemon 9250 

Tamarind 8750 

Fir 8330 

Walnut 8130 

Pitch  pine 7650 

Quince 6750 

Cypreas 6000 

Poplar 5500 

Cedar 4880 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  writer  assigns  a 
much  greater  tenacity  to  these  woods  than  othej  s 
who  have  treated  on  the  subject;  the  reason  for 
the  great  difference  however  is,  that  he  gives 
the  weight  that  will  just  tear  them  asunder; 
while  others,  as  Mr.  Emerson,  give  that  which 
may  be  suspended  to  them  with  safety. 

Muschenbroek  gives  a  very  minute  detail  of 
his  experiments  on  the  ash  and  walnut,  in  which 
he  states  the  weights  required  to  tear  asunder 
slips  taken  from  the  four  sides  of  these  trees,  and, 
on  each  side,  in  a  regular  progression  from  the 


CARPENTRY. 


187 


centre  to  the  circumference.  The  numbers  in  the 
foregoing  table  corresponding  with  these  two 
woods  may  be  considered,  therefore,  as  the  ave- 
rage of  more  than  fifty  trials  of  each.  lie  men- 
tions also  that  all  the  other  numbers  were  calcu- 
lated with  the  same  care.  For  these  reasons 
some  confidence  may  be  placed  in  the  results ; 
though  they  carry  the  degrees  of  tenacity  consi- 
derably higher  than  those  enumerated  by  some 
other  writers.  This  gives  8640  for  the  greatest 
strength  of  a  square  inch,  which  is  much  inferior 
to  Muschenbroek's  calculation. 

These  numbers  express  something  more  than 
the  utmost  attraction  of  cohesion,  the  weights  are 
such  as  will  very  quickly  (that  is  in  a  minute  or 
two)  tear  the  rods  asunder.  In  general  it  may 
be  observed,  that  two-thirds  of  these  weights 
will  greatly  impair  the  strength  after  a  considera- 
ble time,  and  that  one-half,  is  the  utmost  that 
can  remain  suspended  at  them,  without  incurring 
the  risk  of  their  demolition;  and  on  this  calcu- 
lation of  one-half  of  the  nominal  weight,  the  engi- 
neer should  reckon  in  all  his  constructions; 
though,  even  in  this  respect,  there  are  great  shades 
of  difference.  Woods  of  a  very  straight  fibre, 
such  as  fir,  will  suffer  less  injury  from  a  load 
which  is  not  sufficient  to  break  them  immedi- 
ately. 

Mr.  Emerson  mentions  the  following  as  the 
weights,  or  loads,  which  may  be  safely  suspended 
to  an  inch  square,  of  the  several  bodies  hereafter 
enumerated : — 

Pounds. 

Iron 76400 

Brass 35600 

Hempen  Hope 19600 

Ivory 15700 

Oak,  Box,  Yew,  and  Plum  tree  7850 

Elm,  Ash,  and  Beech    .     .     .  6070 

Walnut  and  Plum    ....  5360 
Red  fir,  Holly,  Elder,  Plane,  and 

Crab 5000 

Cherry  and  Hazel    ....  4760 

Alder,  Ash,  Birch,  and  Willow  4290 

Lead 430 

Freestone 914 

This  ingenious  gentleman  has  laid  down  as  a 
practical  rule,  that  a  cylinder,  whose  diameter  is 
six  inches,  will  carry,  when  loaded  to  one-fourth 
of  its  absolute  strength,  as  follows : — 


Iron  .  . 
Good  rope 
Oak  .  . 
Fir 


Cwt. 

135 

22 

14 

9 


We  have  next  to  consider  the  compression  of 
timber:  theoretically  speaking,  the  positive 
strength  of  a  body  suffering  under  compression 
will  bear  a  relative  proportion  to  the  area  of  its 
section  :  it  is  absolutely  impossible  for  a  piece  of 
timber  to  be  so  straight,  and  the  weight  acting 
upon  it  so  equally  disposed,  a.s  to  press  in  a  di- 
rection precisely  perpendicular  upon  each  fibre. 
If  therefore  we  conceive  the  smallest  force  acting 
transversely,  it  will  be  easily  imagined  that  the 
length  will  have  much  to  do  with  the  strength. 


Parent  has  shown  that  the  force  required  to 
crush  a  body,  is  nearly  equal  to  that  which  will 
tear  it  asunder.  He  observes,  also,  that  it  requires 
something  more  than  sixty  pounds  on  every 
square  line,  to  crush  a  piece  of  sound  oak ;  but 
this  rule  is  by  no  means  general,  glass,  for 
instance,  will  carry  a  hundred  times  more  on  it 
than  oak  in  this  way,  but  will  not  bear  suspended 
above  four  or  five  times  as  much.  Oak  will  sus- 
pend a  great  deal  more  than  fir,  but  fir,  as  a  pil- 
lar, will  carry  twice  as  much.  Woods  of  a  soft 
texture,  although  they  may  be  composed  of  very 
tenacious  fibres,  are  more  easily  crushed  by  the 
load  upon  them.  The  softness  of  texture  is 
chiefly  owing  to  the  crooked  nature  of  their  fibres, 
and  to  the  existence  of  considerable  vacuities  be- 
tween each  fibre,  so  that  they  are  more  easily 
bent  in  a  lateral  direction  and  crushed.  When 
a  post  is  overstrained  by  its  load,  it  is  observed 
to  increase  sensibly  in  diameter. 

The  first  author  who  has  considered  the  com- 
pression of  columns  with  attention  is  the  cele- 
brated Euler,  who  published,  in  the  Berlin  Me- 
moirs for  1757,  his  theoiy  of  the  strength  of 
columns.  The  general  proposition  established 
by  this  theory  is,  that  the  strength  of  prismatic 
columns  is  in  the  direct  quadruplicate  ratio  of 
their  diameters  and  the  inverse  ratio  of  their 
lengths.  He  prosecuted  this  subject  in  the  Pe- 
tersburgh  Commentaries  for  1778,  confirming  his 
former  theory.  Muschenbroek  has  compared 
the  theory  with  experiments,  but  the  comparison 
has  been  very  unsatisfactory,  the  experiments 
neither  confirming  nor  positively  negativing  the 
theory. 

The  next  and  most  common  strain  to  which 
bodies  are  exposed,  is  that  which  tends  to  break 
them  across. 

In  strains  of  this  kind  it  frequently  happens, 
that  the»power  of  a  lever  is  exerted  in  addition 
to  the  positive  force  of  the  strain. 


Let  A  B  C  D,  in  the  above  diagram,  be  supposed 
to  represent  the  vertical  section  of  a  prismatic 
solid,  projecting  horizontally  from  a  wall  in 
which  it  is  firmly  fixed ;  and  let  a  weight  be 
hung  on  it  at  B,  or  let  any  power  act  at  B,  in  a 
direction  perpendicular  to  A  B. — Let  this  body  be 
also  considered  to  possess  insuperable  strength  in 
every  part,  except  in  the  vertical  section  DA, 
perpendicular  to  its  length,  in  which  section  only 
it  must  break. — Let  the  cohesion  be  uniform 
throughout  the  whole  of  this  section:  that  is, 
let  each  of  the  adjoining  particles  of  the  two 
parts  cohere  with  an  equal  force/.  There  are 
two  ways  in  which  it  may  then  break.  The  part 
A  B  C  D,  may  simply  slide  down  along  the  sur- 
face of  the  fracture,  provided  the  power  acting  at 
B  be  equal  to  the  accumulated  force  which  is 
exerted  by  every  particle  composing  the  section, 
in  the  direction  A  D.  But  let  this  be  supposed 
as  effectually  prevented  by  something  supporting 


CAR 


188 


CAR 


the  point  A.  The  action  at  P,  tends  to  make 
the  body  turn  round  A  (or  round  a  horizontal 
line  passing  through  A  at  right  angles  with  A  B) 
in  the  saire  manner  as  round  a  joint.  This  it 
cannot  do  without  separating  at  the  line  D  A,  in 
which  case  the  adjoining  particles  at  D,  or  at  E, 
will  be  separated  horizontally.  But  their  attrac- 
tion of  cohesion  resists  this  separation.  In  order, 
therefore,  that  the  fracture  may  happen  at  the 
place  intended,  the  energy  of  the  power  P, 
acting  by  means  of  the  lever  A  B,  must  be  supe- 
rior to  the  accumulated  energies  of  the  compo- 
nent particles.  The  energy  of  each  depends  not 
only  on  its  cohesive,  or  connecting  force,  but 
also  on  its  peculiar  situation ;  for  the  supposed 
insuperable  firmness  of  the  rest  of  the  body,  ren- 
ders it  a  lever  turning  round  the  fulcrum  A,  and 
the  individual  cohesive  power  of  each  particle, 
such  as  D  or  E,  acts  by  means  of  the  arm  DA  or 
E  A.  The  precise  energy  of  each  particle  will 
consequently  be  ascertained  by  multiplying  the 
force  individually  exerted  by  it  at  the  moment 
of  fracture,  by  the  arm  of  the  lever  which  ena- 
bles it  to  act. 

Let  us  then  suppose  that,  at  the  moment  of 
fracture,  every  individual  particle  exerts  an  equal 
force  f.  The  energy  of  D,  will  be  D  A  x  f,  that 
of  F  will  be  E  A  x  f,  and  that  of  the  whole  will  be 
the  sum  of  all  these  products.  Let  the  depth 
D  A  of  the  section,  be  called  d,  and  let  any  un- 
determined part  of  it,  as  A  E,  be  called  x,  then 
the  space  occupied  by  any  particle  will  be  x. 
The  cohesion  of  this  space  may  be  represented 
by  f  x,  and  that  of  the  whole  by  f  d.  The  energy 
by  which  each  element  x,  of  the  line  D  A,  or  d, 
resists  the  fracture,  will  be  f  x  x,  and  :»ie  whole 
accumulated  energies  will  be  f  x./xi.  This  is 
•well  known  to  be  f  x  i  d  2,  or  f  d  x  £  d.  It  is 
the  same  thing,  therefore,  as  if  the  cohesion,  f  d, 
of  the  whole  section  had  been  concentred  toge- 
ther at  the  point  G,  which  is  in  the  middle  of 
DA. 

In  the  next  place,  we  may  remark,  that  a  cer- 
tain determinate  curvature  being  suitable  to  every 
beam  it  cannot  be  exceeded  without  breaking  it ; 
since  two  adjoining  particles  are  thereby  separa- 
ted, and  an  end  is  put  to  their  cohesion.  A  fibre 
can  be  extended  only  to  a  certain  degree  of  its 
length.  The  ultimate  extension  of  the  outer 
fibres  must  bear  a  certain  proportion  to  its 
leng*  0,  and  this  proportion  is  similar  in  the  point 
of  depth  to  the  radius  of  ultimate  curvature, 
which  is,  therefore,  determinate.  Consequently 
a  beam  of  uniform  breadth  and  depth,  is  most  in- 
curvated  where  the  strain  is  greatest,  and  will 
necessarily  break  in  the  most  incurvated  part. 
But  by  changing  its  form,  so  as  to  render  the 
strength  of  its  different  sections  in  the  ratio  of  the 
strain,  it  is  evident  that  the  curvature  will  be  the 
same  throughout,  or  that  it  may  be  made  to  vary 
according  to  any  law. 

CARPENTUM,  in  antiquity,  a  name  com- 
mon to  divers  sorts  of  vehicles,  answering  to 
coaches,  waggons,  carts,  &c.  among  us.  The 
carpentum  was  originally  a  kind  of  car  in  which 
the  Roman  ladies  were  carried ;  though  in  after 
times  it  was  also  used  in  war.  Some  derive  the 
word  from  carras  ;  others  from  carmenta,  by  a 
conversion  of  the  m  into'  p. 


CARPESIUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  or- 
der polygamia  superflua,  and  syngenesia  class  of 
plants ;  natural  order  forty-ninth,  compositae. 
Receptacle  naked;  downless  :  CAL.  imbricate, 
the  outer  scales  reflected ;  florets  of  the  margin 
five-cleft.  Species  two  ;  one  native  of  the  south 
of  Europe,  the  other  of  China. 

CAR'PET,  v.  &  n.  Ital.  carpetta;  Dutch  kar- 
pet.  A  parti-colored  covering,  made  of  wool, 
to  spread  on  a  floor ;  formerly,  the  name  was 
given  to  a  table-cover.  Poetically,  it  signifies 
level  ground,  adorned  with  flowers;  and  any 
variegated  surface.  The  word  is  also  prover- 
bially used  for  an  easy  and  luxurious  state ;  a 
carpet  knight  is  one  who  has  never  seen  service. 
To  be  on  the  carpet  is  to  be  under  consideration  ; 
to  be  in  hand. 

Be  the  Jacks   fair  within,  the  Jills  fair  without, 
carpet*  laid,  and  every  thing  in  order?       Shakspeare. 
Go,  signify  as  much,  while  here  we  march 

Upon  the  grassy  carpet  of  this  plain.  Id. 

He  is  knight,  dubbed  with  unbacked  rapier,  and 
upon  carpet  consideration.  Id. 

Against  the  wall,  in  the  middle  of  the  half  pace, 
is  a  chair  placed  before  him,  with  a  table  and  carpet 
before  it.  Bacon. 

We  found  him  in  a  fair  chamber,  richly  hanged 
and  carpeted  under  foot,  without  any  degrees  in  the 
state  ;  he  was  set  upon  a  low  throne,  richly  adorned, 
and  a  rich  cloth  of  state  over  his  head,  of  blue  sattia 
embroidered.  Bacon. 

In  the  year  1555,  Chancelor  made  another  voyage 
to  this  place,  with  letters  from  Queen  Mary  ;  had 
a  house  in  Mosco,  and  diet  appointed  him ;  and 
was  soon  admitted  to  the  emperor's  presence  in  a 
large  room  spread  with  carpets;  at  his  entering  and 
salutation  all  stood  up,  the  emperor  only  sitting,  ex- 
cept when  the  queen's  name  was  read,  or  spoken, 
for  then  he  himself  would  rise  ;  at  dinner  he  sat  bare- 
headed ;  his  crown  and  a  rich  cap  hanging  on  a  pin- 
nacle by.  Milton.  Hittory  of  Motcovia. 

The  carpet  ground  shall  be  with  leaves  o'er  spread. 
And  boughs  shall  weave  a  covering  for  your  head. 

Dryden. 

The  whole  dry  land  is,  for  the  most  part,  covered 
over  with  a  carpet  of  green  grass  and  other  herbs. 

Ray. 
One  track  led  winding  down  a  shelving  dale, 

All  ».rch'd  with  bending  branches  over-head, 
The  other  opening  to  the  northern  gale, 

Wide  and  more  wide  its  greenwood  carpet  spread. 

CARPET  KNIGHTS,  a  denomination  given  to 
gown-men  and  others,  of  peaceable  profession, 
who  on  account  of  their  birth,  office,  or  merits, 
are  raised  to  the  honor  of  knighthood. 

I  change 

My  thought,  and  hold  thy  valor  light 
As  that  of  some  vain  carpet  knight. 

Scutt'i  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

CARPI,  a  ci-devant  principality  of  Moden<i, 
about  four  leagues  from  that  city,  included  in 
the  late  Italian  republic  and  dependency  of  the 
Crostolo.  It  formerly  belonged  to  the  house  of 
Pio.  In  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, Manfroy  was  the  first  prince  of  Carpi ;  b«i 
in  the  sixteenth,  the  emperor  Charles  V.  gave  it 
to  Alfonzo  duke  of  Ferrara. 

CARPI,  the  capital  of  the  above  district  is 
situated  on  the  Sechia.  It  has  a  strong  castle, 


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189 


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and  lies  twelve  miles  north  of  Modena.     Long. 
11°  12'E.,  lat.  11°45'N. 

CARPI,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  Veronese, 
included  in  the  late  republic,  and  dependency 
of  Benaco ;  memorable  for  a  victory  gained  by 
the  imperialists  over  the  French,  in  1701.  It  is 
situated  on  the  Adige,  twenty-seven  miles  south 
of  Verona. 

CAKPI  (Girolamo  da),  history  and  portrait 
painter,  born  at  Ferrara,  in  1501,  and  a  dis- 
ciple of  Garofalo.  He  acquired  such  an  ex- 
cellence in  the  imitation  of  Corregio's  style,  that 
many  paintings  copied  by  him  were  taken  for 
originals,  and  eagerly  purchased  by  the  con- 
noisseurs. Nor  is  it  improbable,  that  several  of 
his  paintings  pass  at  this  day  for  the  genuine 
works  of  Corregio.  He  died  in  1556. 

CARPI  (Ugo  da),  an  Italian  painter,  remark- 
able for  being  the  inventor  of  that  species  of 
engraving  on  wood,  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  chiaro  scuro,  in  imitation  of  drawing.  This 
is  performed  by  using  more  blocks  than  one ; 
and  Ugo  da  Carpi  usually  had  three ;  the  first 
of  the  outline  and  dark  shadows,  the  second  for 
the  lighter,  and  the  third  for  the  half  tint.  In 
that  manner  he  struck  off  prints  after  several  de- 
signs, and  cartons  of  Raphael ;  particularly  one 
of  the  Sybil,  a  descent  from  the  cross,  and  the 
history  of  Simon  the  Sorcerer.  He  died  in  1500. 

CARPINUS,  the  horn-bean,  in  botany  :  a 
genus  of  the  polyandria  order,  and  moncecia 
class  of  plants;  natural  order  fiftieth,  amentaceae  : 
CAL.  of  the  male  monophyllous  and  ciliated  ; 
amentum,  with  roundish  scales  :  COR.  none, 
stamina  twenty :  CAL.  of  the  female  monophyl- 
lous and  ciliated  ;  amentum  with  oblong  scales  : 
COR.  none,  two  germens,  with  two  styles  on 
each.  The  fruit  is  an  angular  nut.  There  are 
four  species,  viz.  1.  C.betulus,  or  wych-hazel, 
a  deciduous  tree,  much  resembling  the  beech, 
native  of  Europe  and  America.  As  an  under- 
wood, it  affords  stakes  and  elders,  fuel  and  char- 
coal. Its  timber  ranks  with  that  of  the  beech 
and  the  sycamore  ;  and  the  inner  bark  is  said  to 
be  much  used  in  Scandinavia  to  dye  yellow.  The 
only  superior  excellency  of  the  horn-beam  lies 
in  its  fitness  for  sheltering  gardens,  nurseries, 
and  young  plantations  in  winter.  2.  C.  ostrya, 
the  hop  horn-beam,  a  native  of  Italy  and  Vir- 
ginia. This  is  of  taller  growth  than  the  eastern 
kind,  and  will  arrive  to  the  height  of  twenty 
feet  or  more.  3.  C.  Virginiana.  Common  to 
this  province  of  America;  with  lanceolate, 
pointed  leaves,  and  very  long  cones.  4.  C. 
duinensis  ;  a  native  of  Carniola ;  with  the  scales 
of  its  cones  somewhat  hearted,  doubly  toothed  ; 
female  ament,  ovate. 

CARP'MEALS,  n.  s.  A  kind  of  coarse  cloth 
made  in  the  North  of  England. 

Phillips  World  of  Words. 

CARPOBALSAM,  from  Kap7roc,  fruit,  and 
^aXtra/ioc,  balsam,  in  the  materia  medica,  the 
fruit  of  the  tree  which  yields  the  true  oriental 
balsam.  It  is  used  in  Egypt,  in  all  the  inten- 
tions in  which  the  balsam  'itself  is  applied.  The 
only  use  the  Europeans  make  of  it  is  in  Venice 
treacle  and  mithridate  ;  and  in  these  not  a  great 
deal,  for  cubebs  and  juniper  berries  are  gene- 
rally substituted  in  its  place. 


CARPOCRATES,  a  heretic  of  the  second 
century,  who  revived  and  added  to  the  errors  of 
Simon  Magus,  Menander,  Saturninus,  and  other 
Gnostics.  He  owned,  with  them,  one  sole  prin- 
ciple and  father  of  all  things,  whose  name  as 
well  as  nature  was  unknown.  The  world,  he 
taught,  was  created  by  angels,  vastly  inferior  to 
the  first  principle.  He  opposed  the  divinity  of 
Jesus  Christ;  making  him  a  mere  man,  begotten 
of  Mary  by  Joseph,  though  possessed  of  uncom- 
mon gifts  which  set  him  above  other  creatures. 
He  inculcated  a  community  of  women. 

CARPOLITHI,  or  fruit-stone  rocks  of  the 
Germans,  are  composed  of  a  kind  of  jasper,  of 
the  nature  of  the  amygdaloides,  or  almond  stones. 
Bertrand  asserts  that  the  latter  appear  to  be  com- 
posed of  elliptical  pieces  like  petrified  almonds, 
though  in  truth  they  are  only  small  oblong 
pieces  of  calcareous  stone  rounded  by  attrition, 
and  sometimes  small  muscle  shells  connected  by 
a  stony  concretion.  The  name  carpolithi,  how- 
ever, is  given  in  general  by  writers  on  fossils  to 
all  stony  concretions  that  resemble  fruit  of  any 
kind. 

CAR'PUS,  n.  s.,  Lat.,  the  wrist ;  so  named  by 
anatomists,  which  is  made  up  of  eight  little 
bones,  of  different  figures  and  thickness,  placed 
in  two  ranks,  four  in  each  rank.  They  are 
strongly  tied  together  by  the  ligaments  which 
come  from  the  radius,  and  by  the  annulary  liga- 
ments. See  ANATOMY.  Quincy. 

I  found  one  of  the  bones  of  the  carpus  lying  loose 
in  the  wound.  Wiseman's  Surgery. 

CARR  (Sir  John),  a  late  travelling  attorney, 
originally  of  Dorsetshire,  who  amused  the  public 
as  a  tourist,  and  in  a  celebrated  trial  for  libel. 
His  first  publication  was,  The  Stranger  in  France, 
4to,  1803,  which  becoming  popular  was  followed 
by  A  Tour  round  the  Baltic,  1805;  The  Stranger 
in  Ireland,  1806;  A  Tour  through  Holland,  down 
the  Rhine,  &c.  1807;  and  ATour  through  Scot- 
land, 1809.  In  Ireland  he  was  knighted  by  the 
lord  lieutenant,  a  circumstance  which,  together 
with  his  general  literary  pretensions,  became  the 
topic  of  witty  ridicule  in  My  Pocket  Bcok,  or 
Hints  for  a  Ryghte  Merrie  and  Conceitede  Tour, 
to  be  called  The  Stranger  in  Ireland.  This  jeu- 
d'esprit  was  foolishly  enough  made  the  ground 
of  a  prosecution  for  libel,  in  which  the  knight 
was  unsuccessful.  A  small  volume  of  Poems 
also  bears  Sir  John  Carr's  name. 

CARRA  (John  Lewis),  a  noted  actor  in  the 
French  revolution,  was  born  at  Pont  de  Vesles, 
in  1743,  and  bred  to  the  law,  but  quitted  that 
profession  in  pursuit  of  letters.  Previous  to  the 
breaking  out  of  the  revolution,  he  travelled  as 
far  as  Moldavia,  and  there  became  secretary  to 
the  hospodar.  Returning  to  France  about  the 
beginning  of  the  political  ferment  he  became 
the  publisher  of  a  journal,  entitled  Les  Annales 
Politiques  et  Litteraires,  which  was  widely  cir- 
culated, and  procured  Carra's  appointment  as 
one  of  the  keepers  of  the  national  library ;  and 
he  was  afterwards  nominated  a  rrrember  of  the 
convention.  He  was  distinguished  by  the  keen- 
ness of  his  temper,  and  was  employed  as  a  com- 
missioner to  the  army  ;  but  having,  as  was  said, 
proposed  to  proscribe  the  Bourbon  family  and 
place  the  duke  of  York  on  the  throne  of  France, 


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190 


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he  came  under  the  charge  of  being  in  the  pay  of 
England.  However  ridiculous  this  may  appear, 
Carra  having  always  sided  with  the  Girondists, 
fell  with  that  party,  and  was  guillotined  in  Oc- 
tober, 1793.  He  was  author  of  a  History  of 
Moldavia  and  Wailachia,  12mo. ;  New  Prin- 
ciples of  Philosophy,  2  vols.  4to. ;  An  Essay  on 
Aerial  Navigation,  in  which  he  gives  some  direc- 
tions for  the  guiding  of  Air  Balloons ;  An  Exa- 
mination of  Animal  Magnetism  ;  Historical  Me- 
moirs of  the  Bastile,  and  other  Tracts. 

CARRAC,  or  CARRACA,  a  name  given  by  the 
Portuguese  to  the  vessels  sent  to  Brasil  and  the 
East  Indies ;  being  large,  round  built,  and  fitted 
for  fight  as  well  as  burden. 

CARRE  (Lewis),  an  eminent  French  mathe- 
matician, born  in  Brie,  A.  D.  1663.  His  father 
was  a  farmer  and  intended  him  for  the  church, 
but  young  Carre  refused  to  enter  into  orders.  In 
the  midst  of  his  father's  displeasure  on  this  ac- 
count, while  he  was  uncertain  what  to  follow,  he 
was  engaged  as  an  amanuensis  by  the  celebrated 
Malebranche,  under  whom,  he,  for  seven  years, 
studied  mathematics  and  metaphysics ;  branches 
of  science  which  he  afterwards  taught.  In  1697 
M.  Varignon  made  choice  of  him  as  one  of  his 
eleves  in  the  academy;  and  in  1700  Carre  pub- 
lished the  first  complete  work  on  the  Integral 
Calculus,  which  he  afterwards  republished  with 
corrections.  -He  was  soon  after  made  an  asso- 
ciate, and  at  last  a  pensioner  and  mechanician 
of  the  academy.  He  was  author  of  many  pieces 
on  mathematics,  of  which  twenty  are  printed  in 
the  memoirs  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  the  rest  remain  in  MS.  in  their  possession. 
He  died  in  1711,  aged  forty-eight. 

CARRIAGE  BLOCK,  a  cart  made  on  purpose 
for  carrying  mortars  and  their  beds  from  place  to 
place.  See  FORTIFICATION. 

CARRIAGE  TRUCK,  two  short  planks  of  wood, 
supported  on  two  axle  trees,  having  four  trucks 
of  solid  wood  for  carrying  mortars  or  guns  upon 
battery,  where  their  own  carriages  cannot  go. 
They  are  drawn  by  men. 

CARRIAGE,  in  rural  economy,  is  a  sort  of  con- 
duit made  of  timber  or  brick.  Its  use  is  to 
convey  the  water  in  one  main  Over  another, 
which  runs  at  right  angles  with  it;  its  depth  and 
breadth  being  of  the  same  dimensions  with  the 
main  it  belongs  to. 

CARRICK,  the  southern  division  of  Ayrshire, 
Scotland.  It  borders  on  Galloway;  stretches 
thirty-two  miles  in  length ;  and  is  a  hilly  coun- 
try fit  for  pasturage.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Stenchiar  and  Girvan,  both  abounding  with  sal- 
mon. Here  are  also  several  lakes  and  forests ; 
and  the  people  on  the  coast  employ  themselves 
in  the  herring  fishery,  though  they  have  no  har- 
bour of  any  consequence.  The  only  towns  are 
Bergen  and  Maybole.  The  prince  of  Wales  is 
earl  of  Carnck. 

CARRICKFERGUS,  COUNTY  ANDTOWN  OF, 
in  Ireland.  The  town  is  seated  on  the  north 
shore  of  Belfast  Lough,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  Carrickfergus  Bay,  eight  miles  N.N.W. 
of  the  town  of  Belfast.  It  was  formerly  a  place 
of  considerable  importance,  both  as  a  fortress 
and  commercial  town  ;  a  castle  boldly  situated 
on  a  rock  projecting  into  the  sea,  is  supposed  to 


have  been  built  by  Hugh  de  Lacy  in  1178.  It 
still  serves  as  a  depot  for  arms  and  ammunition. 
In  1223  a  monastery  was  founded,  and  since 
that  time  Carrickfergus  has  repeatedly  been  the 
scene  of  important  events.  King  William  III. 
landed  herein  1690,  and  in  1763  it  surrendered, 
after  a  gallant  resistance,  to  a  French  force  under 
Admiral  Thurot,  who  was  so8n  after  intercepted 
by  an  English  squadron  off  the  isle  of  Man,  to 
which  the  French  fleet  surrendered,  after  an  en- 
gagement in  vyhich  Thurot  lost  his  life.  At  the 
dissolution  of  the  monastic  institutions,  the  lands 
of  Carrickfergus  were  granted  to  Sir  Edmond 
Fitzgerald,  by  whom  they  were  assigned  to  Ar- 
thur Chichester,  ancestor  of  the  Marquises  of 
Donegal.  It  is  now  relatively  an  inconsider- 
able place;  it  however  retains  its  corporate' pri- 
vileges and  civil  jurisdictions.  It  is  regarded 
as  forming  part  of  the  county  of  Antrim,  but 
Carrickfergus  holds  its  own  assize,  and  is  no 
otherways  connected  with  Antrim  than  by  conti- 
guity. The  corporation  consists  of  a  mayor, 
annually  elected,  a  recorder,  two  sheriffs,  seven- 
teen aldermen,  and  twenty-four  burgesses. 

CARRICK-ON-SHANNON,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in 
the  parish  of  Killoghah,  county  of  Leitrim.  The 
town  is  seated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Shannon; 
and  it  is  the  shire  and  assize  town  of  the  county, 
and  prior  to  the  union  of  Ireland  with  England 
it  returned  two  members  to  the  Irish  parliament. 
In  the  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  a  castle.  Its 
most  prominent  public  building  now  is!  a  bar- 
rack. 

CARRIER.  A  common  carrier,  having  the 
charge  and  carriage  of  goods,  is  to  answer  for 
the  same,  or  the  value,  to  the  owner.  And  where 
goods  are  delivered  to  a  carrier,  and  he  is  robbed 
of  them,  he  shall  be  charged  and  answer  for 
them,  because  of  the  hire.  If  a  common  carrier 
who  is  offered  his  hire,  and  who  has  convenience, 
refuses  to  carry  goods,  he  is  liable  to  an  action, 
in  the  same  manner  as  an  inn-keeper  who  re- 
fuses to  entertain  a  guest.  One  brought  a  box 
to  a  carrier,  with  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  the 
carrier  demanded  of  the  owner  what  was  in  it ; 
he  answered,  that  it  was  filled  with  silks  and 
such  like  goods.  The  carrier  took  it,  was  robbed, 
and  adjudged  to  make  it  good,  but  a  special  ac- 
ceptance, as,  provided  there  is  no  charge  of 
money,  would  have  excused  the  carrier.  If  a 
person  deliver  to  a  carrier's  book-keeper  two 
bags  of  money -sealed  up,  to  be  carried  from 
London  to  Exeter,  and  tell  him  that  it  is  £200, 
and  take  his  receipt  for  it,  with  promise  of  deli- 
very for  10s.  per  cent,  carriage  and  risk  :  though 
it  be  proved  that  there  was  £400  in  the  bags,  if 
the  carrier  be  robbed  he  shall  answer  only  for 
£200, because  there  was  a  particular  undertaking 
for  that  sum  and  no  more;  and  his  reward, 
which  makes  him  answerable,  extends  no  farther. 
If  a  carrier  or  porter  loses  goods  which  he  is  en- 
trusted to  carry,  a  special  action  in  the  case  lies 
against  him,  on  the  custom  of  the  realm,  and  not 
trover;  and  so  of  a  common  carrier  by  boat. 
Also  against  a  lighter-man  spoiling  goods  he  is 
to  carry,  by  letting  water  come  to  them. 

CARRIER  PIGEON,  or  COURIER  PIGEON,  a  spe- 
cies of  pigeon  so  called,  because  it  was  the  custom 
of  the  east  to  send  letters  by  them.  These  birds 


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though  carried  hood-winked,  twenty,  thirty,  or 
even  100  miles,  will  find  their  way  in  a  very 
little  time  to  the  place  where  they  were  bred. 
They  are  trained  to  this  service  in  Turkey  and 
Persia;  and  are  carried  first,  while  young,  short 
flights  of  half  a  mile,  afterwards  more,  till  at 
length  they  will  return  from  the  farthest  part  of 
the  kingdom.  Lithgow  assures  us,  that  one  of 
»!>2se  birds  will  carry  a  letter  from  Babylon  to 
Aleppo,  which  is  thirty  days'  journey,  in  forty.- 
eight  hours.  This  practice  is  very  ancient;  Hir- 
tius  and  Brutus,  at  the  siege  of  Modena,  held  a 
correspondence  by  pigeons.  And  Ovid  tells  us, 
that  Taurosthenes,  by  a  pigeon  stained  with 
purple,  gave  notice  to  his  father  of  his  victory  at 
the  Olympic  Gameis,  sending  it  to  him  at  ^Egina. 
In  modern  times,  the  most  noted  were  the  pigeons 
of  Aleppo,  which  served  as  couriers  at  Alexan- 
dretta  and  Bagdad.  The  manner  of  sending 
advice  by  them  was  this :  they  took  pairs  which 
had  young  ones,  and  carried  them  on  horseback 
to  the  place  from  whence  they  wished  them  to 
return,  taking  care  to  let  them  have  a  full  view. 
When  the  news  arrived,  the  correspondent  tied  a 
billet  to  the  pigeon's  foot,  and  let  her  loose. 
The  bird,  impatient  to  see  its  young,  flew  off 
like  lightning,  and  arrived  at  Aleppo  in  ten 
hours  from  Alexandretta,  and  in  two  days  from 
Bagdad.  It  was  easy  for  them  to  find  their  way 
back,  as  Aleppo  may  be  discovered  at  an  im- 
mense distance.  This  pigeon  has  nothing  pecu- 
liar in  its  form,  except  its  nostrils,  which,  instead 
of  being  smooth  and  even,  are  swelled  and  rough. 
See  COLUMBA. 

CARRIER  (John  Baptist),  one  of  the  many 
monsters  whose  barbarous  disposition  the  French 
revolution  unshackled,  was  born  at  Aurillac,  in 
1756.  Having  passed  through  the  inferior  func- 
tions of  the  law,  he  was  chosen  deputy  for  the 
department  of  Cantal,  in  the  national  conven- 
tion, an  honor  which  his  denunciations  and 
sanguinary  acts  fully  merited.  He  was  sent 
with  a  band  of  cut-throats  into  La  Vendee,  where 
he  butchered  great  numbers,  merely  because 
they  were  suspected  of  favoring  royalty.  At 
Nantes  his  savage  brutality  was  particularly  dis- 
played :  there  he  caused  no  fewer  than  twenty- 
four  to  be  put  to  death  in  one  day,  four  of  whom 
were  only  about  fourteen  years  of  age ;  and,  as 
if  at  a  loss  to  vent  his  rage,  he  forced  crowds  of 
miserable  people  on  board  covered  barges,  and 
sunk  them  in  the  Loire.  It  would  be  shocking 
to  humanity  to  attempt  an  enumeration  of  the 
ferocious  acts  of  this  wretch  and  his  savage  crew  : 
on  the  fall  of  the  mountain  party  he  was  ordered 
back  to  Paris,  tried  before  the  revolutionary  tri- 
bunal, condemned,  and  guillotined,  December 
15th,  1794. 

CAR'RION,  n.  &  adj.  Fr.  charogne ;  old  Fr. 
f. arogne,  caroigne ;  Ital.  curogna  ;  Span,  carrona; 
Dutch,  kreng ;  from  Lat.  euro  and  rodens.  The 
carcase  of  something  unfit  for  food ;  flesh  too 
corrupted  to  be  eaten ;  a  reproachful  and  con- 
temptuous appellation ;  that  which  relates  to,  or 
feeds  on,  carcases. 

They  did  eat  the  dead  carrions,  and  one  another 
soon  aftei ;  insomuch  that  the  very  carcases  they 
scraped  out  of  their  graves.  Spenser  on  Ireland. 


It  is  I, 

That,  lying  by  the  violets  in  the  sun, 
Do  as  the  carrion  does,  not  as  the  flower.  Sftalupeare. 

This  foul  deed  shall  smell  above  the  earth, 
With  carrion  men  groaning  for  burial.  Id. 

Shall  we  send  that  foolish  carrion,  Mrs.  Quickly, 
to  him,  and  excuse  his  throwing  into  the  water?  Id. 

Match  to  match  I  have  encountered  him, 
And  made  a  prey  for  carrion  kites,  and  crows, 
Even  of  the  bonny  beast  he  loved  so  well.  Id. 

Not  all  the  pride  that  makes  thee  swell, 

As  big  as  thou  dost,  blown  up  veal ; 

Nor  all  thy  tricks  and  slights  to  cheat, 

Sell  all  thy  carrion  for  good  meat.  Hudibrat 

Sheep,  oxen,  horses  fall;  and  heaped  on.high 

The  differing  species  in  confusion  lie  ; 

Till,  warned  by  frequent  ills,  the  way  they  found 

To  lodge  their  loathsome  carrion  in  the  ground. 

Dry  den . 
The  wolves  will  get  a  breakfast  by  my  death, 

Yet  scarce  enough  their  hunger  to  supply  j 

For  love  has  made  me  carrion  ere  I  die.  Id. 

Criticks,  as  they  are  birds  of  prey,  have  ever  a  na- 
tural inclination  to  carrion.  Pope. 

The  sexton's  indignation  moved 
The  mean  comparison  reproved, 
Their  undiscerning  palate  blamed, 
Which  two-legged  carrion  thus  defamed.       Gay. 

For  this  was  all  thy  caution  ? 
For  this,  thy  painful  labours  at  the  glass? 
To'  improve  those  charms,  and  keep  them  in  repair , 
For  which  the  spoiler  thanks  thee  not.     Foul  feeder  ! 
Coarse  fare  and  carrion  please  thee  full  as  well.  Blair. 
Blest  genius !  who  bestows  his  toil  and  pains 

On  each  dull  passage  each  dull  book  contains  ; 

The  toil  more  grateful,  as  the  task  more  low  : 

So  carrion  is  the  quarry  of  a  crow.  Mallet. 

CARROBALISTA,  in  the  ancient  military 
art,  denotes  a  species  of  balista,  mounted  on 
wheels,  and  drawn  by  horses ;  by  which,  it  dif- 
fered from  the  manubalista,  which  being  lesser 
and  lighter,  was  drawn  by  the  hand. 

CARROCERUM,  or  CARROCIUM,  in  writers 
of  the  middle  age,  denotes  the  banner  or  chief 
flag  of  an  army,  which  was  mounted  on  a  kind 
of  chariot,  and  drawn  by  oxen. 

CARRON,  a  river  of  Scotland,  in  Stirling- 
shire, which  rises  about  the  middle  of  the  isth- 
mus, between  the  friths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  and 
divides  that  country  into  two  nearly  equal  parts. 
The  whole  length  of  its  course  from  west  to  east 
is  not  above  fourteen  miles.  •  It  falls  into  the 
Frith  of  Forth  about  three  miles  north-east  of 
Falkirk.  There  is  no  river  in  Scotland,  and  few 
in  the  whole  island  of  Britain,  whose  banks  have 
been  the  scenes  of  more  memorable  transactions ; 
and  latterly  this  stream  has  given  name  to  the 
celebrated  Carrou  iron  works.  See  STIRLING- 
SHIRE. 

CARRONADE,  a  short  kind  of  ordnance, 
capable  of  carrying  a  large  ball,  and  useful  in 
close  engagements  at  sea ;  so  named  from  the 
Carron.  See  GUNNERY. 

CARROOR,  or  CAROOR,  a  town  and  fort  of 
Hindostan,  in  the  Mysore.  It  was  entered  by 
general  Meadows,  in  June,  1790,  having  been 
evacuated  by  the  troops  of  Tippoo  Sultan.  It 
is  sixty-five  miles  east  by  south  of  Coimbetore. 
CARROSSA,  a  considerable  town  of  Italy,  in 
the  late  Italian  republic,  and  department  of  the 
Adda,  situaied  on  the  Po.  opposite  Piacenza, 


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192 


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where  general  Buonaparte  passed  the  Po  with 
his  army,  almost  without  resistance,  on  the  7th 
of  May,  1796. 

CAR'ROT,  n.         ~\     Fr.  carotte ;  barb.  Lat. 
CAR'ROTINESS,  n.     >carota,  supposed  to  be 
CAR'ROTY,  adj.        J  from   icappi£a,   for    wpp 
pi'fa,  the  yellow  root ;  an  esculent  root,  of  an 
orange  color.     Carrotiness  and  carroty  are  ap- 
plied to  red  hair,  from  the  resemblance  which 
its  color  bears  to  that  of  the  vegetable. 

Carrot*,  though  garden  roots,  yet  they  do  well  in 

the  fields  for  seed.  Mortimer. 

His  spouse  orders  the  sack  to  be  immediately  opened, 

and  greedily  pulls  out  of  it  half  a  dozen  bunches  of 

carrots.  Dennis, 

If  the  potatoe's  taste  delights, 
Or  the  red  carrots'  sweet  invites, 
Indulge  thy  morn  and  evening  hours, 
But  let  due  care  regard  my  flowers.  Gay. 

CARROT,  in  botany.     See  DAUCUS. 
CAR'ROWS,  n.  an  Irish  word,  which  the 
quotation  from  Spenser  fully  defines. 

The  carrowt  are  a  kind  of  people  that  wander  up 

and  down  to  gentlemen's  houses,  living  only  upon 

cards  and  dice ;  who,  though  they  have  little  or  no- 

hing  of  their  own,  yet  will  they  play  for  much  money. 

Spenser  on  Ireland. 

CARRUCA,  from  carrus,  Lat.,  in  antiquity, 
a  splendid  kind  of  car  or  chariot,  mounted  on 
four  wheels,  richly  decorated  with  gold,  silver, 
ivory,  &c.,  in  which  the  emperors,  senators,  &c., 
were  carried.  Carruca  is  also  used  in  writers  of 
the  middle  age,  for  plough;  and  sometimes  for 
Carrucate. 

CARRUCAGE,  carucagium,  a  kind  of  tax 
anciently  imposed  on  every  plough.  It  also  de- 
notes, in  husbandry,  the  ploughing  of  ground, 
either  ordinary,  as  for  grain,  hemp,  and  flax ;  or 
extraordinary,  as  for  woad,  dyer's  weed,  rape, 
and  the  like. 

CARRUCATE,  carrucata,  in  our  ancient 
laws,  a  plough-land,  or  as  much  arable  ground 
as  can  be  tilled  in  a  year  with  one  plough.  In 
Doomsday  Inquisition,  the  arable  land  is  esti- 
mated in  carrucates,  the  pasture  in  hides,  and 
meadow  in  acres. 

CA'RRY,  v.  a.  &  ra.-v      Fr.     charier ;     from 

CA'RRIAGE,  n.  (Lat.  currus,   says   Dr. 

CA'RRIER,  n.  {Johnson.       In     Span. 

CA'RRY-TALE,  n.  J  accarear  signifies  to 
carry  or  convey  something  in  a  cart,  or  other 
carriage.  But  Serenius  refers  the  origin  of  the 
word  to  Sw.  Kara  (pronounced  kura),  to  carry, 
to  drive ;  kerra ;  a  vehicle ;  Goth.  kera.  The 
verb  to  carry  is  of  such  various  signification, 
that,  after  having  explained  the  words  spring- 
ing from  it,  we  shall  give  Dr.  Johnson's  defi- 
nitions, with  some  additional  authorities ;  as  to 
alter  them  would,  in  this  case,  be  merely  to  make 
a  change  without  effecting  an  improvement. 

Carriage  denotes  the  act  of  carrying ;  conquest 
or  acquisition,  but  this  meaning  is  now  obso- 
lete, although  we  still  say  the  enemy  carried  the 
place ;  a  vehicle ;  a  frame  for  holding  cannon  ; 
behaviour;  personal  manners ;  conduct,  practices, 
and  manner  of  transacting;  which  last  sense, 
also,  is  now  obsolete.  A  carrier  is  whatever  car- 
ries, but  is  chiefly  used  to  mark  one  whose  trade 
it  is  to  ccnvey  goods  for  others.  It  is  likewise 


the  distinctive  name  of  a  species  of  pigeon, 
which  is  taught  to  carry  letters,  and  whose  ser- 
vices, once  devoted  to  lovers  and  friends,  are  now 
chiefly  employed  by  the  boxing  and  gambling 
tribe.  What  a  carry-tale  is,  every  one's  ex- 
perience has  enabled  him  to  define  and  despise. 

The  unequal  agitation  of  winds,  though  material  to 
the  carriage  of  sounds  farther  or  less  way,  yet  do  not 
confound  the  articulation.  Bacon. 

Before  his  eyes  he  did  cast  a  mist,  by  his  own 
insinuations,  and  by  the  carriage  of  his  youth,  that 
expressed  a  natural  princely  behaviour.  Id. 

The  manner  of  carriage  of  the  business,  was  as 
if  there  had  been  secret  inquisition  upon  him.  Id. 

You  must  distinguish  between  the  motion  of  the 
air,  which  is  but  a  vehiculum  causae,  a  carrier  of  the 
sounds,  and  the  sounds  conveyed.  Id. 

You  may  hurt  yourself;  nay,  utterly 
Grow  from   the  king's  acquaintance  by  this  carriage. 

Shakspeare. 

Solyman  resolved  to  besiege  Vienna,  in  good  hope 
that,  by  the  carriage  away  of  that,  the  other  cities 
would  without  resistance  be  yielded.  Knollet. 

He  commanded  the  great  ordnance  to  be  laid  upon 
carriaget,  which  before  lay  bound  in  great  unwieldy 
timber.  Id, 

There  are  tame  and  wild  pjgeons  ;  and  of  tame 
there  are  croppers,  carrier*,  runts.  Walton. 

He  advised  the  new  governor  to  have  so  much 
discretion  in  his  carriage,  that  there  might  be  no  notice 
taken  of  the  exercise  of  his  religion.  Clarendon. 

If  it  seem  so  strange  to  move  this  obelisk  for  so 
little  space,  what  may  we  think  of  the  carriage  of  it 
out  of  Egypt  ?  Wilknu. 

Though  in  my  face  there's  no  affected  frown, 
Nor  in  my  carriage  a  feigned  hiceness  shown, 
I  keep  my  honour  still  without  a  stain.  Dryden. 

For  winds,  when  homeward  they  return,  will  drive 
The  loaded  carriers  from  their  evening  hive.  Id. 

The  welcome  news  is  in  the  letter  found  ; 

The  carrier's  not  commissioned  to  expound  j 

It  speaks  itself.  Id. 

Let  them  have  ever  so  learned  lectures  of  breeding, 
that  which  will  most  influence  their  carriage  will  be 
the  company  they  converse  with,  and  the  fashion 
of  those  about  him.  Locke. 

The  roads  are  crowded  with  carriers,  laden  with 
rich  manufactures.  Swift. 

A  carrier  every  night  and  morn 

Would  see  his  horses  eat  their  corn ; 

This  sunk  the  hostler's  vails,  'tis  true, 

But  then  his  horses  had  their  due.  Gay. 

What  horse  or  carriage  can  take  up  and  bear  away 
all  the  loppings  of  a  branchy  tree  at  once.  Watts. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  the  verb,  which  iu 
its  active  and  neuter  states,  has  nearly  forty  dif- 
ferent shades  of  meaning.  To  carry  is,  to 
convey  from  a  place ;  opposed  to  bring,  or 
convey  to  a  place ;  often  with  a  particle,  signify- 
ing departure,  as  away,  off". 

When  he  dieth  he  shall  carry  nothing  away. 

Psalm  xlix.  18. 

And  devout  men  carried  Stephen  to  his  burial. 

Acts,  viii.  2. 

I  mean  to  carry  her  away  this  evening  by  the  help 
of  these  two  soldiers.  Dryden's  Spanish  Friar 

As  in  a  hive's  vimineous  dome, 
Ten  thousand  bpes  enjoy  their  home  j 
Each  does  her  studious  action  vary, 
To  go  and  come,  to  fetch  and  carry.  Prior. 

They  exposed  their  goods  with  the  price  marked, 
then  retired,  the  merchants  came,  left  the  price  which 


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193 


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ihry  would  give  upon  the  goods,  and  retired  ;  the 
Sores  returning,  carried  off  either  their  goods  or  mo- 
ney, as  they  liked  best.  Arbuthnot. 

To  transport. 

They  began  to  carry  about  in  beds  those  that  were 

sick.  Markvi.  55. 

Where  many  great  ordnance  are  shot  off  together, 

the  sound  will  be  carried,  at  the   least,  twenty  miles 

upon  the  land.  Bacon. 

Ah !  rather  why 

Did's  thou  not  form  me  sordid  as  my  fate, 
Base-minded,  dull,  and  fit  to  carry  burdens. 

Otwny's  Venice  Preserved. 

To  bear;  to  have  about  one. 

Do  not  take  out  bones  like  surgeons  I  have  met 
with,  who  carry  them  about  in  their  pockets. 

Wiseman's  Surgery. 

To  take;  to  have  with  one. 

If  the  ideas  of  liberty  and  volition  were  carried 
along  with  us  in  our  minds,  a  great  part  of  the  diffi- 
culties that  perplex  men's  thoughts  would  be  easier 
resolved.  Locke. 

I  have  listened  with  my  utmost  attention  for  half 
an  hour  to  an  orator,  without  being  able  to  carry  away 
one  single  sentence  out  of  a  whole  sermon.  Swift. 

When  we  go  from  home  in  quest  of  amusement,  or 
to  the  fields  for  the  sake  of  exercise,  we  shall  do  well 
to  leave  all  our  speculations  behind  ;  if  we  carry 
them  with  us  the  exercise  will  fatigue  the  body  with- 
out refreshing  it.  Beattie. 

To  convey  by  force. 

Go,  carry  Sir  John  Falstaff  to  the  Fleet ; 
Take  all  his  company  along  with  him. 

Shakspeare.     Henry  IV. 
To  effect  anything. 

There  are  some  vain  persons,  that  whatsoever  goeth 
alone,  or  moveth  upon  greater  means,  if  they  have 
never  so  little  hand  in  it,  they  think  it  is  they  that 
carry  it.  Bacon. 

Oft-tiraes  we  lose  the  occasion  of  carrying  a  busi- 
ness well  thoroughly  by  our  too  much  haste. 

Ben  Jonson's  Discovery. 

These  advantages  will  be  of  no  effect ;  unless  we 
improve  them  to  words,  in  the  carrying  of  our  main- 
point.  Addison. 

To  gain  in  competition. 

And  hardly  shall  I  carry  out  my  side, 

Her  husband  being  alive.  Shakspeare. 

1  see  not  yet  how  any  of  these  six  reasons  can  be 

fairly   avoided  ;   and   yet   if  any  of  them   hold  good, 

it  is  enough  to  carry  the  cause.  Saunderson. 

The  latter  still  enjoying  his  place,  and  continuing 

a  joint   commissioner  of  the   treasury,    still  opposed, 

and  commonly  carried  away  everything  against  him. 

Clarendon. 
To  gain  after  resistance. 

The  count  woos  your  daughter, 
Lays  down  his  wanton  siege  before  her  beauty  ; 
Resolves  to  carry  her  ;  let  her  consent, 
As  we'll  direct  her  now,  'tis  best  to  bear  it. 

Shakspeare. 

The  town  was  distressed,  and  ready  for  an  assault, 
which,  if  it  had  been  given,  would  have  cost  much 
blood  :  but  yet  the  town  would  h;ive  been  carried  in 
the  end.  Bacon's  Henry  VII. 

To  gain :  with  it ;  that  is,  to  prevail,  le  por- 
ter, Fr. 

Are  you  all  resolved  to  give  your  voices  ? 
But  that's  no  matter  -,  the  greater  part  carries  it. 

Shakspeare. 

VOL.  V, 


If  the  numerousnass  of  a  train  must  carry  il}  vir'ua 
may  go  follow  Astraea,  and  vice  only  will  be  worth 
the  courting.  Glanville. 

Children,  who  live  together,  often  strive  for  mas- 
tery, whose  wills  shall  carry  it  over  the  rest. 


Locke. 


To  bear  out ;  to  face  through,  with  it. 


If  a  man  carries  it  off,  there  is  so  much  money 
saved  ;  and  if  he  be  detected,  there  will  be  something 
pleasant  in  the  frolick.  L' Estrange. 

To  continue  external  appearance. 
My  niece  is  already  in  the  belief  that  he's  mad  ; 
v.'c  may  carry  it  thus  for  our  pleasure  and  his  penance. 

Shakspeare. 

To  manage  ;  to  transact. 

The  senate  is  generally  as  numerous  as  our  house 
of  commons  ;  and  yet  carries  its  resolutions  so  pri- 
vately, that  they  are  seldom  known. 

Addison  on  Italy. 

To  behave ;  to  conduct ;  with  the  reciprocal 
pronoun. 

Neglect  not  also  the  examples  of  those  that  have 
carried  themselves  ill  in  the  same  place.  Bacon. 

He  attended  the  king  into  Scotland,  where  he  did 
carry  himself  with  much  singular  sweetness  and  tem- 
per. Wotten. 

He  carried  himself  so  insolently  in  the  house,  and 
out  of  the  house,  to  all  persons,  that  he  became 
odious.  Clarendon. 

Sometimes  with  it ;  as,  she  carries  it  high. 

To  bring  forward  ;  to  advance  in  any  progress. 

It  is  not  to  be  imagined  how  far  constancy  will 
carry  a  man ;  however,  it  is  better  walking  slowly  in 
a  rugged  way,  than  to  break  a  leg  and  be  a  cripple. 

Locke. 

There  is  no  vice  which  mankind  carries  to  such 
wild  extremes  as  that  of  avarice.  Swift. 

To  urge ;  to  bear  forward  with  some  kind  of 
internal  impulse. 

Men  are  strongly  carried  out  to,  and  hardly  took  off 
from,  the  practice  of  vice.  South. 

He  that  the  world,  or  flesh,  or  devil,  can  carry  away 
from  the  profession  of  an  obedience  to  Christ,  is  no 
son  of  the  faithful  Abraham. 

Hammond's  Practical  Catechism. 

Ill  nature,  passion,  and  revenge,  will  carry  them 
too  far  in  punishing  others ;  and  therefore  God  hath 
certainly  appointed  government  to  restrain  the  par- 
tiality and  violence  of  men.  Swift. 
Ambition  is  an  idol,  on  whose  wings 

Great  minds  are  carried  only  to  extreme, 

To  be  sublimely  great,  or  to  be  nothing. 

Southern's  Loyal  Brother, 

To  hear ;  to  have  ;   to  obtain. 

In  some  vegetables  we  see  something  that  carries 
a  kind  of  analogy  to  sense  ;  they  contract  their  leaves 
against  the  cold  ;  thev  open  them  to  the  favourable 
heat.  Hole's  Origin  of  Mankind. 

To  exhibit ;  to  show ;  to  display  on  the  out- 
side ;  to  set  to  view. 

The  aspect  of  every  one  in  the  family  carries  so 
much  satisfaction,  that  it  appears  he  knows  his  happy 
lot.  Addison. 

To  imply  ,  to  import. 

It  carries  too  great  an  imputation  of  ignorance, 
lightness,  or  folly,  for  men  to  quit  and  renounce 
their  former  tenets,  presently,  upon  the  offer  of  an 
argument  which  they  cannot  immediately  answer. 

Lot  its. 

o 


CAR 

To  contain  ;  to  comprise. 

He  thought  it  carried  something  of  an  argument  in 
it,  to  prove  that  doctrine.  Watts  on  tlte  Mind. 

To  have  annexed  ;  to  have  anything  joined  : 
with  the  particle  with. 

There  -was  a  righteous  and  a  -searching  law,  di- 
rectly forbidding  such  practices;  and  they  knew  that 
it  carried  with  it  the  divine  stamp.  South, 

The  obvious  portions'  of  extension  that  affect  our 
senses,  carry  with  them  into  the  mind  the  idea  of 
finite.  Loclte. 

To  convey  or  bear  anything  united  or  ad- 
hering, by  communication  of  motion. 

We  see  also  manifestly,  that  sounds  are  carried 
with  wind  :  and  therefore  sounds  will  be  heard  fur- 
ther with  the  wind  than  against  the  wind. 

Bacon'*  Natural  History. 

To  move  or  continue  anything  in  a  certain 
direction 

His  chimney  is  carried  up  through  the  whole  rock, 
so  that  you  see  the  sky  through  it,  notwithstanding 
the  rooms  lie  very  deep.  Addison  on  Italy. 

To  push  on  ideas,  arguments,  or  anything 
successive  in  a  train. 

Manethes,  that  wrote  of  the  Egyptians,  hath  carried 
up  their  government  to  an  incredible  distance. 

Hole's  Origin  of  Mankind^ 

To  receive  ;  to  endure  :  not  in  use. 

Some  have  in  readiness  so  many  odd  stories,  as 
there  is  nothing  but  they  can  wrap  it  into  a  tale,  to 
luake  others  carry  it  witk  more  pleasure.  Bacon. 

To  convey  by  means  of  something  supporting. 

Carry  camomile,  or  wild  thyme,  or  the  green  straw- 
berry, upon  sticks,  as  you  do  hops  upon  poles. 

Bacon's  Nat.  Hist. 

To  bear,  as  trees. 

Set  them  a  reasonable  depth,  and  they  will  carry 
more  shoots  upon  the  stem.  Bacon's  Nat.  Hist. 

To  fetch  and  bring,  as  dogs. 

Young  whelps  learn  easily  to  carry  ;  young  popin- 
jays learn  quickly  to  sptak.  Assham's  Schoolmaster. 

To  carry  off.     To  kill. 

Old  Parr  lived  to  one  hundred  and  fifty-three  years 
of  age,  and  might  have  gone  further  if  the  change  of 
air  had  not  carried  him  off.  Temple. 

To  carry  on.     To  promote  ;  to  help  forward. 

It  carries  on  the  same  design  that  is  promoted  by 
authors  of  a  graver  turn,  and  only  does  it  in  another 

Addison. 


To  carry  on.  To  continue;  to  put  forward 
from  one  stage  to  another. 

jzEneas's  settlement  in  Italy  was  carried  on  through 
all  the  oppositions  in  his  way  to  it,  both  by  sea  and 
land-  Addison. 

To  carry  on.     To  prosecute  ;  not  to  let  cease. 

France  will  not  consent  to  furnish  us  with  money 
sufficient  lo  carry  on  the  war.  Temple. 

To  carry  through.  To  support;  to  keep  from 
falling,  or  being  conquered. 

That  grace  will  carry  us  if  we  do  not  wilfully  betray 
our  succours,  victoriously  through  all  difficulties. 

Hammond. 

To  CARRY,  v.  n.  A  hare  is  said  by  hunters 
to  carry,  when  she  runs  on  rotten  ground,  or  on 
frost,  and  it  sticks  to  her  feet. 


CAR 


2.  A  horse  is  said  to  carry  well,  when  his 
neck  is  archeH,  and  he  holds  his  head  high;  but 
when  his  neck  is  short,  and  ill  shaped,  and  he 
lowers  his  head,  he  is  said  to  carry  low. 

CARRYING  WIND,  a  term  applied  by  dealers 
in  horses  to  one  that  frequently  tosses  his  nose 
as  high  as  his  ears,  and  does  not  carry  hand- 
somely. The  difference  between  carrying  in  the 
wind,  and  beating  upon  the  hand,  is  this:  that 
the  horse  that  carries  in  the  wind  puts  up  his 
head  without  shaking,  and  sometimes  beats  upon 
the  hand.  The  opposite  to  carrying  in  the  wind, 
is  arming  and  carrying  low  ;  and  even  between 
these  two  there  is  a  difference  in  wind. 

CARSTAIRS  (William),  an  eminent  Scotch 
divine,  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  and  born  at 
a  village  near  Glasgow  in  1649.  He  studied 
theology ;  and  the  persecutions  and  oppressions 
of  government,  both  in  regard  to  civil  and  re- 
ligious liberty,  having  excited  his  strongest  indig- 
nation, he  went  to  Utrecht.  During  his  residence 
abroad,  he  became  acquainted  with  pensionary 
Fagel^and  entered  with  warmth  into  the.  interest 
of  the  prince  of  Orange.  'On  his  return  to  Scot- 
land to  procure  a  license,  he  became  disgusted 
with  the  insolent  conduct  of  archbishop  Sharp, 
and  went  back  to  Holland.  His  prudence,  his 
reserve,  and  his  political  address,  were 'strong 
recommendations  to  the  prince  of  Orange  ;  who 
employed  him  in  personal  negotiations  in  Hol- 
land, England,  and  Scotland.  Upon  the  ele- 
vation of  his  master  to  the  British  throne,  he  was 
appointed  the  king's  chaplain  for  Scotland,  and 
employed  in  settling  the  affairs  of  that  kingdom. 
William,  who  carried  politics  into  religion,  was 
solicitous  that  episcopacy  should  be  established 
there.  Carstairs,  more  versant  in  the  affairs  of 
his  native  country,  saw  all  the  impropriety  of 
this  project,  and  the  danger  that  would  arise 
from  enforcing  it.  His  reasonings,  his  remon- 
strances, his  intreaties,  overcame  the  firmness  of 
king  William.  He  yielded  to  considerations 
founded  alike  in  policy  and  in  prudence ;  and 
to  Carstairs  Scotland  is  indebted  for  the  full 
establishment  of  its  church  in  the  Presbyterian 
form  of  government.  The  death  of  king  William 
was  a  severe  affliction  to  him ;  and  it  happened 
before  that  prince  had  provided  for  him  with  the 
liberality  he  deserved.  He  was  continued,  how- 
ever, in  his  office  by  queen  Anne;  and  was  ap- 
pointed principal  to  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
He  was  one  of  the  ministers  of  the  city,  and  four 
times  moderator  of  the  general  assembly.  His 
influence  and  activity  were  also  exerted  with 
success  in  promoting  the  arts  and  sciences.  The 
universities  of  Scotland  owe  him  the  highest  ob- 
ligations. He  procured  for  them  an  augmenta- 
tion of  the  salaries  of  their  professors;  a 
circumstance  to  which  may  be  ascribed  their 
reputation,  as  it  enabled  them  to  cultivate  with 
spirit  the  different  branches  of  knowledge.  His 
religion  had  no  mixture  of  austerity ;  his  secular 
transactions  were  attended  with  no  imputation 
of  artifice;  and  the  versatility  of  his  talents 
made  him  pass  with  ease  from  a  court  to  a  col- 
lege. He  was  among  the  last  who  suffered  tor- 
ture before  the  privy  council,  to  make  him 
divulge  the  secrets  entrusted  to  him,  which  he 
firmly  resisted ;  and  after  the  revolution,  that 


CAR 


CAR 


.nhurnan  instrument,  the  thumbikins,  was  given  CART.  In  London  and  Westminster,  carts 
to  him  in  a  present,  by  the  council.  It  is  said  shall  not  carry  more  than  twelve  sacks  of  meal, 
that  king  William  expressed  a  desire  to  see  it,  750  bricks,  one  chaldron  of  coals,  &c.  on  pain 
and  actually  tried  it  on,  bidding  the  doctor  turn  of  forfeiting  one  of  the  horses.  Carmen  are  for- 
the  screw ;  but  at  the  third  turn,  he  cried  out,  bidden  to  ride  either  on  their  carts  or  horses. 
'  Hold,  hold,  doctor!  another  turn  would  make  They  are  to  lead  or  drive  them  on  foot  through 
me  confess  anything  !'  This  excellent  person  the  streets,  on  the  forfeiture  of  ten  shillings, 
died  in  1715  ;  and  in  1754  his  State  Papers  and  Stat.  1  Geo.  I.,  cap.  57. 

CARTE  (Thomas),  the  historian,  was  the  son 
of  Mr.  Samuel  Carte,  prebendary  of  Litchfield, 
and  born  in  1686.  He  was  reader  in  the  abbey- 
church  at  Bath ;  and,  on  the  accession  of  the 

Lat.  currus.  In  its  most  house  of  Hanover,  he  refused  to  take  the  oaths 
extensive  signification,  cart  and  put  on  a  lay  habit.  He  is  said  to  have  acted 
is  a  carriage  in  general,  as  secretary  to  bishop  Atterbury  before  his 
and  formerly  cart  and  car-  troubles;  and  in  1722,  being  accused  of  high 
>ter  were  used  for  chariot  treason,  a  reward  of  £1000  was  offered  for  ap- 
and  charioteer.  Cart  is  prehending  him  :  but  queen  Caroline,  the  pa- 


Letters,  with  an  Account  of  his  Life,  were  pub- 
lished in  1  vol.,  4to,  by  Dr.  M'Cormick. 


CART,  v.&cn. 
CA'RTAGE,  n. 
CA'RTER,  n. 
CA'RTERLY,  n. 
CA'RTFUL,  n. 
CA'RT-IIOHSE,  n. 
CA'RT-JADE,  n. 
CA'RT-LOAD,  ». 
CA'UT-ROPE,  n. 
CA'RT-RUT,  71. 
CA'RT-WAY,  n. 


Ang.-Sax.   crtet,    cral ; 
Welsh,  cart ;  Fr.  charette ; 


now  almost  uniformly  ap-  troness  of  learned  men,  obtained  leave  for  him 
plied  to  a  two-wheeled  to  return  home  in  security.  He  published,  1. 
carriage,  for  the  convey-  An  edition  of  Thuanus,  in  7  vols.  folio.  2.  The 


CA'RT-WIIEEL,  n.  \  ance  of  goods,  the  driver  Life  of  the  first  Duke  of  Ormond,  3  vols.  folio. 
CA'RT-WRIGHT,  n.J  of  which  is  a  carman.  To  3.  The  History  of  England,  4  vols.  folio.  4.  A 
cart  is  to  load  a  cart,  and  to  expose  in  such  a  Collection  of  Original  Letters  and  Papers  con- 
vehicle,  as  a  punishment.  The  fatal  cart  is  the  cerning  the  Affairs  of  England,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  and 
vehicle  in  which  criminals  are  conveyed  to  ex-  some  other  works.  He  died  in  April,  1754.  His 
edition.  Cartage  is  the  employment,  or  hire,  of  History  of  England  ends  in  1654.  His  design 
of  a  cart;  and  carterly  is  rude,  like  a  carter,  was  to  have  brought  it  down  to  the  Revolution  ; 
The  meaning  of  the  compounds  is  sufficiently  for  which  purpose  he  had  taken  great  pains  in 

copying  every  thing  valuable  that  could  be  met 
with  in  England,  Scotland,  France,  Ireland,  &c 
He  had  a  series  of  Memoirs,  from  the  beginning 
to  the  end  of  Charles  lid's  reign.  At  his  death, 
all  his  papers  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  widow, 
and  are  now  deposited  in  the  Bodleian  library, 
having  been  delivered  by  Mr.  Jernegan,  her 
second  husband,  to  the  university,  1778,  for  a 
valuable  consideration.  Whilst  they  were  in  this 
gentleman's  possession,  the  earl  of  Hardwicke 
paid  £200  for  the  perusal  of  them.  For  a  con- 
sideration of  £-300,  Mr  Macpherson  had  the  use 
of  them  ;  and  from  these  and  otner  materials 
compiled  his  History  and  State  Papers.  It  is  not 
generally  known  that  this  ingenious  individual 
was  the  original  founder  of  the  City  Library  con- 
nected with  the  corporation  of  London.  Mr. 
Carte's  first  prospectus  was  published  in  1743 

CARTE  BLANCHE,  Fr.  A  blank  paper;  a 
paper  to  be  filled  up  with  such  conditions  as  the 
person  tr.  \vliom  it  is  sent  thinks  proper. 

CARTEL,  n.  s.  Fr.  cartel;  Ital.  cartello.     A 


obvious. 

And  right  at  entring  of  the  townes  end, 
To  which  this  Sompnour  shope  him  for  to  wende,    , 
They  saw  a  cart,  that  charged  was  with  hay, 
V/hich  that  a  carter  drove  forth  on  his  way  ; 
Depe  was  the  way ;  for  which  the  carte  stood  ; 
The  carter  smote  and  cried  as  he  were  wood 
Heit  scot,  heit  brok,  what  space  for  the  stones  ? 

f.hauccr.   Cant.  Tales. 

Alas!  what  weights  are  these  that  load  my  heart! 
I  am  as  dull  as  winter-starved  sheep, 
Tired  as  a  jade  in  overloaded  cart.  Sidney. 

Full  thirty  times  has  Phoebus'  cart  gone  round 
Neptune's  salt  wash,  and  Tellus'  orbed  ground  ; 
And  thii-ty  dozen  moons,  with  borrowed  sheen, 
About  the  world  have  times  twelve  thirties  been  ; 
Si  ace  love  our  hearts,  and  Hymen  did  our  hands 
Unite  commutual  in  most  sacred  bands.       Shakspeare. 

Let  me  be  no  assistant  for  a  state, 
But  keep  a  farm  and  carters.  Id. 

It   was   determiner!  that   these   sick   and  wounded 
soldiers  should  be  carried  on  the  cart-horses.     Knulles. 
Democritus  ne'er  laughed  so  loud 


ToleeTawdT  carted  'through  the«owd.     Hudibras.    writing  containing,  for  the  most  part,  stipulations 

between  enemies  ;  anciently  any  public  paper. 

They  flatly  disavouch 
To  yield  him  more  obedience,  or  support  ; 
And  as  to  perjured  duke  of  Lancaster, 
Their  cartel  of  defiance,  they  prefer. 

Daniel's  Civil  War. 

As  this  discord  among  the  sisterhood  is  likely  to 
engage  them  in  a  long  and  lingering  war,  it  is  the 
more  necessary  that  there  should  be  a  cartel  settled 
among  them.  Addison's  Freeholder* 

CARTEL  SHIP,  a  ship  commissioned  in  time 
of  war  to  exchange  the  prisoners  of  two  hostile 
powers  ;  also  to  carry  any  proposal  from  the  cne 
to  the  other.  The  officer  who  commands  her 
must  carry  no  cargo,  ammunition,  or  implements 
of  war,  except  a  single  gun  for  signals. 

CARTKRET,  a  maritime  county  of  North 

O  2 


Now  while  my  friend,  just  ready  to  depart, 
Was  packing  all  his  goods  in  one  poor  cart, 
He  stopped  a  little.  Drydcn. 

Carter  and  host  confronted  face  to  face.  Id. 

The  squire,  whose  good  grace  was  to  open  the  scene, 
Now  fitted  the  altar,  now  traversed  the  cart, 
And  often  took  leave,  but  was  loath  to  depart.  Prior. 

She  chuckled  when  a  bawd  was  carted  ; 
And  thought  tne  nation  ne'er  would  thrive, 
Till  all  the  whores  were  burnt  alive.  Id. 

Let  Wood  and  his  accomplices  travel  about  a  country 
with  cart  loads  of  their  ware,  aud  see  who  will  take 
it.  Swift. 

Oh  happy  streets  !  to  rumbling  wheels  unknown, 
No  curts,  no  coaches,  shake  the  floating  town  !      Gay. 
Oxen  are  not  so  good  for  draught,  where  you  have 
occasion  to  cart  much,  but  for  winter  ploughing. 

Mortimer. 


196 


CARTHAGE. 


Carolina,  in  the  district  of  Newbern,  bounded  on 
'.he  south  by  Core  Sound  ;  north  by  Craven ; 
east  and  north-east  by  Pamlico  Sound  and  Neus 
River  ;  and  on  the  west  by  Onslow  county.  The 
chief  town  is  Beaufort. 

CARTES  (Rene  Des),  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent philosophers  and  mathematicians  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  was  descended  of  an 
ancient  family  in  Touraine,  in  France,  and  born 
31st  of  March  1596.  At  the  Jesuits'  college  at 
La  Fleche,  he  made  a  very  great  progress  in  the 
learned  languages  and  polite  literature,  and  be- 
came acquainted  with  Father  Mersenne.  He  was 
originally  designed  for  the  army ;  but  his  consti- 
tution not  permitting  him  to  expose  himself  to 
its  fatigues,  he  was  sent  to  Paris,  where  he 
launched  into  gaming,  and  had  prodigious  suc- 
cess. Here  Mersenne  persuaded  him  to  return 
to  study  ;  which  he  pursued  till  he  went  to  Hol- 
land, in  May  1616,  when  he  engaged  as  a  volun- 
teer in  the  service  of  the  prince  of  Orange. 
While  he  was  in  garrison  at  Breda,  he  wrote  a 
Treatise  on  Music,  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
several  of  his  works.  He  was  at  the  siege  of 
llochelle  in  1628  ;  returned  to  Paris  ;  and  a  few 
days  after  his  return,  at  an  assembly  of  men  of 
learning,  in  the  house  of  Monsignor  Bagni,  the 
pope's  nuncio,  was  prevailed  upon  to  explain  his 
sentiments  with  regard  to  philosophy,  when  the 
nuncio  urged  him  to  publish  his  system.  Upon 
this  he  went  to  Amsterdam,  and  from  thence  to 
Franeker,  where  he  began  his  Metaphysical 
Meditations,  and  drew  up  his  Discourse  on 
Meteors.  He  made  a  short  tour  to  England ; 
and,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London,  made 
some  observations  concerning  the  declination  of 
the  magnet.  He  returned  to  Holland,  where  he 
finished  his  Treatise  on  the  World.  '  His  books 
made  a  great  noise  in  France ;  and  in  Holland 
his  system  bid  fair  to  discard  the  old  philosophy. 
Voetius,  being  rector  of  the  university  of  Utrecht, 
procured  his  philosophy  to  be  prohibited,  and 
wrote  against  him ;  but  he  immediately  published 
a  vindication  of  it.  In  1647  he  returned  to 
France,  where  the  king  settled  a  pension  of  3000 
livres  upon  him.  Christiana,  queen  of  Sweden, 
invited  him  into  that  kingdom,  received  him  with 
the  greatest  civility,  and  engaged  him  to  attend 
her  every  morning  at  five  o'clock,  to  instruct  her 
in  philosophy.  She  also  desired  him  to  revise 
and  digest  all  his  unpublished  writings,  and  to 
form  a  complete  body  of  philosophy  from  them. 
She  likewise  proposed  to  allow  him  a  revenue, 
and  to  form  an  academy,  of  which  he  was  to  be 
the  director.  But  these  designs  were  frustrated 
by  his  death  in  1650.  His  body  was  interred  at 
Stockholm,  and  seventeen  years  afterwards  re- 
moved to  Paris,  where  a  magnificent  monument 
was  erected  to  him  in  the  church  of  St.  Genevieve 
du  Mont.  Dr.  Halley,  in  a  paper  concerning 
optics,  observes,  that  though  some  of  the  ancients 
mention  refraction  as  an  effect  of  transparent 
mediums,  Des  Cartes  was  the  first  who  discovered 
the  laws  of  refraction,  and  reduced  dioptrics  to  a 
science.  His  philosophy,  it  is  well  known,  has 
given  way  to  the  more  accurate  discoveries  and 
demonstrations  of  the  Newtonian  system.  See 

AsTEONOMY. 

CARTHAGE,  a  celebrated  city  of  antiquity, 


the  capital  of  Africa  Propria ;  and  which  fo: 
many  years  disputed  with  Rome  the  sovereignty 
of  the  world.  According  to  Velleius  Paterculus, 
this  city  was  built  sixty-five,  according  to  Justin 
and  Trogus  twelve,  according  to  others  100  or 
1 40  years,  before  the  foundations  of  Rome  were 
laid.  It  is  on  all  hands  agreed  that  the  Phoe- 
nicians were  the  founders.  It  was  situated  on  a 
peninsula  of  the  Mediterranean,  thirty-six  miles 
north-west  of  Tunis,  and  352  east  of  Algiers ; 
directly  opposite  to  Rome. 

At  the  third  Punic  war,  Carthage  appears  to 
have  been  one  of  the  first  cities  in  the  world.  It 
was  no  less  than  360  stadia,  or  forty-five  miles  in 
circumference,  and  was  joined  to  the  continent 
by  an  isthmus,  twenty-three  stadia  or  three  miles 
and  a  furlong  in  breadth.  On  the  west  side  pro- 
jected a  long  tract  of  land  half  a  stadium  broad; 
which,  shooting  out  into  the  sea,  separated  ir 
from  a  lake  or  morass,  and  was  strongly  fortified 
on  all  sides  by  rocks  and  a  single  wall.  In  the 
middle  of  the  city  stood  the  citadel  of  Byrsa, 
having  on  the  top  of  it  a  temple  sacred  to  ./Escu- 
lapius,  seated  upon  rocks  on  a  very  high  hill,  to 
which  the  ascent  was  by  sixty  steps.  On  the 
south  side  the  city  was  surrounded  by  a  triple 
wall  thirty  cubits  high ;  flanked  all  round  by 
parapets  and  towers,  at  equal  distances  of  480 
feet.  Every  tower  had  its  foundation  sunk  thirty- 
two  feet  deep,  and  was  four  stories  high,  though 
the  walls  were  but  two  :  they  were  arched  ;  and 
in  the  lower  part,  corresponding  in  depth  with 
the  foundations  above  mentioned,  were  stalls 
large  enough  to  hold  300  elephants  with  their 
fodder,  &c.  Over  these  were  stalls  and  other 
conveniences  for  4000  horses  ;  and  there  was  like- 
wise room  for  lodging  20,000  foot  and  4000 
cavalry,  without  incommoding  the  inhabitants. 
There  were  two  harbours,  \vhich  had  one  com- 
mon entrance  seventy  feet  broad,  and  shut  up 
with  chains.  The  first  was  appropriated  to  the 
merchants ;  and  included  in  it  a  vast  number  of 
places  of  refreshment,  and  all  kinds  of  accommo- 
dations for  seamen.  The  second,  as  well  as  the 
island  of  Cothon,  in  the  midst  of  it,  was  lined 
with  large  keys,  in  which  were  receptacles  for 
sheltering  220  ships  of  war.  Over  these  were 
magazines  of  all  sorts  of  naval  stores.  The  en- 
trance into  each  of  these  receptacles  was  adorned 
with  two  marble  pillars  of  the  Ionic  order;  so 
that  both  the  harbour  and  island  represented  on 
each  side  two  magnificent  galleries.  Near  this 
island  was  a  temple  of  Apollo,  in  which  was  a 
statue  of  the  god,  of  massy  gold ;  and  the  inside 
of  the  temple  all  lined  with  plates  of  the  same 
metal,  weighing  1000  talents.  The  city  was 
twenty-three  miles  in  circumference,  and  con- 
tained 700,000  inhabitants.  Of  their  power  we 
may  have  some  idea,  by  the  quantity  of  arms  they 
delivered  up  to  the  Roman  consuls.  The  whole 
army  was  astonished  with  the  long  train  of  carts 
loaded  with  them,  which  were  thought  sufficient 
to  have  armed  all  Africa.  On  this  occasion  there 
were  put  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  2000 
catapultse,  200,000  complete  suits  of  armour, 
with  an  innumerable  quantity  of  swords,  darts, 
javelins,  arrows,  and  beams  armed  with  iron, 
which  were  thrown  from  the  ramparts  by  the 
balistae. 


CARTHAGE. 


197 


The  beginning  of  the  Carthaginian  history, 
like  that  of  most  other  nations,  is  obscure  and 
unc2rta.:n.  In  the  seventh  year  of  Pygmalion, 
king  of  Tyre,  his  sister  Elisa,  or  Dido,  is  said  to 
have  fled,  with  some  of  her  companions  and  vas- 
sals, from  the  cruelty  and  avarice  of  her  brother 
Sichieus.  She  first  touched  at  the  island  of  Cy- 
prus, where  she  met  with  a  priest  of  Jupiter, 
who  was  desirous  of  attending  her,  to  which  she 
readily  consented,  and  fixed  the  priesthood  in  his 
family.  At  that  time  it  was  a  custom  in  the 
island  of  Cyprus,  for  the  young  women  to  go 
on  certain  stated  days,  before  marriage,  to  the  sea 
side,  to  look  for  strangers,  that  might  possibly  ar- 
rive on  their  coasts,  in  order  to  prostitute  them- 
selves for  gain,  that  they  might  thereby  acquire  a 
dowry.  Out  of  these  the  Tyrians  selected  eighty, 
whom  they  carried  alons?  with  them.  From 
Cyprus  they  sailed  directly  for  the  coast  of 
Africa,  and  at  last  safely  landed  in  the  province 
called  Africa  Propria,  not  far  from  Utica.  The 
inhabitants  received  their  countrymen  with  great 
joy,  and  invited  them  to  settle  among  them.  The 
common  fable  is,  that  the  Phoenicians  imposed 
upon  the  Africans  in  the  following  manner : — They 
desired,  for  their  intended  settlement,  only  as 
much  ground  as  an  ox's  hide  would  encompass. 
This  request  the  Africans  laughed  at ;  but  were 
surprised,  when,  upon  their  granting  it,  they  saw 
Elisa  cut  the  hide  into  the  smallest  shreds,  by 
which  means  it  surrounded  a  large  territory  ;  in 
which  she  built  the  citadel  called  Byrsa.  The 
learned,  however,  are  now  unanimous  in  explod- 
ing this  fable  ;  and  it  is  certain  that  the  Cartha- 
ginians for  many  years  paid  an  annual  tribute  to 
the  Africans  for  the  ground  they  possessed.  The 
new  city  soon  became  populous  and  flourishing, 
by  the  accession  of  the  neighbouring  Africans, 
who  came  thither  at  first  with  a  view  to  traffic. 
In  a  short  time  it  became  so  considerable,  that 
larbas,  a  neighbouring  prince,  thought  of  making 
himself  master  of  it  without  any  effusion  of  blood. 
In  order  to  this,  he  desired  that  an  embassy  of  ten 
of  the  most  noble  Carthaginians  might  be  sent  him; 
and,  upon  their  arrival,  proposed  to  them  a  mar- 
riage with  Dido,  threatening  war  in  case  of  a  re- 
fusal. The  ambassadors,  being  afraid  to  deliver 
this  message,  told  the  queen  that  larbas  desired 
some  person  might  be  sent  him  who  was  capable 
of  civilising  his  Africans ;  but  that  there  was  no 
possibility  of  finding  any  of  her  subjects,  who 
would  leave  his  relations  for  the  conversion  of 
such  barbarians.  For  this  they  were  repri- 
manded by  the  queen,  who  told  them  that  they 
ought  to  be  ashamed  of  refusing  to  live  in  any 
manner  for  the  benefit  of  their  country.  They 
now  informed  her,  therefore,  of  the  true  nature 
of  their  message  from  larbas ;  and  that,  accord- 
ing to  her  own  decision,  she  ought  to  sacrifice 
herself  for  the  good  of  her  country.  The  un- 
happy queen,  rather  than  submit  to  be  the  wife 
of  such  a  barbarian,  caused  a  funeral  pile  to  be 
erected,  and  put  an  end  to  her  life  with  a  dagger. 
This  is  Justin's  account  of  the  death  of  queen 
Dido,  and  is  the  most  probable ;  Virgil's  story 
of  her  amour  with  /Eneas  being  considered  fabu- 
lous, even  in  the  days  of  Macrobius.  The  Punic 
archives  being  destroyed  by  the  Komans,  there  is 
now  a  chasm  in  the  Carthaginian  history  for 


above  300  years.  It  appears,  however,  that,  from 
the  beginning,  the  Carthaginians  applied  them- 
selves to  maritime  affairs,  and  were  formidable 
by  sea  in  the  time  of  Cyrus  and  Cambyses. 
From  Diodorus  Siculus  and  Justin  it  also  ap- 
pears, that  the  principal  support  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians were  the  mines  of  Spain,  in  which  coun- 
try they  seem  to  have  established  themselves 
very  early.  Justin  insinuates,  that  the  first  Car- 
thaginian settlement  in  Spain  happened  when 
the  city  of  Gades,  now  Cadiz,  was  in  its  infancy. 
About  the  year  before  Christ  503  the  Cartha- 
ginians entered  into  a  treaty  with  the  Romans. 
It  related  chiefly  to  matters  of  navigation  and 
commerce.  From  it  we  learn  that  the  whole 
island  of  Sardinia,  and  part  of  Sicily,  were  then 
subject  to  Carthage ;  that  they  were  very  well 
acquainted  with  the  coasts  of  Italy ;  and  that, 
even  at  this  early  period,  a  spirit  of  jealousy  had 
arisen  between  the  two  republics.  About  this 
period  the  Carthaginians  wished  to  discontinue 
the  tribute  they  had  hitherto  paid  the  Africans, 
for  the  ground  on  which  their  city  stood.  But, 
notwithstanding  all  their  power,  they  were  ob- 
liged to  conclude  a  peace,  one  of  the  articles  of 
which  was,  that  the  tribute  should  be  continued. 
By  degrees  they  extended  their  power  over  all 
the  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  Sicily  excepted; 
and  for  the  conquest  of  this  they  made  prepa- 
rations, about  A.  A.  C.  480.  Their  army  con- 
sisted of  300,000  men;  their  fleet  of  upwards 
of  2000  men  of  war,  and  3000  transports.  Ha- 
milcar,  their  general,  having  landed  their  nume- 
rous forces,  attacked  Himera,  a  city  of  considerable 
importance,  but  was  at  last  assaulted  in  his  trenches 
by  Gelon  and  Theron,  the  tyrants  of  Syracuse  and 
Agrigentum,  who  gave  the  Carthaginians  one  of 
their  greatest  overthrows  :  150,000  were  killed  in 
the  battle  and  pursuit,  we  are  told,  and  all  the 
rest  taken  prisoners ;  and  of  their  2000  ships  of 
war  and  3000  transports,  eight  ships  only,  which 
then  happened  to  be  out  at  sea,  escaped.  These 
sailed  for  Carthage,  but  were  cast  away,  and 
every  soul  perished,  except  a  few  who  were 
saved  in  a  boat,  and  at  last  reached  Carthage 
with  the  dismal  news  of  the  total  loss  of  the  fleet 
and  army.  No  words  can  express  the  conster- 
nation of  the  city  upon  receiving  the  news  of 
this  disaster.  Ambassadors  were  despatched  to 
Sicily,  with  orders  to  conclude  a  peace  upon  any 
terms.  They  are  said  to  have  prostrated  them- 
selves before  Gelon,  and  with  tears  to  have  en- 
treated him  to  receive  their  city  into  favor.  He 
granted  their  request,  upon  condition  that  Car- 
thage should  pay  him  2000  talents  of  silver,  that 
they  should  build  two  temples,  wkpre  the  articles 
of  the  treaty  should  be  depositea,  and  that  for 
the  future  they  should  abstain  from  human  sa- 
crifices. The  Carthaginians  complimented  his 
wife  Demarata  with  a  crown  of  gold  worth  a 
100  talents.  From  this  time  little  mention  is 
made  of  the  Carthaginians  for  seventy  years. 
They,  however,  gradually  extended  their  domi- 
nions in  Africa,,  shook  off  the  tribute  which  gave 
them  so  much  uneasiness,  and  went  to  war  with 
the  Cyrenians  in  this  interval.  At  last  two 
brothers,  called  Philaeni,  were  sent  out  for  Car- 
thage, who,  partly  by  their  superior  celerity 
and  still  more  by  their  uncommon  patriotism, 


198 


CART 


gained  a  large  extent  of  territory  to  Carthage. 
See  PHIUENI.  About  A.  A.  C.  412,  Hannibal 
was  appointed  to  assist  the  Egestines,  a  Sicilian 
people,  against  the  Selinuntines,  and  having 
landed  his  forces  he  immediately  marched  for 
Selinus.  In  his  way  he  took  Emporium.  Se- 
linus  made  a  vigorous  defence,  but  at  last  the 
city  was  taken  by  storm ;  about  16,000  of  the 
inhabitants  being  massacred :  the  temples  were 
plundered,  and  the  city  rased  to  the  ground. 
Hannibal  next  laid  siege  to  Himera,  wishing  to 
revenge  the  death  of  his  grandfather  Hamilcar, 
who  had  been  slain  here  by  Gelon.  Finding 
his  battering  engines  not  to  answer  his  purpose, 
he  undermined  the  wall  with  large  beams  of 
timber,  to  which  he  set  fire,  and  thus 'laid  it  flat 
on  the  ground.  At  last  he  became  master  of  the 
place,  and  treated  it  as  he  had  done  Selinus. 
The  Carthaginians  were  now  so  much  elated, 
that  they  meditated  the  reduction  of  the  whole 
island.  But  age  and  infirmities  advanced  upon 
Hannibal ;  all  Sicily  was  alarmed  ;  and  the  prin- 
cipal cities  were  put  into  the  best  state  of  defence. 
The  Carthaginians  first  marched  to  Agrigentum, 
and  began  to  batter  the  walls  with  great  fury, 
but  were  defeated  by  a  reinforcement  of  other 
Syracusans,  and  forced  to  retreat  under  the  walls 
of  Agrigentum  with  the  loss  of  6000  men.  They 
finally,  however,  took  the  place,  and  immense 
booty  was  found  in  it.  Their  next  attempt  was 
upon  Gela,  to  the  assistance  of  which  Dionysius 
came,  with  an  army  of  50,000  foot,  and  1000 
horse.  With  these  he  attacked  the  Carthaginian 
camp,  but  was  repulsed  with  loss,  and  sent  a 
trumpet  to  Imilcar  to  desire  a  cessation  of  arms, 
in  order,  as  was  pretended,  to  bury  the  dead, 
but  in  reality  to  give  the  people  of  Gela  an  op- 
portunity to  escape.  Most  of  the  citizens  left 
the  place  in  the  night,  and  Dionysius,  with  the 
army,  followed  them.  The  Carthaginians  finding 
the  city  deserted  by  most  of  its  inhabitants,  im- 
mediately entered  it,  putting  to  death  all  who 
remained ;  after  which,  Imilcar,  having  plun- 
dered it,  moved  towards  Camarina  :  but  the  in- 
habitants of  this  city  had  likewise  been  drawn  off 
i  y  Dionysius,  and  it  underwent  the  same  fate 
wit)-  Gela.  Imilcar  now  finding  his  army 
veakened  by  these  exertions,  and  by  a  plague 
wh'ich  broke  out  in  it,  sent  a  herald  to  Syracuse 
tT  offer  terms  of  peace.  The  -Carthaginians, 
besides  their  ancient  acquisitions  in  Sicily,  were, 
according  to  this  proposal,  to  possess  the  coun- 
tries of  the  Silicani,  the  Selinuntines,  the  Hime- 
reans,  and  Agrigentines ;  the  people  of  Gela  and 
Camarina  to  be  permitted  to  reside  in  their  re- 
spective cities,  upon  paying  an  annual  tribute  to 
the  Carthaginians ;  and  the  other  Sicilians  to 
preserve  their  independence.  The  Syracusans 
were  to  remain  under  Dionysius.  That  tyrant 
concluded  this  peace  only  to  gain  time,  and  to 
put  himself  in  a  condition  to  attack  the  Cartha- 
ginian territories  with  greater  force.  Immediately 
afterwards  he  gave  up  to  the  fury  of, the  popu- 
lace the  persons  and  possessions  of  the  Carthagi- 
nians who  resided1  in  Syracuse.  Their  ships, 
which  were  then  in  the  harbour,  laded  with  car- 
goes of  great  value,  were  plundered,  and  their 
houses  ransacked.  This  example  was  followed 
throughout  the  whole  island.  He  ultimately 


advanced  with  his  army  on  Mount  Eryx,  near 
which  stood  Motya,  a  Carthaginian  colony,  which 
he  invested.  But  soon  after,  leaving  his  brother 
Leptines  to  carry  on  the  siege,  he  proceeded  to 
reduce  the  cities  in  alliance  with  the  Carthagi- 
nians. The  Carthaginians,  in  the  meantime, 
sent  officers  to  Europe,  with  considerable  sums, 
to  raise  troops.  Ten  galleys. were  also  sent  from 
Cartilage  to  destroy  all  the  ships  that  were  found 
in  the  harbour  of  Syracuse.  The  admiral  entered 
the  harbour  by  night,  without  being  perceived 
by  the  enemy ;  and  having  sunk  most  of  the 
ships  he  found  there,  returned  without  the  loss  of 
a  man.  All  this  while  the  Motyans  defended 
themselves  with  great  vigor.  At  last  the  place 
was  taken  by  storm,  and  the  Greek  soldiers 
began  a  general  massacre.  Next  year,  notwith- 
standing a  considerable  loss  sustained  in  a  sea- 
fight  with  Leptines,  Himilco,  the  Carthaginian 
general,  landed  a  powerful  army  at  Panormus, 
seized  upon  Eryx,  and  then  advancing  towards 
Motya,  made  himself  master  of  it,  before  Dio- 
nysius could  send  any  forces  to  its  relief.  He 
next  advanced  to  Messina,  which  he  besieged 
and  took ;  after  which  most  of  the  Siculi  revolted 
from  Dionysius.  Notwithstanding  this  defection, 
Dionysius,  finding  his  forces  still  amount  to 
30,000  foot  and  3000  horse,  advanced  against 
the  enemy,  and,  after  several  fluctuations  of  defeat 
and  success,  attacked  the  African  general  unex- 
pectedly, ruined  his  fleet,  and  made  himself 
master  of  his  camp.  Himilco  finding  himseli 
unable  to  sustain  another  attack,  came  to  a 
private  agreement  with  Dionysius ;  who,  for  300 
talents,  consented  to  let  him  escape  to  Africa, 
with  the  shattered  remains  of  his  fleet  and  army. 
Arrived  at  Carthage,  Himilco  was  unable  to  bea: 
his  misfortunes,  and  put  an  end  to  his  own  life. 
Notwithstanding  these  disasters,  the  Carthaginians 
made  new  attempts  upon  Sicily,  from  A.  A.  C. 
392  to  367,  when  the  Syracusans  being  divided 
by  civil  dissentions,  the  Carthaginians  thought 
it  a  proper  time  to  exert  all  their  efforts,  in  order 
to  become  masters  of  the  island.  They  fitted 
out  a  fleet,  and  entered  into  alliance  with  Icetas, 
tyrant  of  Leontini,  who  pretended  to  have  taken 
Syracuse  under  his  protection.  By  this  treaty 
the  two  powers  engaged  to  assist  each  other,  in 
order  to  expel  Dionysius  II.  after  which  they 
were  to  divide  the  island  between  them.  The  Sy- 
racusans applied  for  succours  to  the  Corinthians ; 
and  they  readily  sent  them  a  body  of  troops, 
under  the  command  of  Timoleon.  We  cannot, 
here  detail  his  operations.  See  TIMOLEON.  The 
Carthaginians  at  last  concluded  a  peace  on  the 
following  turms  :  that  all  the  Greek  cities  should 
be  set  free;  that  the  river  Halycus  should  be 
the  boundary  between  the  territories  of  both 
parties ;  that  the  natives  of  the  cities  subject  to 
the  Carthaginians  should  be  allowed  to  withdraw, 
if  they  pleased,  to  Syracuse,  or  its  dependencies, 
with  their  families  and  effects ;  and  lastly,  that 
Carthage  should  not,  for  the  future,  give  any 
assistance  to  the  remaining  tyrants  against  Sy- 
racuse. About  A.  A.  C.  31(5  the  Carthaginians 
engaged  in  another  bloody  war  with  the  Sicilians, 
the  particulars  of  which  the  reader  will  find 
narrated  under  the  article  SYRACUSE.  It  is  only 
necessary  here  to  mention,  that  the  Carthaginians, 


CARTHAGE. 


199 


although  at  first  very  successful  in  their  war  with 
Agathocles,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  were  soon  after, 
by  a  singular  and  bold  manoeuvre,  attacked  in 
their  own  territories,  their  generals,  Hanno  and 
Bomilcar,  defeated  with  great  loss,  and  their 
capital  itself  besieged,  by  that  prince,  at  the  very 
time  his  own  capital,  Syracuse,  was  besieged  by 
their  general  Hamilcar :  who  was  at  last  obliged 
fo. raise  the  siege,  and  was  defeated  and  beheaded 
by  ta?  Syracusans.  These  defeats  led  the  su- 
perstitious Carthaginians  to  suppose  they  had 
fallen  under  the  displeasure  of  their  gods,  by 
neglecting  (according  to  their  horrid  system  of 
priestcraft),  to  sacrifice  children  of  noble  fa- 
milies to  them.  They  therefore  sacrificed  200 
children  of  the  first  rank,  besides  300  other 
persons,  who  voluntarily  offered  themselves,  to 
appease  the  wrath  of  their  bloody  deities  !  Aga- 
thocles, however,  continued  successful  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  till  at  last  the  tide  turned  in 
favor  of  the  Carthaginians;  whose  generals, 
Hanno  and  Himilco,  gained  two  great  victories, 
and  finally  declared  a  peace  on  these  terms  :  1. 
That  the  Greeks  should  deliver  up  all  the  places 
they  held  in  Africa,  receiving  from  them  300 
talents.  2.  That  such  of  them  as  were  willing  to 
serve  in  the  Carthaginian  army  should  be  kindly 
treated,  and  receive  the  usual  pay.  And  3.  That 
the  rest  should  be  transported  to  Sicily,  and 
have  the  city  of  Selinus  for  their  habitation. 
During  this  war,  the  Agrigentines  finding  the 
Carthaginians  and  Syracusans  had  mutually 
weakened  each  other,  took  the  opportunity  of  re- 
covering many  places  out  of  the  hands  of  both 
parties.  See  AGRIGENTUM.  From  the  peace 
with  Syracuse,  to  the  first  war  with  the  Romans, 
we  find  nothing  remarkable  in  the  history  of 
Carthage. 

The  first  Punic  war,  as  it  is  commonly  called, 
happened  about  A.  A.  C.  256.  At  that  time,  the 
Carthaginians  were  possessed  of  extensive  do- 
minions in  Africa ;  they  had  made  considerable 
progress  in  Spain  ;  were  masters  of  Sardinia, 
Corsica,  and  all  the  islands  on  the  coast  of  Italy ; 
and  had  extended  their  conquests  to  a  great  part 
of  Sicily.  The  occasion  of  the  first  rupture 
between  the  two  republics  was  the  interference 
of  the  Romans  with  the  affairs  of  Sicily.  The 
Mamertines  being  vanquished  in  battle,  and  re- 
duced to  great  straits  by  Iliero,  king  of  Syracuse, 
had  resolved  to  deliver  up  Messina,  the  only  city 
they  now  possessed,  but  Hannibal  obtained  pos- 
session of  it  by  stratagem.  Some  were  for  ac- 
cepting the  permanent  protection  of  Carthage  ; 
others  for  surrendering  to  the  king  of  Syracuse; 
but  the  greater  part  were  for  calling  in  the  Ro- 
mans to  their  assistance.  Deputies  were  ac- 
cordingly .sent  to  Rome,  and  Caius  Claudius 
was  dispatched  with  a  fleet  to  Rhegium.  He 
crossed  the  straits,  and  had  a  conference  with  the 
Mamertines.  in  which  he  prevailed  upon  them 
all  to  accept  of  the  protection  of  Rome :  and 
made  the  necessary  preparations  for  transporting 
his  forces.  But  the  Carthaginian  admiral,  coining 
up  with  them  near  the  coast  of  Sicily,  attacked 
them  with  great  fury.  During  the  engagemept, 
a  violent  storm  arose,  which  dashed  many  of  the 
Roman  vessels  against  the  rocks,  and  greatly 
damaged  their  squadron;  by  which  voans 


Claudius  was  forced  to  retire  to  flhegium,  which 
he  accomplished  with  difficulty.  Hanno  restored 
all  the  vessels  he  had  taken ;  but  ordered  the 
deputies  sent  with  them  to  expostulate  with  the 
Roman  general  upon  the  infraction  of  the  treaties 
subsisting  between  the  two  republics.  This 
expostulation,  however  just,  produced  an  open 
rupture  ;  Claudius  soon  after  possessing  himself 
of  Messina.  Such  was  the  beginning  of  the 
first  Punic  war,  which  lasted  twenty-four  years. 
The  particulars  belong  properly  to  the  history  of 
ROME,  which  see.  Peace  was  at  last  concluded 
upon  terms  very  unfavorable  to  the  Carthaginians; 
who  were  bound  by  them,  1.  To  quit  Sicily  en- 
tirely, and  all  the  Italian  islands.  2.  To  pay 
the  Romans  2200  talents  of  silver,  or  £437,250, 
at  equal  payments,  within  ten  years,  and  1000 
talents  immediately.  3.  To  restore  the  Roman 
captives  and  deserters  without  ransom ;  and  to 
pay  for  their  own.  And,  4.  Not  to  make  war 
upon  king  Hiero  or  his  allies.  This  bloody  and 
expensive  war  had  no  sooner  terminated,  than 
the  Carthaginians  found  themselves  engaged  in 
another,  which  had  almost  proved  fatal  to  them. 
It  is  called  by  ancient  historians  the  Libyan  war, 
or  the  war  with  the  mercenaries,  as  it  arose  out 
of  the  mutiny  of  those  mercenary  troops  which 
the  Carthaginians  had  hired  during  the  war, 
and  were  not,  at  its  close,  able  at  once  to  pay. 
To  complete  their  misery,  they  had  no  prospect 
of  assistance  from  any  foreign  ally.  They  did  not, 
however,  despond,  but  adopted  every  prudent 
measure  of  defence.  Hanno  was  appointed  com- 
mander in  chief,  and  the  most  strenuous  efforts 
were  made  to  reduce  the  rebels  by  force  of  arms. 
In  the  mean  time  Mathos,  and  Spendius,  their 
leaders,  laid  siege  to  Utica  and  Hippacra ;  and 
cut  off  all  communication  betwixt  Carthage  and 
the  continent  of  Africa.  The  capital  was  thus 
kept  in  a  kind  of  blockade.  Hanno  was  dis- 
patched to  the  relief  of  Utica  with  a  large  body 
of  forces,  100  elephants,  and  a  tram  of  battering 
engines.  He  immediately  attacked  their  intrench- 
ments,  and  after  an  obstinate  dispute,  forced 
them.  The  mercenaries  lost  a  vast  number  of 
men ;  and  the  advantages  gained  by  Hanno 
were  so  great,  that  they  might  have  proved 
decisive,  had  he  improved  them :  but  becoming 
secure  after  his  victory,  the  mercenaries  rallied 
their  forces,  cut  off  many  of  his  men,  and  plun- 
dered his  camp,  forcing  the  rest  to  fly  into  the 
town.  He  also  suffered  the  mercenaries  to  take 
possession  of  the  isthmus,  on  which  Carthage 
stood,  and  which  joined  the  peninsula  to  the  con- 
tinent of  Africa.  The  Carthaginians,  therefore, 
now  placed  Hamilcar  Barcas  at  the  head  of  their 
forces.  He  marched  against  the  enemy  with 
10,000  men,  horse  and  foot ;  being  all  the  troops 
the  Carthaginians  could  at  this  time  assemble. 
Mathos,  after  he  had  possessed  himself  of  the 
isthmus,  passed  the  Bagrada  by  night,  and 
advancing  into  the  plain  where  his  elephants  were 
capable  of  acting,  drew  up  his  troops  in  order  of 
battle;  Spendius,  then  drew  a  body  of  10,000 
men  out  of  Mathos's  camp,  which  he  posted  on  one 
side  of  Hamilcar,  and  ordered  15,000  from  Utica 
to  observe  him  on  the  other,  thinking  to  surrouna 
the  Carthaginians,  and  cut  them  all  off  at  once. 
Ilamilcar  now  feigning  a  retreat,  engaged  them 


200 


CARTHAGE. 


at  a  disadvantage  ;  and  gave  them  a  total  over- 
throw with  the  loss  of  6000  killed  and  2000 
taken  prisoners.  He  pursued  them  to  the  town 
near  the  bridge,  which  he  entered  without  oppo- 
sition, the  mercenaries  flying  in  great  confusion 
to  Tunis.  Upon  this  many  towns  submitted 
voluntarily  to  the  Carthaginians,  whilst  others 
were  reduced  by  force.  Mathos,  however,  pushed 
on  the  siege  of  Hippo  with  vigor,  and  Spendius 
and  Autaritus,  commanders  of  the  Gauls,  at  the 
head  of  a  detachment  of  6000  men,  from  the 
camp  at  Tunis,  and  2000  Gallic  horse,  having 
received  a  strong  reinforcement  of  Africans  and 
Numidians,  and  seizing  all  the  heights  around 
the  plain  in  which  Hamilcar  lay  encamped, 
resolved  to  attack  him.  Had  a  battle  now 
ensued,  Hamilcar  and  his  army  must  have  been 
cut  off;  but  a  young  Numidian  nobleman  deser- 
ted the  mercenaries  with  2000  men ;  a  battle 
ensued  just  at  this  juncture,  and  the  Africans 
were  entirely  overthrown,  with  the  loss  of  10,000 
men  killed,  and  4000  taken  prisoners.  Mathos 
and  his  associates  hearing  of  the  lenity  of 
Hamilcar  towards  his  captives,  and  fearing  it 
might  occasion  a  defection  among  his  troops, 
thought  that  the  best  expedient  would  be  to  put 
them  upon  some  action  so  execrable  in  its  nature, 
that  no  hopes  of  reconciliation  might  remain. 
Cisco  and  all  the  Carthaginian  prisoners  were 
therefore  put  to  death.  In  revenge  for  this 
enormity,  Hamilcar  threw  all  the  prisoners  that 
fell  into  his  hands  to  be  devoured  by  wild  beasts  ! 
After  this  the  mercenaries  were  able  to  take  the 
field  with  50,000  men.  But  Hamilcar  being 
much  superior  to  them  in  tactics,  shut  them  up 
at  last  in  a  post  so  situated,  that  he  kept  them 
strictly  besieged  ;  and  the  enemy  not  daring  to 
venture  a  battle,  began  to  fortify  their  camp,  and 
surround  it  with  ditches  and  intrenchments. 
They  were  soon  so  hard  pressed  by  famine,  that 
they  were  obliged  to  eat  one  another.  At  last, 
being  reduced  to  the  utmost  extremity  of  misery, 
they  insisted  that  Spendius,  Autaritus,  and  Zar- 
xas,  their  leaders,  should  have  a  personal  con- 
ference with  Hamilcar,  and  make  proposals  of 
peace.  This  was  accordingly  concluded  upon 
the  following  terms,  viz.  That  ten  of  the  ring- 
leaders should  be  left  entirely  to  the  mercy  of 
the  Carthaginians ;  and  that  the  troops  should 
all  be  disarmed,  every  man  retiring  only  in  a 
single  coat.  The  treaty  was  no  sooner  concluded 
than  Hamilcar,  by  virtue  of  the  first  article, 
seized  upon  the  negociators  themselves,  and  the 
army  being  informed  that  their  chiefs  were  under 
arrest,  had  immediately  recourse  to  arms,  as 
suspecting  they  were  betrayed  ;  but  Hamilcar, 
drawing  out  his  forces  in  order  of  battle,  sur- 
rounded them,  and  either  cut  them  to  pieces,  or 
trod  them  to  death  with  his  elephants.  The 
number  of  wretches  who  perished  on  this  oc- 
casion amounted  to  above  40,000.  Hamilcar 
now  invested  "Tunis,  and  being  joined  in  the 
command  by  Hannibal,  the  army  was  no  sooner 
encamped,  than  he  caused  Spendius  and  the 
rest  of  the  prisoners,  to  be  let  out  in  view  of 
the  besieged,  and  crucified  near  the  walls.  Ma- 
thos, however,  sallied  out,  took  several  prisoners, 
among  whom  was  Hannibal  himself,  and  plun- 
dered his  camp.  Taking  the  body  of  Spendius 


from  the  cross,  Mathos  immediately  substituted 
Hannibal  in  its  room  ;  and  thirty  Carthaginian 
prisoners  of  distinction  were  crucified  around 
him.  Upon  this  disaster,  Hamilcar  decamped, 
and  posted  himself  along  the  sea-coast,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Ba^rada.  Thirty  senators  w«re 
now  sent  from  Carthage,  with  Hanno  at  their 
head,  to  consult  with  Hamilcar  about  the  proper 
measures  for  putting  an  end  to  this  unnatural 
war ;  all  the  youth  capable  of  bearing  arms 
were  at  the  same  time  pressed  into  the  service  ; 
by  which  means  a  strong  reinforcement  being 
sent  to  Hamilcar,  he  soon  found  himself  in  a 
condition  to  act  offensively.  He  now  drew 
Mathos  into  frequent  ambuscades,  and  gave  him 
a  notable  overthrow  near  Leptis.  This  reduced 
the  rebels  to  the  necessity  of  hazarding  a  deci- 
sive battle,  which  proved  fatal  to  them.  They 
fled  almost  at  the  first  onset ;  Mathos,  with  a 
few,  escaped  to  a  neighbouring  town,  where  he 
was  taken,  carried  to  Carthage,  and  executed  ; 
and  then,  by  the  reduction  of  the  revolted  cities, 
an  end  was  put  to  this  war,  which,  from  the 
excesses  of  cruelty  committed  in  it,  according  to 
Polybius,  went  among  the  Greeks  by  the  name 
of  the  inexpiable  war. 

During  the  Lybian  war,  the  Romans  wrested 
the  island  of  Sardinia  from  the  Carthaginians ; 
which  the  latter,  not  being  able  to  resist,  were  ob- 
liged to  submit  to;  Hamilcar  finding  his  country 
not  in  a  condition  to  enter  into  an  immediate  war 
with  Rome.  He  now,  however,  projected  the  con- 
quest of  Spain,  by  which  means  the  Carthaginians 
might  have  troops  capable  of  coping  with  the  Ro- 
mans. Here  he  commanded  nine  years,  during 
which  he  subdued  many  of  the  barbarous  nations, 
and  amassed  an  immense  quantity  of  treasure. 
At  last  he  was  killed  in  a  battle,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son-in-law  Asdrubal.  This  gene- 
ral fully  answered  the  expectations  of  his  coun- 
trymen ;  greatly  enlarged  their  dominions  in 
Spain ;  and  built  the  city  of  New  Carthage,  now 
Carthagena.  The  Romans,  who  did  not  choose 
to  come  to  an  open  rupture  with  him,  on  account 
of  the  apprehensions  they  were  under  of  an  in- 
vasion from  the  Gauls,  concluded  at  this  time 
the  following  treaty  with  Carthage  : — 1 .  That  the 
Carthaginians  should  not  pass  the  Iberus.  2. 
That  the  Saguntines,  a  colony  of  Zacynthians, 
and  a  city  situated  between  the  Iberus  and  that 
part  of  Spain  subject  to  the  Carthaginians,  as 
well  as  the  other  Greek  colonies  there,  should 
enjoy  their  ancient  rights  and  privileges.  As- 
drubal, after  having  governed  the  Carthaginian 
dominions  in  Spain  for  eight  years,  was  treache- 
rously murdered  by  a  Gaul  whose  master  he  had 
put  to  death.  Hannibal  the  younger  was  now  sa- 
luted general  by  the  army  with  demonstrations 
of  joy.  In  the  first  campaign,  he  conquered  the 
Olcades,  a  nation  seated  hear  the  Iberus.  Next 
year  he  subdued  the  Vaccrei,  another  nation  in 
that  neighbourhood.  Soon  after,  the  Carpsetani, 
one  of  the  most  powerful  nations  in  Spain,  de- 
clared against  the  Carthaginians.  Their  army 
consisted  of  100,000  men,  with  which  they  pro- 
posed to  attack  Hannibal  on  his  return  from  the 
Vaccsei ;  but  by  stratagem  they  were  utterly  de- 
feated, and  the  nation  obliged  to  submit.  Nor- 
thing now  remained  to  oppose  the  progress  of 


CARTHAGE. 


201 


the  Carthaginian  arms,  but  the  city  of  Saguntum. 
Hannibal,  for  some  time,  did  not  think  proper 
to  come  to  a  rupture  with  the  Romans,  by  at- 
tacking that  place.  At  last  he  found  means  to 
embroil  some  of  the  neighbouring  cantons,  espe- 
cially the  Turdetani,  with  the  Saguntines,  and 
thus  furnished  himself  with  a  pretence  to  attack 
their  city.  Upon  the  commencement  of  the  siege, 
the  Roman  senate  dispatched  two  ambassadors  to 
Hannibal,  with  orders  to  proceed  to  Carthage,  in 
case  the  general  refused  to  give  them  satisfaction. 
They  were  scarce  landed,  when  Hannibal,  who 
was  carrying  on  the  siege  of  Saguntum  with  great 
vigor,  sent  them  word  that  he  had  something 
else  to  do  than  to  give  audience  to  ambassadors. 
At  last,  however,  he  admitted  them ;  and  in  an- 
swer to  their  remonstrances,  told  them,  that  the 
Saguntines  had  drawn  their  misfortunes  upon 
themselves,  by  committing  hostilities  against  the 
allies  of  Carthage  ;  and  at  the  same  time  desired 
the  deputies,  if  they  had  any  complaints  to  make 
of  him,  to  carry  them  to  the  senate  of  Carthage. 
On  their  arrival  in  that  capital,  they  demanded 
that  Hannibal  might  be  delivered  up  to  the  Ro- 
mans, to  be  punished  according  to  his  deserts ; 
and  this  not  being  complied  with,  war  was  im- 
mediately declared  between  the  two  republics. 
The  Saguntines  defended  themselves  for  eight 
months  with  incredible  bravery;  but  at  last, 
their  city  was  taken,  and  the  inhabitants  were 
treated  with  the  utmost  cruelty.  After  this,  Han- 
nibal put  his  African  troops  into  winter  quarters 
at  New  Carthage ;  but  in  order  to  gain  their 
affection,  he  permitted  the  Spaniards  to  retire  to 
their  respective  homes. 

Having  taken  measures  for  securing  Africa 
and  Spain,  he  now  passed  the  Iberus,  subdued 
all  the  nations  betwixt  that  river  and  the  Pyre- 
nees, appointed  Hanno  commander  of  all  the 
newly  conquered  districts,  and  began  his  march 
for  Italy.  Upon  mustering  his  forces,  after  they 
had  been  weakened  by  sieges,  desertion,  mor- 
tality, and  a  detachment  of  10,000  foot  and  1000 
horse,  left  with  Hanno  to  support  him  in  his  new 
post,  he  found  them  to  amount  to  50,000  foot 
and  9000  horse,  all  veteran  troops,  and  the  best 
in  the  world.  Hannibal  easily  crossed  the  Pyre- 
nees ;  passed  by  Ruscino,  a  frontier  town  of  the 
Gauls ;  and  arrived  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone 
without  opposition.  But  in  passing  this  river, 
he  met  with  some  opposition  from  the  Gauls; 
and  was  for  some  time  in  doubt  whether  he 
should  advance  to  engage  the  Romans,  who, 
under  Scipio,  were  marching  that  way,  or  con- 
tinue his  march  for  Italy.  To  the  latter  he  was 
soon  determined  by  the  arrival  of  Magilus,  prince 
of  the  Boii,  who  brought  rich  presents,  and 
offered  to  conduct  the  Carthaginian  army  over 
the  Alps.  Nothing  could  have  happened  more 
favorable  to  Hannibal's  affairs,  as  there  was  no 
room  to  doubt  the  sincerity  of  this  prince.  It  is 
not  known  with  certainty  where  Hannibal  began 
to  ascend  these  celebrated  barriers.  As  soon  as 
he  began  his  march,  the  petty  kings  of  the  coun- 
try assembled  their  forces  in  great  numbers ;  and 
taking  possession  of  the  eminences  over  which 
the  Carthaginians  must  pass,  continued  harassing 
them,  and  disputing  every  foot  of  ground.  At 
last,  after  a  fatiguing  march  of  nine  days,  he 


arrived  at  the  summit  of  the  pass.  Here  he  en- 
camped, and  halted  two  days,  to  give  his  wearied 
troops  some  repose,  and  to  wait  for  the  strag- 
glers. The  sight  of  the  snow  covering  the  ground 
terrified  them,  it  is  said,  extremely.  Hannibal 
led  them  to  the  top  of  the  highest  rock  on  the 
side  of  Italy,  and,  showing  them  the  fruitful 
plains  of  Insubria,  told  them  that  the  Gauls, 
whose  country  they  saw,  were  ready  to  join 
them.  He  also  told  them,  that  by  climbing  the 
Alps,  they  had  scaled  the  walls  of  Rome.  At 
last,  after  almost  incredible  fatigue  and  exertions, 
their  way,  which  was  exceedingly  narrow,  lay 
between  two  precipices ;  the  declivity,  which 
was  very  steep,  had  become  more  dangerous  by 
the  falling  away  of  the  earth.  Here  the  guides 
stopped ;  and  the  whole  army  being  terrified, 
Hannibal  proposed  at  first  to  attempt  some  other 
way :  but  every  path  around  him  being  covered 
with  snow,  he  found  himself  under  the  necessity 
of  cutting  a  way  through  the  rock  itself.  This 
was  not  accomplished  without  vast  labor;  and 
Hannibal,  having  spent  nine  days  in  ascending, 
and  six  in  descending,  the  Alps,  at  last  reached 
Insubria.  Upon  reviewing  his  army,  he  found, 
that  of  the  50,000  foot  with  whom  he  set  out 
from  New  Carthage  five  months  and  fifteen  days 
before,  he  had  now  only  20,000,  and  that  his 
9000  horse  were  reduced  to  6000.  He  did  not 
languish  in  idleness ;  but,  joining  the  Insubrians, 
who  were  at  war  with  the  Taurinians,  laid  siege 
to  Taurinum,  the  only  city  in  that  country,  and 
in  three  days  became  master  of  it,  putting  all  who 
resisted  to  the  sword.  The  neighbouring  tribes 
voluntarily  submitted  to  the  conqueror,  and  sup- 
plied his  army  with  all  sorts  of  provisions. — 
Having  thus  brought  our  Carthaginian  hero  to 
the  borders  of  the  Roman  territories,  we  refer 
the  reader  for  an  account  of  his  repeated  and 
astonishing  victories,  as  well  as  his  ultimate  de- 
feats, during  the  second  Punic  war  (which  was 
chiefly  carried  on  in  Italy),  to  the  History  of 
Rome :  and  shall  hasten  to  relate  the  accumu- 
lated distresses  and  final  catastrophe  of  his  coun- 
try, which  that  hero  exerted  himself  so  much  to 
prevent.  After  a  tedious  and  expensive  war  of 
fourteen  years,  the  Carthaginians  were  obliged 
to  submit  to  the  following  very  humiliating  terms 
of  peace,  viz.  1.  To  deliver  up  all  the  Roman  de- 
serters, fugitive  slaves,  prisoners,  and  all  the 
Italians  whom  Hannibal  had  obliged  to  follow 
him  :  2.  To  give  up  all  their  ships  of  war  except 
ten  triremes,  with  all  their  tame  elephants,  and 
to  train  up  no  more  of  these  animals  for  war : 
3.  Nol  to  engage  in  any  war  without  the  consent 
of  the  Romans :  4.  To  pay  to  the  Romans,  in 
fifty  years,  10,000  Euboic  talents,  at  equal  pay- 
ments :  5.  To  restore  to  Masinissa  all  that  they 
had  usurped  from  him  or  his  ancestors,  and  to 
enter  into  an  alliance  with  him  :  6.  To  assist  the 
Romans  both  by  sea  and  land,  when  called  upo-i : 
and  7.  Never  to  make  any  levies  either  in  Ga  - 
or  Liguria.  These  terms  appeared  so  intolerable 
to  the  people  of  Carthage,  that  they  threatened 
to  burn  the  houses  of  the  nobility ;  but  Hannibal 
having  assembled  600  foot  and  500  horse  at  Mar- 
thama,  prevented  an  insurrection,  and  by  his 
influence  completed  the  accommodation.  These 
terms  of  peace,  however,  were  scarcely  signed, 


202 


CARTHAGE. 


when  Masinissa  seized  part  of  the  Carthaginian 
dominions  in  Africa,  pretending  that  they  for- 
merly belonged  to  his  family.  The  Cartha- 
ginians, through  the  mediation  of  the  Romans, 
found  themselves  under  a  necessity  of  ceding 
these  countries  to  that  ambitious  prince,  and  of 
entering  into  an  alliance  with  him.  Hannibal 
was  now  intrusted  with  the  command  of  an  army 
against  some  neighbouring  nations  in  Africa; 
but  this  being  disagreeable  to  the  Romans,  he 
was  removed  from  it,  and  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
a  prsetor  of  Carthage.  But  the  Romans  com- 
pelled his  ungrateful  country,  at  last,  to  expel 
him  from  this  post,  and  he  was  obliged  to  fly  to 
Antiochus  king  of  Syria ;  his  effects  were  con- 
fiscated, his  house  rased,  and  a  public  decree 
declared  him  an  exile.  Carthage  now  became,  as 
she  deserved  to  be,  miserably  dependent  on  Rome. 
Disputes  arising  with  Masinissa,  he  made  an  ir- 
ruption into  the  province  of  Tysca,  where  he  seized 
fifty,  or  as  some  say,  seventy  towns  and  castles. 
This  obliged  the  Carthaginians  to  apply  with 
importunity  to  the  Roman  senate  for  redress  : 
but  Masinissa  was  left  at  liberty  to  pursue  his 
plans.  The  Romans,  however,  affected  to  show 
a  great  regard  to  the  principles  of  justice  and 
honor,  and  sent  Cato  into  Africa,  to  accommodate 
all  differences.  The  Carthaginians  now  appealed 
to  the  treaty  concluded  with  Scipio,  as  the  only 
rule  by  which  their  conduct  and  that  of  their  ad- 
versary ought  to  be  examined.  But  to  prevent  a 
rupture  as  much  as  possible,  by  a  decree  of  the 
senate,  they  impeached  Asdrubal,  general  of  the 
army,  and  Carthalo,  commander  of  the  auxiliary 
forces,  with  their  accomplices,  as  guilty  of  high 
treason,  for  being  the  authors  of  the  war  against 
the  king  of  Numidia.  About  this  time,  the  city 
of  Utica,  being  the  second  in  Africa,  and  famous 
for  its  riches,  as  well  as  its  equally  commodious 
and  capacious  port,  submitted  to  the  Romans  ;  the 
latter,  notwithstanding  the  most  humble  conduct 
on  the  part  of  this  once  great  republic,  declared 
war  immediately  against  the  Carthaginians.  The 
consuls,  M.  Manlius  Nepos,  and  L.  Marcius 
Censorinus,  were  despatched  with  an  army  and 
fleet  to  commence  hostilities.  The  land  forces 
consisted  of  80,000  foot  and  4000  chosen  horse ; 
and  the  fleet  of  fifty  quinqueremes,  besides  a 
vast  number  of  transports.  The  consuls  had 
secret  orders  from  the  senate,  not  to  conclude 
their  operations  but  by  the  destruction  of  Car- 
thage. That  devoted  city  was  now  ordered  to 
send  300  young  noblemen  of  the  first  distinction 
to  the  praetor  Fabius  at  Lilybaeum,  within  the 
space  of  thirty  days,  and  comply  with  all  the 
orders  of  the  consuls.  These  hard  terms  filled 
the  whole  city  with  grief,  but  the  hostages  were 
delivered ;  and  they  arrived  at  Lilybaeum  before 
the  thirty  days  were  expired.  The  consuls  only 
told  them,  that  upon  their  arrival  at  Utica,  they 
should  learn  the  farther  orders  of  the  republic. 
Here  they  first  demanded  a  sufficient  supply  of 
corn  for  the  subsistence  of  their  troops.  2.  That 
they  should  deliver  up  into  their  hands  all  the 
triremes  they  were  then  masters 'of.  3.  That  they 
should  put  them  in  possession  of  all  their  military 
machines.  And  4,  that  they  should  immediately 
convey  all  their  arms  into  the  Roman  camp.  As 
i>are  was  taken  that  there  should  be  a  convenient 


interval  of  time  betwixt  every  one  of  those  de- 
mands, the  Carthaginians  found  themselves  en- 
snared, and  could  not  reject  any  one  of  them, 
though  they  submitted  to  the  last  with  the  ut- 
most reluctance.  Censorinus,  now  imagining 
them  incapable  of  sustaining  a  siege,  commanded 
them  to  abandon  their  city,  or  as  Zonaras  says, 
to  demolish  it ;  permitting  them  to  build  another, 
eighty  stadia  fom  the  sea,  but  without  walls  or  for- 
tifications. After  their  first  feelings  of  surprise 
and  indignation  had  subsided,  the  senators  of 
Carthage  now  assembled  and  resolved  to  sustain 
a  siege.  They  were  stripped  of  their  arms  and 
destitute  of  provisions ;  but  despair  raised  their 
courage,  and  suggested  numerous  expedients. 
They  gathered  on  the  ramparts  heaps  of  stones, 
to  serve  them  instead  of  arms  in  case  of  a  sur- 
prise ;  and  gave  the  slaves  and  common  prisoners 
their  liberty,  and  incorporated  them  in  the  mi- 
litia. Asdrubal  was  recalled,  and  invited  to  em- 
ploy the  20,000  men  he  had  raised  against  his 
country,  in  defence  of  it.  Another  Asdrubal 
was  appointed  to  command  in  Carthage ;  and  all 
seemed  resolute  to  save  the  city,  or  perish  in  its 
ruins.  Every  day  they  are  said  to  have  manu- 
factured 144  bucklers,  300  swords,  1000  darts, 
and  500  lances  and  javelins.  Where  iron  and 
brass  were  wanting,  they  made  use  of  silver  and 
gold,  melting  down  the  statues,  vases,  and  the 
plate  of  private  families.  As  tow  and  flax  were 
wanting  to  make  cords  for  working  the  machines, 
women  of  the  first  rank  freely  cut  off  their  hair, 
and  dedicated  it  to  that  use.  Without  the  walls, 
Asdrubal  employed  troops  in  getting  together 
provisions,  and  conveying  them  safe  into  Car- 
thage ;  at  length  the  Roman  army  sat  down  be- 
fore the  place  and  invested  it.  Persuaded  that 
the  Carthaginians  had  no  arms,  they  flattered 
themselves  that  they  should  carry  the  city  by 
assault.  Accordingly,  they  approached  to  plant 
their  scaling  ladders  ;  but,  to  their  astonishment, 
discovered  a  prodigious  multitude  of  men  on  the 
ramparts,  in  the  armour  they  had*  newly  made, 
and  were  obliged  to  resign  their  enterprise.  In 
the  mean  time  Asdrubal,  having  collected  from 
all  places  subject  to  Carthage  a  prodigious 
number  of  troops,  encamped  within  reach  of  the 
Romans,  and  reduced  them  to  great  straits  for 
want  of  provisions.  The  troops  of  Marcius  were 
attacked  with  a  violent  epidemic.  He  therefore 
ordered  his  fleet  to  draw  as  near  the  shore  as 
possible,  in  order  to  transport  them  to  a  healthier 
spot.  Asdrubal,  being  informed  of  this,  ordered 
all  the  old  barks  in  the  harbour  to  be  filled  with 
faggots,  tow,  sulphur,  bitumen,  and  other  com- 
bustible materials ;  and  taking  advantage  of  the 
wind,  which  blew  towards  the  enemy,  let  them 
drive  upon  the  Roman  ships,  which  were  for  the 
most  part  consumed.  After  this  disaster,  Mar- 
cius was  recalled,  and  the  Carthaginians  made 
a  brisk  sally  upon  the  remaining  consul's  camp, 
and  would  have  succeeded,  had  not  ./Emilianus 
marched  out  of  the  opposite  gate  to  where  the 
attack  was  made,  and  falling  unexpectedly  on 
their  rear,  obliged  them  to  return  in  disoider  to 
the  city.  Asdrubal  shortly  after  gave  battle  to 
the  consul  near  Nepheris,  and  rushing  down  the 
hill,  cut  a  great  number  of  the  Romans  in  pieces. 
The  whole  Rom™  army  would  now  have  been 


CARTHAGE. 


203 


destroyed,  had  not  Scipjo  TEmilianus,  at  the  head 
of  300  horse,  sustained  the  attack  of  Asdrubal's 
forces,  and  covered  the  legions,  -while  they  passed 
a  river  in  their  retreat.  When  the  army  had 
crossed,  it  was  perceived  that  four  manipuli 
were  wanting ;  and,  soon  after,  they  were  informed 
that  they  had  retired  to  an  eminence,  where  they 
expected  to  be  cut  off.  Upon  this  Emilianus, 
taking  with  him  a  chosen  body  of  horse,  and 
provisions  for  two  days,  crossed  the  river,  and 
flew  to  the  assistance  of  his  countrymen.  He 
seized  a  hill  over  against  that  on  which  the  four 
manipuli  were  posted  ;  and,  after  some  hours  re- 
pose, marched  against  the  Carthaginians  who 
kept  them  invested ;  and  in  spite  of  all  opposi- 
tion, opened  a  way  for  their  escape.  On  his  re- 
turn to  the  army,  his  companions,  who  had  de- 
spaired of  his  return,  carried  him  to  his  quarters 
in  triumph  ;  and  the  manipuli  he  had  saved  gave 
him  a  crown  of  gramen.  The  next  year  the  war 
in  Africa  fell  by  lot  to  the  consul  L.  Calpurnius 
Piso;  and  he  continued  to  employ  ^Emilianus  in 
several  important  enterprises.  He  took  several 
castles ;  and  in  one  of  his  excursions,  had  a 
private  conference  with  Phameas,  general,  under 
Asdrubal,  of  the  Carthaginian  cavalry,  and 
brought  him  over,  together  with  2200  of  his  horse, 
to  the  Roman  interest.  Under  the  consul  Cal- 
purnius Piso  himself,  however,  the  Roman  arms 
were  unsuccessful.  He  invested  Clupea,  but 
was  obliged  to  abandon  the  enterprise.  From 
this  place  he  went  to  vent  his  rage  on  Neapolis, 
which  professed  a  strict  neutrality,  and  had  even 
a  safeguard  from  the  Romans.  The  consul, 
however,  plundered  the  place.  Next  year  Scipio 
JEinilianus  was  chosen  consul,  and  ordered  to 
pass  into  Africa :  upon  his  arrival  the  face  of 
affairs  was  greatly  changed.  At  the  time  of  his 
entering  the  port  of  Utica,  3500  Romans  were 
in  great  danger  of  being  cut  in  pieces  before 
Carthage.  These  troops  had  seized  Megalia, 
one  of  the  suburbs  of  the  city  ;  but  had  not  fur- 
nished themselves  with  provisions  to  subsist 
there,  and  could  not  retreat.  ^Emilianus  obliged 
the  Carthaginians  to  retire  within  their  walls,  and 
safely  conveyed  his  countrymen  to  Utica.  Hav- 
ing then  drawn  together  all  the  troops,  he  ap- 
plied himself  wholly  to  the  siege  of  the  capital. 
He  carried  Megalia  by  assault,  the  Carthaginian 
garrison  retiring  into  the  citadel  of  Byrsa.  As- 
drubal was  so  enraged  at  this  loss,  that  he 
caused  all  the  Roman  captives  taken  in  the  last 
two  years  to  be  brought  upon  the  ramparts,  and 
thrown  headlong,  in  the  sight  of  the  Roman 
army,  from  the  top  of  the  wall.  He  was  of  a 
temper  remarkably  inhuman,  and  is  said  to  have 
ordered  several  of  these  unhappy  wretches  to  be 
flayed  alive.  /Emilianus,  in  the  mean  time,  was 
busy  in  drawing  lines  of  circumvallation  and  con- 
travallation  across  the  neck  of  land  which  joined 
Carthage  to  the  continent  of  Africa.  All  the 
avenues  on  the  land  side  were  thus  shut  up,  so 
that  the  city  could  receive  no  provisions  that 
way.  His  next  care  was  to  raise  a  mole  in  the 
sea,  to  block  up  the  old  port,  the  new  one  being 
already  shut  up  by  the  Roman  fleet,  and  this 
great  work  he  effected  with  immense  labor.  The 
mole  reached  from  the  western  neck  of  land,  of 
which  the  Romans  were  masters,  to  the  entrance 


of  the  port,  being  ninety  feet  broad  at  the  bottom, 
and  eighty  at  the  top.  The  besieged,  when  the 
Romans  first  began  this  surprising  work,  laughed 
at  the  attempt ;  but  were  no  less  alarmed  than 
astonished,  when  they  beheld  a  vast  mole  appear- 
ing above  water,  and  by  that  means  the  port 
rendered  inaccessible  to  ships,  and  quite  useless. 
Once  more  prompted  by  despair,  however,  the 
Carthaginians  dug  a  new  bason,  and  cut  a  pas- 
sage into  the  sea,  by  which  they  could  receive 
the  provisions  that  were  sent  them  by  the  troops 
in  the  field.  With  equal  diligence  and  expe- 
dition, they  fitted  out  a  fleet  of  fifty  triremes, 
which,  to  the  great  surprise  of  the  Romans,  ap- 
peared suddenly  advancing  into  the  sea  through 
this  new  canal,  and  even  ventured  to  give  the 
enemy  battle.  The  action  lasted  the  whole  day, 
with  little  advantage  on  either  side.  The  day 
after,  the  consul  endeavoured  to  make  himself 
master  of  a  terrace,  which  covered  the  city  on 
the  side  next  the  sea;  and  on  this  occasion  the 
besieged  signalised  themselves  in  a  most  remark- 
able manner.  Great  numbers  of  them,  naked 
and  unarmed,  went  into  the  water  in  the  dead  of 
the  night,  with  unlighted  torches  in  their  hands; 
and  having,  partly  by  swimming,  partly  by  wad- 
ing, got  within  reach  of  the  Roman  engines,  they 
struck  fire,  lighted  their  torches,  and  threw  them 
with  fury  against  the  machines.  The  sudden 
appearance  of  these  naked  men,  who  looked  like 
so  many  monsters  started  up  out  of  the  sea,  so 
terrified  the  Romans  who  guarded  the  machines, 
that  they  began  to  retire  in  the  utmost  con- 
fusion. This,  however,  did  not  discourage  the 
consul  :  he  renewed  the  attack  a  few  days  after, 
carried  the  terrace  by  assault,  and  lodged  4000 
men  upon  it.  As  this  was  an  important  post, 
because  it  pent  in  Carthage  on  the  sea  side, 
^Emilianus  took  care  to  fortify  it  against  the  sal- 
lies of  the  enemy;  and  winter  now  approaching, 
he  suspended  all  further  attacks  on  the  place. 
He  was,  not,  however,  inactive.  The  Carthagi- 
nians had  a  very  numerous  army,  strongly  en- 
camped near  Nepheris,  whence  convoys  of  pro- 
visions were  sent  by  sea  to  the  besieged,  and 
brought  into  the  new  bason.  Emilianus  there- 
fore attacked  the  enemy's  entrenchments  here, 
put  70,000  to  the  sword,  and  made  10,000 
prisoners ;  all  the  country  people,  who  could  not 
retire  to  Carthage,  having  taken  refuge  in  this 
camp.  After  this  he  laid  siege  to  Nepheris, 
which  he  reduced  in  twenty-two  days.  Early  in 
the  spring  he  renewed  the  siege  of  Carthage,  and 
ordered  Laelius  to  attempt  the  reduction  of  Co- 
tho,  a  small  island  which  divided  the  two  ports. 
vEmilianus  himself  made  a  false  attack  on  the 
citadel  to  facilitate  this  object ;  and  when  he 
understood  by  the  loud  shouts  of  the  troops  of 
Laslius,  that  he  had  made  himself  master  of 
Cotho,  he  fell  unexpectedly  on  the  neighbouring 
gate  of  the  city,  which  he  broke  down,  and  made 
a  lodgment  within  it.  The  following  day  he 
ordered  4000  fresh  troops  to  be  sent  from  his 
camp,  and,  having  solemnly  devoted  Carthage  to 
the  infernal  gods,  began  to  advance  through  the 
streets  of  the  city  to  attack  the  citadel.  The 
houses  on  both  sides  were  very  high,  and  filled 
with  Carthaginians,  who  poured  on  the  Romans 
darts  and  stones,  so  that  they  cou'd  not  proceed 


204 


CARTHAGE. 


till  they  had  cleared  them.  From  the  market 
place  to  the  citadel,  two  bodies  of  men. fought 
their  way  every  step,  one  above  on  the  roofs  of 
the  houses,  the  other  belo%v  in  the  streets.  The 
slaughter  was  immense.  The  air  rung  with  la- 
mentations. The  pro-consul  at  last  commanded 
fire  to  be  set  to  that  quarter  of  the  town  which 
lay  next  to  the  citadel ;  and  multitudes,  who  had 
escaped  the  sword  of  the  enemy,  perished  in  the 
flames,  or  by  the  fall  of  the  houses.  After  the 
fire,  which  lasted  six  days,  had  opened  a  large 
area  where  all  his  troops  could  act,  ./Emilianus  ap- 
peared with  his  whole  army  before  Byrsa,  when 
25,000  women,  and  30,000  men,  came  out  of  the 
gates,  and  threw  themselves  prostrate  before  him, 
asking  no  favor  but  life.  Asdrubal's  wife  ear- 
r.estly  entreated  her  husband  to  suffer  her  to  join 
the  suppliants,  and  carry  with  her  to  the  pro- 
consul he.r  two  sons,  who  were  as  yet  very 
young ;  but  he  denied  her  request,  and  rejected 
her  remonstrances  with  menaces.  The  Roman 
deserters,  seeing  themselves  excluded  from  mercy, 
resolved  to  die  sword  in  hand.  To  them  Asdru- 
bal  committed  the  care  of  his  wife  and  children ; 
after  which  he,  in  a  most  cowardly  manner, 
privately  threw  himself  at  the  conqueror's  feet. 
The  Carthaginiaas  in  the  citadel  no  sooner  under- 
stood that  their  commander  had  abandoned  the 
place,  than  they  threw  open  the  gates,  and  put 
the  Romans  in  possession  of  Byrsa.  They  had 
now  no  enemy  to  contend  with  but  the  900  de- 
serters, who,  being  reduced  to  despair,  retreated 
into  the  temple  of  /Esculapius,  a  second  building 
within  the  first.  There  the  proconsul  attacked 
them ;  and  these  unhappy  wretches,  finding  no 
way  to  escape,  set  fire  to  the  temple.  As  the 
flames  spread,  they  retreated  from  one  part  of 
the  building  to  another,  till  they  reached  the 
roof.  Here  Asdrubal's  wife  appeared  in  her 
best  apparel,  uttering  the  most  bitter  impreca- 
tions against  her  husband,  whom  she  saw  stand- 
ing below  with  ./Emilianus.  '  Base  coward,' said 
she,  '  the  mean  things  thou  hast  done  to  save 
thy  life  shall  not  avail  thee ;  thou  shall  die  this 
instant  in  thy  two  children.'  Having  thus 
spoken,  she  stabbed  both  the  infants  with  a  dag- 
ger ;  and  while  they  were  yet  struggling  for  life, 
threw  them  from  the  top  of  the  temple,  and  then 
leaped  down  after  them  into  the  flames.  ^Emili- 
anus delivered  up  the  city  to  be  plundered, 
in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  Roman  mi- 
litary law.  The  soldiers  were  allowed  to  ap- 
propriate to  themselves  all  the  furniture,  uten- 
sils, and  brass  money,  they  should  find  in  private 
houses;  but  all  the  gold  and  silver,  the  statues, 
pictures,  &c.  were  put  into  the  hands  of  the 
quaestors.  On  this  occasion  the  cities  of  Si- 
cily, which  had  been  often  plundered  by  the 
Carthaginian  armies,  recovered  a  number  of 
statues,  pictures,  and  other  valuable  monu- 
ments; amongst  the  rest,  the  famous  brazen 
bull,  which  Phalaris  had  ordered  to  be  cast, 
and  used  as  the  chief  instrument  of  his 
cruelty,  was  restored  to  the  inhabitants  of  Agri- 
gentum.  As  ./Emilianus  wished  to  spare  what 
remained  of  this  stately  metropolis,  he  wrote  to 
the  senate  on  the  subject,  from  whom  he  received 
the  following  orders  :  1.  To  destroy  entirely  the 
city  of  Carthage,  with  Byrsa  and  Megalia,  and  to 


leave  no  traces  of  them.  2.  To  dismantle  all  the 
cities  that  had  lent  Carthage  any  assistance.  3 
T.o  enlarge  the  territories  of  those  cities  which 
had  declared  for  the  Romans,  with  lands  taken 
from  the  enemy.  4.  To  divide  all  the  lands  be- 
tween Hippo  and  Carthage  among  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Utica.  5.  To  subject  all  the  Africans  of 
the  Carthaginian  slate,  both  men  and  women,  to 
pay  an  annual  tribute  at  so  much  per  head.  6. 
To  turn  the  whole  country,  formerly  subject  to 
the  Carthaginian  state,  into  a  Roman  province, 
lo  be  governed  by  a  prselor,  like  Sicily.  Com- 
missioners were  also  sent  into  Africa,  lo  settle 
jointly  with  the  pro-consul  the  state  of  the  new 
province.  Thus  fell  Carthage,  about  A.  A.  C. 
146  ;  a  city  whose  destruction  may  be  attributed 
more  to  the  intrigues  of  an  abandoned  faction, 
than  to  the  power  of  its  rival.  The  treasure 
/Emilianus  carried  off  was  immense :  Pliny 
making  it  amount  to  4,470,000  pounds  weight  of 
silver. 

The  Romans  ordered  Carthage  never  to  be  in- 
habited again,  denouncing  dreadful  imprecations 
against  those  who  should  attempt  to  rebuild  any 
part  of  it,  especially  Byrsa  and  Megalia.  About 
twenty-four  years  after,  however,  C.  Gracchus, 
tribune  of  the  people,  undertook  to  rebuild  it ; 
and,  to  that  end,  conducted  thither  a  colony  of 
6000  Roman  citizens.  The  workmen,  according 
to  Plutarch,  were  terrified  by  many  unlucky 
omens,  while  they  were  laying  the  foundations  of 
the  new  city;  which  the  senate  being  informed 
of,  they  would  have  suspended  the  attempt.  But 
the  tribune,  little  affected  with  such  presages, 
continued  to  carry  on  the  work,  and  finished  it 
in  a  few  days.  Hence  it  is  probable  that  only 
a  kind  of  huts  were  erected ;  but  whether  Grac- 
chus executed  his  design,  or  the  work  was  en- 
tirely discontinued,  it  is  certain  that  Carthage 
was  the  first  Roman  colony  ever  sent  out  of 
Italy.  According  to  some,  it  was  rebuilt  by 
Julius  Caesar  ;  and  Strabo,  who  flourished  in  the 
reign  of  Tiberius,  affirms  it  to  have  been  equal, 
in  his  time,  if  not  superior,  to  any  other  city  in 
Africa.  It  was  reckoned  the  capital  of  Africa 
for  near  700  years  after  the  Christian  sera.  Max- 
entius  laid  it  in  ashes  about  the  sixth  or  seventh 
year  of  Constantine's  reign.  Genseric,  king  of 
the  Vandals,  took  it  A.  D.  439 ;  but  about  a  cen- 
tury afterwards  it  was  re-annexed  to  the  Roman 
empire  by  the  renowned  Belisarius.  At  last 
the  Saracens,  under  Mahomet's  successors, 
towards  the  close  of  the  seventh  century,  com- 
pletely destroyed  all  its  vestiges.  On  the  ruins 
there  now  stands  a  small  village,  called  Melcha. 
There  are  three  eminences  here,  it  is  said,  which 
are  so  many  masses  of  fine  marble  pounded  to- 
gether, and  are  in  all  probability  the  remains  of 
temples  or  other  distinguished  buildings.  The 
present  ruins  are  not  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
city  destroyed  by  the  Romans ;  who  after  taking 
it  entirely  erased  it ;  and  ploughed  up  the  very 
foundations ;  so  strictly  they  adhered  to  the  in- 
human advice  perpetually  inculcated  by  Cato 
the  elder,  Delenda  est  Carthago.  They  are  the 
ruins  of  the  second  city,  which  was  destroyed  by 
the  Saracens. 

CARTHAGENA,  an  ancient  and  well  built  town 
of  Spain  on  the  coast,  and  in  the  kingdom  of 


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Murcia;  capital  of  a  territory  of  the  same  name. 
It  was  built  by  Asdrubal,  the  Carthaginian  ge- 
neral, and  named  after  Carthage.  See  CAR- 
THAGE.  It  possesses  the  best  harbour  in  Spain, 
but  the  former  bishop's  see  is  transferred  to  To- 
ledo. Here  is  a  manufacture  of  sail-cloth  and 
extensive  alum  works.  In  the  neighbourhood 
are  found  rubies,  amethysts,  and  other  precious 
stones ;  and  about  four  miles  to  the  east  are  the 
hot  springs  of  Archena.  Population  25,000. 
It  was  taken  by  Sir  John  Leake  in  1706,  and 
retaken  by  the  duke  of  Berwick  soon  after.  It 
is  twenty-five  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Murcia,  and  115 
S.S.W.  of  Valencia.- 

CARTHAGENA,  a  province  of  Colombia  (for- 
merly of  the  kingdom  of  New  Granada),  South 
America,  in  the  department  of  Magdalena.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Spanish  main ; 
on  the  south  by  the  province  of  Antioquia  ;  on 
the  east  by  the  great  river  Magdalena,  and  on 
the  west  by  the  river  and  province  of  Darien. 
It  is  eighty-five  leagues  long  from  north  to  south, 
and  fifty-three  wide  from  east  to  west.  It  is  of 
a  moist  and  warm  temperature,  full  of  mountains 
and  woods,  and  towards  the  north  part  very 
swampy ;  but  it  is  fertile  in  maize,  rice,  fruits,  and 
cj.ttle,  in  the  hides  of  which  it  drives  a  great 
trade.  •  Its  mountains,  among  which  that  ridge 
of  the  Andes  terminates  which  divides  the  bed 
of  the  Magdalena  from  the  Darien,  yield  several 
fine  dye-woods,  gums,  and  balsams.  The  great 
plains  or  savannas  of  Zenu,  Zamba,  Tolu,  Mem- 
pox  and  Barancas,  are  also  very  fruitful.  The 
Magdalena  and  the  Cauca  are  its  most  imoortant 
rivers. 

The  European  and  native  settlements  are 
chiefly  on  the  coast,  or  in  the  valley.  Gold  is 
said  to  have  been  abundant  formerly  in  the  hills 
and  rivers,  but  has  been  little  seen  of  late.  Maize 
bread,  called  bollos,  is  used  both  by  the  natives 
and  Europeans,  but  the  negroes  make  use  of  the 
cassava  bread,  made  from  roots.  Some  opulent 
families  use  European  flour.  Sugar-cane  plan- 
tations are  common ,  the  cotton-tree,  and  an  ex- 
cellent species  of  the  cacao.  The  fruit  of  this 
prov:nce  are  melons,  grapes,  oranges,  dates,  the 
pine-apple,  the  plaintain,  banana,  papaws,  yams, 
mameis,  sapotes,  limes,  and  tamarinds.  The 
trees  here  grow  to  an  immense  bulk,  and  form 
a  pleasing  shade  from  the  scorching  sun.  The 
canoes  of  the  natives  are  formed  of  an  excellent 
mahogany  called  acajou,  and  a  beautiful  white 
and  red  cedar  is  in  common  use.  Here  is  also 
a  poisonous  fruit  called  the  mancanillo,  from  the 
Spanish  word  mancana,  an  apple,  the  fruit  of 
which  resembles  the  European  apple  in  shape, 
color,  and  taste  ;  but  the  juice  of  this  tree  is  so 
acrid,  that  it  blisters  the  skin  of  those  employed 
in  felling  it,  and  it  is  reckoned  dangerous,  we 
are  told,  to  remain  under  its  shade  after  a  shower, 
as  the  droppings  have  the  same  quality.  Nu- 
merous tribes  of  wild  animals  are  found  in  the 
forests,  among  which  the  jaguar  and  the  Ameri- 
can leopard  are  the  fiercest,  and  commit  exten- 
sive depredations  on  the  neighbouring  plantations. 
Cattle  and  swine  are  numerous  ;  and  several 
rare  and  beautiful  species  of  birds.  The  wild 
geese  are  caught  by  the  Indians  in  a  curious 
manner.  In  the  places  which  they  frequent,  the 


Indians  put  calabashes  or  gourds,  which,  con- 
stantly floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  cause 
no  alarm  to  the  geese,  and  when  they  are  suffi- 
ciently accustomed  to  see  them,  the  Indian  gets 
into  the  water  at  a  distance  from  the  flock,  with 
a  gourd  over  his  head  ;  he  then  advances  amongst 
them,  and  draws  them  by  the  legs  under  the  sur- 
face, until  he  has  procured  as  many  as  he  wants. 

The  insects  and  reptiles  are  numerous.  The 
centipede,  the  scorpion,  and  the  spider,  are  all 
very  troublesome;  and  amongst  the  serpents,  the 
rattle-snake,  the  dart,  and  the  dreadful  corales, 
or  coral  snakes,  are  the  most  venomous.  This 
province  contains  a  population  of  170,000  souls. 
It  sends  six  representatives,  and  with  Santa 
Marta  arid  Rio  Hacha,  four  senators  to  the 
congress  of  Columbia. 

CARTHAGENA,  a  city  of  Columbia,  South 
America,  the  capital  of  the  above  province,  is 
situated  in  a  peninsula,  joined  to  some  others, 
and  to  the  continent  by  two  artificial  necks  of 
land ;  the  broadest  of  which  is  only  seventy 
yards  wide.  The  suburb  Xexemani,  in  the 
island  near  the  town,  is  nearly  as  large  as  the 
town  itself,  and  is  surrounded,  as  well  as  the 
city,  with  strong  modern  fortifications.  At  a 
small  distance  en  the  continent  is  a  hill,  150 
feet  high,  commanding  both  the  fortifications 
and  the  strong  fort  of  St.  Lazaro.  Tiie  bay  of 
Carthagena  is  two  leagues  and  a  half  from  north 
to  south,  is  completely  land-locked,  and  has 
capital  anchorage.  Its  chief  disadvantage  is  the 
shoals  near  its  entrance.  It  abounds  with  ex- 
cellent turtle  and  other  fish,  but  the  numerous 
sharks  render  bathing  unsafe. 

The  city  is  well  planned,  the  houses  generally 
of  stone,  the  streets  broad,  straight,  and  well 
paved,  and  with  lattices  in  the  Spanish  manner. 
The  cathedral,  churches,  and  monasteries,  are 
the  only  public  buildings  worth  notice.  Cartha- 
gena is  very  subject  10  the  leprosy ;  to  prevent 
the  increase  of  which,  they  have  an  hospital  in 
which  lepers  are  comfortably  provided  for,  but 
confined  for  life. 

The  exports  consist  of  cotton,  sugar,  Brazil 
and  other  woods,  including  that  of  indigo,  cin- 
chona, balm  of  Tolu,  and  ipecacuanha.  The 
imports  are  European  manufactures  and  other 
goods.  Population  about  25,000. 

CARTHAMUS,  in  botany  :  a  genus  of  the 
order  of  polygamia  sequalis,  syngenesia  class  of 
plants,  natural  order  forty-ninth,  composite : 
CAL.  is  ovate,  imbricated  with  scales,  close  below, 
and  augmented  with  subovate  foliaceous  appen- 
dices at  top.  Of  this  genus  there  are  sixteen  known 
specimens  ;  but  the  only  remarkable  one  isC.  tinc- 
torius,  with  a  saffron  colored  flower,  a  native  of 
Egypt,  and  some  of  the  warm  parts  of  Asia.  It  is 
cultivated  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  the 
the  Levant,  from  whence  great  quantities  of  it 
are  annually  imported  into  Britain  for  dyeing 
and  paintinsj.  The  good  quality  of  this  commo- 
dity is  in  the  color,  which  is  of  a  bright  saffron 
hue  :  and  in  this  the  British  carthamus  very  often 
fails.  The  plants  are  propagated  by  seeds.  The 
flowers  should  be  taken  off  as  they  come  to  per- 
fection :  but  this  must  be  performed  when  they 
are  perfectly  dry  ;  and  then  they  should  be 
placed  in  a  kiln  with  a  moderate  fire,  in  the 


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same  manner  as  the  true  saffron.  The  seeds  have 
been  celebrated  as  a  cathartic  ;  but  they  operate 
very  slowly,  and  for  the  most  part  disorder  the 
stomach  and  bowels,  especially  when  given  in 
substance;  triturated  with  distilled  aromatic 
waters,  they  prove  less  offensive,  yet  inferior  in 
efficacy  to  the  common  purgatives.  A  species  of 
Egyptian  parrot  is  very  fond  of  them ;  to  other 
birds  or  beasts  they  would  prove  a  mortal  poison. 

CARTHUSIAN  POWDER.     See  KERMES. 

CARTHUSIANS,  a  religious  order  founded  A.  D.. 
1080,  by  one  Bruno;  so  called  from  the  desert 
of  Chartreuse,  the  place  of  their  institution. 
Their  rule  is  extremely  severe.  They  must  not 
go  out  of  their  cells,  except  to  church,  without 
leave  of  their  superior ;  nor  speak  to  any  person 
without  leave.  They  must  not  keep  any  meat  or 
drink  till  next  day  :  their  beds  are  of  straw,  co- 
vered with  a  felt ;  their  clothing  two  hair-cloths, 
two  cowls,  two  pair  of  hose,  aud  a  cloke,  all 
coarse.  In  the  refectory,  they  must  keep  thfir 
eyes  on  the  dish,  their  hands  on  the  table,  their 
attention  on  the  reader,  and  their  hearts  fixed  on 
God.  Women  must  not  come  into  their  churches. 

CARTILAGE,  n.         ~\    ~La.l.cartilago.  Car- 

CARTILAGI'NEOUS,  adj.  >tilage,  says  Quincy, 

CARTILA'GINOUS,  adj.  j  is  a  smooth  and  solid 
body,  softer  than  a  bone,  but  harder  than  a  li- 
gament. In  it  are  no  cavities  or  cells  for  con- 
taining of  marrow ;  nor  is  it  covered  over  with 
any  membrane  to  make  it  sensible,  as  the  bones 
are.  The  cartilages  have  a  natural  elasticity, 
by  which,  if  they  are  forced  from  their  natural 
figure  or  situation,  they  return  to  it  of  them- 
selves, as  soon  as  that  force  is  taken  away.  The 
adjectives,  of  course,  signify  that  which  con- 
sists of  cartilage.  See  the  next  article. 

Canals,  by  degrees,  are  abolished,  and  grow  solid  ; 
several  of  them  united  grow  a  membrane  ;  these  mem- 
branes further  consolidated  become  cartilages,  and  car- 
tilages bones.  Arbuthnot. 

By  -what  artifice  the  cartilagineous  kind  of  fishes 
poise  themselves,  ascend  and  descend  at  pleasure, 
and  continue  in  what  depth  of  water  they  list,  is  as 
yet  unknown.  Ray. 

The  larynx  gives  passage  to  the  breath,  and  as  the 
breath  passeth  through  the  rimula,  makes  a  vibration 
of  those  cartilaginous  bodies,  which  forms  that  breath 
into  a  vocal  sound  or  voice. 

Holder's  Elements  of  Speech. 

CARTILAGE,  (cartilago,  quasi  carnilago;  from 
caro,  carnis,  flesh).  A  white,  elastic,  glis- 
tening substance,  growing  to  bones,  and  com- 
monly called  gristle.  Cartilages  are  divided  by 
anatomists  into  obducent,  which  cover  the 
moveable  articulations  of  bones  ;  inter-articular, 
which  are  situated  between  the  articulations,  and 
which  unite  one  bone  with  another.  Their  use 
is  to  lubricate  the  articulations  of  bones,  and  to 
connect  some  bones  by  an  immoveable  cohesion. 
Sec  ANATOMY. 

CARTILAGINOUS,  in  ichthyology,  a  title  given 
to  all  fish  whose  muscles  are  supported  by  car- 
tilages instead  of  bones.  It  comprehends  the 
same  genera  to  which  Linnaeus  has  given  the 
name  of  amphibia  nantes :  Many  of  the  cartila- 
ginous fish  are  viviparous,  being  excluded  from 
egg,  which  is  hatched  within  them.  The  egg 
consists  of  a  whije  and  yolk  ;  and  is  lodged  in 
a  case  formeXl  of  a  thick  tough  substance,  not 


unlike  softened  horn :  such  are  the  e^ps  of  the 
ray  and  shark  kinds.  Some  are  oviparous  ;  such 
are  the  sturgeon,  &c.  They  breathe  either  through 
certain  apertures  beneath,  as  in  the  ray  ;  on  their 
sides,  as  in  the  shark,  &c. ;  or  on  the  top  of  the 
head,  as  in  the  pipe-fish;  for  they  have  not  co- 
vers to  their  gills,  like  the  bony  fish. 

CARTMEL,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  seated 
among  the  fells,  near  the  river  Kent.  It  has  a 
handsome  church,  built  in  the  form  of  a  cross  ; 
and  a  market  on  Monday,  well  supplied  with 
corn,  sheep,  and  fish.  It  is  eleven  miles  north 
by  west  of  Lancaster,  and  261  N.  N.W.  of 
London. 

CARTO'ON,  n.  Fr.  carton;  Ital.  cartone ; 
Lat.  cltartu.  A  painting  or  drawing  on  large 
paper.  The  celebrated  series  of  drawings  by 
Raphael  is  called  the  cartoons,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, for  the  same  reason  that  the  most  noble 
of  musical  instruments  is  named  the  organ. 

It  is  with  a  vulgar  idea  that  the  world  beholds  the 
cartoons  of  Raphael,  and  every  one  feels  his  share  of 
pleasure  and  entertainment.  .  Watts. 

CARTOON,  or  CARTON,  is  a  design  drawn  on 
strong  paper,  to  be  afterwards  calked  through 
and  transferred  on  the  fresh  plaster  of  a  wall,  to 
be  painted  in  Fresco.  It  is  also  used  for  a  de- 
sign colored,  for  working  in  mosaic,  tapestry, 
&c.  The  word  is  from  the  Italian  cartone,  (carta 
paper,  and  one  large),  denoting  many  sheets  of 
paper  pasted  on  canvas,  on  which  large  designs 
are  made,  whether  colored  or  with  chalks  only. 
Of  these  many  are  to  be  seen  at  Rome,  particu- 
larly by  Domenichino.  Those  by  Andrea  Man- 
tegna,  which  are  at  Hampton  Court,  were  made 
for  paintings  in  the  old  ducal  palace  at  Mantua. 
But  the  most  famous  performances  of  this  sort 
are  the 

CARTOONS  OF  RAPHAEL,  so  deservedly  ap- 
plauded throughout  Europe,  with  regard  to  the 
invention,  and  to  the  noble  expression  of  such  a 
variety  of  characters,  countenances,  and  attitudes ; 
they  are  seven  in  number,  and  form  only  a  small 
part  of  the  historical  designs  executed  by  this  great 
artist,  while  engaged  in  the  chambers  of  the  Va- 
tican, under  popes  Julius  II.  and  Leo  X.  When 
finished,  they  were  sent  to  Flanders,  to  be  copied 
in  tapestry,  for  adorning  the  pontifical  apart- 
ments. On  that  city  being  plundered  in  the 
time  of  Clement  VII.  Raphael's  scholars  fled, 
and  none  were  left  to  enquire  after  the  original 
cartoons,  which  lay  neglected  in  the  store-rooms 
of  the  manufactory.  The  important  revolutions 
also  which  followed  in  the  Low  Countries  pre- 
vented their  being  noticed.  It  was  therefore  a 
fortunate  circumstance  that  these  seven  escaped 
the  wreck  of  the  others,  which  were  torn  in 
pieces,  and  of  which  fragments  are  dispersed  in 
different  collections.  These  seven  were  purchased 
by  Rubens  for  Charles  I.  and  they  have  been  so 
roughly  handled  from  the  first,  that  holes  were 
pricked  for  the  weavers  to  pounce  the  outlines, 
and  other  parts  almost  cut  through  in  tracing. 
In  this  state  they  also  fortunately  escaped  the 
sale  amongst  the  royal  collection,  from  the  dis- 
proportioned  appraisement  of  these  seven  at 
£300,  and  the  nine  pieces,  being  the  triumph  of 
Julius  Csesai,  by  Andrea  Mantegna,  at  £1000. 
Thev  seem  to  have  been  little  taken  notice  of,  till 


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King  William  built  a  gallery  for  them  at  Hamp- 
ton Court ;  where  they  are  now  open  to  public 
inspection.  Mr.  Holloway  has  engraved  sqme 
excellent  plates  of  these  cartoons. 

CARTOUCH,  in  architecture  and  sculpture,  an 
ornament  representing  a  scroll  of  paper.  It  is 
usually  a  flat  member,  with  wavings  to  represent 
some  inscription,  device,  epithet,  or  ornament 
of  armoury.  They  are,  in  architecture,  much 
the  same  as  modillions ;  only  these  are  set  un- 
der the  cornice  in  wainscoting,  and  those  under 
the  cornice  at  the  eaves  of  a  house. 

CARTOUCHE,  in  the  military  art,  a  case  of  wood 
about  three  inches  thick  at  the  bottom,  girt  with 
marlin,  holding  about  400  musket  balls,  besides 
six  or  eight  balls  of  iron,  of  a  pound  weight,  to 
be  fired  out  of  a  howitaer,  for  the  defence  of  a 
pass,  &c. 

CA'RTRAGE,  or  }      Fr.  cartouche;  Ital.  car- 

CA'RTRIDGF.,  n.  $  toccia.  A  parchment, 
flannel,  or  paper  case,  filled  with  gunpowder 
for  the  service  of  artillery  or  musketry. 

Our  monarch  stands  in  person  by, 
His  new-cast  cannons  firmly  to  explore  ; 

The  strength  of  big-corned  powder  loves  to  try, 
And  ball  and  cartrage  sorts  for  every  bore. 

Dryden. 

Are  you  sure  you  do  nothing  to  quit  scores  with 
.hem  ? — Nothing  at  all  your  honour,  unless  now  and 
then  we  happen  to  fling  a  cartridge  into  the  kitchen  fire, 
or  put  a  spatterdash  or  so  into  the  soup ;  and  some- 
times little  Ned  drums  up  and  down  stairs  a  little  in 
the  night.  Sheridan. 

CARTRIDGE,  a  paper  or  case,  holding  the  exact 
charge  of  a  fire-arm.  Those  for  muskets,  carbines, 
and  pistols,  hold  both  the  powder  and  ball  for 
the  charge ;  and  those  for  cannon  and  mortars  are 
usually  in  cases  of  pasteboard  or  tin,  sometimes 
of  wood,  half  a  foot  long,  adapted  to  the  caliber 
of  the  piece. 

CARTRIDGE  Box,  a  case  of  wood  or  turned 
iron,  covered  with  leather,  holding  a  dozen  mus- 
ket cartridges.  It  is  worn  upon  a  belt,  and 
hangs  a  little  lower  than  the  right  pocket-hole. 

CA'RTULARY.  Old  Fr.  cartulaire ;  Lat. 
cfiarta-  Johnson  erroneously  defines  cartulary 
or  chartulary,  as  a  place  where  records  are  kept, 
whereas  it  signifies  the  record  itself,  and  the 
title  of  an  ecclesiastical  officer  to  whose  care  the 
records  are  committed. 

Entering  a  memorial  of  them  in  the  chartulary  or 
leger-book  of  some  adjacent  monastery.  Blackstone. 

CART  WRIGHT  (Christopher),  an  English 
divine,  born  at  York,  in  1602.  He  was  very 
eminent  for  his  knowledge  in  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage ;  and  wrote  Electa  Targumico-Rabbinica 
in  Genesim,  et  in  Exodum,  published  in  1643 
and  1653,  8vo.  He  died  in  1652. 

CARTWRIGHT  (Thomas),  a  celebrated  divine 
of  the  puritan  party,  born  in  Herefordshire  in 
1555  He  received  his  education  at  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow, 
but  afterwards  exchanged  for  a  fellowship  in 
Trinity.  Having  taken  his  degree  of  B.  D.  in 
1567,  he  commenced  preacher,  and  became  very 
popular ;  but  his  opinions  being  somewhat  pres- 
byterian,  he  was  complained  of  by  archbishop 
Grindal,  and  was  prevented  from  taking  his 


doctor's  degree,  and  obliged  to  give  up  his  fel 
lowship.  He  now  went  over  to  the  continent, 
and  was  chosen  minister  to  the  English  mer- 
chants at  Antwerp,  and  afterwards  at  Middle- 
burg;  but  returning  to  England,  he  used  his 
utmost  endeavour  to  overturn  the  ecclesiastical 
order,  and  establish  the  discipline  of  the  Gene- 
van church.  Having  written  several  pieces  with 
that  view,  to  which  Dr.  Whitgift  replied,  Cart- 
wright  was  at  length  thrown  into  prison.  By  the 
favor  of  lord  Burleigh  and  the  earl  of  Leicester, 
however,  he  was  released  from  his  confinement, 
and  the  latter  appointed  him  master  of  his  hos 
pital  at  Warwick,  where  he  died  in  J603.  He 
wrote  a  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  in  Latin,  which 
was  published  at  Amsterdam  in  1647;  also  a 
Commentary  on  the  Proverbs,  and  various  othe. 
works.  His  Confutation  of  the  Rhenish  Testa- 
ment did  not  come  out  till  after  Iris  death. 

CARTWRIGHT  (William),  an  eminent  divine 
and  poet,  born  at  Northway,  nearTewkesbury,  in 
Gloucestershire,  in  1611.  He  finished  his  edu- 
cation at  Oxford  ;  afterwards  went  into  orders, 
and  became  a  preacher  in  the  University.  In 
1642  he  was  successor  in  the  church  of  Salisbury; 
and,  in  1643,  junior  proctor  and  metaphysical 
reader  in  the  University.  He  was  an  expert 
linguist,  and  an  excellent  orator.  There  are  ex- 
tant four  of  his  plays,  and  some  poems.  He  died 
in  1644,  aged  thirty-three. 

CARTWRIGHT  (John),  an  English  gentleman, 
of  eccentric  political  character,  was  the  third  son 
of  William  Cartwright,  Esq.  of  Marnham,  in  the 
county  of  Nottingham,  and  born  there  in  1740. 
He  was  educated  at  Newark  grammar-school, 
and  afterwards  entered  into  the  navy',  in  which 
he  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant;  but  objecting 
to  the  American  war,  he  retired  from  the  service. 
He  now  became  major  in  the  Nottinghamshire 
militia,  a  circumstance  to  which  he  owed  the 
popular  title  of  major,  long  after  he  ceased  to 
hold  the  commission.  In  1775  he  published  a 
tract  entitled  American  Independence  the  Glory 
and  Interest  of  Great  Britain  ;  and  joined  Dr. 
John  Jebb  in  1780,  Granville  Sharpe,  &c.  in 
forming  the  Society  for  Constitutional  Informa- 
tion. He  was  roused  by  the  French  revolution 
to  publish  The  Commonwealth  in  Danger,  1795, 
and  was  afterwards  the  author  of  numerous  pub- 
lications on  a  Reform  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
On  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  the  estate  of 
Marnham  devolved  to  him,  which  he  sold  and 
purchased  Brothertoft,  near  Boston,  Lincolnshire. 
He  afterwards  lived  for  some  time  at  Enfield, 
whence  in  1810  he  removed  to  Westminster. 
After  the  Manchester  slaughter,  major  Cartwright 
attended  a  meeting  at  Birmingham,  respecting 
that  unhappy  business,  and  subjected  himself  to 
an  indictment  with  others  for  a  conspiracy.  He  was 
tried  and  found  guilty  at  the  Warwick  assizes,  and 
received  sentence,  June  1,  1821,  to  pay  a  fine  of 
£100  to  the  king.  His  death  took  place  at  his 
house  in  Burton-Crescent,  September  23rd,  1 824. 
The  Life  and  Correspondence  of  major  Cartwri^l.t 
were  published  by  his  niece  in  1826. 

CARVAGE,  carvagium,  the  same  with  car- 
rucage.  Henry  III.  is  said  to  have  taken  carvage, 
that  is  two  marks  of  silver,  off  every  knight's  fee, 
towards  the  marriage  of  his  sister  Isabella  to  the 


CAR 


208 


CAR 


emperor.     Carvage  could  only  be  imposed  on 
tenants  in  capite. 

CARVE,  a.  &  n.  ^      Ang.-Sax.  ceorfan,  kserf  ; 

CAR'VER,  n.  >  Dutch,  kerven ;  Goth,  kerf- 

CAR'VING,  n.  Jwa;  Swed.  karfoa.  To 
cut  any  substance,  either  into  eatable  pieces  or 
elegant  forms ;  to  grave  or  engrave  ;  to  divide 
into  portions ;  to  distribute ;  to  follow  the  pro- 
fession of  a  sculptor.  Carver  is  a  sculptor  ;  in  the 
more  modern  acceptation, it  means  an  inferior  kind 
of  artist,  who  executes  the  ornaments  of  picture 
frames,  glasses,  and  furniture;  it  is  also  one  who 
serves  at  table ;  one  who  apportions  according 
to  his  pleasure.  Carving,  as  a  noun,  signifies, 
carved  figures,  sculpture.  In  the  quotation  from 
Shakspeare,  illustrative  of  carving  at  table, 
though  much  has  been  ingeniously  said  in  defence 
of  the  present  reading,  I  am  disposed  to  believe 
that  carve  is  a  typographical  error,  and  that, 
probably,  the  original  word  was  crave. 

But  yet  had  I  forgotten  to  devise 
The  noble  Iteming  and  the  portraitures^ 
The  shape,  the  countenance,  of  the  figures 
That  weren  in  the  oratories  three.  Chaucer. 

Or  they  will  buy  his  sheep  forth  of  the  cote, 
On  they  will  careen  the  shepherd's  throat.        Spenser. 

Run,  run,  Orlando,  cane  on  every  tree, 
The  fair,  the  chaste,  the  unexpressive  she. 

Shakspeare. 

Urave  Macbeth,  with  his  brandished  steel, 
Like  valour's  minion,  carved  out  his  passage.  Id. 

I  do  mean  to  make  love  to  Ford's  wife  ;  I  spy  en- 
tertainment in  her;  she  discourses,  she  carves,  she 
gives  the  leer  of  invitation.  Id. 

In  this  kind,  to  come  in  braving  arms, 

Be  his  own  carver,  and  cut  out  his  way, 

To  find  out  right  with  wrong, — it  may  not  be.     Id. 

How  dares  sinful  dust  and  ashes  invade  the  prero- 
gative of  Providence,  and  carve  out  to  himself  the 
seasons  and  issues  of  life  and  death.  South. 

Yet  fearing  idleness,  the  nurse  of  ill, 

In  sculpture  exercised  his  happy  skill ; 

And  carved  in  ivory  such  a  maid,  so  fair, 

As  nature  could  not  with  his  art  compare, 

Were  she  to  work.  Dryden. 

The  labourer's  share,  being  seldom  more  than  a 
bare  subsistence,  never  allows  that  body  of  men  op- 
portunity to  struggle  with  the  richer,  unless  when 
some  common  and  great  distress  emboldens  them  to 
carve  to  their  wants.  Locke. 

They  can  no  more  last  like  the  ancients,  than  ex- 
cellent carvings  in  wood  like  those  in  marble  and 
brass.  Temple. 

Well  then,  things  handsomely  were  served, 

My  mistress  for  the  strangers  carved.  Prior. 

Were  any  common  booty  got, 

'Twas  his  each  portion  to  allot ; 

For  why,  he  found  there  might  be  picking, 

Even  in  the  carving  of  a  chicken.  Gay. 

Had  Democrates  really  carved  mount  Athos  into  a 
statue  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  had  the  memory 
of  the  fact  been  obliterated  by  some  accident,  who 
could  have  afterwards  have  proved  it  impossible  ;  but 
that  it  might  casually  have  been  ?  Bentley. 

A  CARVER,  to  cut  up  meat,  was  stiled  by  the 
Romans,  carptor  and  carpus;  sometimes  scissor, 
scmdendi  magister,  and  structor.  In  the  great 
families  at  Rome,  the  carver  was  an  officer  of 
some  rank.  There  were  masters  to  teach  the 


art  regularly,  by  figures  of  animals  cut  in  wood- 
The  Greeks  also  had  their  carvers,  called  SutTpoi, 
q.  d.  deribitares,  or  distributors.  In  the  primi- 
tive times,  the  master  of  the  feast  carved  for  all 
his  guests.  Thus  in  Homer,  when  Agamemnon's 
ambassadors  were  entertained  at  Achilles's  table, 
the  hero  himself  carved  the  meat.  In  Sparta, 
the  office  on  solemn  occasions  was  exercised  by 
some  of  the  chief  men.  In  Scotland,  the  king 
has  an  hereditary  carver  in  the  family  of  Anstru- 
ther. 

CARVER  (Jonathan),  was  born  at  Connecticut, 
North  America,  in  1732.  His  father,  who  was 
a  justice  of  peace,  died  when  he  was  only  five 
years  of  age  ;  and  his  friends  educated  him  in  the 
medical  line.  But  he  preferred  a  military  life ; 
and  joining  the  army,  served  with  considerable 
reputation  till  the  peace  of  1763.  He  afterwards 
resolved  on  travelling,  and  the  route  he  projected 
was  to  explore  the  interior  of  America,  and  to 
penetrate  as  far  as  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  he 
accomplished,  amidst  innumerable  difficulties, 
and  published  an  Account  of  his  Travels  in  1776. 
After  returning  from  his  arduous  journey,  he 
came  over  to  England,  in  hopes  of  some  prefer- 
ment, but  was  disappointed,  and,  to  support 
himself  and  his  family,  was  under  the  necessity 
of  accepting  the  office  of  clerk  of  the  lottery. 
He  died  in  very  poor  circumstances,  in  1780. 
Besides  the  Account  of  his  Travels,  he  wrote  an 
Essay  on  the  Culture  of  Tobacco. 

CARVING,  in  a  general  sense,  the  art  or  act  of 
cutting  or  fashioning  a  hard  body,  by  means  of 
some  sharp  instrument,  especially  a  chissel.  In 
this  sense  carving  includes  statuary  and  engraving, 
as  well  as  cutting  in  wood.  But  in  the  strict 
and  limited  sense,  it  is  the  art  of  cutting  figures 
in  wood.  In  this  sense,  according  to  Pliny,  it 
is  prior  both  to  statuary  and  painting.  To  carve 
a  figure,  it  must  be  first  drawn  or  pasted  on  the 
wood.  The  rest  of  the  block,  not  covered  by 
the  lines  of  the  design,  are  then  to  be  cut  away 
with  little  narrow  pointed  knives.  The  wood 
fittest  for  the  use  is  that  which  is  hard,  tough, 
and  close,  as  beech,  but  especially  box ;  to  pre- 
pare it  for  drawing  the  design  on,  it  is  washed 
over  with  white  lead  tempered  in  water ;  which 
enables  it  either  to  bear  ink  or  the  crayon,  or  even 
to  take  the  impression  by  chalking.  When  the 
design  is  to  be  pasted  on  the  wood,  this  whiten- 
ing is  omitted.  The  printed  side  of  the  figure 
being  wiped  over  with  gum  tragacanth  dissolved 
in  water,  it  is  clapped  smooth  on  the  wood,  and 
let  dry;  then  wetted  slightly  over,  and  the  surface 
of  the  paper  gently  fretted  off,  till  all  the  strokes 
of  the  figure  appear  distinctly ;  after  which  the 
carver  begins  to  cut  out  the  figure. 

CARUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  digynia 
order,  and  pentrandria  class  of  plants ;  natural 
order,  forty-fifth,  umbellatce.  The  fruit  is  ovate, 
oblong,  and  striated ;  the  involucrum  monophyl- 
lous  :  the  petals  are  carinated  or  keel-shaped  be- 
low, and  marginatecl  by  their  inflection.  1.  C. 
carui,  the  caraway  of  the  shops,  grows  naturally 
in  many  places  of  Britain.  It  is  a  biennial  plant 
which  rises  from  seeds  one  year,  flowers  the  next, 
•and  perishes  soon  after  the  seeds  are  ripe.  It 
has  a  strong  aromatic  taste,  and  a  taper  root  like 
a  parsnip,  but  much  smaller,  which  runs  deep 


CAR 


209 


CAR 


into  the  ground,  sending  out  many  small  fibres. 
From  the  root  rise  one  or  two  smooth,  solid, 
channelled  stalks,  about  two  feet  high,  garnished 
with  winged  leaves,  having  long  naked  foot 
stalks.  C.  hispanicum  is  also  a  biennial,  and  is 
a  native  of  Spain.  It  rises  with  a  stronger  stalk 
than  the  former,  which  seldom  grows  more  than 
a  foot  and  a-half  high ;  but  is  closely  garnished 
with  fiue  narrow  leaves  like  those  of  dill.  The 
seeds  have  an  aromatic  smell,  and  a  warm  pun- 
gent taste.  They  are  used  in  cakes,  incrusted 
with  sugar,  as  sweetmeats,  and  distilled  with 
spirituous  liquors  for  the  sake  of  the  flavor  they 
afford.  They  are  in  the  number  of  the  four 
greater  hot  seeds ;  and  frequently  employed  as  a 
stomachic  and  carminative,  in  flatulent  colics,  Sec. 

CARUNCULA,  or  CARUNCLE,  in  anatomy,  is 
a  term  applied  to  several  parts  of  the  human 
body.  See  ANATOMY. 

CARUNCUL.-E  PAPPILLARES,  or  MAMIL- 
LARES,  little  protuberances  in  the  inside  of  the 
pelvis  of  the  kidneys,  made  by  the  extremities 
of  the  tubes,  which  bring  the  serum  from  the 
glands  in  the  exterior  parts,  ta  the  pelvis.  They 
are  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  were  first  obser- 
ved by  Carpus. 

CAR  WAR,  a  seaport  town  in  the  province  of 
North  Canara,  Hindostan.  It  was  formerly  a 
place  of  considerable  commerce;  the  East  India 
Company  having  had  a  factory  here  in  1673,  but 
during  the  reign  of  Tippoo  Saib,  the  town  went 
entirely  to  decay.  The  terra  japonica  grows 
here  below  the  Ghauts  in  abundance  :  and  the 
Mahratta  merchants  purchase  considerable  quan- 
tities of  salt  at  Carwar.  The  northern  part  of 
this  district  is  but  thinly  inhabited,  and  the  hills 
are  very  unproductive.  Slaves  are  not  found 
here.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  Carwar  is  a 
fort  called  Sedasiva  Row,  built  by  one  of  the 
Rajahs  of  Soonda,  whose  name  it  bears.  It  is 
fifty-four  miles  south  by  east  from  Goa.  Lat. 
14°  49  N.,  long.  74°  4'  E. 

GARY  (Lucius),  lord  viscount  Falkland,  was 
born  in  Oxfordshire,  about  A.D.  1610;  a  young 
nobleman  of  great  abilities.  About  the  time  of 
his  father's  death,  in  1633,  he  was  made  gentle- 
man of  the  privy  chamber  to  king  Charles  I.  and 
afterwards  secretary  of  state.  Before  the  assem- 
bling of  the  long  parliament,  he  had  devoted 
himself  to  literature,  and  when  called  into  pub- 
lic life,  he  stood  foremost  in  all  attacks  on  the 
high  prerogative  of  the  cro%vn ;  but  when  civil 
convulsions  came  to  an  extremity,  he  defended 
the  limited  powers  that  remained  to  monarchy. 
Anxious  however  for  his  country,  he  seems  to 
have  dreaded  equally  the  prosperity  of  the  royal 

Early,  and  that  of  the  parliament;  and  among 
is  intimate  fiiends,  often  sadly  reiterated  the 
word — Peace.  Yet  he  freely  exposed  his  person 
for  the  king  in  all  hazardous  enterprises,  and  was 
killed  in  the  thirty-fourth  year  of  his  age,  at  the 
battle  of  Newbury.  He  wrote — 1.  Speech  on 
ill  Counsellors  about  the  King.  2.  Speech 
against  Lord  Keeper  Finch  and  die  Judges.  3. 
Speech  against  the  Bishops.  4.  Speech  concer- 
ning Episcopacy.  5.  A  Discourse  on  the  Infal- 
libility of  the  Church  of  Rome;  and  a  View  of 
some  Exceptions  made  gainst  that  Discourse.  6. 
A  Letter  to  F.  M.'s  five  Captious  Questions  pro- 
VOL.  A*. 


pounded  by  a  Factor  of  the  Papacy,  4to. ;  and  7  . 
A  Letter  to  Dr.  Beale,  Master  of  St.  John's  Col  • 
lege,  Cambridge. 

GARY  A,  or  CARYAE,  a  town  of  Laconia,  be- 
tween Sparta  and  the  borders  of  Messenia : 
where  stood  a  temple  of  Diana,  thence  called 
Caryatis. 

CARYATES,  in  antiquity,  a  festival  in 
honor  of  Diana,  held  at  Carya.  The  chief  cere- 
mony was  a  dance  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Castor  and  Pollux,  and  performed  by  the  virgins 
of  the  place.  During  Xerxes'  invasion,  the  La- 
conians  not  daring  to  appear  and  celebrate  the 
customary  solemnity,  to  prevent  incurring  the 
anger  of  the  goddess  by  such  an  intermission,  the 
neighbouring  swains  are  said  to  have  assembled 
and  sung  bucolismi,  or,  pastorals,  which  is  said 
to  have  been  the  origin  of  bucolic  poetry. 

CARYATES,  or  CARYATIDES,  from  Carya,  a 
city  taken  by  the  Greeks,  who  led  away  the 
women  captives :  and,  to  perpetuate  their  slavery, 
represented  them  in  buildings  as  charged  with 
burdens ;  and  thus  gave  rise  to  the  name  of  an 
order  of  columns  or  pilasters,  under  the  figures 
of  women,  dressed  in  long  robes,  serving  to  sup- 
port entablatures. 

CARYL  (Joseph),  an  eminent  divine  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  bred  at  Oxford,  and  some 
time  preacher  to  the  society  of  Lincoln's  Inn. 
He  was  a  frequent  preacher  before  the  long  par- 
liament, a  licenser  of  their  books,  a  member  of 
the  assembly  of  divines,  and  one  of  the  triers  for 
the  approbation  of  ministers ;  in  all  which  ca- 
pacities he  showed  himself  a  man  of  consider- 
able parts  and  learning,  but  with  great  zeal 
against  the  king's  person  and  cause.  On  the 
Restoration,  he  was  silenced  by  the  act  of  uni- 
formity, and  lived  privately  in  London ;  where, 
besides  other  works,  he  distinguished  himself  by 
a  laborious  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Job;  and 
died  in  1672. 

CARYLL  (John),  an  English  poet,  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  persuasion,  secretary  to  queen 
Mary,  the  wife  of  James  II.,  and  one  who  fol- 
lowed the  fortunes  of  his  master,  who  knighted 
him.  He  was  the  author  of  two  plays  :  1.  The 
English  Princess,  or  the  Death  of  Richard  III., 
1667,  4to.  2.  Sir  Salomon,  or  the  Cautious 
Coxcomb,  1671,  4to;  and  in  1700  he  published 
The  Psalms  of  David,  translated  from  the  Vul- 
gate, 12mo. 

CARYOCAR,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
tetragynia  order,  and  polyandria  class  of  plants : 
CAL.  quinquepartite,  the  petals  five,  the  styles 
most  frequently  four.  The  fruit  is  a  plum,  with 
nucleuses,  and  four  furrows  netted.  Three  spe- 
cies :  West  Indies,  and  South  America ;  C. 
nuciferum  yields  a  drupe  of  the  size  of  a  man's 
head,  the  nuts  of  which  are  eatable. 

CARYOPHYLLEUS,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of 
the  class  vermes ;  order  intestina.  Body  round ; 
mouth  dilated  and  fringed  ;  clay -color ;  about 
an  inch  long.  Inhabits  the  intestines  of  various 
fresh-water  fishes. 

CARYOPHYLLt>S,in  botany,  the  clove  tree, 
a  genus  of  the  monogym'a  order,  and  poly- 
andria class  of  plants :  natural  order  nineteenth, 
hesperidea :  COR.  i*  tttrapetalous ;  CAL.  tetra- 
phyllous;  the  belly  monosperraous  below  tufe 
P 


CAS 


210 


CAS 


receptacle  of  the  flower.  Of  this  the  principal 
species  is  C.  aromaticus,  which  is  a  native  of  the 
Molucca  Islands,  particularly  of  Amboyna, 
where  it  is  principally  cultivated.  The  clove 
tree  resembles,  in  its  bark,  the  olive;  and  is 
about  the  height  of  the  laurel,  which  it  also 
resembles  in  its  leaves.  No  verdure  is  ever  seen 
under  it.  It  has  a  great  number  of  branches,  at 
the  extremities  of  which  are  produced  vast  quan- 
tities of  flowers,  that  are  first  white,  then  green, 
and  at  last  pretty  red  and  hard.  When  they 
arrive  at  this  degree  of  maturity,  they  are,  pro- 
perly speaking,  cloves.  As  they  dry,  they 
assume  a  dark  yellowish  cast ;  and,  when  gather- 
ed, become  of  a  deep  brown.  The  season  for 
gathering  the  cloves  is  from  October  to  Febru- 
ary. The  boughs  of  the  trees  are  then  strongly 
shaken,  or  the  cloves  beaten  down  with  long  reeds. 
Large  cloths  are  spread  te  receive  them,  and 
they  are  afterwards  either  dried  in  the  sun,  or 
in  the  smoke  of  the  bamboo  cane.  The  cloves 
which  escape  the  notice  of  those  who  gather 
them,  or  are  purposely  left  upon  the  tree,  con- 
tinue to  grow  till  they  are  about  an  inch  in 
thickness;  and  these  falling  off,  produce  new 
plants,  which  do  not  bear  in  less  than  eight  or 
nine  years.  The  clove,  to  be  in  perfection,  must 
be  full  sized,  heavy,  oily,  and  easily  broken ; 
of  a  fine  smell,  and  of  a  hot  aromatic  taste,  so  as 
almost  to  bum  the  throat.  It  should  make  the 
fingers  smart  when  handled,  and  leave  an  oily 
moisture  upon  them  when  pressed.  In  the  East 
Indies,  and  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  it  is  so 
much  admired,  as  to  be  thought  an  indispensable 
ingredient  in  almost  every  dish.  It  is  put  into 
their  food,  liquors,  wines,  and  enters  likewise 
the  composition  of  their  perfumes.  Cloves  are 
very  hot,  stimulating,  aromatics ;  and  ppssesSj  in 
an  eminent  degree,  the  general  virtues  of  sub- 
stances of  this  class.  Their  pungency  resides  in 
their  resin  ;  or  rather  in  a  combination  of  resin 
with  essential  oil :  for  the  spirituous  extract  is 
very  pungent ;  but  if  the  oil  and  the  resin  con- 
tained in  this  extract  are  separated  from  each 
other  by  distillation,  the  oil  will  be  very  mild; 
and  any  pungency  which  it  does  retain,  proceeds 
from  some  small  portion  of  adhering  resin,  and 
the  remaining  resin  will  be  insipid.  No  plant,  or 
part  of  any  plant,  contains  such  a  quantity  of  oil 
as  cloves  do.  From  sixteen  ounces,  Newman 
obtained  by  distillation  two  ounces  and  two 
drams ;  and  Hoffman  obtained  an  ounce  and  an 
half  of  oil  from  two  ounces  of  the  spice.  The 
oil  is  specifically  heavier  than  water.  Cloves 
acquire  weight  by  imbibing  water ;  and  this  they 
will  do  at  some  considerable  distance.  The 
Dutch,  who  trade  in  cloves,  make  a  considerable 
advantage  by  knowing  this  secret.  They  sell 
them  always  by  weight ;  and  when  a  bag  of 
cloves  is  ordered,  they  hang  it,  for  several  hours 
before  it  is  sent  in,  over  a  vessel  of  water,  at 
about  two  feet  distance  from  the  surface.  The 
clove  tree  is  never  cultivated  in  Europe.  At 
Amboyna  the  company  have  allotted  the  inhabi- 
tants 4000  parcels  of  land,  on  each  of  which 
they  were  at  first  allowed,  and  about  the  year 
1720  compelled,  to  plant  about  125  trees, 
amounting  in  all  to  500,000.  Each  of  these 
trees  produces  annually  On  an  average  more  than 


two  pound  of  cloves ;  and,  consequently,  the 
collective  produce  must  weigh  more  than  a  mil- 
lion. The  cultivator  is  paid  with  the  specie  that 
is  constantly  returned  to  the  company,  and  re- 
ceives some  unbleached  cottons,  which  are 
brought  from  Coromandel. 
.  CARYOPHYLLUS,  the  pink.  See  DIANTHUS. 

CARYOPHYLLTJS,  bennet.     See  GEUM. 

CARYOTA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  order  moncecia,  class  polyandria :  male  CAL. 
common ;  COR.  tripartite ;  the  stamina  very  nu- 
merous ;  female  one  pistil,  and  a  dispermous 
berry. 

CASA  (John  de  la),  archbishop  of  Benevento, 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1503.  He  was  educated 
at  Bologna,  and  afterwards  settled  at  Rome, 
where  he  was  appointed  clerk  of  the  apostolical 
chamber  in  1538.  In  1544  he  received  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Benevento,  and  the  same  year  was 
sent  nuncio  to  Venice,  where  he  displayed  great 
diplomatic  abilities.  On  account  of  his  connex- 
ion with  cardinal  Farnese,  he  fell  into  disgrace 
under  Julius  III.,  but  under  Paul  IV.  he  was 
made  secretary  of  state.  His  principal  work  is 
entitled  Galatea,  or  Art  of  Living  in  the  World. 
He  also  wrote  several  beautiful  Italian  poems ; 
the  Lives  of  Cardinals  Contarini  and  Bembo, 
&c.  He  died  in  1556. 

CASAL,  a  strong  town  of  Italy,  the  capital  of 
the  duchy  of  Montferrat,  having  a  citadel  and 
bishop's  see,  and  standing  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Po.  The  principal  traffic  of  the  place  is  in 
cattle,  pigs,  and  hams;  the  last  of  which  are 
much  esteemed  for  their  fine  flavor.  This  place 
has  frequently  changed  masters,  having  been  in 
possession  of  the  Spaniards,  the  French,  and  the 
king  of  Sardinia.  It  has  been  under  the  last 
government  since  1746.  Long.  8°  19'  E.,  lat. 
45°  12'  N. 

CASAS  (Bartholomew  de  las),  bishop  of  Chi- 
apa,  was  born  at  Seville,  in  1474;  and  in  1493 
sailed,  together  with  his  father,  with  Christopher 
Columbus,  on  his  second  voyage  to  Hispaniola. 
On  his  return  to  Spain  he  embraced  the  state  of 
an  ecclesiastic,  and  obtained  a  curacy  in  the 
island  of  Cuba,  where  he  employed  his  time  in 
endeavouring  to  convert  the  Indians,  and  in 
protecting  them,  as  much  as  possible,  from  the 
cruelty  of  his  countrymen.  At  last  the  court, 
moved  by  his  continual  remonstrances,  passed 
several  laws  in  favor  of  the  Indians,  and  ordered 
the  governors  to  see  them  executed.  He  died  at 
Madrid,  in  1566,  aged  ninety-two.  His  principal 
works  are,  An  Account  of  the  Destruction  of  the 
Indies  ;  several  Treatises  in  favor  of  the  Indies, 
against  Sepulveda,  who  wrote  a  book  to  justify 
the  inhuman  barbarities  committed  by  the  Spa- 
niards ;  and  also  a  very  curious,  and  now 
scarce,  work  in  Latin,  on  this  question,  Whe- 
ther kings  or  princes  can,  consistently  with  con- 
science, or  in  virtue  of  any  right  or  title,  alienate 
their  subjects,  and  place  them  under  the  do- 
minion of  another  sovereign  ? 

CASATI  (Paul),  a  learned  Jesuit,  bom  at 
Placentia  in  1617.  After  having  taught  mathe- 
matics and  divinity  at  Home,  he  was  sent  into 
Sweden  to  queen  Christina,  whom  he  prevailed 
on  to  embrace  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  He 
wrote,  1.  Vacuum  Proscriptum.  2.  Terra  Ma- 


CAS 


211 


CAS 


chinis  Mota.  3.  Mechanicorum  Libn  Octo.  4. 
De  Igne  Dissertationes ;  which  is  much  es- 
teemed. 5.  De  Angelis  Disputatio  Theolog.  6. 
Hydrostaticae  Dissertationes.  7.  Opticae  Dispu- 
tationes.  It  is  remarkable  that  he  wrote  this 
treatise  on  optics  at  eighty-eight  years  of  age, 
and  after  he  was  blind.  He  also  wrote  several 
books  in  Italian.  He  died  at  Parma  in  1 707. 

C AS AU BON  (Isaac),  a  learned  divine  and 
critic,  born  at  Geneva  in  1559.  He  was  chosen 
professor  of  Greek  at  Geneva,  when  only  twenty- 
three  years  of  age;  and  in  1586  he  married  a 
daughter  of  Henry  Stephens,  the  printer,  by 
whom  he  had  twenty  children.  Having  con- 
tinued at  Geneva  about  twelve  years,  he  after- 
wards went  to  fill  the  professor's  chair  at  Mont- 
pellier ;  being  dissatisfied  with  his  situation,  he 
removed  to  Paris,  in  hopes  of  a  professorship 
which  was  promised  him,  but  which  he  never 
obtained ;  and  though  a  pension  was  granted 
him,  it  was  ill  paid.  In  1600  ho  was  one  of  the 
judges  on  the  Protestant  side,  in  the  conference 
between  cardinal  du  Perron  and  du  Plessis  Mor- 
nay,  and  gave  his  voice  against  the  latter,  from 
which  it  was  thought  he  was  going  to  change  his 
party  and  religious  opinion;  and  cardinal  du 
Perron  was  directed  to  communicate  with  him  in 
that  view  :  but  the  result  was  the  inflexible  reso- 
lution of  Casaubon  to  hold  by  the  Protestant 
principles.  His  pension,  however,  was  increased, 
and  he  was  appointed  librarian  to  the  king  in 
1603.  After  the  death  of  Henry  IV.  he  went  to 
England  with  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  ambassador 
from  king  James  I.,  where  he  was  kindly  re- 
ceived. King  James  settled  a  considerable  pen- 
sion on  him,  and  gave  him  a  prebend  at  West- 
minster, and  another  at  Canterbury.  He  died 
in  1614,  and  was  interred  in  Westminster  abbey, 
where  a  monument  was  erected  to  him.  He 
was  the  author  of  valuable  notes  on  Diogenes 
Laertius,  inserted  in  Stephens'  edition  of  that 
author,  1594.  Also  the  various  readings,  &c.  of 
Theocritus,  in  Crispinus'  Geneva  edition.  3. 
Strabonis  Geographic,  &c.  fol.  Genev.  1587. 
4.  Novum  Testamentum  Graecum,  16mo.  1587, 
with  notes.  5.  Dionysius  Halicarnassensis,  &c. 
fol.  Genev.  1588.  6.  Polyseni  Stratagematum 
Libri  VIII,  16mo.  1589.  7.  Dictearchi  Geogra- 
phica,  &c.  8vo.  Genev.  1589.  8.  Aristotelis 
Opera,  &c.  fol.  Genev.  1605.  9.  C.  Plinii  et 
Epistolae,  &c.  12mo.  Genev.  1591.  10.  Theo- 
phrasti  Characters,  &c.  12mo.  1592.  11.  Apu- 
leii  Apologia,  &c.  4to.  1593.  12.  C.  Suetonii 
Tranquilli  Opera,  4to.  Genev.  1595,  Paris.  1610. 
13.  Publ.  Syri  Mimi,  &c.  8vo.  1598.  14.  Athe- 
ncei  Deipnosophist,  &c.  2  vols.  fol.  Genev.  1597. 
15.  Historias  Augustas  Scriptores,  4to.  Paris. 
1603.  16.  Persii  Satyrs?,  &c.  8vo.  Paris.  1605, 
Lond.  1647.  17.  De  Satyricae  Grfficorum,  &c. 
«vo.  Paris.  1605.  18.  Polybii  Opera,  &c.  fol. 
Paris.  1609.  19.  Josephi  Scaligeri  Opera,  4to. 
Paris.  1610,  Francof.  1612.  20.  De  Rebus  Sa- 
cris  et  Ecclesiasticis  Exercitationes  XVI. 

CASAUBON  (Meric),  the  son  of  Isaac,  was 
born  at  Geneva  in  1599.  He  was  bred  at  Ox- 
ford, and  took  the  degree  of  M.  A.  in  1621 .  The 
same  year  he  published  a  book  in  defence  of  his 
father,  against  the  calumnies  of  certain  Roman 
Catholics ;  which  gained  him  the  favor  of  king 


James  I.  and  a  considerable  reputation  abroad. 
He  was  made  prebendary  of  Canterbury  by  arch- 
bishop Laud.  In  the  beginning  of  the  civil  v.ur 
he  lost  all  his  promotions,  but  still  continued  to 
publish.  Oliver  Cromwell,  then  lieutenant-ge- 
neral of  the  parliament's  forces,  would  have  era- 
ployed  him  in  writing  the  history  of  the  war; 
but  he  declined  it,  owning,  that  his  subject  would 
oblige  him  to  make  such  reflections  as  would  be 
ungrateful,  if  not  injurious,  to  his  lordship. 
Notwithstanding  this  answer,  Cromwell,  sensible 
of  his  worth,  ordered  £300  or  £400  to  be  paid 
him  by  Cromwell,  a  bookseller  in  London,  on 
demand,  without  requiring  from  him  any  ac- 
knowledgment. But  this  offer  he  rejected,  though 
his  circumstances  were  then  low.  At  the  same 
time  it  was  proposed  by  his  friend  Mr.  Greaves, 
who  belonged  to  the  library  at  St.  James's,  that 
if  Casaubon  would  gratify  Cromwell,  all  his 
father's  books  (which  were  then  in  the  royal  li- 
brary, having  been  purchased  by  king  James) 
should  be  restored  to  him,  and  a  pension  of  £300 
a  year  paid  to  the  family,  as  long  as  the  youngest 
son  of  Dr.  Casaubon  should  live ;  but  this  also 
was  refused.  He  likewise  refused  handsome 
offers  from  Christina  queen  of  Sweden,  being 
determined  to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
England.  At  the  Restoration  he  recovered  all 
his  preferments,  and  continued  writing  till  his 
death  in  1671.  He  was  the  author  of  an  Eng- 
lish translation  of  Antoninus's  Medications,  and  of 
Lucius  Florus ;  editions  of  several  of  the  classics, 
with  notes ;  with  many  other  works  :  and  he  left 
a  number  of  MSS.  to  the  university  of  Oxford. 

CASCABLE,  the  knob  or  button  of  metal,  be- 
hind the  breech  of  a  cannon,  as  a  sort  of  handle 
whereby  to  elevate  and  direct  the  piece.  The 
neck  of  the  cascable  is  the  part  which  joins  it  to 
the  breech-mouldings ;  its  diameter  is  three- 
quarters  of  a  calibre;  that  of  the  button  some- 
thing more  than  a  calibre.  The  length  of  the 
cascable  is  always  two  calibres  and  a  quarter. 

CAS'CADE,  Fr.  cascade ;  Ital.  cascata ;  from 
cascare,  to  fall.  A  cataract ;  a  water-fall ;  ge- 
nerally applied  to  those  which  are  either  artificial, 
or  of  minor  or  secondary  importance. 

Rivers  diverted  from  their  native  course. 

And  bound  with  chains  of  artificial  force, 

From  large  cascades  in  pleasing  tumult  rolled, 

Or  rose  through  figured  stone,  or  breathing  gold. 

Prior. 

The  river  Teverone  throws  itself  down  a  preci- 
pice, and  falls  by  several  cascades  from  one  rock  to 
another,  till  it  gains  the  bottom  of  the  valley. 

Addison. 

CASCADES  are  either  natural,  as  that  at  Tivoli, 
&c.  or  artificial,  as  these  at  Versailles,  &c.  and 
either  fall  with  gentle  descent,  as  those  of  Sceaux ; 
or  in  form  of  a  busset,  as  at  Trianon ;  or  down 
steps,  in  form  of  perron,  as  at  St.  Cloud  ;  or  from 
bason  to  bason,  &c. 

CASCHROM,  a  kind  of  lever,  or  crooked 
spade,  used  instead  of  the  plough,*upon  rocky 
ground,  in  the  island  of  Barray. 

CASE,  v.  &  n.  -\  Fr.  caisse  ;  Ital.  cassu ; 
CA'SE-KNIFE,  s.  /Span,  caxa ;  Lat.  cnpsa ; 
CA'SE-HAKDEN,  >Ka/^a.  Such  are  the  de- 
CA  SE-SIIOT,  i  rivations  from  the  southern 
CA'SE-WORM.  ./languages.  Those  from  the 

P  2 


CAS 


212 


CAS 


northern  are  equally  close.  Aloes.  Goth,  has; 
Sw.  kasse ;  Hung,  kass ;  Ic.  cash ;  Dutch  kas ; 
Scot,  caasic.  All  of  which  mean  something  that 
contains.  A  case  is  primarily,  that  which  covers 
or  contains  any  thing  else;  as  a  covering;  a 
box  ;  a  sheath.  In  its  secondary  meanings,  it 
still  clearly  refers  to  the  idea  of  including.  It 
indicates  condition  with  respect  to  external  cir- 
cumstances ;  the  state  of  things,  of  the  body,  or 
of  disease ;  a  statement  of  a  disease ;  a  narra- 
tive, or  question,  submitted  to  a  barrister,  for 
his  opinion;  the  condition  of  the  body,  with 
respect  to  plumpness  or  leaness ;  a  contingence ; 
a  possible  event ;  a  particular  instance ;  repre- 
sentation of  any  fact  or  question  ;  and  the  change 
in  the  terminations  of  nouns.  In  case,  is  a  form 
of  supposition,  meaning  if  it  should  happen. 
Johnson  says,  this  is  a  form  of  speech  now  little 
used  :  but  why  he  says  so,  is  not  apparent,  the 
phrase  being  still  frequently  heard.  To  case  is, 
to  inclose  in  a  case ;  to  envelope  as  a  case  does  ; 
to  put  on  an  exterior  covering  of  materials,  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  tho  interior;  and,  lastly,  but 
unusually,  to  uncover,  '  <  skin.  The  neuter  verb 
is  employed  only  lu  Lcrously,  in  the  signification 
of  putting  cases,  containing  representations  of 
facts. 

And  such  a  case  betide,  and  that  as  fast, 
That  Troilus  wel  understode  that  she 
Na's  nat  so  kinde  as  that  hire  ought  to  be  ; 
And,  finally,  he  wote,  now  out  of  dout 
That  al  is  lost  that  he  hath  ben  about. 

Chaucer.    Troilus  and  Creseide. 
Unworthy  wretch,  quoth  he,  of  so  great  grace, 

How  dare  I  think  such  glory  to  attain? 
These  that  have  it  attained  were  in  like  case, 
Quoth  he,  as  wretched,  and  lived  in  like  pain. 

Spenser. 

Well,  I  do  find  each  man  most  wise  in  his  own  case. 

Sidney. 

Heart,  once  be  stronger  than  thy  continent, 
Crack  thy  frail  case.  Shahspeare. 

Question  your  royal  thoughts,  make  the  case  yours. 

Id. 

Thou  lyest,  most  ignorant  monster,  I  am  in  caie  to 

'ostle  a  constable.  Jd. 

Case  ye,  case  ye,  on  with  your  vizors.  Id. 

Thy  cry  went  once  for  thee, 
And  still  it  might,  and  yet  it  may  aiain, 
If  thou  would'st  not  entomb  thyself  alive, 
And  cote  thy  reputation  in  a  tent.  Id. 

For  in  case  it  should  be  certain,  hard  it  cannot  be 
for  them  to  show  us  where  we  shall  find  it  ;  that  we 
may  say,  that  these  were  the  orders  of  the  apostles. 

Hooker. 

It  was  well  ;  for  we  had  rather  met  with  calms  and 

contrary  winds,  than  any  tempests ;  for  our  sick  were 

many,  and  in  very  ill  cote.  Bacon. 

If  he  be  not  apt  to  beat  over  matters,  and  to  call 

up  one  thing  to  prove  and  illustrate  another,  let  him 

study  the  lawyer's  cotes ;  so  every  defect  of  the  mind 

may  have  a  special  receipt.  ja^ 

A  sure  retreat  to    his  forces,   in  case  they  should 

have  an  ill  day,  or  unlucky  chance  in  the  field.     Id. 

In    each,    seven    small    brass    ana       iron      guns, 

charged  with  cote-shot.  Clarendon'. 

Quoth  Ralph,  I  should  not,  if  I  were, 
In  cote  for  action,  now  be  here.  Hudibri*,. 

The  low-roofed  tortoises  do  dwell 
Itt  cttsei  lit  of  tortoise-shell.  Maroell. 


Each  thought  was  visible  that  rolled  within, 
As  through  a  crystal  case  the  figured  hours  are  seen. 

Dryden. 

Some  knew  the  face, 

And  all  had  heard  the  much  lamented  case.        Id. 

Pray  have  but  patience  till  then,   and  when    I   am 

in  a  little  better  case,  I'll  throw  myself   in  the  very 

mouth  of  you.  L' Estrange. 

They  presently  fall   to   reasoning  and   eating  upon 

the  matter  with  him,  and    laying   distinctions  before 

him.  id, 

Cadises,   or  case-worms,  are   to   be  found  in  this 

nation,  in  several  distinct  counties.  FLoyer. 

Just  then,  Cariss;t  drew,  with  tempting  grace, 
A  two-edged  weapon  from  the  shining  cose.        Pope. 
My  youth  may  be  made,  as  it  never  fails  in  ex- 
ecutions a  cose  of  compassion. 

•Id.   Preface  to  his  Works. 

The  case  of  the  holy  house  is  nobly  designed,  and 

executed  by  great  masters.  Addison, 

The  king  always  acts  with  a  great  case-knife  stuck 

in  his  girdle,  which  the  lady  snatches  from  him  in  the 

struggle,  and  so  defends  herself.  Id. 

Your  parents  did  not  produce  you  much  into  the 

world,  whereby  you  have  fewer  ill  impressions  ;  but 

they  failed,  as  is  generally  the    case,    in  too  much 

neglecting  to  cultivate  your  mind.  Swift. 

The  priest  was  pretty  well  in  case, 

And  shewed  some  humour  in  his  face.  Id. 

Chalybeate  water  seems  to  be  a  proper  remedy  in 

hypochondriacal  caset.  Arbuthnot. 

The  atheist,  in  case  things  should  fall  out  contrary 

to  his  belief  or  expectation,  has  made  no  provision  for 

this  case.  Tillotson. 

The  case  is  plain,  the  monarch  said, 
False  glory  hath  my  youth  mislead.  Guy. 

Love  calls  me  hence,  a  favourite  cow 
Expect  me  near  yon  barley-mow, 
And  when  a  lady's  in  the  case, 
You  know  all  other  things  gives  place.  Id. 

For  who,  to  thoughtless  ignorance  a  prey, 

Neglects  to  hold  short  dalliance  with  a  book  ? 
Who  there  but  wishes  to  prolong  his  stay, 
And  on  those  cases  cast  a  lingering  look. 

Duncombe, 

Indeed  !  Pray  which  of  the  houses  use  you  ill  ?  — 
There's  the  Red  Lion  an't  half  so  civil  as  the  Old 
Red  Lion.  There's  the  White  Horse,  if  he  wasn't 
case-htrdened,  ought  to  be  ashamed  to  show  his  face. 

Sheridan. 

CASE,  in  grammar.     See  GRAMMAR. 

CASE,  in  printing,  a  large  flat  oblong  frame 
placed  aslope,  divided  into  several  little  square 
cells  ;  in  each  of  which  are  lodged  a  number  of 
types  of  the  same  kind,  whence  the  compositor 
takes  them  out,  as  he  needs  them,  to  compose  his 
matter.  See  PRINTING. 

CASEARIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  class  decandria,  order  monogynia.  CAL.  five- 
leaved  :  COR.  none;  nectary  four  or  five-leave;  1, 
alternating  with  the  stamens :  CAPS,  berried 
\vithin,  three-valved,  one-celled  :  SEEDS  wrapped 
in  a  pulpy  pellicle.  Species  twelve,  ten  natives 
of  the  West  Indies  and  South  America;  the  other 
two  natives  of  India. 

CASE-HARDENING,  is  a  superficial  con- 
version of  iron  into  steel,  by  cementation  with 
vegetable  or  animal  coals.  This  operation  is 
generally  practised  upon  small  pieces  of  iron 


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213 


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wrought  into  tools  and  instruments  to  which  a 
superficial  conversion  is  sufficient :  and  may  be 
performed  conveniently  by  putting  the  pieces  of 
iron  to  be  case-hardened,  together  with  the 
cement,  into  an  iron  box,  which  is  to  be  closely 
shut  and  exposed  to  a  red  heat  for  some  hours. 
By  this  cementation  a  certain  thickness  from  the 
surface  of  the  iron  will  be  converted  into  steel, 
and  a  proper  hardness  may  be  afterwards  given 
by  sudden  extinction  of  the  heated  pieces  of  con- 
verted iron  in  a  cold  fluid.  See  IRON. 

CASEIC  ACID,  the  name  given  by  Proust  to 
an  acid  found  in  cheeses,  to  which  he  ascribes 
their  flavor.  It  is  of  the  color  and  consistence 
of  syrup  ;  reddens  litmus  paper ;  and  has  an  acid 
bitter  taste  mixed  with  that  of  cheese.  It  con- 
cretes, on  standing,  into  a  granular  transparent 
mass  like  honey.  It  does  not  affect  lime  water, 
muriate  of  tin,  or  acetate  of  lead.  It  precipitates 
the  oxides  of  silver,  gold,  and  mercury ;  but  not 
the  oxides  of  metals  that  more  strongly  attract 
oxygen.  With  infusion  of  galls  it  produces  a 
thick  white  precipitate.  Nitric  acid  converts 
it  into  oxalic  acid,  forming  at  the  same  time  a 
little  benzoic  acid,  and  some  of  the  yellow  bitter 
principle. 

C  ASEL  (John),  a  learned  German,  born  at  Got- 
tingeri  in  1533  ;  having  studied  in  several  univer- 
sities, he  travelled  to  Italy,  and  was  made  doctor 
of  laws  at  Pisa.  In  1563  he  became  professor  of 
philosophy  and  eloquence  at  Rostock,  and  after- 
wards at  Helmstadt,  where  he  died  in  1613.  He 
excelled  in  his  knowledge  of  the  Greek  fathers ; 
and  he  warmly  opposed  Daniel  Hoffman  and 
others,  who  maintained  that  philosophy  is  ad- 
verse to  theology,  and  that  many  things  are  true 
in  the  latter  which  are  false  in  the  former.  He 
carried  on  a  correspondence  with  some  of  the 
most  eminent  scholars  of  his  age ;  and  left 
many  works,  both  Greek  and  Latin,  in  verse  and 
prose. 

CASE'MATE,  Fr.  casemate;  Ital.  casamatta; 
Span,  casamata.  A  sufficient  portion  of  etymo- 
logical nonsense  has  been  written  with  respect  to 
the  derivation  of  this  word.  Nugent  says,  '  xaff~ 
nara,  hiatus,  openings,  or  hollow  places  under 
ground  :  the  Italians  read  casamatta,  which  some 
suppose  to  have  been  designed  to  express  casa- 
a  matti  a  mad-house,  or  place  to  put  fools  in.' 
Those  who  thus  supposed,  must  have  been  qua- 
lified to  reside  in  such  a  house.  Some,  with  more 
plausibility,  bring  the  word  from  casa  armata. 
Minsheu,  however,  seems  to  have  hit  the  right 
nail  upon  the  head ;  he  finds  the  origin  of  case- 
mate in  the  Spanish  rasa,  a  house,  and  matar, 
to  kill;  and  this  is  quite  in  accordance  with  the 
thing  explained.  Casemate,  in  its  most  ex- 
tended sense,  means  a  covered  or  arched  work, 
to  protect  the  troops  from  shot  or  shells,  when 
they  are  not  on  duty.  But  the  operative  case- 
mate, as  it  may  be  called,  and  from  which  the 
name  is  derived,  is  a  covered  battery  in  the  flank 
of  a  bastion,  next  the  curtain,  which  is  meant  to 
scatter  death  among  the  besiegers  when  they  at- 
tempt to  pass  the  ditch,  or  attack  the  breach  of 
the  opposite  bastion. 

CASE'MENT,  from  Ital.  casamento,  says 
Johnson;  but  as  that  word  means  a  large  house, 
it  is  not  easy  to  discover  how  the  name  of  an 


edifice  ot  magnitude  came  to  be  converted  into 
that  of  a  small  window.  Others  refer  it  to 
Kdfffia,  hiatus.  A  casement  is  a  little  moveable 
window,  mostly  within  a  larger,  turning  on 
hinges,  and  usually  glazed  with  glass  set  in  lead. 

Why  then  you  may  have  a  casement  of  the  great 
chamber  window,  where  we  play,  open,  and  the  moon 
may  shine  in  at  the  casement. 

Shakspeare.  Midsummer  Night's  Dream. 
They,  wakened  with  the  noise,  did  fly 
From  inward  room  to  window  eye, 
And  gently  opening  lid,  the  casement, 
Looked  out,  but  yet  with  some  amazement. 

Hudibras. 

His  scatter'd  pence  the  flying  Nicker  flings 
And  with  the  copper  shower  the  casement  rings.    Gay. 

Like  passengers  who,  at  a  distance, 
See  a  man  thrown  out  of  a  casement, 

All  we  can  do  for  your  assistance 

Is  to  afford  you  our  amazement.  J.  H.  Stevenson. 

CASEMENT,  or  CASEMATE,  in  architecture,  a 
hollow  moulding,  which  some  architects  make 
one-sixth  of  a  circle,  and  others  one-fourth. 

CA'SEOUS,  adj.  Lat.  caseus;  resembling 
cheese;  cheesy. 

Its  fibrous  parts  are  from  the  caseous  parts  of  the 
chyle.  Flayer  on  the  Humours. 

CASERN,  n.  Fr.  caserne ;  a  lodgment  erected 
between  the  rampart  and  the  houses  of  fortified 
towns,  to  serve  as  apartments  or  lodgings  for  the 
soldiers  of  the  garrison.  They  have  usually  two 
beds  in  each,  for  six  soldiers,  who  mount  guard 
alternately ;  the  third  part  being  always  on  duty. 

CASH,  v.  &  n.     ~\      Fr.  "casse,   caisse;   Ital. 

CA'SHIER,  n.          fcassa;  Span,    cam;   Ger. 

CASH-BOOK,  n.       i  baste  ;   Dutch,  hist,   kas  ; 

CASH-KEEPER,  n.  J  Swed.  cassa;  Lat.  capsa; 
money  in  hand,  or  in  a  coffer;  coin.  By  a 
rhetorical  figure,  the  container  is  put  for  the 
thing  contained.  To  cash  is  to  give  money  for 
a  note  of  hand,  or  other  mercantile  security. 
Cashier  and  cash-keeper  signify  the  person  who 
has  the  charge  of  the  money ;  the  receiver  and 
payer.  The  first  of  these  two  words  is  that  which 
is  now  most  in  use. 

A  thief,  bent  to  unhoard  the  cash 
Of  some  rich  burgher.  Paradise  Lost. 

If  a  steward  or  cashier  be  suffered  to  run  on,  with- 
out bringing  him  to  a  reckoning,  such  a  sottish  for- 
bearance will  teach  him  to  shuffle.  South. 

Flight  of  cashiers,  or  mobs,  he'll  never  mind  ; 
And  knows  no  losses,  while  the  muse  is  kind.     Pope. 

He  sent  the  thief,  that  stole  the  cash,  away, 
And  punish'd  him  that  put  it  in  his  way.  Id. 

Dispensator  was  properly  a  cash-keeper ',   or  privy- 
purse.  Arbuthnot. 
If  cash  run  low,  his  lands  in  fee, 

Are,  or  for  sale  or  mortgage,  free.          Gay. 
If  love  don't  rule,  cash  does,  and  cash  alone  ; 

Cash  rules  the  grove,  and  fells  it  too  besides  ; 
Without  cash,  camps  were  thin,  and  courts  were  none  ; 
Without  cash,  Malthus  tells  you  '  Take  no  brides.' 
So  cath  rules  love  the  ruler,  in  his  own 

High  ground,  as  virgin  Cynthia  sways  the  tides. 

Byron.     .Don  Jutvt. 
A  fellow  in  a  market  town, 
Most  musical,  cried  razors  up  and  down, 


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214 


CAS 


And  offered  twelve  for  eighteen-pence  ; 
Which  certainly  seemed  wonderous  cheap. 
And  for  the  money  quite  a  heap, 
As  every  man  would  buy  with  cash  and  sense. 

Wolcot. 

CASH,  or       >      Fr.  casser ;  Lat.  cassare.    To 

CASH'IER,*;.  5  discard  ;  to  dismiss  with  re- 
proach. It  is  now  mostly  used  to  express  the 
breaking  of  an  officer.  There  is  another  sense 
of  the  word,  equivalent  to  annulling  or  vacating; 
as  appears  in  the  quotations  .from  South  and 
Locke. 

Does't  not  go  well  ?  Cassio  hath  beaten  thee  ; 
And  thou  by  that  small  hurt  hast  cashiered  Cassio. 

Shakspeare. 

And  thereupon  cashing  the  greatest  part  of  his  land 
army,  he  only  retained  one  thousand  of  the  best  sol- 
diers. Gorges, 

Seconds  in  factions  many  times  prove  principals  ; 
but  many  times  also  they  prove  cyphers,  and  are 
cashiered.  Bacon. 

If  I  had  omitted  what  he  said,  his  thoughts  and 
words  being  thus  casiuered  in  my  hands,  he  had  no 
longer  been  Lucretius.  Dryden. 

If  we  should  find  a  father  corrupting  his  son,  or  a 
mother  her  daughter,  we  must  charge  this  upon  a  pe- 
culiar anomaly  and  baseness  of  nature  ;  if  the  name 
of  nature  may  be  allowed  to  that  which  seems  to  be 
utter  cashiering  of  it,  and  deviation  from,  and  a  con- 
tradiction to,  the  common  principles  of  humanity. 

South. 

Some  cashier,  or  at  least  endeavour  to  invalidate, 
all  other  arguments,  and  forbid  us  to  hearken  to  those 
proofs,  as  weak  or  fallacious.  Locke. 

The  ruling  rogue,  who  dreads  to  be  cashiered, 

Contrives,  as  he  is  hated,  to-be  feared.  Swift. 

CASHELL,  or  CASHEL,  a  well  built  city  of 
Tipperary,  about  three  miles  from  the  river  Suir. 
It  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop;  and  it  formerly 
contained  a  palace  in  which  the  kings  of  Murister 
resided.  The  fine  ruins  of  an  old  Gothic  cathe- 
dral, supposed  to  have  been  built  by  St.  Patrick, 
are  worthy  of  notice.  It  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  stone  edifice  in  Ireland.  Its  appearance, 
together  with  the  ruins  of  Cormac's  chapel,  and 
hall  of  audience,  is  extremely  picturesque,  being- 


a  large  lake  or  bason,  and  that  the  waters  forced 
themselves  a  passage  into  the  river  Jhelura.  It 
forms  a  very  beautiful  and  fertile  valley,  of  about 
ninety  miles  in  length  and  forty  in  breadth, 
bounded  on  the  north  and  north-east  by  the 
Himmaleh  mountains,  on  the  south  and  south- 
east by  Kishtewar,  and  on  the  west  and  south- 
west by  Lahore,  Pounce,  Muzufferhabad,  &c. 
Its  limits  towards  the  last  country  are  a  low  thick 
wood,  skirted  by  a  rivulet. 

Eastern  writers  speak  of  this  valley  as  a  per-' 
petual  paradise  :  it  is  '  well  watered  every  where' 
certainly,  and  its  natural  defences  are  at  once 
magnificent  and  strong.  Roses,  violets,  and  in- 
numerable species  of  flowers,  grow  wild  ;  and 
venomous  reptiles,  so  common  in  various  sur- 
rounding countries,  are  here  unknown.  The 
Erincipal  streams  are  the  Jhelum,  and  the  Chota 
mgh.  The  chief  towns,  Cashmere,  Sampre,  and 
Islamabad.  The  mountains,  for  the  most  part, 
are  covered  with  trees  and  verdure,  affording  ex- 
cellent pasture  for  cattle.  Amongst  them  are 
many  romantic  valleys,  ths  inhabitants  of  which 
have  scarcely  any  communication  with  the  plains; 
and  on  account  of  their  poverty,  and  the  inac- 
cessible situation  of  their  dwellings,  never  have 
been  subdued.  The  vale  of  Cashmere  itself  is 
generally  flat,  and  very  fertile  in  rice,  the  general 
food  of  the  districts.  Wheat  and  barley  are  cul- 
tivated at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  where  also  all  the 
fruits  of  Europe  flourish.  A  superior  saffron  is 
also  produced  in  Cashmere,  and  iron  of  an  excel- 
lent quality- abounds  in  some  of  the  mountains. 
The  sengerah,  or  water-nut,  of  the  lakes,  forms  a 
portion  of  the  food  of  the  lower  class.  The 
shawls  of  Cashmere  are  manufactured  from  wool 
of  the  goats  of  Thibet.  It  is,  when  imported,  of 
a  dark  gray  tint,  and  bleached  in  Cashmere  by  a 
preparation  of  the  flour  of  rice.  No  other  wool 
but  that  of  Thibet  ever  succeeds  in  this  manufac- 
ture. The  piece,  which  in  the  weaving  always 
has  the  rough  side  downwards,  generally  weighs 
from  ten  to  twelve  pounds ;  the  borders  are 
joined  on  afterwards.  Plain  shawls  are  woven 
by  two  men ;  the  flowered  or  spotted  ones  require 
a  third  assistant ;  and  the  manufacture  is  so  slow, 


built  on  the  edge  of  a  steep  rock.  .  The  tomb  of    that  not  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the 


Cormac  is  seen  in  this  chapel.  At  the  east  angle 
of  the  building  stands  a  lofty  round  tower,  the 
architecture  of  which  is  a  great  curiosity,  par- 
ticularly the  roof,  which  is  formed  of  stones  so 
admirably  jointed  that  it  appears  perfectly  smooth, 
as  if  covered  with  a  fine  cement.  The  tower  is 
fifty-four  feet  in  circumference,  five  stories  high, 
and  communicates  with  the  chapel  by  subter- 
ranean passages.  The  modern  buildings  worthy 
of  note  are  the  cathedral,  of  Grecian  architecture, 
the  archbishop's  palace,  a  plain  but  commodious 
building,  containing  an  excellent  library,  and 
many  curious  manuscripts ;  a  handsome  market- 
house,  a  session's  house,  a  county  infirmary,  a 
charter  school  handsomely  endowed,  and  barracks 
for  foot  soldiers.  It  is  a  corporate  town,  and 
sends  one  member  to  the  imperial  parliament. 
It  is  seventy-six  miles  from  Dublin 

CASHMERE,  the  ancient  Aspira,  a  province 
of  northern  Hindostan,  now  belonging  to  Afghau- 
nistaun.  Its  form  is  nearly  oval :  tradition  says, 
with  some  appearance  of  truth,  that  it  was  once 


finest  sort  is  made  in  the  course  of  a  day.  Six- 
teen thousand  looms  are  said  to  be  employed  upon 
this  manufacture ;  and  80,000  shawls  are  made 
annually.  The  revenue  of  the  province  is  fre- 
quently transmitted  in  these  to  Cabul.  Here 
also  is  made  the  finest  writing  paper  of  the  east : 
the  other  exports  are,  sugar,  paper,  lacquered 
ware,  otto  of  roses,  and  drugs.  The  natives  are 
remarkably  ingenious  and  acute ;  white,  robust, 
and  well  made  :  the  females  have  been  long  cele- 
brated for  their  beauty.  The  whole  country 
does  not  contain  more  than  500,000  inhabitants. 
CASHMERE,  or  SERINAGHUR,  the  capital  of  the 
above  province,  stands  on  each  side  of  the  river 
Jhelum,  over  which  there  are  five  wooden  bridges : 
the  breadth  of  the  city  is  irregular,  in  some  places 
being  nearly  two  miles ;  and  it  extends  about 
three  miles  on  each  side  of  the  Jhelum.  It  is 
without  fortifications,  but  there  is  a  citadel,  called 
Shore  Ghur,  in  the  south-east  quarter,  where  the 
governor  resides.  The  houses  are  chiefly  of 
wood,  with  walls  of  brick  and  mortar :  and  on 


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215 


CAS 


the  wooden  roofs  a  bed  of  fine  earth  is  seen, 
which  in  the  summer  is  sown  with  flowers.  The 
streets  are  narrow,  and  choked  with  filth.  The 
puhlic  buildings  are  unimportant ;  but  in  the 
neighbourhood  are  the  remains  of  several  hand- 
some palaces,  built  by  the  Ilindostanee  emperors. 
In  the  north-east  quarter  of  the  town  is  the  Ball 
Lake,  an  oval  of  five  or  six  miles  in  circuit,  and 
communicating  with  the  Jhelum  by  a  narrow 
channel.  On  the  east  side  of  this  beautiful  sheet 
of  water  is  a  detached  hill,  called  Tukhti  Solo- 
mon, on  which  stands  a  mosque,  dedicated  to 
king  Solomon.  In  the  centre  is  an  island,  con- 
taining the  palace  Shah  al  imaret,  or  '  prince  of 
building.'  Here  its  founder,  the  emperor  Jehan- 
gire,  and  his  successor  Shah  Jehan,  retired  from 
the  heat  and  bustle  of  an  Indian  court,  to  enjoy 
the  delightful  tranquillity  of  this  almost  unearthly 
scene.  Cashmere  is  587  travelling  miles  from 
Lahore,  1564  from  Calcutta,  and  1822  from 
Madras. 

CASHOO,  a  medicinal  and  aromatic  drug, 
used  in  Hindostan  by  the  natives,  who  chew  it 
either  alone,  or  mixed  with  areca.  It  is  extracted 
from  a  tree  called  catee,  by  decoction,  macera- 
tion, and  evaporation.  It  is  said  to  strengthen 
the  stomach,  sweeten  the  breath,  stop  coughing, 
fasten  loose  teeth,  &c.  Kempfer  says  it  is  pre- 
pared at  Odowara,  in  the  various  forms  of  pills, 
flowers,  small  idols,  &c. 

CASI,  in  the  Persian  police,  one  of  the  two 
judges  under  the  nadab,  who  decide  all  religious 
matters,  grant  divorces,  &c.,  and  have  deputies 
in  all  cities  of  the  kingdom. 

CASIMIR  (Matthias  Sorbiewski),  a  Polish 
Jesuit,  born  in  1597.  He  was  a  most  excellent 
poet.  His  odes,  episodes,  and  epigrams,  have 
been  thought  equal  to  those  of  the  finest  wits  of 
Greece  and  Rome.  Dr.  Watts  has  translated  one 
or  two  of  his  small  pieces,  which  are  added  to 
his  Lyric  Poems.  He  died  at  Warsaw  in  1640, 
aged  forty-three.  The  best  edition  of  his  poems 
is  that  of  Paris,  1759. 

CASING  OF  TIMBER  WORK,  among  builders, 
is  the  plastering  the  house  all  over  the  outside 
with  mortar,  and  then  striking  it  while  wet  by  a 
ruler,  with  the  corner  of  a  trowel,  to  make  it  re- 
semble the  joints  of  free-stone. 

CASK,  v.  &  n.    )      Fr.  casque  ;  It.  and  Sp. 

CASK'ET,  v.  &  n.  S  casco ;  Lat.  cadus,  cassis. 
Serenius  refers  the  word  case  to  Moes.  Goth,  kas, 
yas,  vasculum  ;  and  it  seems  probable  that  cask 
is  from  the  same  root.  A  cask,  in  the  common 
usage  of  the  word,  signifies  a  barrel  or  vessel  of 
wood,  to  contain  liquor  or  provisions.  Poeti- 
cally, it  is  a  helmet,  a  head-piece.  The  diminu- 
tive casket,  is  a  small  box,  in  which  to  deposit 
jewels,  or  things  of  value. 

Great  inconveniences  grow  by  the  beer  casks  being 
commonly  so  ill-seasoned  and  conditioned,  as  that  a 
great  part  of  the  beer  is  ever  lost  and  cast  away. 

Raleigh. 

Beer,  if  it  be  over  new  or  over  stale,  over  strong 
or  not  sod,  smell  of  the  cask,  sharp  or  sour,  is  most 
unwholesome.  Burton.  Anat.  Mel. 

Let  thy  blows,  doubly  redoubled, 
!';;!!  h>.e  amazing  thunder  on  the  cast/tie 
Of  thy  pernicious  enemy.  Shaksvcare. 


They  found  him  dead  and  cast  into  the  streets, 
An  empty  casket,  where  the  jewel,  life, 
By  some  damned  hand  was  robbed  and  ta'en  a",:.--. 

1<1. 

I  have  writ  my  letters,  casketed  my  treasure,  and 
given  order  for  our  horses.  Id. 

Mine  eye  hath  found  that  sad  sepulchral  rock, 
That  was  the  casket  of  heaven's  richest  store.    Miltun. 

Perhaps  to-morrow  he  may  change  his  wine, 
And  drink  old  sparkling  Alban  or  Setine, 
Whose  title,  and  whose  age,  with  mould  o'ergrown, 
The  good  old  cask  for  ever  keeps  unknown.     I); 

And  these 

Sling  weighty  stones,  when  from  afar  they  fitrht : 
Their  casques  are  cork,  a  covering  thick  and  li^ht.   Id. 

Why  does  he  load  with  darts 
His  trembling  hands,  and  crush  beneath  a  cask 
His  wrinkled  brows  ?  Addisim. 

This  casket  India's  glaring  gems  unlocks, 
And  all  Arabia  breathes  from  yonder  box.  Pope. 

In  the  host  of  Xerxes  they  served  on  foot';  and 
their  arms  were  a  dagger,  or  a  javelin,  a  woodea 
casque,  and  a  buckler  of  raw  hides.  Gibbon. 

Ten  thousand  casks 

For  ever  dribbling  out  their  base  contents, 

Touch'd  by  the  Midas  finger  of  the  state, 

Bleed  gold  for  ministers  to  sport  away.         Cavaper, 

CASKET.     See  CABINET. 

CASKETS,  in  the  sea  language,  are  small  ropes 
made  of  fmnet,  and  fastened  to  gromets,  or  little 
rings  upon  the  yards,  to  make  fast  the  sail  to  the 
yard  when  it  is  to  be  furled. 

CASLON(  William),  an  eminent  letter-founder, 
born  in  1692,  in  Hales  Owen,  Shropshire.  He 
served  an  apprenticeship  to  an  engraver  of  orna- 
ments on  gun-barrels ;  and  carried  on  this  trade 
in  Vine-street,  near  the  Minories.  He  also  exer- 
cised his  ingenuity  in  making  tools  for  the  book- 
binders, and  for  the  chasing  of  silver  plate. 
While  he  was  thus  engaged,  Mr.  Bowyer  acci- 
dentally saw  the  lettering  of  a  book  which  he 
thought  uncommonly  neat ;  and  enquiring  who 
the  artist  was  that  made  the  letters,  was  led  to 
cultivate  an  acquaintance  with  him.  Not  long- 
after,  Mr.  Bowyer  took  him  to  see  Mr.  James's 
foundry.  Caslon  had  never  before  seen  any  part 
of  the  business ;  and  being  asked  by  his  friend 
if  he  thought  he  could  cut  types,  he  requested  a 
day  to  consider  the  matter,  and  then  replied  that, 
he  had  no  doubt  but  he  could.  Upon  this, 
Messrs.  Bowyer,  Bettenham,  and  Watts,  had 
such  confidence  in  his  abilities  that  they  lent  him 
£500,  and  he  applied  himself  to  his  new  busi- 
ness with  equal  assiduity  and  success.  In  1720 
the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge 
deemed  it  expedient  to  print  the  New  Testament 
and  Psalter  in  the  Arabic  language,  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  poor  Christians  in  Palestine,  Syria, 
Mesopotamia,  Arabia,  and  Egypt;  and  Mr.  (  - 
Ion  was  appointed  to  cut  the  fount ;  he  distin- 
guished his  specimens  by  the  name  of  English 
Arabic.  He  arrived  at  length  to  such  perfection 
in  type  founding,  that  he  not  only  freed  us  from 
the  necessity  of  importing  types  from  Holland, 
but,  in  the  beauty  and  elegance  of  those  made  by 
him,  he  so  far  exceeded  the  productions  of  the 
best  artificers,  that  his  types  were  exported  to  the 
continent ;  and  his  foundry  became  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  in  Europe.  He  died  in  176fi. 


216 


CASPIAN    SEA. 


CASPIAN  SEA,  a  large  central  lake  of  Asia, 
bounded  by  the  province  of  Astrakhan  on  the 
north,  and  by  Persia  on  the  south-east  and  west. 
It  is  upwards  of  400  miles  long  from  south  to 
north,  and  300  broad.  It  forms  several  gulfs, 
and  contains  between  Astrakhan  and  Astrabad  an 
incredible  number  of  small  islands.  Its  bottom 
is  mud,  but  sometimes  mixed  with  shells.  At 
the  distance  of  some  miles  from  land  it  is  500 
fathoms  deep ;  but  on  approaching  the  shore  it  is 
everywhere  so  shallow,  that  the  smallest  vessels, 
if  loaded,  are  obliged  to  remain  at  a  distance. 
Being  enclosed  on  all  sides  by  land,  and  its 
banks  being  in  the  neighbourhood  of  very  high 
mountains,  its  navigation  is  perfectly  different 
from  that  of  every  other  sea.  Certain  winds  pre- 
vail with  such  absolute  sway,  that  vessels  are 
often  deprived  of  every  resource ;  and  in  its 
whole  extent  there  is  scarcely  a  port  that  can  be 
tailed  safe.  The  north,  the  north-east,  and  the 
east  winds,  blow  frequently,  and  occasion  most 
violent  tempests.  Along  the  eastern  shore  the 
east  winds  prevail ;  for  which  reason  vessels 
bound  from  Persia  to  Astrakhan  always  direct  their 
course  along  this  shore.  Although  the  extent  of 
this  sea  is  immense,  the  variety  of  its  productions 
is  exceedingly  small.  This  undoubtedly  pro- 
ceeds from  its  want  of  communication  with  the 
ocean,  which  cannot  impart  to  it  any  portion  of 
its  inexhaustible  stores.  But  the  animals  which 
it  nourishes  multiply  to  such  a  degree,  that  the 
Russians,  who  alone  are  in  condition  to  make 
them  turn  to  account,  justly  consider  them  as  a 
never-failing  source  of  profit  and  wealth.  Its 
fisheries  are  the  sole  occupation  of  the  people 
inhabiting  the  banks  of  the  Wolga  and  the  Jaik. 
Salmon,  sturgeon,  and  other  fish,  abound  in  all 
parts,  as  well  as  in  the  rivers  that  communicate 
with  it,  and  which  they  ascend  at  spawning  time. 
Seals  also  are  extremely  numerous.  The  varie- 
ties of  the  species  are  diversified,  however,  only 
by  the  color.  Some  are  quite  black,  others 
white  ;  some  whitish,  yellowish,  &c.,  and  some 
streaked  like  a  tiger.  See  PHOCA.  They  crawl 
upon  the  islands,  where  the  fishermen  kill  them 
with  long  clubs.  One  is  hardly  despatched  when 
others  come  to  his  assistance  and  share  his  fate. 
They  are  exceedingly  tenacious  of  life,  and  en- 
dure more  than  thirty  hard  blows  before  they  die. 
They  will  even  live  for  several  days  after  having 
received  many  mortal  wounds.  At  Astrakhan  a 
sort  of  gray  soap  is  made  of  their  fat  mixed  with 
pot-ashes,  which  is  much  valued  for  its  property 
of  cleansing  and  taking  grease  from  woollen  stuffs. 
The  greatest  numbers  are  killed  in  spring  and 
autumn.  Many  small  vessels  go  from  Astrakhan 
merely  to  catch  seals.  The  only  shell  fish,  found 
in  the  Caspian,  are  three  or  four  species  of 
cockle,  the  common  muscle,  some  species  of 
snails,  and  one  or  two  others.  It  abounds,  how- 
ever, in  birds  of  different  kinds.  Geese,  ducks, 
storks,  herons,  crows,  &c.  frequent  the  shores. 
Of  birds  properly  aquatic,  it  contains  the  grebe, 
the  crested  diver,  the  pelican,  the  cormorant,  and 
almost  every  species  of  gull.  The  waters  are 
very  impure,  the  nature  of  its  bottom  affecting  it 
greatly.  In  general,  indeed,  they  are  salt;  but 
the  saltness  is  diminished  by  the  north,  the  north- 
east, and  north-west  winds;  the  north  winds  often 


causing  the  rivers  to  discharge  into  it  vast  quan- 
tities of  troubled  water  impregnated  with  clay. 
These  variations,  to  which  the  sea  is  exposed, 
are  more  or  less  considerable,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  winds ;  they  affect  the  color  of  the 
river  waters  to  a  certain  distance  from  the  shore, 
till  these  mixing  with  those  of  the  sea,  which 
then  resume  the  ascendancy,  the  fine  green  color 
appears,  which  is  natural  to  the  ocean.  It  is 
well  known  that,  besides  its  salt  taste,  all  sea  wa- 
ter has  a  sensible  bitterness,  which  must  be  attri- 
buted not  only  to  the  salt  itself,  but  to  the  mix- 
ture of  different  substances  that  unite  with  it, 
particularly  to  different  sorts  of  alum,  the  ordi- 
nary effect  of  different  combinations  of  acids. 
The  waters  of  the  Caspian  have  a  peculiar  acrid 
taste,  which  affects  the  tongue  with  an  impression 
similar  to  that  made  by  the  bile  of  animals ;  a 
property,  of  which  this  sea  is  not  equally  per- 
ceptible at  all  seasons.  When  the  north  and 
north-west  winds  have  raged  for  a  considerable 
time,  this  taste  is  sensibly  felt ;  but  when  the 
wind  has  been  south,  very  imperfectly.  To  ac- 
count for  this  phenomenon,  we  must  observe, 
that  the  Caspian  is  surrounded  on  its  west  side 
by  the  mountains  of  Caucasus,  which  extend 
from  Derbent  to  the  Black  Sea.  These  abound 
with  combustible  and  mineral  substances ;  and 
springs  of  naphtha  are  common  at  the  foot  of 
them.  It  is  chiefly  to  the  naphtha  that  we  must 
attribute  the  cause  of  the  bitterness  peculiar  to 
its  waters  ;  and  it  is  certain,  that  the  north  and 
north-west  winds  detach  the  greatest  quantities 
of  it.  But  it  is  not  a  bitter  taste  alone,  that  the 
naphtha  communicates  to  the  waters  of  the 
Caspian :  these  waters  were  analysed  by  M. 
Gmelin,  and  found  to  contain,  besides  the  com- 
mon sea-salt,  a  considerable  proportion  of 
Glauber  salt,  intimately  united  with  the  former, 
and  which  is  evidently  a  production  of  the  naph- 
tha. As  the  waters  of  the  Caspian  have  no  out- 
let, they  are  discharged  by  subterranean  canals 
through  the  earth,  where  they  deposit  beds  of 
salt ;  the  surface  of  which  corresponds  with  that 
of  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  two  great  deserts 
which  extend  from  it  to  the  east  and  west,  are 
chiefly  composed  of  saline  earth,  in  which  the 
salt  is  formed  by  efflorescence  into  regular  crys- 
tals ;  for  which  reason  salt  showers  and  dews 
are  exceedingly  common  in  that  neighbourhood. 
The  salt  of  the  marshes  at  Astrahkan,  and  that 
found  in  efflorescence  in  the  deserts,  are  by  no 
means  pure  sea-salt,  but  much  debased  by  Glau- 
ber salt.  In  many  places,  indeed,  it  is  found 
with  crystals  of  a  lozenge  shape,  which  are  pe- 
culiar to  it,  without  any  cubical  appearance,  like 
those  of  sea  salt.  A  great  deal  has  been  written 
on  the  successive  augmentation  and  decrease  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  but  with  little  truth.  There  is 
indeed  a  certain  rise  and  fall  of  its  waters,  but  in 
which  no  observation  has  ever  discovered  any 
regularity.  Many  suppose,  it  is  not  impro- 
bable, that  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  were  much 
more  extensive  than  at  present,  and  that  it  once 
communicated  with  the  Black  Sea.  It  is  probable 
too,  that  the  level  of  this  last  was  formerly  much 
higher.  If  then  it  be  allowed,  that  the  waters  of 
the  Black  Sea,  before  it  procured  an  exit  by  the 
Straits  of  Constantinople,  rose  several  fathoms 


CAS 


217 


CAS 


above  their  present  level,  which,  from  many  con- 
curring circumstances,  may  easily  be  admitted, 
it  follows,  that  all  the  plains  of  the  Crimea,  the 
Kumari,  the  Wolga,  and  the  Jaik,  and  those  of 
Great  Tartary  beyond  the  lake  of  Aral,  in  ancient 
times  formed  but  one  sea,  which  embraced  the 
north  extremity  of  Caucasus  by  a  narrow  strait  of 
little  depth ;  the  vestiges  of  which  are  still  ob- 
vious in  the  river  Mantysch. 

CASS,  or  ~)       Fr.    casser ;    low   Lat. 

CAS'SATE,  v.  &  n.  >  ensnare.      To  vacate ;   in- 

CAS'SATION,  n.  J  validate  ;  make  void ;  nul- 
lify. Cassation  is  the  act  of  making  null  and 
void 

To  cass  all  old  and  unfaithful  hands,  and  entertain 
new.  Raleigh. 

This  opinion  supersedes  and  cassates  the  best  me- 
dium we  have.  Ray. 

CASS  ANA  (John  Augustine),  an  eminent  pain- 
ter, was  born  in  1664  ;  and  educated,  together  with 
his  brother  Nicholas,  by  their  father  John  Francis 
Cassana,  a  Genoese.  His  principal  works  were 
paintings  of  animals  and  fruits,  and  in  that  style 
he  arrived  at  a  high  degree  of  eminence,  imitat- 
ing nature  with  exactness,  beauty,  and  truth, 
and  expressing  the  various  plumage  of  his 
birds,  and  the  hairs  of  the  different  animals, 
with  great  delicacy.  At  last  he  determined  to 
visit  Genoa,  where  his  family  had  lived  in  es- 
teem ;  and  took  with  him  several  pictures  which 
he  had  already  finished.  But  by  attempting  to 
appear  as  a  person  of  greater  wealth  and  conse- 
quence than  he  really  was,  and  by  giving  pre- 
sents of  pictures  to  several  of  the  principal  no- 
bility of  that  city,  he  unhappily  reduced  himself 
to  the  most  necessitous  circumstances,  and  was 
almost  deprived  of  the  means  to  procure  even 
the  necessaries  of  life.  He  died  in  1718. 

CASSANA  (Nicholas,  or  Nicoletto),  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  brother  to  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Venice  in  1659.  He  soon  distinguished 
himself  by  the  beauty  of  his  coloring,  the  grace- 
fulness of  his  figures  in  historical  compositions, 
as  well  as  portrait ;  in  which  last  he  peculiarly 
excelled.  People  of  the  first  rank  were  anxious 
to  obtain  their  portraits.  The  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany  invited  Nicoletto  to  his  court;  where  he 
painted  the  portraits  of  that  prince,  the  princess 
his  consort,  and  many  of  the  principal  nobility 
of  Florence.  Among  other  historical  subjects, 
he  executed  a  very  beautiful  design,  on  the  Con- 
spiracy of  Catiline.  Nicoletto  was  at  last  invited 
to  England,  and  introduced  to  queen  Anne,  to 
paint  her  portrait ;  but  he  did  not  enjoy  his 
good  fortune  long,  as  he  died  in  London,  in 
1713. 

CASSANDER,  king  of  Macedon  after  Alex- 
der  the  Great,  was  the  son  of  Antipater.  He 
made  several  conquests  in  Greece,  abolished  de- 
mocracy at  Athens,  and  gave  the  government  of 
that  state  to  the  orator,  Demetrius  Phalereus. 
Olympias,  the  mother  of  Alexander,  having 
caused  Aridaeus  and  his  wife  Euridyce,  with 
sthers  of  Cassander's  party,  to  be  put  to  death  ; 
Ae  besieged  Pydne,  whither  the  queen  had  re- 
tired, took  it  by  stratagem,  and  slew  her.  He 
married  Thessalonice,  the  sister  of  Alexander; 
and  killed  Roxana  and  Alexander,  the  wife  and 
son  of  that  conaueror.  At  length  he  entered 


into  an  alliance  with  Seleucus  and  Lysimachus, 
against  Antigonus  and  Demetrius ;  over  whom 
he  obtained  a  great  victory  near  Ipsus,  in  Phry- 
gia,  A.  A.  C.  301,  and  died  three  years  after,  in 
the  nineteenth  year  of  his  reign. 

CASSANDRA,  in  fabulous  history,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  was  beloved  of  Apollo, 
who  promised  to  bestow  on  her  the  spirit  of  pro- 
phecy, provided  she  would  consent  to  his  love. 
Cassandra  seemed  to  accept  the  proposal ;  but 
had  no  sooner  obtained  that  gift,  than  she  laughed, 
at  the  tempter,  and  broke  her  word.  Apollo, 
being  enraged,  revenged  himself  by  causing  no 
credit  to  be  given  to  her  predictions;  hence  she 
in  vain  prophesied  the  ruin  of  Troy.  Ajax,  the 
son  of  Oileus,  having  ravished  her  in  the  temple 
of  Minerva,  he  was  struck  with  thunder.  She 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Agamemnon,  who  loved 
her  to  distraction ;  but  she  predicted  to  him  in 
vain,  that  he  would  be  assassinated  in  his  own 
country.  He  was  killed,  with  her,  by  the  in- 
trigues of  Clytemnestra ;  but  their  death  was 
avenged  by  Orestes. 

CASSANDRA,  in  natural  history,  a  very  elegant 
sea-shell  of  the  concha  globosa  kind,  more 
usually  known  bv  the  name  of  the  lyra  or  harp 
shell. 

CASSANO,  a  town  of  Italy  in  the  Milanese, 
late  in  the  republican  department  of  the  Adda, 
rendered  memorable  by  an  obstinate  battle, 
fought  between  the  Germans  and  French  in 
1705.  It  is  seated  on  the  Adda. 

CASSAVI.     See  JATROPHA. 

CASSAY,  a  province  in  the  Burmhau  em- 
pire, bounded  on  the  north  by  Cachar  and  As- 
sam, on  the  east  by  the  river  Keenduem,  south 
by  Arracan,  and  west  by  Bengal.  It  lies  in  about 
the  24°  of  north  latitude.  The  capital  is  Muni- 
poor.  The  natives  are  called  Katthee  by  the 
Burmhans,  and  much  resemble  the  native  tribes 
of  Hindostan.  Many  of  them,  formerly  prisoners 
of  war,  are  now  settled  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Ummerapoora,  where  their  skill  as  artisans  ob- 
tains them  a  comfortable  living.  They  are  the 
gunsmiths  of  the  whole  Burmhan  empire,  and 
the  only  cavalry  employed  in  their  armies.  Their 
music  is  said  to  be  remarkably  pleasant  to  the 
English  ear.  See  BURMHAN  EMPIRE. 

CASSEL,  a  considerable  town  of  Germany, 
the  capital  of  the  electorate,  and  the  residence  of 
the  elector  of  Hesse  Cassel.  It  is  situated  on 
the  river  Fulda,  in  Lower  Hesse,  and  is  divided 
into  the  Old  Town,  the  Lower  New  Town,  and 
the  Upper  New  Town.  Few  places  contain  more 
numerous  or  more  elegant  public  buildings  than 
the  last  The  principal  are  the  state  house,  the 
foundry,  the  arsenal,  the  parade  square,  the 
barracks,  the  church  of  St.  Martin,  public  li- 
brary, and  new  house  of  correction.  Strangers 
also  are  much  pleased  with  the  public  gar- 
dens, the  orangery,  baths,  and  menagerie. 
The  noble  castle  of  Weissenstein  is  about  half  a 
mile  out  of  the  town,  and  is  a  most  princely 
seat.  In  the  Upper  New  Town  is  the  school, 
called  Collegium  Carolinum,  founded  in  1709. 
The  museum  is  very  rich  in  antiquities.  There 
are  manufactories  here  of  china  and  woollen 
stuffs,  but  the  trade  of  the  town  is  small.  During 
the  seven  years'  war  it  was  long  the  head-quarteis 


CAS 


218 


CAS 


of  the  French.  The  fortifications  were  afterwards 
destroyed  and  have  not  been  renewed ;  the  gates 
were  removed  to  the  extremity  of  the  old  out-works, 
and  the  space  thus  cleared  was  laid  out  in  streets, 
gardens,  and  promenades.  Population  in  1810, 
20,300.  Cassel  was  the  capital  of  Jerome  Buo- 
naparte's kingdom  of  Westphalia.  It  is  fifty 
miles  south-east  of  Paderborn,  and  eighty-four 
north-east  of  Coblentz. 

CASSIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order  and  decandria  class  of  plants ;  natural 
order  thirty-third,  lomentacea: :  CAL.  pentaphyl- 
lous;  petals  five;  anthera  upper  three  barren; 
lower  three  beaked  :  a  leguminous  plant.  There 
are  fifty-nine  known  species,  all  natives  of  warm 
climates.  The  most  remarkable  are,  1.  C.  fistula, 
the  purging  cassia  of  Alexandria.  It  is  a  native 
of  Egypt  and  both  Indies,  where  it  rises  to  the 
height  of  forty  or  fifty  feet.  The  flowers  are 
produced  at  the  end  of  the  branches,  each  standing 
upon  a  long  foot-stalk ;  these  are  composed  of 
fine  yellow  concave  petals,  which  are  succeeded 
by  cylindrical  pods  from  one  to  two  feet  long, 
with  a  dark  brown  woody  shell,  divided  into 
many  cells  by  transverse  partitions,  each  con- 
taining one  or  two  oval,  smooth,  compressed 
seeds,  lodged  in  a  blackish  pulp,  which  is  used 
in  medicine.  There  are  two  sorts  of  this  drug 
in  the  shops;  one  brought  from  the  East  Indies, 
the  other  from  the  west.  The  pods  should  be 
chosen  weighty,  new,  not  rattling  (from  tne  seeds 
being  loose  within  them)  when  shaken.  The 
pulp  should  be  of  a  bright  shining  black  color, 
and  a  sweet  taste.  Greatest  part  of  the  pulp 
dissolves  both  in  water  and  rectified  spirit ;  and 
may  be  extracted  from  the  cane  by  either.  The 
shops  employ  water,  boiling  the  bruised  pod 
therein,  and  afterwards  evaporating  the  solution 
to  a  due  consistence.  The  pulp  is  a  gentle  laxa- 


this  article,  such  as  those  of  infusion,  powder, 
tincture,  and  electuary.  The  dose  of  senna  in 
substance,  is  from  a  scruple  to  a  drachm :  in 
infusion,  from  one  to  three  or  four  drachms.  It 
has  been  customary  to  reject  the  pedicles  of  the 
leaves  of  senna  as  of  little  or  no  use :  Geoffroy 
however  observes,  that  they  are  not  much  infe- 
rior in  efficacy  to  the  leaves  themselves.  The 
pods  or  seed-vessels  are  by  the  college  of  Brus- 
sels preferred  to  the  leaves  :  they  are  less  apt  to 
gripe,  but  proportionably  less  purgative. 

CASSIA  lignea.     See  LAURUS 

CASSIA,  poet's.    See  OSYRIS. 

CASSIBELAN,  or  CASSIBELAUNUS,  king  of 
the  Trinobantes,  the  son  of  Heli,  succeeded  his 
brother  king  Lud,  about  A.A.C.  62.  About  five 
years  after  his  accession,  Julius  Csesar  having 
landed  his  army  on  the  British  coast,  Cassibelan 
was  chosen  commander  in  chief  of  the  British 
forces;  but  these  undisciplined  and  disunited 
troops,  though  they  made  a  brave  opposition, 
fell  an  easy  conquest  to  the  veteran  Romans : 
A.A.C.  55.  Cassibelan  therefore  made  the  best 
terms  he  could  with  Caesar,  and  engaged  to  pay 
a  tribute  of  about  £3000  a  year  to  the  Romans, 
and  to  send  hostages  for  the  payment.  Only 
two  of  the  British  states,  however,  fulfilled  their 
part  of  this  treaty  :  whereupon  Caesar  returned 
next  year  with  a  fleet  of  800  ships ;  and  though 
Cassibelan  opposed  him  with  all  the  united  force 
of  South  Britain,  he  was  repeatedly  defeated; 
his  capital  burnt,  and  Mandubratius,  Csesar's 
ally,  established  as  king  of  the  Trinobantes, 
Cassibelan  died  A.A.C.  48. 

CASSIDA,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  insects  of 
the  order  of  coleoptera.  The  feelers  are  like 
threads,  but  thicker  on  the  outside ;  the  elytra 
are  marginated ;  and  the  head  is  hid  under  the 
thorax  ;  from  which  last  circumstance  is  derived 


tive  medicine,  and  frequently  given  in  a  dose  of    the  name  of  the  genus.    The  larva  of  this  species, 


some  drams  in  costive  habits.  Geoffroy  says,  it 
does  service  in  the  tension  of  the  belly,  which 
sometimes  follows  the  imprudent  use  of  antimo- 
nials  :  and  that  it  may  be  advantageously  acuated 
with  the  more  acrid  purgatives,  or  antimonial 
emetics,  or  employed  to  abate  their  force. 
2.  C.  senna  is  a  shrubby  plant  cultivated  in  Per- 
sia, Syria,  and  Arabia,  for  the  leaves,  which  form 
a  considerable  article  of  commerce.  They  are 
of  a  lively  yellowish  green  color,  a  faint  not  very 
agreeable  smell,  and  a  subacrid,  bitterish,  nau- 
seous taste.  They  are  brought  from  the  above 
places,  dried  and  picked  from  the  stalks,  to 
Alexandria  in  Egypt,  and  thence  imported  into 
Europe.  Senna  is  a  very  useful  cathartic,  ope- 
rating mildly,  and  yet  effectually  :  and  if  judi- 
ciously dosed  and  managed,  rarely  occasioning 
the  ill  consequences  which  too  frequently  follow 
the  exhibition  of  the  stronger  purges.  The  only 
inconveniences  complained  of  in  this  drug  are, 
its  being  apt  to  produce  griping  pains.  The 
griping  quality  depends  upon  a  resinous  sub- 
stance, which,  like  the  other  bodies  of  this  class, 
is  naturally  disposed  to  adhere  to  the  coats  of  the 
intestines.  The  smell  of  senna  resides  in  its 
more  volatile  parts,  and  may  be  discharged  by 
lightly  boiling  infusions  of  it  made  in  water. 
The  colleges  both  of  London  and  Edinburgh 


by  the  help  of  the  two  prongs  which  are  to  be 
found  at  its  hinder  extremity,  makes  itself,  with 
its  own  excrements,  a  kind  of  umbrella  that 
shelters  it  from  the  sun  and  rain.  This  larva 
casts  its  slough  several  times.  Thistle  and  ver- 
ticillated  plants  are  inhabited  by  these  insects. 
There  is  one  species,  the  chrysalis  of  which  re- 
sembles an  armorial  escutcheon.  It  is  that  which 
produces  our  variegated  cassida,  and  is  a  very 
singular  one.  Numbers  of  them  are  found  on 
the  side  of  ponds. 

CASSIDARIUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  an  offi- 
cer in  the  armories,  who  had  the  care  of  the  helmets. 

CASSIDONY.     See  GNAFHALIUM. 

CASSINA,  or  CASHNA,  a  kingdom  of  central 
Africa,  first  described  by  Mr.  Lucas  as  situated  to 
the  west  of  Bornou,  and  south  of  the  Niger.  It 
appears  to  rank  next  to  Bornou  in  importance 
among  the  kingdoms  of  the  interior ;  but  its  geo- 
graphical and  political  features  are  too  little 
known  for  us  to  offer  any  detailed  statement  of 
them.  Cassina  is  said  to  form  the  southern  limit 
of  Fezzan,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
mountaias  of  Eyre,  so  that  it  includes  Agades 
and  the  surrounding  regions ;  it  resembles  Bor- 
nou in  its  general  appearance  and  productions, 
government,  &c.  .  Its  commerce  with  northern 
Africa  is  maintained  by  a  caravan  which  sets  out 


have  given  several  formula;  for  the  exhibition  of    from  Fezzan,  by  Assouda,  Ganatt,  and  Agades, 


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219 


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and  arrives  at  the  capital  in  about  sixty  days  :  a 
journey  of  five  days  is  now  said  to  bring  it  to 
the  Niger.  The  exports  consist  of  slaves,  gold- 
dust,  cotton,  and  red  and  yellow  goat  skins. 
The  imports  are  woollen  stuffs,  hardware,  carpets, 
knives,  arms,  mirrors,  and  toys.  The  currency 
is  in  small  shells,  called  cowries,  5000  of  which 
are  worth  about  £l  sterling. 

CASSINE,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  trigynia 
order  and  pentandria  class  of  plants;  natural  order 
twenty-third,  dumosse  :  CAL.  quinquepartite ;  the 
petals  are  five ;  and  the  fruit  is  a  trispermous 
berry.  There  are  four  species,  all  of  them  na- 
tives of  warm  climates. 

CASSINIAN  CURVE,  or  CASSINOID,  in  astro- 
nomy, is  an  elliptic  curve  proposed  by  John 
Dominic  Cassini,  as  the  orbit  of  a  planet.  In 
this  curve  the  product  of  two  lines  drawn  from 
its  foci  to  any  point  in  the  curve  shall  be  equal 
to  a  given  quantity,  viz.  to  the  rectangle  under 
the  aphelion  and  perihelion  distances  of  the 
planet.  The  celestial  observations,  however,  by 
no  means  correspond  with  this  curve;  and  in- 
deed it  in  some  cases  has  breaches  in  its  conti- 
nuation, which  are  perfectly  incompatible  with 
the  motion  of  a  planet ;  so  that  it  can  by  no 
means  be  admitted  into  astronomy.  See  Dr.  O. 
Gregory's  Astronomy,  p.  183. 

CASSINI  (John  Dominic),  an  eminent  astro- 
nomer, born  at  Piedmont  in  1635.  His  early 
proficiency  in  astronomy  procured  him  an  invi- 
tation to  the  mathematical  chair  at  Bologna  when 
he  was  only  fifteen  years  of  age :  and,  a  comet 
appearing  in  1652,  he  first  asserted  the  regula- 
rity of  the  orbits  of  those  bodies.  In  the  same 
year  he  solved  a  problem  given  up  by  Kepler 
and  Bullialdus,  which  was  to  determine  geome- 
trically the  apogee  and  eccentricity  of  a  planet 
from  its  true  and  mean  place.  In  1653  he  drew 
his  famous  meridian  line  at  Bologna,  which  is 
described  by  lady  Morgan  in  her  account  of  a 
visit  to  that  city  in  1820,  as  occupying  an  extent 
of  206  French  feet,  and  making,  as  the  inscrip- 
tion indicates,  the  64>0,000th  part  of  the  earth's 
circumference.  The  gnomon  or  hole  by  which 
the  sun's  rays  enter,  is  eighty-three  feet  in  height 
above  the  pavement.  This  instrument  marks 
the  distance  from  the  zenith,  the  sun's  passage 
through  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  the  hours  of  the 
night,  and  other  astronomical  facts.  In  1663 
he  was  appointed  inspector  general  of  the  forti- 
fications of  Urbino,  and  superintendent  of  all 
the  rivers  in  the  ecclesiastical  state :  he  still 
however  prosecuted  his  astronomical  studies, 
and  discovered  the  revolution  of  Mars  round  his 
own  axis.  In  1666  he  published  his  Theory  of 
Jupiter's  Satellites.  Cassini  was  invited  into 
France  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1669,  where  he  settled 
as  first  professor  in  the  royal  observatory.  In 
1677  he  demonstrated  the  line  of  Jupiter's  diur- 
nal rotation;  and  in  1684  discovered  four  more 
satellites  belonging  to  Satur.n,  Huygens  having 
observed  one  before.  In  1695  he  went  to  Italy 
to  inspect  the  meridian  line,  which  he  had 
settled  in- 1653,  and  in  1700  he  continued  the 
meridian  line  cf  France,  which  had  been  begun 
by  Picard.  lie  inhabited  the  royal  observatory 
at  Paris  more  than  forty  years;  and  died  in 


1712,  having  lost  his  sight  some  years  before. 

CASSINI  (James),  the  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Paris,  in  1677.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Mazarine  College  under  Varignon,  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics ;  and  when  only  seventeen 
years  of  age  admitted  a  member  of  the  Academy. 
In  1696  he  visited  England,  and  was  there 
chosen  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1712  he 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  royal  observatory  at 
Paris,  and  increased  the  stock  of  science  by  nu- 
merous discoveries.  But  having,  in  1720,  pub- 
lished a  book  on  the  figure  of  the  earth,  main- 
taining, in  opposition  to  Newton,  that  it  was  an 
oblong  spheroid,  the  French  king  sent  two  com- 
panies of  mathematicians,  one  towards  the  polar 
circle,  and  the  other  to  the  equator,  to  measure 
a  degree ;  a  decided  refutation  of  Cassini's  opi- 
nion was  the  result.  In  1723  he  described  a 
perpendicular  to  the  meridian  of  France,  from 
Paris  to  St.  Malo,  and  in  1724  from  Paris  to 
Strasburgh.  In  1740  he  published  Elements  of 
Astronomy,  with  Astronomical  Tables.  He  died 
iu  1756. 

CASSINI  DE  THURY  (Caesar  Franfois),  son  of- 
the  above,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  1714.  When 
ten  years  of  age  he  calculated  the  phases  of  the 
solar  eclipse  of  1727.  He  succeeded  his  father, 
and  employed  himself  for  many  years  in  perfect- 
ing a  general  chart  of  France,  and  in  continuing 
the  perpendicular  of  the  meridian  of  Paris.  He 
wrote  a  great  number  of  papers,  published  m 
the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He 
died  in  1784. 

CASSI'NO,  n.  A  game  at  cards,  in  which 
four  are  dealt  to  each  player,  four  being  also 
placed  on  the  board.  His  object  is  to  take  as 
many  cards  as  possible,  by  making  combinations. 
Thus,  a  ten  in  his  hand  will  take  a  ten  from  the 
board,  or  any  number  of  cards  which  can  be 
made  to  combine  into  tens.  The  greatest  num- 
ber of  cards  reckons  three  points ;  and  of  spades, 
one ;  the  ten  of  diamonds,  two ;  the  two  of 
spades  one ;  and  each  of  the  aces,  one. 

CASSIODORUS  (Marcus  Aurelius),  secre- 
tary of  state  to  Theodoric  king  of  the  Goths,  was 
born  at  Squillace,  in  Naples,  about  A.  I).  481 
He  was  also  appointed  governor  of  Sicily  by  the 
same  prince;  and  in  514  was  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  consul,  in  which  Athalaric  continued 
him,  but  Vitiges  deprived  him  of  all  his  offices. 
Perceiving  the  fall  of  the  Gothic  kingdom,  and 
tired  of  the  troubles  of  a  public  station,  he  re- 
solved to  retire  from  the  world,  and  accordingly 
went  to  his  native  place,  Squillace,  where,  having 
buiit  a  hermitage  and  a  monastery,  he  devoted 
himself  to  his  studies  and  religion.  Here  also 
he  amused  himself  in  making  sun-dials,  clep- 
sydrae, and  perpetual  lamps.  He  died  about 
577.  He  wrote  a  Chronology  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  world  to  the  year  519;  a  History  of 
the  Goths,  of  which  an  abridgment  only  remains ; 
Letters,  written  while  secretary,  yet  extant  and 
valuable;  a  Treatise  on  Orthography;  and 
Commentaries  on  several  Passages  of  Scrip- 
ture ;  of  the  latter  those  most  esteemed  are  his 
Divine  Institutions,  and  his  Treatise  on  the 
Soul.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of 
Father  Garret,  printed  at  Rouen  in  1679. 


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220 


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CASSIOPEIA,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the  con- 
stellations of  the  northern  hemisphere,  situated 
next  to  Cepheus.  In  1572  there  appeared  a  new 
star  in  this  constellation,  which  at  first  surpassed 
in  magnitude  and  brightness  Jupiter  himself; 
but  it  diminished  by  degrees,  and  at  last  disap- 
peared, at  the  end  of  eighteen  months.  It  asto- 
nished all  the  astronomers  of  that  age,  many  of 
whom  wrote  dissertations  on  it ;  among  the  rest 
Tycho  Brahe,  Kepler,  Maurolycus,  Lycetus, 
Gramineus.  This  constellation  contains  fifty- 
two  stars  of  the  first  six  magnitudes. 

CASSIOPEIA,  in  fabulous  history,  wife  to  Ce- 
pheus, king  of  Ethiopia,  and  mother  of  Andro- 
meda. She  boasted  that  she  was  more  beautiful 
than  the  Nereides,  who  desired  Neptune  to  re- 
venge the  affront,  on  which  he  sent  a  sea-mon- 
ster into  the  country,  which  did  much  harm. 
To  appease  the  god,  her  daughter  Andromeda 
was  exposed  to  the  monster,  but  was  rescued  by 
Perseus,  who  obtained  of  Jupiter  that  Cassiopeia 
might  be  placed  after  her  death  among  the  stars : 
hence  the  constellation  of  that  name. 

CASSIOWARY.    See  STRUTHIO. 

CASSIS,  in  antiquity,  a  plated  or  metalline 
helmet ;  different  from  the  galea,  which  was  of 
leather. 

CASSITERIA,  from  Kaactrtpoc,  tin,  in  the 
natural  history  of  fossils,  a  genus  of  crystals,  the 
figures  of  which  are  influenced  by  an  admixture 
of  some  particles  of  tin.  The  cassiteria  are  of 
two  kinds ;  the  whitish  pellucid  cassiterion,  and 
the  brown.  The  first  is  a  tolerably  bright  and 
pellucid  crystal,  and  seldom  subject  to  the  com- 
mon blemishes  of  crystal :  it  is  of  a  perfect  and 
regular  form,  in  the  figure  of  a  quadrilateral  py- 
ramid. The  brown  cassiterion  is  like  the  former 
in  figure ;  it  is  of  a  very  smooth  and  glossy  sur- 
face. They  are  found  chiefly  in  Devonshire  and 
Cornwall. 

CASSITERIDES,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
cluster  of  islands  west  of  the  Land's  End,  oppo- 
site to  Celtiberia,  and  famous  for  their  tin.  They 
were  formerly  open  to  none  but  Phoenicians, 
who  carried  on  this  commerce  from  Gades,  con- 
cealing the  navigation  from  the  rest  of  the  world. 
They  are  supposed  to  be  the  present  Scilly 
Islands. 

CASSIUS  (Longinus  Caius),  one  of  the  con- 
spirators against  Caesar.  He  was  married  to 
Junia,  the  sister  of  Marcus  Brutus.  After  his 
defeat  at  Philippi,  he  ordered  one  of  his  freed 
men  to  put  him  to  death  with  his  own  sword, 
A.  A.  C.  41.  See  ROME. 

CAS'SOCK,  n.  FT.  cosaque;  Ital.  casacca; 
Sp.  casaca;  Gr.  kausak;  Dutch,  kazack ;  Dan. 
kasjack ;  Swed.  kasjacka;  Arm.  keseg ;  Welsh, 
casog.  This  word  was  formerly  applied  to  a 
part  of  the  upper  dress  of  a  soldier,  as  is  shown 
by  the  quotation  from  Shakspeare ;  but  it  is  now 
confined  to  a  garment  worn  by  clergymen. 

And  now  the  fox  had  gotten  him  a  goune, 
And  the  ape  a  cassocke,  sidelong  hanging  doune  ; 
For  they  their  occupation  meant  to  change, 
And  now  in  other  state  abroad  tr>  range. 

Spenser.    Mother  Hubbard's  Tale. 

Half  dare  not  shake  the  snow  from  off  their  cassocks, 
lest  they  shake  themselves  to  pieces.  Shakspeare, 


His  scanty  salary  compelled  him  to  run  deep  in 
debt  for  a  new  gown  and  cassock,  and  now  and  then 
forced  him  to  write  some  paper  of  wit  or  humour,  or 
preach  a  sermon  for  ten  shillings,  to  supply  his  neces- 
sities. Swift. 

CASSONADE,  in  commerce,  cask  sugar,  or 
sugar  put  into  casks  after  the  first  purification, 
but  which  has  not  been  refined.  It  is  sold  either 
in  powder  or  in  lumps ;  the  whitest,  and  that  of 
which  the  lumps  are  largest,  is  the  best.  Many 
imagine  it  sweetens  more  than  loaf-sugar,  but  it 
is  certain  that  it  yields  a  great  deal  more  scum. 

CASSOWARY.     See  STEUTHIO. 

CASSWEED,  in  botany.     See  THLASPI. 

CASSYTA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  enneandria  class  of  plants : 
CAL.  none ;  COR.  in  the  form  of  a  calyx,  divided 
into  six  segments ;  the  nectarium  is  composed  of 
three  truncated  glands  encompassing  the  germen ; 
the  interior  filaments  are  glandular;  and  the 
drupe  contains  a  single  seed.  There  are  but  two 
species,  both  Indian  species. 

CAST,  v.  &  n.  ^      Goth,  kasta ;  Dan. 

CAST'-AWAY,  n.  &  adj.  \  kast ;    Swed.    kasta. 

CAS'TER,  n.  {  This,  as  Johnson  just- 

CAS'TING,  n.  [ly  observes,  is  a  word 

CAS'TING-NET,  n.  I  of   multifarious  and 

CAS'TLING,  n.  )  indefinite    use  ;     as, 

independently  of  the  significations  which  it  has 
when  it  stands  by  itself,  it  acquires  numerous 
others  from  being  united  with  prepositions.  In 
order,  therefore,  to  show  the  full  power  of  it,  we 
shall  adopt  his  arrangement,  with  the  addition  of 
some  authorities,  and  shades  of  meaning. 

CAST,  v.  a.  To  throw  with  the  hand. 

I  rather  chuse  to  endure  the  •*  ounds  of  those  darts, 
which  envy  casteth  at  novelty,  than  to  go  on  safely 
and  sleepily  in  the  easy  ways  of  ancient  mistakings. 

Raleigh. 

Then  cast  thy  sword  away, 
And  yield  thee  to  my  mercy,  or  I  strike 

Dryden  and  Lee, 
Cast  on  the  bank  he  dies  with  gasping  pains, 

And  trickling  blood  his  sil vof  mail  distains.     Gay. 

To  throw  away,  as  useless  or  noxious. 

If  thy  right  hand  offend  thee,  cut  it  off,  and  cait  it 
from  thee.  Matthew. 

To  throw  as  from  an  engine. 

Slings  to  cast  stones.  Chronicles. 

To  scatter  by  the  hand  :  as,  to  cast  seed. 

Cast  the  dust  into  the  brook.  Deuteronomy. 

Nor  that  she  pays  while  she  survives 
To  her  dead  love  this  tribute  due, 
But  runts  abroad  those  donatives 

At  the  installing  of  a  new.  Marvcll. 

To  force  by  violence. 

Cast  them  into  the  Red  Sea.  Exodus. 

To  shed. 

Nor  shall  your  vine  cast  her  fruit  Malachy. 

To  throw  from  a  high  place. 

Bear  him  to  the  rock  Tarpeian,  and  from  thence 
Into  destruction  cast  him.        Shakspeare.     Coriolamts. 

To  throw  as  a  net  or  snare. 

I  speak  for  your  own  profit,  not  that  I  may  cast  a 
snare  upon  you.  1  Car.  vii.  35. 

To  drop ;  to  let  fall. 

They  let  down  the  boat  into  the  sea,  as  though  they 
would  have  cast  anchor.  Acts,  xxvii.  30. 


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221 


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For  Santa  Cruz  the  glad  fleet  takes  her  way, 
And  safely  there  casts  anchor  in  the  bay.    Marvell. 
To  throw  dice  or  lots. 
And  Joshua  cast  lots  for  them  in  SLiloh. 

Jahua,  xviii.  10. 
To  throw  in  wrestling. 

And  I  think,  being  too  strong  for  him,  though  he 
took  my  legs  sometime,  yet  I  made  a  shift  to  cast 
him.  Sliakspeare. 

To  throw,  as  worthless  or  hateful. 

His  carcase  was  cast  in  the  way.        Chronicles. 
To  drive  by  violence  of  weather. 
Howbeit  we  must  be  cast  upon  a  certain  island. 

Acts. 

What  length  of  lands,  what  ocean  have  you  passed, 
>\rhat  storms  sustained,  and  on  what  shore  been  cast  ? 

Drydcn. 
To  emit. 

This  fumes  off  in  the  calcination  of  the  stone,  and 
casts  a  sulphureous  smell.  Woodward. 

To  bring  suddenly  or  unexpectedly. 
Content  themselves  with  that  which  was  the  irre- 
mediable error  of  former  time,  or  the  necessity  of  the 
present  hath  cast  upon  them.  Hooker. 

To  build  by  throwing  up  earth ;  to  raise. 
And  shooting  in  the  earth  casts  up  a  mount  of  clay. 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene. 

Earth-worms  will  come  forth,  and  moles  will  cast 
up  more,  and  fleas  bite  more,  against  rain. 

Bacon's  Nat.  Hist. 

To  put  into  or  out  of  any  certain  state,  with 
the  notion  of  descent  or  depression  :  as,  the  king 
was  cast  from  his  throne. 

Jesus  had  heard  that  John  was  cast  into  prison. 

Matthew. 

To  condemn  in  a  criminal  trial. 

But  oh,  that  treacherous  breast!  to  whom  weak  you 
Did  trust  our  counsels,  and  we  both  may  rue, 
Having  his  falsehood  found  too  late,  'twas  he 
That  made  me  cast  you  guilty,  and  you  me.      Donne. 

There   then  we  met  j   both  tried     and   both  were 

cast ; 
And  this  irrevocable  ^entence  past.  Dryden. 

To  overcome  or  defeat  in  a  law  suit ;  from 
Fr.  caster. 

The  northern  men  were  agreed,  and  in  effect  all 
the  other,  to  cast  our  London  escheatour. 

Cainden's  Remains. 
To  defeat. 

No  martial  project  to  surprise, 
Can  ever  be  attempted  twice  ; 
Nor  cast  design  serve  afterwards, 
As  gamesters  tear  their  losing  cards.      Hudibras. 
To  cashier. 

You  are  but  now  cast  in  his  mood,  a  punishment 
more  in  policy  than  in  malice  ;  even  so  as  one  would 
beat  his  offenceless  dog,  to  affright  an  imperious  lion. 

Shakspeare. 

To  leave  behind  in  a  race. 

In  short,  so  swift  your  judgments  turn  and  wind, 
You  cast  jo.tr  fleetest  wits  a  mile  behind.         Dryden. 
To  shed  ,   to  let  fall ;  to  lay  aside ;  to  moult ; 
to  change  for  new. 

The  casting  of  the  skin  is,  by  the  ancients,  com- 
pared to  the  breaking  of  the  secundine,  or  cawl,  but 
not  rightly  ;  for  that  were  to  make  every  casting  of  the 
skin  a  new  birth  :  and  besides,  the  secundine  is  but 
a  general  cover,  not  shaped  according  to  the  parts, 
but  the  skin  is  shaped  according  to  the  parts.  The 


creatures  that  cast  the  skin,  are  the  snake,  the  viper, 
the  grasshopper,  the  lizard,  the  silkworm,  &c.  Bacon. 

The  waving  harvest  bends  beneath  his  blast, 
The  forest  shakes,  the  groves  their  honours  cast, 

Dryden. 

The  ladies  have  been  in  a  kind  of  moulting  season, 
having  cast  great  quantities  of  ribbon  and  cambrick 
and  reduced  the  human  figure  to  the  beautiful  globular 
form.  Addison. 

To  lay  aside,  as  fit  to  be  used  or  worn  no 
longer. 

So  may  cast  poets  write  ;  there's  no  pretension 
To  argue  loss  of  wit,  from  loss  of  pension.        Dryden. 

He  has  ever  been  of  opinion,  that  giving  cast  clothes 
to  be  worn  by  valets,  has  a  very  ill  effect  upon  little 
minds.  Addison. 

To  have  abortions ;  to  bring  forth  before  the 
time. 

Thy  ewes  and  thy  she-goats  have  not  cast  their 
young.  Genesis. 

To  make  to  preponderate ;  to  decide  by  over- 
balancing; to  give  over-weight. 

Which  being  inclined,  not  constrained,  contain 
within  themselves  the  casting  act,  and  a  power  to 
command  the  conclusion.  Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

How  much  interest  casts  the  balance  in  cases  du- 
bious. South. 

Not  many  years  ago,  it  so  happened,  that  a  cobler 
had  the  casting  vote  for  the  life  of  a  criminal,  which 
he  very  graciously  gave  on  the  merciful  side. 

Addison  on  Italy. 

To  compute ;  to  reckon ;  to  calculate. 

Hearts,  tongues,  figures,  scribes,  bards,  poets,  cannot 
Think,  speak,  cast,  write,  sing,  number,  ho  ! 
His  love  to  Antony.  Shtikspeare. 

You  cast  the  event  of  war,  my  noble  lord, 
And  summed  the  account  of  chance,  before  you  said, 
Let  us  make  head.  Id. 

I  have  lately  been  casting  in  my  thoughts  the  seve- 
ral unhappinesses  of  life,  and  comparing  the  infelici- 
ties of  old  age  to  those  of  infancy.  Addison. 

To  contrive ;  to  plan  out. 

The  cloister  facing  the  south  is  covered  with  vines, 
and  would  have  been  proper  for  an  orange-house ; 
and  had,  I  doubt  not,  been  cast  for  that  purpose,  if 
this  piece  of  gardening  had  been  then  in  as  much 
vogue  as  it  is  now.  Temple. 

To  judge ;  to  consider  in  order  to  judgment. 

If  thou  couldst,  doctor,  cast 
The  water  of  my  land,  find  her  disease, 
And  purge  it  to  a  sound  and  pristine  health, 
I  would  applaud  thee.  Shakspeare. 

Peace,  brother,  be  not  over  exquisite 
To  cast  the  fashion  of  uncertain  evils.        Milton. 

To  fix  the  parts  in  a  play. 

Our  parts  in  the  other  world  will  be  new  cast,  and 
mankind  will  be  there  ranged  in  different  stations  of 
superiority.  Addison. 

To  glance ;  to  direct :  applied  to  the  eye  or 
mind. 

Beryn  rode  forth  in  his  wey,  his  page  ran  him  by. 
Full  sore  adred  in  hert,  and  cast  about  his  eye 
Up  and  down,  even  long  the  strete,  and  for  his  anger 
swete.  Chaucer.   Cant.  Tale*. 

A  losel  wandering  by  the  way, 
One  that  to  bounty  never  catt  his  mind  • 

Ne  thought  of  heaven  ever  did  assay 
His  baser  breast.  Spenser. 


CAS 


222 


CAS 


Zclmanc's  languishing  countenance,  with  crossed 
arms,  and  sometimes  cast  up  eyes,  she  thought  to 
have  an  excellent  grace.  Sidney. 

Begin,  auspicious  boy,  to  cast  about 
Thy  infant  eyes,  and,  with  a  smile,  thy  mother  single 
out.  Dry  den's  Virgil. 

Far  eastward  cast  thine  eye,  from  whence  the  sun, 
And  orient  science,  at  a  birth  begun.    Pope's  Dunciad. 
Quick  to  the  neighbouring  tree  he  flics, 

There,  trembling,  casts  around  his  eyes  j 

No  foe  appears,  his  fears  were  vain, 

Pleased  he  renews  the  sprightly  strain.         Beattie. 

You  cannot  behold  a  covetous  spirit  walk  by  a  gold- 
smith's shop  without  casting  a  wishful  eye  at  the  heaps 
upon  the  counter.  Spectator. 

To  found ;  to  form  by  running  in  a  mould ; 
to  melt  metal  in,to  figures. 

When  any  such  curious  work  of  silver  is  to  be  cast, 
as  requires  that  the  impression  of  hairs,  or  very  slen- 
der lines,  be  taken  off  by  the  metal,  it  is  not  enough 
that  the  silver  be  barely  melted,  but  it  must  be  kept 
a  considerable  while  in  a  strong  fusion.  Boyle. 

The  father's  grief  restrained  his  art ; 
He  twice  essay'd  to  cast  his  son  in  gold, 
Twice  from  his  hands  he  dropped  the  forming  mould. 

Dryden. 

To  model ;  to  form  by  rule. 

Under  this  influence,  derived  from  mathematical 
studies,  some  have  been  tempted  to  cast  all  their 
logical,  their  metaphysical,  and  their  theological  and 
moral  learning  into  this  method.  Watts's  Logic. 

To  communicate  by  reflection  or  emanation. 

So  bright  a  splendour,  so  divine  a  grace, 
The  glorious  Daphnis  casts  on  bis  illustrious  race. 

Dryden. 

To  yield  or  give  up,  without  reserve  or  con- 
dition. 

The  reason  of  mankind  cannot  suggest  any  solid 
ground  of  satisfaction,  but  in  making  God  our  friend, 
and  in  carrying  a  conscience  so  clear,  as  may  en- 
courage us,  with  confidence,  to  cast  ourselves  upon 
him.  South. 

To  inflict,  or  throw* 

The  world  is  apt  to  cast  great  blame  on  those  who 
have  an  indifferency  for  opinions,  especially  in 
religion.  Locke. 

To  cast  aside.  To  dismiss  as  useless  or  in- 
convenient. 

J  have  bought 

Golden  opinions  from  all  sort  of  people, 
Which  would  be  worn  now  in  their  newest  gloss, 
"Not  cast  aside  so  soon,  Shakspeare. 

To  cast  away.     To  shipwreck. 
Sir  Francis  Drake  and  John  Thomas,  meeting  with 
a  storm,  it  thrust  John  Thomas  upon  the  islands  to 
the  south,  where  he  was  cast  away.    Raleigh's  Essays. 

'Twas  in  a  shipwreck,  when  the  seas 
Ruled,  and  the  winds  did  what  they  please, 
That  my  poor  lover  floating  lay, 
And  ere  brought  forth,  was  cast  away.    Marvell. 
But  now  our  fears  tempestuous  grow, 

And  rn. ft  our  hopes  away  ; 
Whilst  you,  regardless  of  our  woe, 

Sit  careless  at  a  play.  Dorset. 

To  cast  away.  To  lavish  ;  to  waste  in  pro- 
fusion ;  to  turn  to  no  use. 

They  that  want  means  to  nourish  children,  will 
abstain  from  marriage  ;  or,  which  is  all  one,  they  cast 
atvay  their  bodies  upon  rich  old  women. 

Raleigh's  Esiays. 


O  Marcia,  O  my  sister !  still  there's  hope, 
Our  father  will  not  cast  away  a  life 
So  needful  to  us  all,  and  to  his  country. 

Addison's  Cato. 
To  cast  away.     To  ruin. 

It  is  no  impossible  thing  for  states,  by  an  oversight 
in  some  one  act  or  treaty  between  them  and  th&ir  po- 
tent opposites,  utterly  to  cast  away  themselves  for 
ever.  Hooker. 

To  cast  away.     To  dismiss  ;  to  drive  away. 

Hang  sorrow  !  let's  to  yonder  hut  repair, 
And  with  trim  sonnets  cast  away  our  care.       Gay. 
To  cast  back.      To  render  tardy ;  to  put  be- 
hind. 

Your  younger  feet ;  while  mine,  cast  back  with  age, 
Come  lagging  after.  Milton. 

To  cast  by.  To  reject  or  dismiss,  with  neg- 
lect or  hate. 

Old  Capulet  and  Montagu,1 
Have  made  Verona's  ancient  citizens 
Cast  by  their  grave  beseeming  ornaments. 

Shakspeare. 

When  men,  presuming  themselves  to  be  the  only 
masters  of  right  reason,  cast  by  the  votes  and  opinions 
of  the  rest  of  mankind,  as  not  worthy  of  reckoning. 

Locke. 

To  cast  down.  To  deject;  to  depress  the 
mind. 

We're  not  the  first, 

Who,  with  best  meaning,  have  incurred  the  worst  .• 
For  thee,  oppressed  king,  I  am  cast  down  ; 
Myself  could  else  outfrown  false  fortune's  frown. 

Shtikspeare. 

The  best  way  will  be  to  let  him  see  you  are  much 
cast  down,  and  afflicted,  for  the  ill  opinion  he  enter- 
tains of  you.  Addison. 

To  cast  forth.    To  emit. 

He  shall  grow  as  the  lily,  and  cast  forth  his  roots 
as  Lebanon.  Hoi'M. 

To  cast  forth.     To  eject. 

They  cast  me  forth  into  the  sea.         Jomih 
To  cast  off.    To  discard;  to  put  away. 

The  prince  will,  in  the  perfectness  of  time, 
Cast  off  his  followers.  Sliakspearj. 

He  led  me  on  to  mightiest  deeds, 
But  now  hath  cast  me  off,  as  never  kno<m. 

Milton. 

'  How  !  not  call  him  father  ?  *  I  see  preferment  alters 
a  man  strangely  ;  this  may  serve  me  for  an  use  of  in- 
struction, to  cast  off  my  father,  when  I  am  great. 

Dryden. 

To  cast  off.    To  reject. 

It  is  not  to  be  imagined,  that  a  whole  society  of 
men  should  publicly  and  professedly  disown  and  cast 
off  a  rule,  which  they  could  not  but  be  infallibly  cer- 
tain was  a  law.  Locke. 

To  cast  off.    To  disburden  one  s  self  of. 

All  conspired  in  one  to  cast  off  their  subjection  to 
the  crown  of  England.  Spenser's  State  of  Ireland 

The  true  reason  why  any  man  is  an  atheist,  is  be- 
cause he  is  a  wicked  man  :  religion  would  curb  him 
in  his  lusts  ;  and  therefore  he  casts  it  off,  and  puts  ah 
the  scorn  upon  it  he  can.  Tillotson, 

To  cast  off.    To  leave  behind. 

Away  he  scours  cross  fjie  fields,  casts  off  the  dogs, 
and  gains  a  wood  :  but  pressing  through  a  thicket,  the 
bushes  held  him  by  the  horns,  till  the  hounds  came 
in,  and  plucked  him  down,  L'Etiru-.iya. 


CAS 

To  cast  off.  A  hunting  term.  To  let  go  or 
set  free  :  as,  to  cast  off  the  dogs. 

To  cast  out.    To  reject ;  to  turn  out  of  doors. 

Thy  brat  hath  been  cast  out,  like  to  itself,  no  father 
owning  it.  Shakspeare. 

To  cast  out.  To  vent  ;  to  speak  :  with  some 
intimation  of  negligence  or  vehemence. 

Why  dost  thou  cast  out  such  ungenerous  terms 
Against  the  lords  and  sovereigns  of  the  world? 

Addistin. 

To  cast  up.     To  compute  ;  to  calculate. 

Some  writers,  in  casting  vp  the  goods  most  desira- 
ble in  life,  have  given  them  this,  rank,  health,  beauty, 
and  riches.  Temple. 

To  cast  up.    To  vomit. 
Thou,  beastly  feeder,  art  so  full  of  him, 
That  thou  provokest  thyself  to  cast  him  up.         Sliak. 

Thy  foolish  errour  find  ; 

Cast  up  the  poison  that  infects  thy  mind.     Dryden. 
To  cast  up.     To  throw  or  lift  up. 
Cast  vp  the  curtein,  loke  how  that  it  is. 

Choutcer's  Cant.  Tales. 

To  cast  upon.     To  refer  to  ;  to  resign  to. 

If  things  were  cast  upon  this  issue,  that  God  should 
never  prevent  sin  till  man  deserved  it,  the  best  would 
sin  and  sin  for  ever.  South. 

To  CAST.  v.  n. 

To  contrive  ;  to  turn  the  thoughts. 

Then,  closely  as  he  might,  he  cast  to  leave 

The  court,  not  asking  any  pass  or  leave.       Spenser. 

But  first  he  casts  to  change  his  proper  shape, 
Which  else  might  work  him  danger  or  delay  : 
And  now  a  stripling  cherub  he  appears.  Milton. 

To  admit  of  a  form,  by  casting  or  melting. 

It  comes  at  the  first  fusion  into  a  mass  that  is  im- 
mediately malleable,  and  will  not  run  thin,  so  as  to 
cast  and  mould,  unless  mixed  with  poorer  ore,  or 
cinders.  Woodward  on  Fossils. 

To  be  formed  as  if  in  a  mould. 

These  features  cast  in  heavenly  mould 
Shall  like  my  coarser  earth  grow  old  ; 
Like  common  grass,  the  fairest  flower 
Must  feel  the  hoary  season's  power.  Oay. 

To  warp  ;  to  grow  out  of  form. 

Stuff  is  said  to  cast  or  warp,  when,  by  its  own 
drought,  or  moisture  of  the  air,  or  other  accident,  it 
alters  its  flatness  or  straightness. 

Moxon's  Mechanical  Exercises. 

To  vomit. 

I  cannot  abide  them,  they  make  me  ready  to  cast. 

B.  Jonson. 

To  cast  about.  To  contrive;  to  look  for 
means. 

We  have  three  that  bend  themselves,  looking  into 
the  experiments  of  their  fellows,  and  cast  about  how 
to  draw  out  of  them  things  of  use  and  practice  for 
man's  life  and  knowledge.  Bacun's  New  Atalantis. 

As  a  fox,  with  hot  pursuit 
Chased  thro'  a  warren,  cast  about 
To  save  his  credit.  Hudibras. 

All  events  called  casual,  among  inanimate  bodies, 
are  mechanically  produced  according  to  the  determi- 
nate figures,  textures,  and  motions  of  those  bodies, 
which  are  not  conscious  of  their  own  operations,  nor 
contrive  and  cast  about  how  to  bring  such  events  to 
Pass-  Bentley. 

To  cast  about ;  to  retrace  the  steps. 

The  people  that  Ishmael  had  carried  away  captive 
from  Mizpeth  rust  about  and  returned,  and  went  to 
Johanan.  Jeremiah  xli.  14. 


223  CAS 

CAST,  n. 

The  act  of  casting  or  throwing ;  a  throw. 

So  when  a  sort  of  lusty  shepherds  throw 
The  bar  by  turns,  and  none  the  rest  outgo 
So  far,  but  that  the  rest  are  measuring  casts, 
Their  emulation  and  their  pastime  lasts.        Waller. 

The  thing  thrown. 

Yet  all  these  dreadful  deeds,  this  deadly  fray, 
A  cast  of  dreadful  dust  will  soon  allay, 

Dryden's  Virgil. 

State  of  anything  cast  or  thrown. 
Plato  compares  life  to  a  game  at  tables  ;  there  what 
cast  we  shall  have  is  not  ia  our  power  j  but  to  manage 
it  well,  that  is.  Norris. 

Manner  of  throwing. 

Some  harrow  their  ground  over,  and  sow  wheat  or 
rye  on  it  with  atroad  cast ;  some  only  with  a  single 
cast,  and  some  with  a  double.  Mortimer. 

The  space  through  which  anything  is  thrown. 

And  he  was  withdrawn  from  them  about  a  stone's 
cast,  and  kneeled  down  and  prayed.  Luke. 

And  ere  he  hail  riden  a  stone's  cast,  a  blynd  man 

with  him  met, 

And  spak  no  word,  but  sesed  him  fast  by  th?  lap, 
And  cried  '  out  and  harowe/  and  nere  him  gan  to  stap. 
Chaucer's  Cant.  Tales. 

A  stroke;  a  touch. 

We  have  them  all  with  one  voice  for  giving  him  a 
cast  of  their  court  prophecy.  South. 

This  was  a  cast  of  Wood's  politics  ;  for  his  infor- 
mation was  wholly  false  and  groundless.  Swift. 

Motion  of  the  eye ;  direction  of  the  eye. 
Pity  causeth  sometimes  tears,  and  a  flexion  or  cast 
of  the  eye  aside  ;  for  pity  is  but  grief  in  another's  be- 
half ;  the  cast  of  the  eye  is  a  gesture  of  aversion,    or 
lothness,  to  behold  the  object  of  pity. 

Bacon's  Nat.  History. 
There,  held  in  holy  passion  still 
Forget  thyself  to  marble,  till 
With  a  sad  leaden,  downward  cast, 
Thou  fix  them  on  the  earth  as  fast.  Milton. 

He  that  squints  is  said  popularly  to  have  a  cast 
with  his  eye. 

A  man  shall  be  sure  to  have  a  cast  of  their  eye  to 
warn  him,  before  they  give  him  a  cast  of  their  nature 
to  betray  him.  South. 

The  throw  of  dice. 

Were  it  good, 

To  set  the  exact  wealth  of  all  our  states 
All  at  one  cast ;  to  set  so  rich  a  main 
On  the  nice  hazard  of  some  doubtful  hour  ? 

Shakspeare. 

Venture  from  throwing  dice ;  chance  from  the 
fall  of  dice. 

When  you  have  brought  them  to  the  very  last  cast, 
they  will  offer  to  come  to  you,  and  submit  themselves 
Spenser  on  Ireland. 

With  better  grace  an  ancient  chief  may  yield 
The  long  contested  honours  of  the  field, 
Than  venture  all  his  fortune  at  a  cast, 
And  fight,  like  Hannibal,  to  lose  at  last.       Dryd  n. 

A  mould ;  a  form. 

The  whale  would  have  been  an  heroic  poem,  but  in 
another  cast  and  figure  than  any  that  ever  had  been 
written  before.  Prior. 

The  act  of  casting  metal. 

Such  daily  cast  of  brazen  cannon.  Shz!tspeare. 


CAS 


224 


CAS 


A  shade  or  tendency  to  any  color. 
The  qualities  of  blood  in  a  healthy  state  are  to  be 
f  crid,  the  red  part  congealing,    and  the  serum  ought 
t    be  without  any  greenish  cast. 

Arbuttinot  on  Aliments. 
Exterior  appearance. 

The  native  hue  of  resolution 
Is  sicklied  o'er  with  the  pale  catt  of  thought. 

Shakipeare, 

Manner  ;  air ;  mein. 

Pretty  conceptions,  fine  metaphors,  glittering  ex- 
pressions, and  something  of  a  neat  cast  of  verse,  are 
properly  the  dress,  gems,  or  loose  ornaments  of 
poetry.  Pope's  Letters. 

A  flight;  a  number  of  hawks  dismissed  from 
the  fist. 

A  cast  of  merlins  there  wa»  besides,  which,  flying 
off  a  gallant  height,  would  beat  the  birds  that  rose 
down  unto  the  bushes,  as  falcons  will  do  wild  fowl 
over  a  river.  Sidney. 

CAST;  from  the  Welsh;  a  trick. 

CA'STA.     Span,  a  breed  ;  a  race ;  a  species. 

CASTAGNO  (Andrew  Del),  historical  painter, 
was  born  at  Oastagno,  in  1409,  and  was  origi- 
nally enrployed  in  tending  cattle ;  but,  having 
accidentally  seen  an  ordinary  painter  at  work, 
he  made  such  efforts  to  imitate  him,  as  asto- 
nished all  who  saw  his  productions.  The  genius 
of  Andrew  became  at  last  a  common  topic  of 
discourse  in  Florence,  and  excited  the  curiosity 
of  Bernardetto  de  Medici  so  far  that  he  sent  for 
him,  and  perceiving  that  he  had  promising 
talents,  placed  him  under  the  care  of  the  best 
masters  then  in  Florence.  He  painted  only  in 
distemper  and  fresco,  with  a  manner  of  coloring 
that  was  not  very  agreeable,  till  he  learned  the 
art  of  painting  in  oil  from  Dominic  Venetiano, 
who  had  derived  his  knowledge  of  that  discovery 
from  Antonello  da  Messina.  Being  less  admired 
than  Venetiano,  he  formed  the  horrid  resolution 
of  assassinating  his  friend  and  benefactor,  and 
stabbed  him  at  the  corner  of  a  street  so  secretly, 
that  he  escaped  unobserved  and  unsuspected  to 
his  own  house.  Thither  Dominic  was  soon  after 
conveyed,  to  die  in  the  arms  of  his  murderer. 
No  discovery  of  this  inhuman  transaction  was 
made  till  Andrew,  through  remorse  of  conscience, 
confessed  it  on  his  death-bed,  in  1480.  He 
finished  several  considerable  works  at  Florence, 
by  which  he  gained  great  reputation.  His  most 
noted  picture  was  lately  in  the  hall  of  justice  at 
Florence,  representing  the  execution  of  the  con- 
spirators against  the  house  of  Medici. 

CASTALIO  (Sebastian),  was  born  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Dauphiny  in  1515.  Calvin,  during  his 
stay  at  Strasburgh  in  1540  and  1541,  procured 
him  a  regent's  place  in  the  college  of  Geneva; 
but  after  continuing  in  this  office  nearly  three 
years,  Castalio  was  forced  to  quit  it  in  1544,  on 
account  of  his  opinions.  See  CALVIN.  He  re- 
tired to  Basil,  where  he  was  made  Greek  pro- 
fessor, and  died  in  1564,  aged  forty-eight.  His 
works  are  very  considerable.  In  1545  he  printed, 
;n  elegant  Latin,  at  Basil,  Dialogorum  Sacrorum, 
Libri  IV.,  a  work  containing  the  principal  his- 
tories of  the  Bible  thrown  into  the  form  of  dia- 
logues. But  his  principal  work  is  a  Latin  and 
French  translation  of  the  Scriptures.  He  began 
the  Latin  translation  at. Geneva  in  1542,  a:ul 


finished  it  at  Basil  in  1550.  It  was  printed 
at  Basil,  in  1551,  and  dedicated  to  Edward  VI. 
king  of  England.  The  French  version  was  de- 
dicated to  Henry  II.  of  France,  and  printed  at 
Basil,  in  1555. 

CASTALIUS  FONS,  Castalia,  a  fountain  at  the 
foot  of  mount  Parnassus,  in  Phocis,  near  the 
temple  of  Apollo,  or  near  Delphi ;  sacred  to  the 
Muses.  Its  murmurs  were  thought  prophetic. 

CASTANET,  n.  Fr.  castagnettes ;  Span. 
castanita.  Castaneta  is  a  diminutive  of  castana, 
a  chestnut ;  and  the  name  is  supposed  to  be  given 
to  the  instrument  either  from  its  being  made  of 
chestnut  wood,  or  from  its  resemblance  to  the 
shell  of  a  chestnut.  Two  small  pieces  of  hollow 
ivory,  or  hard  wood,  which  dancers  rattle  in  their 
hands,  in  cadence  to  their  motions. 

If  there  had  been  words  enow  between  them,  to 
have  expressed  provocation,  they  had  gone  together  by 
the  ears  like  a  pair  of  castanets.  Congreve. 

CASTANETS,  CASTANETTAS,  or  CASTAGNETTES, 
are  a  kind  of  musical  instrument,  with  which 
the  Moors,  Spaniards,  and  Bohemians  accom- 
pany their  dances,  sarabands,  and  guitars,  It 
consists  of  two  little  round  pieces  of  wood 
dried,  and  hollowed  in  the  manner  of  a  spoon, 
the  concavities  whereof  are  placed  one  on  another, 
fastened  to  the  thumb,  and  beat  from  time  to 
time  with  the  middle  finger,  to  direct  their  mo- 
tion and  cadences.  The  castanets  may  be  beat 
eight  or  nine  times  in  a  second. 

CAST'AWAY,  n.  fc  adj.  A  person  abandoned 
by  Providence ;  anything  thrown  away ;  useless ; 
valueless. 

Lest  that  by  any  means,  when  I  have  preached  to 
others,  I  myself  should  be  a  castaway.  1  Cor.  ix.  27. 

Neither  given  any  leave  to  search  in  particular 
who  are  the  heirs  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  who  cast- 
aways. Hooker. 

We  only  prize,  pamper,  and  exalt  this  vassal  and 
slave  of  death ;  or  only  remember,  at  our  castaway 
leisure,  the  imprisoned  immortal  soul.  Raleigh. 

CASTE,  in  the  eastern  affairs,  is  used  in  a 
sense  somewhat  similar  to  Dr.  Johnson's  defini- 
tion for  a  tribe,  or  number  of  families,  of  the 
same  rank  and  profession.  The  division  of  a 
nation  into  castes  chiefly  obtains  in  the  dominions 
formerly  belonging  to  the  Great  Mogul,  Bengal, 
the  island  ot  Ceylon,  and  the  great  peninsula 
opposite.  See  BRAHMIN  and  HINDOSTAN. 

CASTED.  The  participle  preterite  of  cast, 
but  improperly,  and  found  perhaps  only  in  the 
following  passage. 

When  the  mind  is  quickened,  out  of  doubt, 

The  organs,  though  defunct  and  dead  before, 

Break  up  their  drowsy  grave,  and  newly  move 

With  casted  slough  and  fresh  legerity.     Shakspeare. 

CASTEL  (Lewis  Bertrand),  a  learned  Jesuit, 

born  at  Montpelier  in  1688.     He  distinguished 

himself  by  writing  on  gravity,  mathematics,  and 

the  music  of  colors,  a  whimsical  idea,  which  he 

took   great  pains   to   reduce  to  practice.     His 

piece  on  gravity,  entitled  Traite  de  la  Pensateur 

Universelle,  was  printed  at  Paris  in  1724.     He 

afterwards  published  his  Mathematique  Univei- 

selle,  which  occasioned  his  being  unanimously 

chosen   F.R.  S.   of  London.     He   was  also   a 

member   of    the  academies  of  Bourdeaux   and 

Rouen :  but  his  Clavecin  Oculaire  excited  most 


CAS 


225 


CAS 


attention ;  and  he  spent  much  time  and  expense 
in  making  an  harpsichord  for  the  eye,  but  with- 
out success.  He  also  wrote  for  and  against  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  and  published  several  other  works; 
the  principal  of  which  are,  Le  Plan  d'une  Mathe- 
matique  Abregee,  and  a  treatise  entitled  Optique 
des  Couleurs.  He  led  a  very  exemplary  life,  and 
died  in  1757. 

CASTELL  (Edmund),  D.D.,  a  learned  Eng- 
lish divine  of  the  seventeenth  century,  distin- 
guished by  his  skill  in  the  eastern  languages. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge;  where  he  was 
master  of  Catharine  hall,  Arabic  professor,  and 
canon  of  Canterbury.  He  was  also  chaplain  to 
Charles  IT.  He  had  a  great  share  in  the  labor 
of  printing  the  Polyglott  Bible  of  London ;  and 
wrote  the  Heptaglotton  pro  Septem  Orientali- 
bus,  8cc.  On  this  excellent  work,  which  occu- 
pied a  great  part  of  his  life,  he  bestowed 
incredible  pains  and  expense,  even  to  the  break- 
ing of  his  constitution,  and  exhausting  of  his 
fortune.  It  is  said  he  expended  no  less  than 
£12,000  upon  it.  At  length,  when  it  was  print- 
ed, the  copies  remained  unsold  upon  his  hands. 
He  died  in  1685,  and  bequeathed  all  his  oriental 
MSS.  to  the  university  of  Cambridge,  on  con- 
dition that  his  name  should  be  written  on  every 
copy  in  the  collection. 

CASTELLA,  a  town  of  Italy,  about  five  miles 
north-east  of  Mantua,  where  an  obstinate  battle 
was  fought  between  the  French  and  Austria  ns, 
on  the  12th  of  September,  1796,  when  the  for- 
mer were  defeated. 

CASTELLATIO,  or  CASTELLATION,  in  mid- 
dle age  writers,  the  act  of  building  a  castle,  or  of 
fortifying  a  house,  and  making  it  a  castle.  By 
the  ancient  English  laws,  castellation  was  pro- 
hibited, without  the  king's  especial  license. 

CASTELLI  (Bernard),  an  eminent  painter, 
born  at  Genoa  in  1557.  He  excelled  in  color- 
ing and  in  portraits.  He  was  the  intimate  friend 
of  Tasso,  and  designed  and  etched  the  figures  of 
his  Hierosolyma  Liberata.  He  died  at  Genoa 
in  1629. 

CASTELLO,  CITTA  m  (the  Tifernum  Tiber- 
inum  of  the  ancients),  a  bishop's  see  in  the 
province  of  Umbria,  and  States  of  the  Church, 
on  the  Tiber,  the  capital  of  a  county  of  the  same 
name.  It  is  well  fortified,  has  a  castle,  and  con- 
tains ten  churches. 

CASTELLO  Rosso,  or  KASTELORIZO,  a  small 
island  of  the  Mediterranean,  divided  from  the 
coast  of  Caramania  by  a  channel,  about  half  a 
mile  wide.  It  is  rocky  and  high,  the  summit 
rising  about  800  feet  above  the  ocean.  There  is 
a  town  of  this  name  on  it,  with  a  good  small 
harbour.  It  is  principally  inhabited  by  Greeks, 
under  the  government  of  a  Turkish  aga,  depend- 
ent on  the  bey  of  Rhodes.  Long.  29°  37'  £., 
lat.  39°  8'  N. 

CASTELLON  DE  LA  PLANA,  a  large  town  in  a 
very  fertile  part  of  Valencia,  Spain,  about  half  a 
league  from  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  The 
Moorish  walls  and  towers  are  in  tolerable  repair. 
It  has  eight  gates  and  two  suburbs.  The  streets 
are  generally  broad,  and  the  houses  well-built. 
A  spacious  square  contains  the  town-house  and 
principal  church.  The  only  objects  of  interest 
are  the  church  buildings,  the  town-house,  and  a 
VOL.  V. 


vast  tower  or  belfry,  260  feet  in  height,  and  161 
in  circumference.  Population  11,000.  Twenty- 
eight  miles  south  of  Valencia. 

CASTELNAUDARY,  or  CHATEL-NAUDAR- 
RY,  a  silk  manufacturing  town  of  Upper  Lan- 
guedoc,  France,  in  the  department  of  the  Aude. 
It  stands  on  an  eminence  near  the  canal  of  Lan- 
guedoc.  The  country  around  is  fertile  in  corn. 
Here  is  a  collegiate  chapter,  and  in  the  vicinity 
the  grand  reservoir  which  supplies  the  canal  with 
water.  A  battle  was  fought  here  in  1632,  between 
the  duke  of  Montmorency  and  marshal  Schom- 
berg,  in  which  the  former  was  defeated  and 
made  prisoner.  Thirty-three  miles  south-east  of 
Toulouse,  and  460  south  of  Paris. 

CASTELLUM,  Lat.  i.  e.  a  little  castle,  origi- 
nally seems  to  have  signified  a  small  fort  for  a 
little  garrison  :  though  Suetonius  uses  the  word 
where  the  fortification  was  large  enough  to  con- 
tain a  cohort.  The  castella,  according  to  Vege- 
tius,  were  often  like  towns,  built  on  the  borders 
of  the  empire,  and  where  there  were  constant 
guards,  and  fences  against  the  enemy.  Horsley 
takes  them  for  much  the  same  with  stations. 

CAST'ER,  v.  & n.  A  thrower ;  he  who  casts; 
an  accomptant ;  a  man  who  calculates  nativities. 
The  noun  signifies  a  small  wheel,  fixed  to  a 
swivel  such  as  tables  move  on. 

If  with  this  throw  the  strongest  caster  vie, 
Still,  further  still,  I  bid  the  discus  fly.  Pope. 

Did  any  of  them  set  up  for  a  caster  of  fortunate 
figures,  what  might  he  not  get  by  his  predictions  ? 

Adduon. 

CASTIFICA'TION.  Lat.  castus  and  facio 
Chastity.  The  word  is  used  in  his  sense  by- 
Bishop  Taylor,  but  I  know  of  no  other  authority 
for  it. 

CA'STIGATE,  v.  ~\      Ital.  castigare  ;  Span. 
CASTIGA'TION,  n.     tcastigur ;    Lat.    castigo. 
CA'STIGATOR,  n.       {To  castigate,  is  to  inflict 
CA'STIGATORY,  adj.  J  chastisement,  or  punish- 
ment; to  correct;  to  render  pure;  castigation  is 
the   punishment,  correction,  penance,  or  disci- 
pline, which   is   suffered;  the  emendations,  or 
purifications  which  are  made;  the  castigator  is 
the  agent  in  these  operations;   and  castigatory 
signifies  punitive,  for  the  purpose  of  amending. 

If  thou  didst  put  this  sour  cold  habit  on 
To  castigate  thy  pride,  'twere  well.      Sfiaktpeare. 

This  hand  of  your's  requires 
A  sequester  from  liberty,  fasting  and  prayer, 
With  castigation,  exercise  devout.  Id. 

The  ancients  had  these  conjectures  touching  these 
floods  and  conflagrations,  so  as  to  frame  them  into  an 
hypothesis  for  the  castigation  of  the  excesses  of  ge- 
neration. Hale. 
There  were  other  ends  of  penalties  inflicted,  either 
probatory,  castigatory,  or  exemplary. 

Bramhall  against  Hobbei. 

Their  castigations  were  accompanied  with  encour- 
agements ;  which  care  was  taken  to  keep  me  from 
looking  on  as  mere  compliments.  Boyle, 

He  had  adjusted  and  castigated  the  then  Latin  Vul- 
gate to  the  best  GreeV  exemplars.  Bentley. 

CASTIGATIOX,  among  the  Romans,  the  pun- 
ishment of  an  offender  by  blows,  or  beating  with 
a  wand  or  switch.  Castigation  was  chiefly  a 
military  punishment ;  the  power  of  inflicting  it 
on  the  soldiery  was  given  to  the  tribures.  Some 
make  it  of  two  kinds;  the  one  with  a  stick  or 

Q 


226 


CASTING. 


cane,  called  fustigatio;  the  other  with  rods, 
called  flagellatio :  the  latter  was  the  most  dis- 
honorable. 

CASTIGLIONE  DELLESTIVIERE,  or  DELLA 
STIVERA,  a  town  of  Lombardy,  in  the  territory 
of  Mantua,  formerly  the  capital  of  a  principality 
of  this  name.  It  is  surrounded  with  walls,  but 
the  castle  was  long  since  demolished  by  the 
French.  The  allies  took  it  in  1701,  but  were 
defeated  near  it  by  the  French  in  1706.  Several 
actions  took  place  here  between  the  French  and 
Austnins  in  August,  1796;  and  Buonaparte 
conferred  a  dukedom  of  this  name  on  Augereau. 
It  is  fifteen  miles  south-east  of  Brescia,  and 
twenty  north-west  of  Mantua. 

CASTIGLIONE  (John  Benedict),  a  celebrated 
painter,  born  at  Genoa  in  1616.  His  first  mas- 
ter was  John  Baptist  Paggi.  He  afterwards 
studied  under  Andrew  Ferrari;  and  perfected 
himself  under  Vandyck,  who  then  resided  at 
Genoa.  He  painted  portraits,  historical  pieces, 
landscapes,  and  castles.  In  the  latter  of  which 
he  is  said  chiefly  to  have  excelled  ;  as  well  as  in 
fairs,  markets,  and  all  kinds  of  rural  scenes.  We 
have  also  a  great  number  of  his  etchings,  which 
are  all  spirited,  free,  and  full  of  taste.  His 
drawing  of  the  naked  figure,  though  by  no  means 
correct,  is  in  a  style  that  indicates  the  hand  of  a 
master. 

CASTIGLIONE  (Balthazer),  an  eminent  Italian 
nobleman,  descended  from  an  illustrious  family, 
and  born  at  his  own  villa  at  Casalico,  in  the 
duchy  of  Milan,  in  1478.  He  studied  painting, 
sculpture,  and  architecture,  and  he  so  much  ex- 
celled in  these  arts,  that  Raphael  Urbino  and 
Buonarotti  submitted  their  works  for  his  appro- 
bation. When  he  was  twenty-six  years  of  age 
Guido  Ubaldo,  duke  of  Urbino,  sent  him  am- 
bassador to  pope  Julius  II.  He  was  sent  upon 
a  second  embassy  to  Louis  XII.  of  France,  and 
upon  a  third  to  Henry  VII.  of  England.  Cas- 
tiglione  died  in  1529,  when  acting  as  legate  at 
Toledo  for  Clement  VII.  with  Charles  V.  of 
Spain.  His  principal  work  is  entitled  II  Cor- 
tegiano ;  the  Courtier.  A  version  of  it,  together 
with  the  original  Italian,  was  published  at  Lon- 
don in  1727,  by  A.  P.  Castiglione,  a  gentleman 
of  the  same  family. 

CASTILE,  NEW,  also  called  the  kingdom  of 
Toledo,  a  province  of  Spain,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Old  Castile,  on  the  east  by  the  king- 
doms of  Arragon  and  Valencia,  on  the  south  by 
those  of  Murcia  and  Andalusia,  and  on  the  west 
by  the  kingdom  of  Leon.  It  is  divided  into 
three  parts,  Argaria,  Mancha,  and  Sierra;  Ma- 
drid being  the  capital.  The  air  is  pure  and 
healthy ;  but  the  land  mountainous,  sterile,  and 
neglected,  though  watered  with  most  beautiful 
streams.  The  northern  part  produces  fruits  and 
wine,  and  the  south  excellent  pasturage.  It  is 
watered  by  the  navigable  rivers,  the  Tagus,  the 
Xucar,and  the  Guadiana, besides  smaller  streams; 
and  contains  the  provinces  of  Toledo,  Cuenca, 
Guadalaxara,  Madrid,  St.  Ildefonso,  Aranjuez, 
and  St.  Lorenzo.  The  principal  towns  are,  be- 
side the  capital,  Toledo,  Cuex^a,  Kequena,  and 
Talavera.  It  contains  one  archbishopric,  one 
bishopric,  three  universities,  two  cathedrals,  and 
five  collegiate  chapters,  two  abbeys,  four  mili- 


tary commanderies,  116  hospitals,  375  religious 
houses,  and  1301  parishes.  Its  administration 
includes  one  general,  and  four  local  military 
governments,  together  with  four  provincial  in- 
tendancies.  Its  population,  which  has  not  been 
officially  ascertained  for  many  years,  is  taken  at 
about  one  million. 

An  extensive  chain  of  high  and  rocky  moun- 
tains, which  runs  from  east  to  west,  divides 
New  from  OLD  CASTILE,  a  province,  with  the  title 
of  a  kingdom.  It  is  about  192  miles  in  length, 
and  1 1 5  in  breadth ;  bounded  on  the  south  by 
New  Castile,  on  the  east  by  Arragon  and  Na- 
varre, on  the  north  by  Biscay  and  Asturias,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  kingdom  of  Leon.  The 
capital  is  Burgos.  Other  principal  towns  are 
Valladolid,  Segovia,  Avila,  Calatrava,  Logrono, 
and  Soria :  its  ecclesiastical  establishments  are, 
one  archbishopric,  seven  bishoprics,  thirty-four 
chapters,  and  394  religious  houses.  The  military 
government  is  in  a  captain  general ;  there  are 
also  six  provincial  intendants,  and  a  royal  chan- 
cery. Population  about  1,200,000. 

In  the  mountains  are  copper  mines,  which 
however  have  been  little  attended  to,  pyrites, 
quartz,  marble,  and  chalk  ;  also  several  mineral 
springs.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Xalon,  Douro, 
Ebro,  Carrion,  and  Tormes.  Part  of  the  soil  is 
very  fertile  in  rye,  wheat,  and  barley  :  and  some 
districts  produce  an  inferior  wine ;  but  the  whole 
province  is  remarkably  destitute  of  wood.  Mad- 
der is  cultivated  with  success,  and  400  or  500 
tons  are  said  to  be  exported  annually.  The  pas- 
turage is  generally  fine,  and  is  the  foundation  of 
the  entire  wealth  of  the  province.  Segovian 
wool  is  nowhere  exceeded,  if  equalled,  in  qua- 
lity ;  the  numerous  flocks  of  merino  sheep  find  a 
salutary  exchange  of  food  between  the  warm 
plains  during  winter,  and  the  sides  of  the  moun- 
tains in  summer  ;  and  the  butter  of  Burgos  and 
its  neighbourhood  is  celebrated  throughout  Spain. 
The  manufactures  are  confined  to  a  few  woollen 
and  linen  establishments,  those  of  earthenware, 
leather,  paper,  and  glass ;  but  wool  is  the  only 
considerable  export.  With  its  three  universities, 
Castile  partakes  of  the  universal  degradation  of 
Spain,  with  regard  to  intellectual  culture :  liter- 
ature and  the  arts  are  nowhere  in  Europe  at  a 
lower  ebb.  The  inhabitants  are  remarkably 
quiet,  reserved,  proud,  and  lethargic,  in  their 
manners;  but  honest,  simple,  and  kind.  Old 
Castile  has  given  birth  to  several  of  the  kings  of 
Spain  ;  those  of  Castile  formerly  divided  their 
residence  between  Burgos  and  Toledo ;  but 
Charles  V.  transferred  the  seat  of  government  to 
Madrid. 

CASTILLAN,  or  CASTILLANE,  a  gold  coin 
current  in  Spain,  worth  fourteen  rials  and  six- 
teen deniers. 

CASTILLON,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Gironde,  and  ci-devant  province 
of  Guienne,  seated  on  the  Dordogne,  twenty-five 
miles  east  of  Bourdeaux.  It  is  memorable  for  a 
victory  obtained  by  the  French  over  the  English 
in  1451. 

CASTING,  among  sculptors,  the  taking  off 
casts  and  impressions  of  figures,  busts,  medals, 
leaves,  &c.  The  method  of  taking  off  casts  of 
figures  and  busts  is  most  generally  by  the  use  of 


CASTING. 


227 


p'aster  of  Paris,  i.e.  alabaster  calcined  by  a  gen- 
tle heat.  The  advantage  of  this  substance  above 
others,  is,  that  notwithstanding  a  slight  calcina- 
tion reduces  it  to  a  pulverine  state,  it  becomes 
again  a  tenacious  and  cohering  body  by  being 
moistened  with  water,  and  afterwards  suffered  to 
dry ;  by  which  means  either  a  concave  or  a  con- 
vex figure  may  be  given  by  a  proper  mould  or 
model  to  it  when  wet,  and  retained  by  the  hard- 
ness it  acquires  when  dry :  and,  from  these  qua- 
lities, it  is  fitted  for  the  double  purpose  of  making 
both  casts  and  moulds.  The  particular  manner 
of  making  casts  depends  on  the  form  of  the  sub- 
ject to  be  taken.  Where  there  are  no  projecting 
parts,  or  where  there  are  such  as  form  only  a 
right  or  any  greater  angle  with  the  principal  sur- 
face of  the  body,  it  is  very  easy ;  but  where  parts 
project  in  lesser  angles,  or  form  a  curve  inclined 
towards  the  principal  surface  of  the  body,  the 
work  is  more  difficult.  The  first  step  is  the 
forming  the  mould.  If  the  original  or  model  be 
a  bas  relief,  or  any  o*.her  piece  of  a  flat  form, 
having  its  surface  first  greased  or  oiled,  it  must 
be  placed  on  a  proper  table,  and  surrounded  by 
a  frame,  the  sides  of  which  must  be  at  such  a 
distance  from  it  as  will  allow  a  proper  thickness 
for  the  sides  of  the  mould.  As  much  plaster  as 
will  cover  and  rise  to  such  a  thickness  as  may 
give  sufficient  strength  to  the  mould,  and  fill  the 
hollow  betwixt  the  frame  and  the  model,  must  be 
moistened  with  water,  till  it  be  just  of  such  con- 
sistence as  will  allow  it  to  be  poured  upon  the 
model.  This  must  be  done  as  soon  as  possible; 
or  the  plaster  would  concrete  or  set.  The  whole 
must  remain  in  this  condition,  till  the  plaster  has 
attained  its  hardness ;  and  then  the  frame  being 
taken  away,  the  preparatory  cast  or  mould  thus 
formed  may  be  taken  off  from  the  subject  entire. 
Where  the  original  subject  is  of  a  round  or  erect 
form,  a  different  method  must  be  pursued;  and 
the  mould  must  be  divided  into  several  pieces  : 
or  if  the  subject  consists  of  detached  and  pro- 
jecting parts,  it  is  frequently  most  expedient  to 
cast  such  parts  separately,  and  afterwards  join 
them  together.  Where  the  original  subject  forms 
a  round,  or  spheroid,  or  any  part  of  such  round 
or  spheroid,  more  than  one  half  the  plaster  must 
be  used  without  any  frame  to  keep  it  round  the 
model ;  and  must  be  tempered  with  water  to 
such  a  cons-istence,  that  it  may  be  wrought  with 
the  hand  like  very  soft  paste :  but  though  it 
must  not  be  so  fluid  as  when  prepared  for  flat 
figured  models,  it  must  yet  be  as  moist  as  is  com- 
patible with  4s  cohering  sufficiently  to  hold  to- 
gether: and,  being  thus  prepared,  it  must  be  put 
upon  the  model,  and  compressed  with  the  hand, 
or  any  flat  instrument,  that  the  parts  of  it  may 
adapt  themselves,  in  the  most  perfect  manner,  to 
those  of  the  subject,  as  well  as  be  compact  with 
respect  to  themselves.  When  the  model  is  so 
covered  to  a  convenient  thickness,  the  whole 
must  be  left  at  rest  till  the  plaster  be  firm,  so  as 
to  bear  dividing  without  falling  to  pieces,  or 
being  liable  to  be  put  out  of  its  form  by  slight 
violence ;  and  it  must  then  be  divided  into 
pieces,  in  order  to  its  being  taken  off  from  the 
model,  by  cutting  it  with  a  very  thin  bladed 
knife ;  and  being  divided,  must  be  cautiously 
taken  off,  and  kept  till  dry :  but  it  must  be  always 


carefully  observed,  before  the  separation  of  the 
parts  be  made,  to  notch  them  cross  the  joints,  or 
lines  of  the  division,  at  proper  distances,  that  they 
may  with  ease  and  certainty  be  properly  con- 
joined again;  which  would  be  much  more  pre- 
carious and  troublesome  without  such  directive 
marks.  The  art  of  properly  dividing  the  moulds, 
in  order  to  make  them  separate  from  the  model, 
requires  more  dexterity  and  skill  than  any  other 
thing  in  the  art  of  casting;  and  does  not  admit 
of  rules  for  the  most  advantageous  conduct  of  it 
in  every  case.  Where  the  subject  is  of  a  round 
or  spheroidal  form,  it  is  best  to  divide  the  mould 
into  three  parts,  which  will  then  easily  come  off 
from  the  model ;  and  the  same  will  hold  good  of 
a  cylinder,  or  any  regularly  curved  figure.  The 
mould  being  thus  formed,  and  dry,  and  the  parts 
put  together,  it  must  be  first  greased,  and  placed 
in  such  a  position  that  the  hollow  may  lie  up- 
wards, and  then  filled  with  plaster  mixed  with 
water,  in  the  same  proportion  and  manner  as  - 
directed  for  casting  the  mould :  and  when  the 
cast  is  perfectly  dry,  it  must  be  taken  out  of  the 
mould,  and  repaired  where  it  is  necessary;  which 
finishes  the  operation.  Where  the  model  forms 
curves  which  intersect  each  other,  the  conduct  of 
the  operation  must  be  varied  with  respect  to  the 
manner  of  taking  the  cast  of  the  mould  from  off 
the  subject  or  model ;  and  where  there  are  long 
projecting  parts,  such  as  legs  or  arms,  they 
should  be  wrought  in  separate  casts.  The  ope- 
rator may  easily  judge  from  the  original  subject, 
what  parts  will  come  off  together,  arid  what  re- 
quire to  be  separated  :  the  principle  of  the  whole 
consists  only  in  this,  that  where  under-workings, 
as  they  are  called,  occur,  i.  e.  wherever  a  straight 
line,  drawn  from  the  basis  or  insertion  of  any 
projection,  would  be  cut  or  crossed  by  any  part 
of  such  projection,  such  part  cannot  be  taken  off 
without  a  division;  which  must  be  made  either 
in  the  place  where  the  projection  would  cross 
the  straight  line ;  or,  as  that  is  frequently  diffi- 
cult, the  whole  projection  must  be  separated  from 
the  main  body,  and  divided  also  lengthwise  into 
two  parts :  and  where  there  are  no  projections 
from  the  principal  surfaces,  but  the  body  is  so 
formed  as  to  render  the  surface  a  composition  of 
such  curves,  that  a  straight  line  being  .^awn 
parallel  to  the  surface  of  one  part  would  be  cut 
by  the  outline,  in  one  or  more  places,  of  another 
part,  a  division  of  the  whole  should  be  made,  so 
as  to  reduce  the  parts  of  it  into  regular  curves, 
which  must  then  be  treated  as  such.  In  larger 
masses,  where  there  would  otherwise  be  a  great 
thickness  of  the  plaster,  a  core  or  body  may  b« 
put  within  the  mould,  in  order  to  produce  a  hoK 
low  in  the  cast ;  which  both  saves  the  expense 
of  the  plaster,  and  renders  the  cast  lighter.  This 
core  may  be  of  wood,  where  the  forming  a  hol- 
low of  a  straight  figure,  or  a  conical  one  with  the 
basis  outward,  will  answer  the  end :  but  if  the 
cavity  require  to  be  round,  or  of  any  curved 
figure,  the  core  cannot  be  then  drawn  while  en- 
tire ;  and  consequently  should  be  of  such  matter 
as  may  be  taken  out  piece-meal.  In  this  case, 
the  core  is  best  formed  of  clay;  which  must  be 
worked  upon  wires  to  give  it  tenacity,  and  sus- 
pended in  the  hollow  of  the  mould,  by  cross 
wires  lying  over  the  mouth  ;  and  when  the  plas 

a  2 


228 


CASTING. 


ter  is  sufficiently  set  to  bear  handling,  the  clay 
must  be  picked  out  by  a  proper  instrument. 
Where  it  is  desired  to  render  the  plaster  harder, 
the  water  with  which  it  is  tempered  should  be 
mixed  with  parchment  size  properly  prepared, 
which  will  make  it  very  firm  and  tenacious.  In 
the  same  manner,  figures,  busts,  &c.  may  be  cast 
of  lead,  or  any  other  metal,  in  the  moulds  of 
plaster :  only  the  expense  of  plaster,  and  the 
tediousness  of  its  becoming  sufficiently  dry,  when 
in  a  very  large  mass,  to  bear  the  heat  of  melted 
metal,  render  the  use  of  loam,  compounded  with 
some  other  proper  materials,  preferable  where 
large  subjects  are  in  question.  The  clay,  in  this 
case,  should  be  washed  over  till  it  be  perfectly 
free  from  gravel ;  and  then  mixed  with  one-third 
or  more  of  fine  sand  or  sifted  coal  ashes,  to  pre- 
vent its  cracking.  Whether  plaster  or  clay  be 
employed  for  the  casting  in  metal,  it  is  extremely 
necessary  to  have  the  moild  perfectly  dry  ;  other- 
wise the  moisture,  being  rarefied,  will  make  an 
explosion  that  will  blow  the  metal  out  of  the 
mould,  and  endanger  the  operator.  Where  the 
parts  of  a  mould  are  large,  or  project  much,  and 
consequently  require  great  tenacity  to  keep  them 
together,  flocks  of  cloth,  prepared  like  those  de- 
signed for  paper-hangings,  or  fine  cotton,  cut 
very  short,  should  be  mixed  with  the  ashes  or 
sand  before  they  are  added  to  the  clay  to  make 
the  composition  for  the  mould.  The  proportion 
should  be  according  to  the  degree  of  cohesion 
required :  but  a  small  quantity  will  answer  the 
end,  if  the  other  ingredients  of  the  composition 
be  good,  and  the  parts  of  the  mould  properly 
linked  together  by  means  of  the  wires  above 
directed.  But  these  materials,  being  combus- 
tible, must  not  be  mixed  in  the  composition  for 
moulds,  which  are  intended  to  receive  mixed 
metals.  There  is  a  method  of  taking  casts  in 
metals  from  small  animals,  and  the  parts  of  ve- 
getables, which  may  be  practised  for  some  pur- 
poses with  advantage :  particularly  for  the  deco- 
rating grottoes  or  rock-work,  where  nature  is 
imitated.  The  proper  kinds  of  animals  are 
lizards,  snakes,  frogs,  birds,  or  insects;  the  casts 
of  which,  if  properly  colored,  will  be  exact  re- 
presentations of  the  originals.  This  is  to  be  per- 
formed by  the  following  method : — A  cpffin  or 
proper  chest  for  forming  the  mould  being  pre- 
pared of  clay,  or  four  pieces  of  boards  fixed 
together,  the  animal,  or  parts  of  vegetables,  must 
be  suspended  in  it  by  a  string ;  and  the  leaves 
tendrils,  or  other  detached  parts  of  the  vege- 
tables, or  the  legs,  wings,  &c.  of  the  animals, 
properly  separated  and  adjusted  in  their  right 
position  by  a  small  pair  of  pincers  :  a  due  quan- 
tity of  plaster  of  Paris  and  calcined  talc,  in  equal 
quantities,  with  some  alumen  plumosum,  must 
then  be  tempered  with  water  to  the  proper  con- 
sistence for  casting;  and  the  subject  from  whence 
the  cast  is  to  be  taken,  as  well  as  the  sides  of  the 
coffin,  moistened  with  spirit  of  wine.  The  coffin 
must  then  be  filled  with  the  tempered  compo- 
sition of  the  plaster  and  talc,  putting  at  the  same 
time  a  piece  of  straight .  stick  or  wood  to  the 
principal  part  of  the  bpdy  of  the  subject,  and 
pieces  of  thick  wire  to  the  extremities  of  the 
other  parts,  that  they  may  form,  when  drawn 
out,  after  the  matter  of  the  mould  is  properly  set 


and  firm,  a  channel  for  pouring  in  the  melted 
metal,  and  vents  for  the  air ;  which  otherwise,  by 
the  rarefaction  it  would  undergo  from  the  heat  of 
the  metal,  would  blow  it  out  or  burst  the  mould. 
In  a  short  time  the  plaster  and  talc  will  set  and 
become  hard,  when  the  stick  and  wires  may  be 
drawn  out,  and  the  frame  or  coffin  in  which  the 
mould  was  cast  taken  away :  and  the  mould 
must  then  be  put  first  into  a  moderate  heat,  and 
afterwards,  when  it  is  as  dry  as  can  be  rendered 
by  that  degree,  removed  iato  a  greater ;  which 
may  be  gradually  increased  till  the  whole  be  red 
hot.  The  animal,  or  part  of  any  vegetable,  which 
was  included  in  the  mould,  will  then  be  burnt  to 
a  coal ;  and  may  be  totally  calcined  to  ashes,  by 
blowing  for  some  time  gently  into  the  channel 
and  passages  made  for  pouring  in  the  metal,  and 
giving  vent  to  the  air,  which  will,  at  the  same 
time  that  it  destroys  the  remainder  of  the  animal 
or  vegetable  matter,  blow  out  the  ashes.  The 
mould  must  then  be  suffered  to  cool  gently;  and 
will  be  perfect ;  the  destruction  of  the  substance 
of  the  animal  or  vegetable  having  produced  a 
hollow  of  a  figure  correspondent  to  it:  but  it 
may  be  nevertheless  proper  to  shake  the  mould, 
and  turn  it  upside  dowu,  as  well  as  to  blow  with 
bellows  into  each  of  the  air  vents,  in  order  to  free 
it  wholly  from  any  remainder  of  the  ashes ;  or, 
where  there  may  be  an  opportunity  of  filling  the 
hollow  with  quicksilver  without  expense,  it  will 
be  found  a  very  effectual  method  of  clearing  the 
cavity,  as  all  dust,  ashes,  or  small  detached  bo- 
dies will  necessarily  rise  to  the  surface  of  the 
quicksilver,  and  be  poured  out  with  it.  The 
mould  being  thus  prepared,  it  must  be  heated 
very  hot  when  used,  if  the  cast  be  made  with 
copper  or  brass  :  but  a  less  degree  will  serve  for 
lead  or  tin :  and  the  matter  being  poured  in, 
the  mould  must  be  gently  struck ;  and  then 
allowed  to  rest  till  it  be  cold :  at  which  time  it 
must  be  carefully  taken  from  the  cast,  but  with- 
out the  least  force ;  for  such  parts  of  the  matter 
as  appear  to  adhere  more  strongly,  must  be 
softened  by  soaking  in  water,  till  they  be  en- 
tirely loosened,  that  none  of  the  more  delicate 
parts  of  the  cast  may  be  broken  off  or  bent. 
Where  the  alumen  plumosum,  or  talc,  cannot 
be  procured,  the  plaster  may  be  used  alone ; 
but  it  is  apt  to  be  calcined  by  the  heat  used 
in  burning  the  animal  or  vegetable  from  whence 
the  cast  is  taken,  and  to  become  of  too  incohering 
and  crumbly  a  texture  :  or,  for  cheapness,  Stur- 
bridge  or  any  other  good  clay,  washed  over  till 
it  be  perfectly  fine,  and  mixed  with  an  equal 
part  of  sand,  and  some  flocks  cut  small,  may  be 
employed.  Pounded  pumice-stone  and  plaster 
of  Paris,  taken  in  equal  quantities,  and  mixed 
with  washed  clay  in  the  same  proportion,  is  said 
to  make  excellent  moulds  for  this  and  parallel  uses. 
Casts  of  medals,  or  such  small  pieces  as  are  of  a 
similar  form,  may  be  made  in  plaster  by  the  me- 
thod directed  for  bas  relievos.  Nothing  more  is 
required  than  to  form  a  mould  by  laying  them  on 
a  proper  board  ;  and  having  surrounded  them  by 
a  rim  made  of  a  piece  of  card,  or  pasteboard,  to 
fill  the  rim  with  soft  tempered  plaster  of  Paris  ; 
which  mould,  when  dry,  will  serve  for  several  casts. 
But  it  is  better  to  form  the  mould  of  melted  sul- 
phur; which  will  produce  a  sharper  impressioa 


CAS 


229 


CAS 


in  tne  cast,  and  be  more  durable  than  those  made 
of  plaster.  The  casts  are  likewise  frequently 
made  of  sulphur,  which  being  melted  must  be 
treated  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  the  plaster. 
For  taking  casts  from  medals,  a  mixture  of  brim- 
stone and  red  lead  has  been  recommended  ;  equal 
parts  of  these  are  to  be  put  over  the  fire  in  a  la- 
dle, till  they  soften  to  the  consistence  of  pap ; 
then  they  are  kindled  with  a  piece  of  paper,  and 
stirred  for  some  time.  The  vessel  being  after- 
wards covered  close,  and  continued  ou  the  fire, 
the  mixture  grows  fluid  in  a  few  minutes.  It  is 
then  to  be  poured  on  the  medal,  previously  oiled 
and  wiped  clean.  The  casts  are  very  neat;  their 
color  sometimes  a  pretty  deep  dark,  sometimes 
a  dark  gray :  they  are  very  durable ;  and  when 
soiled  may  be  washed  clean  in  spirit  of  wine. 
Dr.  Lettsom  recommends  tin  foil  for  taking  off 
casts  from  medals.  The  thinnest  kind  is  to  be 
used.  It  should  be  laid  over  the  subject  from 
which  the  impression  is  to  be  taken,  and  then 
rubbed  with  a  brush,  or  a  pin,  till  it  has  per- 
fectly received  the  impression.  The  tin  foil  should 
now  be  pared  close  to  the  edge  of  the  metal,  till 
it  is  brought  to  the  same  circumference  ;  the  me- 
dal must  then  be  reversed,  and  the  tin  foil  will 
drop  off  into  a  chip-box  or  mould  placed  ready 
to  receive  it.  Thus  the  concave  side  of  the  foil 
will  be  uppermost,  and  upon  this  plaster  of  Paris, 
prepared  in  the  usual  manner,  may  be  poured. 
When  dry,  the  whole  is  to  be  taken  out,  and  the 
tin  foil  sticking  on  the  plaster  will  give  a  perfect 
representation  of  the  medal,  almost  equal  in 
beauty  to  silver.  If  the  box  or  mould  is  a  little 
larger  than  the  medal,  the  plaster  running  round 
the  tin  foil  will  give  the  appearance  of  a  white 
frame,  or  circular  border ;  whence  the  new  made 
medal  will  appear  more  neat  and  beautiful. 
Casts  may  be  made  likewise  with  iron,  prepared 
in  the  following  manner :  Take  any  iron  bar, 
or  piece  of  a  similar  form,  and,  having  heated  it 
red  hot,  hold  it  over  a  vessel  containing  water, 
and  touch  it  very  slightly  with  a  roll  of  sulphur, 
which  will  immediately  dissolve  it,  and  make  it 
fall  in  drops  into  the  water.  As  much  iron  as 
may  be  wanted  being  thus  dissolved,  pour  the 
water  out  of  the  vessel ;  and  pick  out  the  drops 
formed  by  the  melted  iron  from  those  of  the  sul- 
phur, which  contain  little  or  no  iron,  and  will 
be  distinguishable  from  the  other  by  their  color 
and  weight.  The  iron  will  thus  be  rendered  so 
fusible,  that  it  will  run  with  less  heat  than  is  re- 
quired to  melt  lead  ;  and  may  be  employed  for 
making  casts  of  medals,  and  many  other  such 
purposes,  with  great  convenience  and  advantage. 
Impressions  of  medals,  having  the  same  effect 
as  casts,  may  be  made  also  of  isinglass  glue  by 
the  following  means  : — Melt  the  isinglass,  beaten, 
as  commonly  used,  in  an  earthern  pipkin,  with 
the  addition  of  as  much  water  as  will  cover  it, 
stirring  it  gently  till  the  whole  is  dissolved  :  then, 
with  a  brush  of  camel's  hair,  cover  the  medal, 
which  siiould  be  previously  well  cleansed  and 
warmed,  and  then  laid  horizontally  on  a  board 
or  table,  greased  in  the  part  around  the  medal. 
Let  them  rest  afterwards  till  the  glue  be  properly 
hardened,  and  then,  with  a  pin,  raise  the  edge 
of  it,  and  separate  it  carefully  from  the  medal ; 
the  cast  will  be  thus  formed  by  the  glue  as  hard 


as  horn  ;  and  so  light,  that  a  thousand  will 
scarcely  weigh  an  ounce.  In  order  to  render  the 
relief  of  the  medal  more  apparent,  a  small  quan- 
tity of  carmine  may  be  mixed  with  the  melted 
isinglass  ;  or  the  medal  may  be  previously  coated 
with  leaf  gold  by  breathing  on  it,  and  then  lay- 
ing it  on  the  leaf,  which  will  by  this  means  ad- 
here to  it;  but  the  leaf  gold  is  apt  to  impair  a 
little  the  sharpness  of  the  impression.  Impres- 
sions of  medals  may  be  likewise  taken  in  putty; 
but  it  should  be  the  true  kind,  made  of  calx  of 
tin,  and  drying  oil.  These  may  be  formed  in 
the  moulds,  previously  taken  in  plaster  or  sulphur ; 
or  moulds  may  be  made  in  its  own  substance,  in 
the  manner  directed  for  those  of  the  plaster. 
These  impressions  will  be  very  sharp  and  hard  ; 
but  the  greatest  disadvantage  that  attends  them, 
is  their  drying  very  slowly,  and  being  liable  in 
the  mean  time  to  be  damaged. 

CASTING,  in  foundry,  the  running  a  metai 
into  a  mould,  prepared  for  that  purpose.  See 
FOUNDRY. 

CA'STING  NET.  A  net  to  be  thrown  into  the 
water,  and  not  left  stationary. 

Casting  nets  did  rivers' bottoms  sweep.  May's  Virgil. 


CA'STLE,  n. 
CA'STLERY,  or 
CA'STELRY,  n. 
CA'STLET,  n. 
CA'STLED,  adj. 
CA'STELLAIN,  n. 
CA'STELLANY,  n. 
CA'STELLATED,  adj. 
CASTELLA'TION,  n. 
CA'STLE-PUILDER,  n. 
CA'STLE-BUILDING,  n. 


Goth.kastali;  Arm. 
kestell  ;Welsh  castell ; 
Ital.  castello ;  Lat.  cas- 
tellum,  dim.  of  cas- 
trum.  Castle,  says 
Johnson,  is  a  strong 
house,fortified  against 
assaults.  A  castle, 
says  Sherwood,  '  is 
properly  a  house  fur- 
nished with  towers, 
incom  passed  by  walls 
CA'STLE-GUARD,  n.  and  ditches;  and 

CA'STLE-WARD,  n.  }  strengthened  by  a 
mount  or  donjon  in  the  midst ;  yet  the  French 
courtiers  tearme  so  any  house  of  the  king's.' 
There  is  another  sort  of  castle,  which  we  call  a 
castle  in  the  air,  and  the  French,  chateau  en 
Espagne,  which  is  frequently  constructed  by  men 
of  poetical  and  sanguine  minds.  Such  construc- 
tors bear  the  name  of  castle-builders,  and  their 
occupation  that  of  castle-building.  Their  activity 
in  fabricating  aerial  dwellings  very  often  reduces 
them  to  the  necessity  of  inhabiting  unpleasant 
earthly  abodes.  Castellan  is  the  lord,  and  also 
the  captain-governor,  or  constable  of  a  castle; 
castellany  is  '  a  castlewicke,  or  castleship ;  the 
estate,  jurisdiction,  or  dignitie  of  a  lord  castel- 
lan ;'  castelry  is  the  custody  or  government  of  a 
castle.  Castellated  signifies  enclosed  within  •» 
building,  and  also  castle-like;  and  castellation. 
now  obsolete,  means  to  fortify  a  house  so  as  to 
convert  it  into  a  castle.  Castle-guard  was  one 
of  the  feudal  tenures ;  and  castle-ward  an  impost, 
laid  upon  those  who  resided  within  a  certain 
distance  of  any  castle,  the  produce  of  which  was 
applied  to  the  maintenance  of  those  who  held 
watch  and  ward  within  the  fortress.  Castled  and 
castle-crowned  denote  surmounted  by  a  castle. 

Now  stood  hire  castel  faste  by  the  sea, 
And  often  with  hire  frendes  walked  she, 
Here  to  disporten  on  the  bank  an-hie. 

Chaucer.     Cant.  Tu'.fJ. 


CAS 


230 


CAS 


The  cattle  of  Macduff  I  will  surprise. 

Shaktpeare. 

These  were  but  like  castles  in  the  air,  and  in  men's 
fancies  vainly  imagined.  Raleigh. 

But  while  these  devices  he  all  doth  compare, 
"None  solid  enough  seemed  for  his  strong  castor, 

He  himself  would  not  dwell  in  a  castle  of  air, 
Tho'  he'ad  built  full  many  a  one  for  his  master. 

Marvell. 

The  horses'  neighing  by  the  wind  is  blown, 
And  castled  elephants  o'erlook  the  town.      Dry  den. 

The  banker  cried,  '  Behold  my  castle  walls, 
My  statues,  gardens,  fountains,  and  canals, 
With  land  of  twenty  thousand  acres  round ! 
All  these  I  sell  thee  for  ten  thousand  pound.'  Gay. 

When,  by  the  breath  of  Fortune  blown, 
Your  airy  castles  were  o'erthrown, 
Have  I  been  ever  prone  to  blame, 
Or  mortified  your  horns  with  shame  ?  Id. 

Yon  castle's  glittering  towers  contain 
No  pit  of  woe,  no  clanking  chain , 

Nor  to  the  suppliants'  wail  resound  : 
The  open  doors  the  needy  bless,  v 

The  unfriended  hail  their  calm  recess, 

And  gladness  smiles  around.  Beattie. 

CASTLE,  in  sea  language,  denotes  an  eleva- 
tion on  the  deck  of  a  vessel ;  or  a  part  of  the 
deck,  fore  and  aft,  raised  above  the  rest.  See 
FORE-CASTLE. 

CASTLES,  as  fortifications,  are  now  almost  en-*- 
tirely  exploded.  See  FORTIFICATION.  .Par- 
ticular castles  we  notice  under  the  names  of  their 
respective  places. 

CASTLEBAR,  a  populous  market  town  of  Ire- 
land, capital  of  the  county  of  Mayo.  It  carries 
on  a  brisk  trade,  and  has  a  barrack  for  a  troop 
of  horse  ;  with  a  charter  school  capable  of  re- 
ceiving fifty  children,  endowed  with  two  acres  of 
land,  rent-free,  by  lord  Lucan  ;  who  has  also 
granted  a  lease  of  twenty  acres  more  at  a  pepper 
corn  yearly.  Castlebar  is  memorable  for  having 
been  the  head  quarters  of  general  Lake,  in  Au- 
gust 1798,  when  he  was  attacked  by  about  800 
French  troops  and  a  party  of  the  rebels,  who 
obliged  him  to  retreat  with  the  loss  of  twenty 
men  and  six  pieces  of  canon,  and  kept  posses- 
sion of  the  place  for  twenty  days  afterwards.  It 
is  thirty-five  miles  north  of  Galway.  Long.  9° 
25'  W.,  lat.  53°  45'  N. 

CASTLE-CARY,  "a  remarkable  Roman  station, 
about  four  miles  west  from  Falkirk,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Stirlingshire,  in  Scotland.  It  compre- 
hends several  acres  of  ground,  is  of  a  square 
form,  and  is  surrounded  with  a  wall  of  stone  and 
mortar ;  all  the  space  within  the  walls  has  been 
occupied  by  buildings,  the  ruins  of  which  have 
raised  the  earth  eight  or  ten  feet  above  its  natu- 
ral surface;  so  that  the  fort  now  seems  like 
hill-top  surrounded  with  a  sunk  fence.  In  1770 
some  workmen  employed  in  searching  for  stones, 
for  the  great  canal  which  passes  near  it,  disco- 
vered several  apartments  of  stone ;  and  in  one 
of  them  a  great  number  of  stones  about  two 
feet  in  length,  and  standing  erect,  with  marks  of 
fire  upon  them,  as  if  they  had  been  employed  in 
supporting  some  vessel  under  which  fire  was  put. 
In  a  hollow  of  the  rock  near  this  place,  1771,  a 
considerable  quantity  of  wheat,  quite  black  with 


age,  was  found,  with  wedges  and  hammers,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  Roman. 

CASTLE-CARY,  a  town  in  Somersetshire,  three 
miles  from  Wincanton,  and  114  west  by  south 
of  London.  It  has  a  market  on  Tuesday,  and 
fairs  on  Midsummer,  Lent,  Whit-Tuesday,  and 
May  1st.  It  has  a  mineral  water  like  that  of 
Epsom. 

'CASTLE  ISLAND,  an  island  of  the  United 
States,  situated  in  the  harbor  of  Boston,  three 
miles  from  the  town.  It  contains  about  twenty 
acres  of  land,  and  is  fortified ;  commanding  the 
entrance  of  the  harbor. 

CASTLE-RISING,  a  borough  of  Norfolk,  which 
sent  two  members  to  parliament.  It  was 
formerly  a  place  of  some  note,  but  its  market 
is  now  disused,  its  harbour  choked  up,  and  the 
castle,  whence  its  name,  is  in  ruins.  It  is  seven 
miles  north-east  of  Lynn,  and  103  N.N.E.  of 
London. 

CASTLETOWN,  the  capital  of  trie  isle  of 
Man,  seated  on  the  south-west  part  of  the  island. 
In  the  centre  of  the  town,  on  a  high  rock,  is 
Castle-Rushen,  a  magnificent  fabric,  built  of 
freestone  in  960,  by  Guttred,  a  prince  of  the 
Danish  line,  who  lies  buried  in  the  edifice.  It 
is  occupied  by  the  governor  of  the  island,  and  on 
the  side  of  it  are  the  chancery,  offices,  and  good 
barracks.  The  distance  of  the  harbour,  however, 
which  is  rocky  and  shallow,  renders  this  place  of 
small  importance.  Near  the  town  is  a  fine 
quarry  of  black  marble,  whence  the  flight  of 
steps  leading  to  St.  Paul's  cathedral  was  taken. 

CA'STLING,  n.    An  abortive. 

We  should  rather  rely  upon  the  urine  of  a  castling's 
bladder,  a  resolution  of  crab's  eyes,  f«r  a  second  dis- 
tillation of  urine,  as  Helmont  hath  recommended. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

CA'STOR,  n.  A  beaver.  The  best  kind  of 
hat,  made  of  the  beaver's  fur.  This  last  sense 
seems  to  be  falling  into  disuse. 

Like  hunted  castors  conscious  of  their  store, 
Their  waylaid  wealth  to  Norway's  coast  they  bring. 

Dryden. 

CA'STOR,  or  CHESTER,  are  derived  from  the 
Sax.  ceaster,  a  city,  town,  or  castle ;  and  that 
from  the  Latin,  castrum  :  the  Saxons  choosing  to 
fix  in  such  places  of  strength  and  figure  as  the 
Romans  had  before  built  or  fortified. — Gibson's 
Camden. 

CASTOR,  in  astronomy,  a  moiety  of  the  con- 
stellation Gemini.  It  is  also  called  Rasalgenze, 
Apollo,  Aphellan,  Avellar,  and  Anelar. 

CASTOR,  in  zoology,  the  beaver,  a  genus  of 
quadrupeds  belonging  to  the  order  of  glires.  The 
fore-teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  are  truncated,  and 
hollowed  in  a  transverse  angular  direction.  The 
tops  of  the  fore-teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  lie  in  a 
transverse  direction;  grinders  four  in  each  jaw, 
and  the  tail  depressed.  There  are  two  species  : 
viz.  C.  fiber,  the  common  beaver,  with  a  plain 
ovated  tail,  found  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  It  has  short  ears, 
hid  in  the  fur;  a  blunt  nose  ;  the  fore-feet  small, 
the  hinder  large ;  its  length  from  nose  to  tail 
about  three  feet ;  tail  about  one.  It  is  from  the 
inguinal  glands  of  this  animal  that  the  castor 
is  obtained,  where  it  is  contained  in  Douches. 


CASTOR. 


231 


Nothing  equals  the  art  with  which  these  animals 
construct  their  dwellings.     They  choose  a  level 
piece  of  ground,  with  a  small  rivulet  running 
through   it.     This   they  form  into   a  pond  by 
making  a  dam  across;  first  by  driving  into  the 
ground  stakes  of  five  or  six  feet  ir.  length,  placed 
in  rows,  wattling  each  row  with  pliant  twigs,  and 
filling  the  interstices  with  clay,  ramming  it  down 
close.     The  side  next  the  water  is  sloped,  the 
other  perpendicular;  the  bottom  is  from  ten  to 
twelve  feet  thick,  but  the  thickness  gradually 
diminishes  to   the  top,  which  is  about  two  or 
three  :  the  length  of  these  dams  is  sometimes  not 
less  than  100  feet.   Their  houses  are  made  in  the 
water,  collected  by  means  of  the  dam,  and  are 
placed  near  the  edge  of  the  shore.     They  are 
buiit  on  piles;  are  either  round   or  oval;  but 
their  tops  are  vaulted,  so  that  their  inside  resem- 
bles an  oven,  the  top  a  dome.     The  walls  are 
two  feet  thick,  made  of  earth,  stones,  and  sticks, 
most   artificially   laid   together,   and   the   walls 
within  neatly  plastered.     In  each  house  are  two 
openings,  the  one  into  the  water,  the  other  to- 
wards  the   land.      The  height  of  these  houses 
above  the  water  is  eight  feet.     They  often  make 
two  or  three  stories  in  each  dwelling,  for  the 
convenience  of  change  in  case  of  floods. ,   Each 
house  contains  from  twenty  to  thirty  beavers ; 
and  the  number  of  houses  in  each  pond  is  from 
ten  to  twenty-five.     Each  beaver  forms  its  bed  of 
moss ;   and  each  family  forms  its  magazine  of 
winter   provisions,  which   consist  of  bark  and 
boughs  of  trees.     These  they  lodge  under  water, 
and  fetch  into  their  apartments  as  occasion  re- 
quires.   Their  summer  food  is  leaves,  fruits,  and 
sometimes  crabs  and  craw-fish,  but  they  are  not 
fond  of  fish.    To  effect  these  works  a  community 
of  200  or  300  assembles ;  each  bears  his  share  in 
the  labor ;  some  fall  to  gnawing  with  their  teeth 
trees  of  great  size,  to  form  beams  or  piles ;  others 
roll  the  pieces  along  the  water;  others  dive,  and 
with  their  feet  scrape  holes  in  order  to  place  them 
in ;  while  others  exert  their  efforts  to  rear  them 
in  their  proper  places;    another  party  is  em- 
ployed  in  collecting  twigs  to  wattle   the   piles 
with ;  a  third   in  collecting  earth,  stones,    and 
clay ;  a  fourth  is  busied  in  beating  and  temper- 
ing- the  mortar;  others  in  carrying  it  on  their 
broad  tails  to  proper  places ;  and  with  the  same 
instrument  they  ram  it  between  the  piles,  and 
plaster  the  inside   of  their  houses.     A  certain 
number  of  smart  strokes  given  with  their  tails 
is  a  signal  made  by  the  overseer  for  repairing 
to  such  and  such  places,  either  for  mending  any 
defects,  or  at  the  approach  of  an  enemy  ;  and  the 
whole  society  attend  to  it  with  the  utmost  assi- 
duity.    Their  time  of  building  is  early  in  sum- 
mer, for  in  winter  they  never  stir  but  to  their 
magazines  of  provisions,  and  during  that  season 
are  very  fat.   They  breed  once  a-year,  and  bring 
forth  at  the  latter  end  of  the  winter  two  or  three 
young   at   a  birth.      Besides   these   associated 
beavers,  there  is  a  variety  called  terriers,  which 
either  want  industry  or  sagacity  to  form  houses 
like  the  others.     They  burrow  in  the  banks  of 
rivers,  making  their  holes  beneath  the  freezing 
depth  of  the  water,  and  work  up  for  a  great  num- 
ber of  feet.     These  also  form  their  winter  stock 
of  provisions.   In  hunting  the  beave/p  the  savages 


sometimes  shoot  them,  always  getting  on  the  con- 
trary side  of  the  wind ;  for  they  are  very  shy, 
quick  in  hearing,  and  of  a  keen  scent.  This  is 
generally  done  when  the  beavers  are  at  work,  or 
on  shore  feeding  on  poplar  bark.  If  they  hear 
any  noise  when  at  work,  they  immediately  jump 
into  the  water,  and  continue  there  some  time ; 
and  when  they  rise,  it  is  at  a  distance  from  the 
place  where  they  went  in.  They  sometimes  are 
taken  with  traps  of  poplar  sticks  laid  in  a  path 
near  the  water,  which,  when  the  beaver  begins 
to  feed  upon,  they  cause  a  large  log  of  wood  to 
fall  upon  their  necks,  which  is  put  in  motion  by 
their  moving  of  the  sticks.  The  Indians  gene- 
rally prefer  this  way  of  taking  them,  because  it 
does  not  damage  their  skins.  In  winter  they 
break  the  ice  in  two  places,  at  a  distance  from 
the  house,  the  one  behind  the  other.  Then  they 
take  away  the  broken  ice  with  a  kind  of  racket, 
the  better  to  see  where  to  place  their  stakes. 
They  fasten  their  nets  to  these,  which  have  large 
meshes,  and  sometimes  are  eighteen  or  twenty 
yards  in  length.  When  these  are  fixed,  they 
proceed  to  demolish  the  house,  and  turn  a  dog 
therein,  which,  terrifying  the  beaver,  he  imme- 
diately leaves  it,  and  takes  to  the  water ;  after 
which  he  is  soon  entangled  by  the  net.  The 
skins  are  very  valuable.  See  BEAVER.  2.  C.  hui- 
dobrius.  Chilese  beaver.  Tail  compressed, 
lanceolate,  hairy ;  fore-feet  lobed,  hind-feet  pal- 
mate ;  head  nearly  square ;  snout  obtuse ;  eyes 
small ;  ears  short,  round ;  hair  double  like  C. 
fiber ;  the  undermost  finer  than  a  rabbit's,  and 
hence  valued  by  furriers;  on  the  back  cinereous  ; 
belly  whitish.  Inhabits  Chili,  in  the  deepest 
parts  of  lakes  and  rivers ;  fierce ;  feeds  on  fishes, 
on  crabs  chiefly;  remains  long  under  water; 
is  without  the  wonderful  architecture  and  castor 
of  C.  fiber;  produces  from  two  to  three  young; 
length  about  three  feet.  The  soft  or  short  hair 
very  fine,  and,  like  that  of  C.  fiber,  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  hats,  and  certain  cloths  which 
have  the  softness  of  velvet.  In  Chili  the  animal 
is  denominated  guillino* 

CASTOR  and  POLLUX,  in  meteorology,  a  fiery 
meteor,  which  appears  sometimes  sticking  to  a 
part  of  the  ship,  in  form  of  one,  two,  or  even 
three  or  four  balls.  When  one  is  seen  alone,  it 
is  called  Helena,  which  portends  the  severest 
part  of  the  storm  to  be  yet  behind ;  two  are  de- 
nominated Castor  and  Pollux,  and  sometimes 
Tyndarides,  which  portend  a  cessation  of  the 
storm.  Castor  and  Pollux  are  called  by  the 
Spaniards,  San  Elmo ;  by  the  French,  St.  Elme, 
St.  Nicholas,  St.  Clare,  St.  Helene ;  by  the  Ita- 
lians, Hermo;  by  the  Dutch,  Vree  Vuuren. 
These  meteors  are  rarely  seen  till  the  tempest  is 
nigh  spent.  When  the  meteor  sticks  to  the 
masts,  yards,  &c.,  they  conclude,  from  the  air's 
not  having  motion  enough  to  dissipate  this  flame, 
that  a  profound  calm  is  at  hand ;  if  it  flutter 
about,  it  indicates  a  storm. 

CASTOR  and  POLLUX,  in  pagan  mythology, 
were*  twin  brothers,  sons  of  Jupiter,  by  Leda,  the 
wife  of  Tyndarus,  king  of  Sparta.  Jupiter  being 
enamoured  of  Leda,  changed  himself  into  a  beau- 
tiful swan,  and  desired  Venus  to  metamorphose 
herself  into  an  eagle ;  after  which  the  goddess 
pursued  the  god  with  apparent  ferocity,  and  Ju- 


232 


CAS 


piter  led  for  :-etuge  into  the  arms  of  Leda,  who 
was  bathing   in   the  Eurotas.     Jupiter  availed 
himself  of  his  situation,  and  Leda,  who  was  al- 
Teady  pregnant,  nine  months  after  brought  forth 
*wo  eggs,  from  one  of  which  issued  Pollux  and 
Helena,  and  from  the  other  Castor  and  Clytem- 
nestra.     The  two  former  were  the  offspring  of 
Jupiter,  and  the  latter  were  supposed  to  be  the 
children  of  Tyndarus.     Immediately  after  their 
birth  Mercury  carried  the  two  brothers  to  Pal- 
lene  where  they  were  educated  ;  and  when  they 
arrived  at  mature  age  they  embarked  with  Jason 
to  go  in  search  of  the  golden  fleece ;  in  which 
expedition  both  remarkably  displayed  their  cou- 
rage.    Pollux  conquered  and  slew  Amyous,  in 
the  combat  of  the  cestus,   from  which  he  was 
ever   after  considered  the   god   and   patron  of 
boxing  and  wrestling ;  and  Castor  distinguished 
himself  in  the  management  of  horses.   After  their 
return  from  Colchis  they  united  in  the  most  in- 
violable friendship,  and  cleared  the  Hellespont 
and  neighbouring  seas  of  pirates ;    and  hence 
they  have  always  been  considered  friendly  to  na- 
vigation.    In  a  violent  storm,  during  the  Argo- 
uautic  expedition,  two  flames  of  fire  "were  seen 
to  play  round  the  heads  of  the  sons  of  Leda, 
and  the  tempest  instantly  ceased,   and  the  sea 
was  calmed ;  from  which  their  power  to  protect 
sailors  has  been  more  firmly  believed,  and  the 
two  fires,  so  frequent  in  storms,  have  since  been 
known  by  the  name  of  Castor  and  Pollux.    The 
two  brothers  made  war  against  the  Athenians  to 
recover  their  sister  Helen,  whom  Theseus  had 
carried  away;  and  from  their  clemency  to  the 
conquered  they  obtained  the  surname  of  Anaces, 
or  benefactors.     They  were  initiated  in  the  sa- 
cred mysteries  of  the  Cabiri,  and  in  those  of 
Ceres  at  Eleusis.     Having  been  invited  to  a 
feast  when  Lynceus  and  Idas  were  going  to  ce- 
lebrate their  marriage  with  Phoebe  and  Talaira, 
the  daughters  of  Leucippus,   brother  to  Tyn- 
darus, they  became  enamoured  of  the  two  wo- 
men whose  nuptials  they  were  to  celebrate,  and 
determined  to  carry  them  off  and  marry  them, 
which  so  provoked  Lynceus  and  Idas,  that  a 
battle  ensued,  wherein  Castor  killed  the  former, 
and  was  killed  by  the  latter.     Pollux  being  im- 
mortal, after  killing  Idas,  to  revenge  the  death  of 
his  brother,  entreated  Jupiter  to  restore  his  be- 
loved Castor,  or  to  be  himself  deprived  of  im- 
mortality ;  and  Jupiter  allowed  Castor  to  share 
the  immortality  of  his  brother.     Thus,  so  long 
as  the  one  was  upon  earth,  the  other  was  de- 
tained in  the  infernal  regions,  and  they  lived  and 
died  alternately  every  day;  or,  as  others  say, 
every  six  months.     For  this  act  of  fraternal  love 
Jupiter  translated  them  into   the  skies,  where 
they  formed   the  constellation   Gemini,  one  of 
which  stars  rises  as  the  other  sets.    A  martial 
dance,  called  the  Pyrrhic   or  Castorian  dance, 
was  invented  in  honor  of  these  deities,  whom  the 
Cephalenses  placed  among  the  D»  Magni,  and 
offered  to  them  white  lambs.     The  Romans  also 
paid  them  particular  honors,  on  account  of  the 
assistance  they  are  said  to  have  given  them  in 
an  engagement  against  the  Latins;  in  which,  ap- 
pearing mounted  on  white  horses,  they  turned 
the  scale  of  victory  in  their  favor  for  which  a 
temple  was  erected  to  them  in  the  forum. 

CASTOREUM,  in  the  materia  medica,  Castor; 


the  inguinal  glands  of  the  beaver.  The  ancients 
had  a  notion  that  it  was  lodged  in  the  testicles ; 
and  that  the  animal,  when  hard  pressed,  would 
bite  them  off,  and  leave  them  to  its  pursuers,  as 
if  conscious  of  what  they  wanted  to  destroy  him 
for.  According  to  Bouillon  La  Grange,  it  con- 
sists of  a  mucilage,  a  bitter  extract,  a  resin,  an 
essential  oil,  in  which  its  peculiar  smell  appears 
to  reside,  and  a  flaky  crystalline  matter,  much  re- 
sembling the  adipocere  of  biliary  calculi.  The 
best  sort  of  castor  comes  from  Russia.  The 
Russian  castor  is  in  large  hard  round  bags,  which 
appear,  when  cut,  full  of  a  brittle,  red,  liver-co- 
lored substance,  interspersed  with  membranes 
and  fibres  exquisitely  interwoven.  An  inferior 
sort  is  brought  from  Uantzic,  and  is  generally  fat 
and  moist.  The  American  castor,  which  is  tht 
worst  of  all,  is  in  longish  thin  cods.  Russia 
castor  has  a  strong  disagreeable  smell ;  and  an 
acrid,  bitterish,  and  nauseous  taste.  Water  ex- 
tracts the  nauseous  part,  with  little  of  the  finer 
bitter ;  rectified  spirit  extracts  this  last  without 
much  of  the  nauseous  ;  proof  spirit  both  :  water 
elevates  the  whole  of  its  flavor  in  distillation : 
rectified  spirit  brings  over  nothing.  Castor  is 
looked  upon  as  one  of  the  antihysteric  medicines : 
some  celebrated  practitioners,  nevertheless,  have 
doubted  its  virtues ;  and  Neuman  and  Stahl  de- 
clare it  insignificant.  Experience,  however,  has 
shown  that  the  virtues  of  castor  are  considerable, 
though  less  than  they  have  in  general  been  sup- 
posed. 

CASTOR  UIL,  in  medicine,  bee  RICINUM. 

CASTRAMETA'TION,  n.  Lat.  castrametor. 
The  art  or  practice  of  encamping  and  tracing  out 
camps.  By  an  extension  of  its  original  meaning, 
it  is  sometimes  applied  to  all  the  ordinary  opera- 
tions of  a  campaign. 

Their  castrametation,  even  under  the  most  practicable 
and  commodious  circumstances  of  ground,  is  sometimes 
ambiguous.  Warton. 

CA'STRATE,  v .  )      Lat.   castro.    To   geld  ; 

CASTRA'TION,  n.  $  to  remove  the  obscene  parts 
of  a  writing ;  to  take  out  any  part  of  a  book ; 
generally,  though  seldom  used  in  this  sense,  to 
take  away.  The  operation  of  gelding. 

Ye  castrate  the  desires  of  the  flesh.  Martin. 

The  largest  needle  should  be  used  in  taking  up  the 
spermatic  vessels  in  castration.  Sharpe. 

CASTRATION.     See  SURGERY. 

CASTRATION  OF  BRUTES.  See  GELDING  and 
SPAYING. 

CASTRATION  OF  PLANTS  consists  in  cutting  off 
the  antherae,  or  tops  of  the  stamina,  before  they 
have  attained  maturity,  and  dispersed  their  male  ' 
dust  This  operation  has  been  frequently  prac- 
tised by  the  moderns,  with  a  view  to  establish 
or  confute  the  doctrine  of  the  sexes  of  plants. 
See  BOTANY.  It  succeeds  principally  on  those 
which  have  their  male  flowers  detached  from  the 
female.  In  such  as  have  both  male  and  female 
flowers  contained  within  the  same  covers,  this 
operation  cannot  be  easily  performed  without  en- 
dangering the  neighbouring  organs. 

CASTREN'SIAN,  adj.     Lat.  castrensis.     Be 
longing  to  a  camp. 

CASTRENSIANI,  or  CASTRENSES,  in  anti- 
quity, servants  in  the  Greek  emperor's  household, 
who  had  the  care  of  what  related  to  his  table  and 
cloathing. 


CAS 


233 


CAS 


CASTRES,  a  large  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Tarn,  and  ci-devant  province  of  Lan- 
guedoc,  of  which  it  was  recently  an  episcopal  see. 
It  is  seated  in  a  fine  valley  on  the  Agout,  and  has 
some  flourishing  manufactures  of  cotton,  woollen, 
silk,  and  stuffs.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII. 
Castres  was  a  kind  of  protestant  republic;  but  in 
1629  its  fortifications  were  demolished.  Near  it 
are  mines  of  turquoise  stones.  It  was  the  birth 
place  of  Rapin  de  Thoyras,  Abel  Boyer,  and 
M.  Dacier.  It  is  twenty  miles  south  of  Alby, 
and  thirty-five  east  of  Thoulouse.  Population 
13,727. 

CASTRO,  or  CASTREMONIUM,  a  duchy  and 
town  of  Italy,  in  the  States  of  the  Church,  be- 
tween St.  Peter's  Patrimony,  the  Mediterranean, 
Tuscany,  the  Orvietana,  and  the  river  Marta. 
The  duchy  is  about  twenty-five  miles  in  length, 
and  from  ten  to  thirteen  broad.  The  town  of 
Castro  is  situated  near  the  river  Ospada,  ten 
miles  from  the  sea,  and  was  once  much  larger 
than  at  present.  In  1649  pope  Innocent  X.  or- 
dered it  to  be  razed  to  the  ground,  in  consequence 
of  the  inhabitants  having  murdered  the  bishop 
whom  he  had  sent  here.  The  episcopal  see  was 
at  this  time  removed  to  Aquapendente.  Twenty- 
five  miles  south-west  of  Orvieto,  and  fifty-five 
north-west  of  Rome. 

CASTRO,  the  ancient  Mytilene,  a  sea-port  town 
on  the  north-east  coast  of  the  island  of  Metelin, 
standing  on  a  lofty  neck  of  land,  with  a  harooui 
on  each  side.  It  is  about  a  mile  in  circumference, 
and  is  well  built.  Here  is  a  castle  three  quarters 
of  a  mile  in  compass  ;  and  to  the  west  the  ruins 
of  the  city  of  Mytilene.  The  town  contains  three 
or  four  Greek  churches.  Distant  thirty  miles 
south-west  of  Adramiti.  Long.  26°  28'  E.,  lat. 
39°  N. 

CASTRO,  the  principal  town  of  the  island  of 
Lemnos,  situated  on  the  west  side,  and  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Myrina.  It  is  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  in  circumference,  and  has  a  mixed  po- 
pulation of  about  3000  Turks  and  Greeks.  The 
latter  have  three  churches  and  a  bishop.  On  a 
high  rock  in  the  neighbourhood  stands  a  strong 
castle. 

CASTRUCCIO  (Castracani),  a  celebrated 
Italian  general,  born  at  Lucca,  in  Florence,  in 
1284,  and  left  by  his  parent  or  parents  in  a  vine- 
yard covered  with  leaves,  where  he  was  found  by 
a  widow  lady  and  a  priest  her  brother.  The  lady 
having  no  children,  they  resolved  to  bring  him 
up,  and  educate  him  as  their  own  child.  He 
was  destined  for  the  priesthood,  but  was  scarcely 
eighteen  when  he  entered  the  army,  and  was 
made  a  lieutenant  of  a  company  of  foot  by  Fran- 
cisco Guinigi,  of  the  party  of  the  Ghibelines.  He 
was  soon  after  made  general,  and  became  the 
chief  of  the  party.  Those  who  had  been  ba- 
nished from  their  country  fled  to  him  for  protec- 
tion, and  promised,  that  if  he  could  restore  them 
to  their  estates,  they  would  serve  him  so  effec- 
tually that  the  sovereignty  of  their  country  should 
be  his  reward.  He  entered  into  a  league  with 
the  prince  of  Milan,  and  kept  his  army  constantly 
on  foot.  The  Florentines  entered  into  a  war 
with  him,  but  Castruccio  fought  his  way  through 
them  ;  and  the  supreme  authority  of  Tuscany 
was  ready  to  fall  into  his  hands,  when  a  period 


was  put  to  hi,?  life.  In  May,  1328,  he  gained  a 
complete  victory  over  his  enemies,  after  which 
he  was  seized  with  an  ague,  which  carried  him 
off  in  a  few  days,  in  the  forty-fourth  year  of  his 
age. 

CASTRUM  DOLORIS,  in  writers  of  the  middle 
age,  denotes  a  catafalco,  or  a  lofty  tomb  of  state, 
erected  in  honor  of  some  person  of  eminence, 
usually  in  the  church  where  his  bodyis  interred; 
and  decorated  with  arms,  emblems,  lights,  &c. 

CASU  COJSSIMILI,  in  English  law,  a  writ  of 
entry  granted  where  a  tenant,  by  courtesy  or  for 
life,  aliens  either  in  fee,  in  tail,  or  for  the  term 
of  another's  life.  It  is  brought  by  him  in  rever- 
sion against  the  person  to  whom  such  tenant 
does  so  alien,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  reversioner 
in  the  tenant's  life  time. 

CASU  PROVISO,  a  writ  of  entry  founded  on  the 
statute  of  Gloucester,  where  a  tenant  in  dower 
aliens  the  lands  she  so  holds  in  fee,  or  for  life ; 
and  lies  for  the  party  in  reversion  against  the 
alienee. 

CA'SUAL,  adj.    ~\      Fr.  casuel ;   Lat.  casus. 
CA'SUALLY,  adv.    f  All    these    words   signify 
CA'SUALNESS,  n.   £  dependence  upon  accident, 
CA'SUALTY,  n.      )  chance,  uncertainty;  some- 
thing that  does  not  arise  from  a  set  pr.rpose,  but 
springs  from  a  momentary  and  unexpected  cause. 
A  casualty  is  a  thing  that  happens  suddenly  and 
unforeseen;  a  mischance  that  produces  unnatural 
death. 

The  revenue  of  Ireland,  both  certain  and  casual,  did 
not  arise  unto  ten  thousand  pounds.  Duvies  on  Ireland. 

That  which  seemeth  most  casual  aud  subject  to  for- 
tune, is  yet  disposed  by  the  ordinance  of  God.  Raleigh, 

With  more  patience  men  endure  the  losses  that 
befal  them  by  mere  casualty,  than  the  damages  which 
they  sustain  by  injustice.  /rf. 

Wool  new  shorn,  laid  casually  upon  a  vessel  of  ver- 
juice, had  drank  up  the  verjuice,  though  the  vessel 
was  without  any  flaw.  Bacon. 

Go,  bid  my  women 
Search  for  a  jewel,  which  too  casually 
Hath  left  my  arm.  i-hakapeare. 

Builds  in  the  weather  on  the  outward  wall, 
Even  in  the  force  and  road  of  casualty.  Id. 

Whether  found  where  casual  fire 
Had  wasted  woods,  on  mountain,  or  in  vale, 
Down  to  the  veins  of  earth.  Milton. 

Most  of  our  rarities  have  been  found  out  by  casual 
emergency,  and  have  been  the  works  of  time  and 
chance,  rather  than  of  philosophy.  Glanville, 

The  commissioners  entertained  themselves  by  the 
fire  side  in  general  and  casual  discourses.  Clarendon. 

We  find  one  casualty  in  our  bills,  of  which,  though 
there  be  daily  talk,  there  is  little  effect. 

Grant's  Bills  of  Mortality. 

That  Octavius  Casar  should  shift  his  camp  that 
night  that  it  happened  to  be  took  by  the  enemy,  was 
a  mere  casualty ;  yet  it  preserved  a  person  who  lived 
to  establish  a  total  alteration  of  government  in  the 
imperial  city  of  the  world.  South. 

I  should  have  acquainted  my  judge  with  one  advan- 
tage, and  which  I  now  casually  remember.  Dryden. 

It  is  observed  in  particular  nations,  that,  within  the 
space  of  two  or  three  hundred  years,  notwithstanding 
all  casualties,  the  number  of  men  doubles. 

Burnct's  Theory. 


CAT 


234 


CAT 


The  expences  of  some  of  them  always  exceed  their 
certain  annual  income ;  but  seldom  their  casual  sup- 
plies. I  call  them  casual,  in  compliance  with  the 
common  form.  Atterbury. 

He  that  resigns  his  peace  to  little  casualties,  and 
suffers  the  course  of  his  life  to  be  interrupted  by  for- 
tuitous inadvertencies  or  offences,  delivers  up  himself 
to  the  direction  of  the  wind,  and  loses  all  that  con- 
stancy and  equanimity  which  constitute  the  chief  praise 
of  a  wise  man.  Johnson.  Rambler. 

CASUARINA,  in  botany,  a 'genus  of  the  mo- 
nandria  order,  and  monoecia  class  of  plants :  MALE 
CAL.  of  the  amentum  :  COR.  a  bipartite  scale : 
FEMALE  CAL.  of  the  amentum :  COR.  none  :  the 
STYL.  bipartite  :  fruit,  a  cone.  Species,  five  : 
three  from  the  South  Sea  islands,  and  two  from 
the  East  Indies. 

CA'SUIST,  n.  s.      ^       Fr.    casuiste ;    from 
CASUI'STICAL,  adj.    ^Lat.  casus.    A  casuist  is 
CA'SUISTRY,  n.          j  one   who   studies,   and 
gives  judgment  upon,  cases  of  conscience ;  and 
who,  generally,  is  too  prone  to  deal  in  dangerous 
subtleties,  and  *  to  divide  a  hair  twixt  north  and 
north-west  side.'     Pascal  has  exposed  this  race 
of  beings,  and  their  shameful  casuistry,  in  a  mas- 
terly manner,  in  his  Provincial  Letters. 

The  judgment  of  any  casuist,  or  learned  divin<>, 
concerning  the  state  of  a  man's  soul,  is  not  sufficient 
to  give  him  confidence.  South. 

What  arguments  they  have  to  beguile  poor  simple 
unstable  souls  with,  I  know  not,  but  surely  the  prac- 
tical, casuistical,  that  is,  the  principal  vital  part  of 
their  religion  savours  very  little  of  spirituality.  It, 

You  can  scarce  see  a  bench  of  porters  without  two 
or  three  cawists  in  it,  that  will  settle  you  the  rights  of 
princes.  Addison. 

Who  shall  decide  when  doctors  disagree, 
And  soundest  casuists  doubt,  like  you  and  me.    Pope. 

One  only  doubt  remains,  full  oft  I've  heard, 
By  casuists  brave  and  deep  divines  averred, 
That  'tis  too  much  for  human  race  to  know, 
The  bliss  of  heaven  above,  and  earth  below.  Id. 

This  concession  would  pass  for  good  casuistry  in 
these  ages.  Id.  Odyssey.  Notes. 

Morality,  by  her  false  guardians  drawn, 

Chicane  in  furs,  and  casuistry  in  lawn.  11. 

CASUISTS.  Escobar  has  made  a  collection  of 
the  opinions  of  all  the  casuists  before  him.  M. 
Le  Fevre,  preceptor  of  Louis  XIII.  called  the 
books  of  the  casuists  the  art  of  quibbling  with 
God.  Mayer  published  a  bibliotheca  of  casuists, 
containing  an  account  of  all  the  writers  on  cases 
of  conscience,  ranged  under  three  heads;  the 
first  comprehending  the  Lutheran,  the  second 
the  Calvinist,  the  third  the  Romish,  casuists. 

CASUISTRY  is  drawn  partly  from  natural  reason 
or  equity  ;  partly  from  authority  of  Scripture, 
the  canon  law,  councils,  fathers,  &c.  To  casuistry 
belongs  the  decision  of  all  difficulties  arising 
about  what  a  man  may  concern  himself,  and  law- 
fully do  or  not  do ;  what  is  sin  or  not  sin  ;  what 
things  a  man  is  obliged  to  do,  to  discharge  his 
duty  ;  and  what  he  may  omit  without  breach  of 
it.  Professors  of  casuistry,  however,  have  con- 
fined themselves  to  no  rule  of  morals  which  they 
have  not  instructed  mankind  to  evade.  The 
Jesuits  held  the  foremost  rank  in  this  long-famous 
study :  until  the  Lettres  Provinciales  of  Pascal, 
swept  their  whole  system  into  the  dust.  A  useful 


English  translation  of  them  was  given  to  the 
public  a  few  years  since,  by  Dr.  Cox. 

CASUS  OMISSIONIS,  in  Scots  law.  In  action 
proving  the  tenor  of  obligations  inextinguishable 
by  the  debtor's  retiring  or  cancelling  them,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  pursuer,  before  he  is  allowed 
a  proof  of  the  tenor,  to  condescend  upon  such  a 
casus  omissionis,  or  accident  by  which  the  writ- 
ing was  destroyed,  as  shows  it  was  lost  while  in 
the  writer's  possession. 

CASWELL,  a  county  of  North  Carolina,  in 
Hillsborough  district ;  bounded  on  the  east  by 
Person;  on  the  north  by  Virginia:  on  the  west 
by  Guilford,  and  on  the  south  by  Orange  county. 
Leesburgh  is  the  chief  town. 

CAT,  n.  1      Fr.  chat;  Ital. 

CAT-IN-PAN,  n.  gat  to;  Span,  aud 

CAT-O'-NINE  TAILS,  n.  Port.gato;  Arab 

CAT'S  PAW,  n.  kith  ;  Per.  katt ; 

CAT-EYED,  adj.  Heb.  kat ;  Turk. 

CAT-A-MOU'NTAIN,  n  &  adj.  \kady  ;  Rus.  kote ; 

C  A'TCAL,  and  f  Pol .  kote ;  Welsh , 

CATPIPE,  n.  cath;  Ic.  cat;  Ar. 

CATERWA'UL,  v.  caz ;    Goth,    and 

CA'TLIKE,  adj.  all    its    dialects, 

C A'TISH,  adj  kat,  or  katze ;  Lat. 

CA'TLING,  n.  j  catus.    A  domes- 

tic animal  that  catches  mice.  See  FELIS.  A 
cat-o'-nine  tails  is  a  whip  with  nine  lashes,  used 
to  punish  criminals.  To  turn  cat-in-pan,  sup- 
posed to  be  corrupted  from  cate  in  pan,  is  to 
change  sides ;  but  the  quotation  from  Bacon 
shows  that  it  had  formerly  another  meaning. 
Cat's  paw  is  a  trivial  expression,  signifying  the 
tool  of  another  person.  Cat-a-mountain  is  a  fierce 
animal,  resembling  a  cat;  and  a  catcal  is  a 
shrill,  squeaking  instrument,  once  much  em- 
ployed by  critics,  in  the  play-house,- to  condemn 
plays.  Catling  means  a  young  cat ;  catgut ;  a 
dismembering  knife  used  by  surgeons ;  and 
the  down  growing  about  walnut  trees. 

full  oft 

Have  I,  upon  this  benche,  faren  full  wele  • 
Here  have  I  eten  many  a  merry  mele. 
And  fro  the  bench  he  drove  away  the  cot, 
And  laid  adoun  his  potent  and  his  hat, 
And  eke  his  scrip  and  set  himself  adoun. 

Chaucer.   Cant.  Tales. 
'Twas  you  incensed  the'rabble  : 
Cats  that  can  judge  as  fitly  of  his  worth, 
As  I  can  of  those  mysteries,  which  heaven 
Will  not  have  earth  to  know.  Shakspeare. 

Thrice  the  brindcd  cat  hath  mewed.  Id. 

A  lioness,  with  udders  all  drawn  dry, 
Lav  couching,  head  ou  ground,  with  cat-like  watch. 

Id. 

What  musick  there  will  be  in  him,  after  Hector  has 
knocked  out  his  brains,  I  know  not.  But  I  am  sure 
none ;  unless  the  fiddler  Apollo  get  his  sinews  to 
make  catlings  of.  Id. 

There  is  a  cunning  which  we,  in  England,  call  the 
turning  of  the  cat  in  the  pan ;  which  is,  when  that 
which  a  man  says  to  another,  he  lays  it  as  if  another 
had  said  it  to  him.  Bacon. 

What  a  caterwauling  do  you  keep  here !  If  my 
lady  has  not  called  up  her  steward  Malvolio,  and  bid 
him  turn  you  out  of  doors,  never  trust  me.  Id. 

Some  songsters  can  no  more  sing  in  any  chamber 
but  their  own,  than  some  clerks  can  read  in  any  book 
but  their  own ;  put  them  out  of  their  road  once,  and 
they  are  mere  cat-pipes  and  dunces.  V Estrange 


CATACOMBS. 


236 


Was  no  dispute  between 

The  caterwauliruj  brethren  ?  Hudibras. 

Ybu  dread  reformers  of  an  impious  age, 
You  awful  cat  o'  nine  tails  to   the  stage, 
This  once  be  just,  and  in  our  cause  engage. 

Prologue  to  Vanbrugh's  False  Friend. 
If  cat-eyed,  then  a  Pallas  is  their  love  ; 
If  freckled,  she's  a  party-colored  dove.          Dryden. 
The  black  prince  of  Monomotapa,  by  -whose  sides 
were  seen  the  glaring  cat-a-mountain,   and  the    quill- 
darting  porcupine.          Arbuthnotand  Pope's  Scriblerus. 
A  young  lady,  at  the  theatre,  conceived  a  passion 
for  a  notorious  rake  that  headed  a  party  of  catcals. 

Spectator, 

Three  cat-calls  be  the  bribe 
Of  him  whose  chattering  shames  the  monkey  tribe. 

Pope. 

Have  I  not  sat  with  thee  full  many  a  night, 
When  dying  embers  were  our  only  light, 
When  every  creature  did  iu  slumbers  lie, 
Besides  our  cat,  my  Colin  Clout  and  I  ? 
No  troublous  thoughts  the  cat  or  Colin  move, 
While  I  alone  am  kept  awake  by  love.  Gay. 

Let  cats  and  catlings  of  ignoble  line, 
Slumber  in  bee-hive  chairs,  in  dairies  dine. 

Huddisford. 

Ye  sage  divines,  if  so  concise  our  span, 
Who  for  preferment  would  turn  cat-in-pan  ? 
Since  clergymen  and  cats  one  fate  betides, 
And  worms  shall  eat  their  sermons  and  their  hides. 

Id, 

There,  like  Alcena's,  shall  Grima'kin's  son 
In  bliss  repose,  his  mousing  labours  done  ; 
Fate,  envy,  curs,  time,  tide,  and  traps,  defy, 
And  caterwaul  to  all  eternity  Id. 

CAT,  in  sea  affairs,  a  ship  employed  in  the 
coal  trade,  formed  from  the  Norwegian  model. 
It  is  distinguished  by  a  narrow  stern,  projecting 
quarters,  a  deep  waist,  and  by  having  ornamen- 
tal  figures  on  the  prow.  These  vessels  are  gene- 
rally built  remarkably  strong,  ana  carry  from  400 
to  600  tons,  or  in  the  language  of  the  mariners,  fiom 
twenty  to  thirty  keels  of  coals.  Cat  is  also  a  sort 
of  strong  tackle,  or  combination  of  pullies,  to 
hook  and  draw  the  anchor  perpendicularly  up  to 
the  cat-head. 

CAT,  in  zoology.     See  FELIS. 
CATABATT1ST,  Gr.    Kara    and    /3a7m£w. 
An  opponent,  or  abuser,  of  baptism,  particularly 
of  that  of  infants. 

CATABASION,  from  xara^amnv,  to  descend ; 
in  the  Greek  church,  a  place  under  the  altar 
wherein  the  relics  are  kept. 

CATABAW,  a  river  of  the  United  States, 
which  rises  at  the  foot  of  the  Apalachian  Moun- 
tains, in  North  Carolina ;  thence  runs  east  for 
nearly  forty  miles ;  then  turns  gradually  south,  af- 
terwards south  by  east,  and  passing  into  South 
Carolina,  where  it  obtains  the  name  of  the  Wa- 
teree,  afterwards  unites  with  the  Congaree,  and 
forms  the  Santee. 

CATABAW,  a  town  of  South  Carolina,  in  the 
north  part  of  Camden  district,  a  few  miles  east 
of  the  river  of  this  name  adjoining  the  divisional 
line  of  north  Carolina,  near  the  main  road  lead- 
ing from  Camden  to  Charlotte,  about  fifty-six 
miles  north  from  Philadelphia. 

The  CATABAW  INDIANS  were  a  nation  of 
North  Americans,  inhabiting  the  above  town  and 
disrrjcf .  They  were  for  many  years  at  war  with 


the  Six  Nations,  and  were  recKoned  the  most 
formidable  of  their  enemies.  They  have  often 
penetrated  into  their  country,  which  it  is  said  no 
southern  or  western  tribe  ever  did. 

CATABULENSES,  in  the  middle  age,  a  sort 
of  ministers  of  the  empire,  appointed  to  conduct 
the  public  carriage  from  one  catabulum,  or  stage, 
to  another.  The  catabulenses  also  had  the 
charge  of  conveying  the  public  corn  to  and  from 
the  mills  ;  whence,  in  the  Theodosian  code,  they 
are  joined  with  bakers. 

CATABULUM,  in  the  middle  age,  a  kind  of 
stable,  wherein  beasts,  especially  of  burden  and 
carriage,  were  kept  for  the  public  service.  The 
ancient  Christians  were  sometimes  condemned 
to  serve  in  the  catabula,  that  is  to  work  at  the 
cleaning  of  them,  attending  the  beasts,  &c. 

CATACHRE'SIS,  n.  1       From   Karaxp»?<nc, 

CATACHRE'STICAL,  adj.  }  abuse.  The  catachre- 
sis  is,  however,  not  always  a  fault ;  it  is  even 
sometimes  a  great  beauty.  It  is  a  trope,  which 
borrows  the  name  of  one  thing  to  express  another  ; 
and  is  censurable  only  when  it  is  ungracefully 
and  violently  employed.  When,  in  describing 
the  descent  of  Raphael,  Milton,  instead  of  using 
the  word  flies,  says,  that  he  '  sails  between 
worlds  and  worlds,'  the  catachresis  gives  addi- 
tional animation.  Catachrestical  is  forced,  far- 
fetched. 

I  ask,  if  now  and  then  he  does  not  offer  at  a  cata- 
chresis, wresting  and  torturing  a  word  into  another 
meaning.  Dryden, 

A  catachrestical  and  far-derived  similitude  it  holds 
with  men,  that  is,  in  bifurcation. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

CATACLASIS,  from  KaraieXau>,  I  distort ;  in 
medicine,  denotes  a  disorder  of  the  eye,  wherein 
the  eyelid  is  inverted  by  a  convulsion  of  the 
muscles  that  close  it. 

CATACLYSM,  old  Fr.  catadismei  Karu- 
K\u<r/zo£.  A  deluge  ;  an  inundation  :  used  gent- 
rally  for  the  universal  deluge. 

The  opinion  that  held  these  cataclysms,  and  empy- 
roses  universal,  was  such  as  held  that  it  put  a  total 
consummation  unto  things  in  this  lower  world.  Hale. 

CATACOMBS,  n.  From  Kara  and  K0[ij3os, 
a  hollow  or  cavity.  Subterraneous  cavities  for 
the  burial  of  the  dead,  of  which  there  are  a  great 
number  about  three  miles  from  Home,  supposed 
to  be  the  caves  and  cells  where  the  primitive 
Christians  hid  and  assembled  themselves,  and 
where  they  interred  the  martyrs,  which  are  accord- 
ingly visited  with  devotion.  Chambers. 

On  the  side  of  Naples  are  the  catacombs,  which 
must  have  been  full  of  stench,  if  the  dead  bodies  that 
lay  in  them  were  left  to  rot  in  open  niches.  Addison. 

CATACOMBS  are  subterraneous  caves  used  for 
tombs,  and  sometimes  form  streets  of  tombs. 
They  have  been  constructed  of  various  forms  by 
all  ancient  nations  ;  but  those  of  Egypt,  Naples, 
Syracuse,  and  Paris,  may  be  considered  as  the 
most  celebrated. 

Before  we  enter  into  any  detailed  account  of 
the  Egyptian  catacombs,  it  will  be  but  just  to 
furnish  some  notice  of  the  labors  of  the  dis- 
tinguished and  persevering  individual  to  whom 
we  are  principally  indebted  for  our  knowledge 
of  these  vast  funeral  relics.  If  the  late  Mr.  Bel- 


236 


CATACOMBS. 


ront  was  less  critically,  or  less  profoundly,  versed 
in  the  science  and  literature  of  antiquity,  than 
some  other  of  those  European  travellers  who 
have  busied  themselves  in  exploring  the  wonders 
of  Egypt,  he  was  in  native  shrewdness  of  obser- 
vation, enterprising  perseverance,  and  presence 
of  mind  in  new  and  untried  situations,  inferior 
to  none,  and  superior  to  most.  It  was  he  who 
found  access  to  that  pyramid  (of  Cephrenes) 
whose  interior  chambers  the  mercenary  cupidity, 
and  the  antiquarian  curiosity,  of  centuries  had 
sought  for  in  vain  ;  and  it  was  Belzoni  who,  not 
merely  discovered  and  penetrated  the  subter- 
ranean mysteries  of  a  Theban  tomb,  or  rather  a 
sepulchral  palace,  or  perhaps  temple,  which  had 
been  closed  for  thousands  of  years ;  but  actually, 
though  possessed  of  very  limited  resources,  save 
those  of  his  own  ingenuity,  effected  its  virtual 
transportation  from  the  capital  city  of  the  ancient 
world,  to  the  metropolis  of  the  modern. 

Our  space  will  only  permit  a  notice  of  Bel- 
zoni's  principal  discovery,  namely,  the  tomb  of 
'  Psammis  the  Powerful,'  which  may  assuredly 
be  considered  as  the  chef  d'  oeuvre  of  ancient  se- 
pulture. It  is  situated  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Beban  el  Malook;  and  Belzoni,  when  he  had 
passed  through  the  external  aperture,  found  him- 
self in  a  beautiful  hall,  twenty-seven  feet  six 
inches,  by  twenty-five  feet  ten  inches,  in  which 
were  four  pillars,  three  feet  square.  At  the  end 
of  this  room,  and  opposite  the  aperture,  is  a 
large  door,  from  which  three  steps  lead  down 
into  a  chamber  with  two  pillars.  This  is  twenty- 
eight  feet  two  inches,  by  twenty  five  feet  six 
inches.  The  pillars  are  three  feet  ten  inches 
square.  Returning  into  the  entrance-hall,  he 
saw  on  the  left  of  the  aperture  a  large  stair- 
case, which  descended  into  a  corridor ;  this  is 
thirteen  feet  four  inches  long,  seven  and  a  half 
wide,  and  has  eighteen  steps.  At  the  bottom  he 
entered  a  beautiful  corridor  thirty-six  feet  six 
inches,  by  six  feet  eleven  inches.  Belzoni  per- 
ceived that  the  paintings  became  more  perfect 
as  he  advanced  farther  into  the  interior.  They 
retained  their  gloss,  or  a  kind  of  varnish  over 
the  colors,  which  had  a  beautiful  effect ;  the 
figures  being  painted  on  a  white  ground.  At 
the  end  of  this  corridor  he  descended  ten  steps 
into  another,  seventeen  feet  two  inches,  by  ten 
feet  five  inches.  Proceeding  onwards,  through 
a  series  of  apartments,  Belzoni  says  that  the 
treasure  he  found  in  the  centre  of  the  principal 
saloon  had  not  '  its  equal  in  the  world.'  The 
sarcophagus  to  which  he  alludes  is  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  and  is  formed  of  the  finest 
oriental  alabaster,  nine  feet  rive  inches  long,  and 
three  feet  seven  inches  wide ;  its  thickness  is 
only  two  inches,  and  it  is  transparent  when  a 
light  is  placed  in  the  inside  of  it.  It  is  minutely 
sculptured  within  and  without  with  several  hun- 
dred figures,  which  do  not  exceed  two  inches  in 
height.  The  cover  was  not  there,  it  had  been 
taken  out  and  broken  into  several  pieces,  which 
were  found  in  digging  before  the  first  entiance. 
The  sarcophagus  was  over  a  staircase  in  the 
centre  of  the  saloon,  which  pommunicated  with 
a  subterraneous  passage  leading  downwards, 
three  hundred  feet  in  length.  At  the  end  of  this 
passage  was  found  a  great  quantity  of  bats'  dung. 


which  choked  it  up.  One  hundred  feet  from 
the  entrance  was  a  staircase  in  good  preserva- 
tion, but  the  rock  below  had  changed  its  sub- 
stance from  a  beautiful  solid  calcareous  stone 
into  a  kind  of  black  rotten  slate,  which  crumbled 
into  dust  only  by  touching.  Belzoni,  in  further 
describing  the  tomb,  says  '  this  subterraneous 
passage  proceeded  in  a  south-west  direction 
through  the  mountain ;'  and  he  adds,  '  I  measured 
the  distance  from  the  entrance,  and  also  the 
rocks  above,  and  found  that  the  passage  reaches 
nearly  half  way  through  the  mountain  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  valley.  I  have  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  this  passage  was  used  to  come  into  the 
tomb  by  another  entrance,  but  this  could  not  be 
after  the  death  of  the  person  who  was  buried 
there,  for  at  the  bottom  of  the  stairs  just  under 
the  sarcophagus  a  wall  was  built,  which  entirely 
closed  the  communication  between  the  tomb  and 
the  subterraneous  passage.  Some  large  blocks 
of  stone  were  placed  under  the  sarcophagus 
horizontally,  level  with  the  pavement  of  the  sa- 
loon, that  no  one  might  perceive  any  stairs  or 
subterranean  passage  was  there.  The  door-way 
of  the  side-board  room  had  been  walled  up,  and 
forced  open,  as  we  found  the  stones  with  which 
it  was  shut,  and  the  mortar  in  the  jambs.  The 
staircase  of  the  entrance-hall  had  been  walled  up 
also  at  the  bottom,  and  the  space  filled  with  rub- 
bish, and  the  floor  covered  with  large  blocks  of 
stone,  so  as  to  deceive  any  one  who  should  force 
the  fallen  wall  near  the  pit,  and  make  him  sup- 
pose that  the  tomb  ended  with  the  entrance-hall 
and  the  drawing-room.  The  tomb  faces  the 
north-east,  and  the  direction  of  the  whole  runs 
straight  south-west.' 

The  tombs  of  Gournou  are  not  far  from  Car- 
nak.  These  sepulchres  are  excavated  in  all  di- 
rections in  the  rocks,  but  generally  with  the 
entrance  facing  the  east,  as  the  chain  of  these 
mountains  runs  from  north  to  south-  They  are 
intermixed  of  all  sizes,  and  some  of  them  have 
porticoes  hewn  out  of  the  rocks  before  the  en- 
trance ;  but  generally  they  are  within  the  outer 
door,  which  is  mostly  adorned  with  well-finished 
figures  and  hieroglyphics,  and  generally  the 
watchful  fox  is  represented  at  each  side  of  the 
inner  door  leading  to  the  grotto.  Some  of  them 
are  very  extensive,  and  run  down  in  various  di- 
rections, something  like  winding  stairs,  having  on 
each  side,  at  regular  distances  of  a  few  paces, 
small  chambers  to  deposit  the  mummies.  Some 
have  deep  shafts,  or  wells,  with  excavations  on 
each  side  of  the  shaft  to  receive  the  mummies ; 
and  at  the  bottom  of  the  wells  are  passages  lead- 
ing to  smaller  apartments,  with  endless  winding 
recesses. 

Upper  Egypt  also  contains  some  very  remark- 
able catacombs.  They  are  situated  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  great  canal,  and  consist  of  gal- 
leries extending  a  considerable  way  under  ground, 
or  rather  into  the  rock.  They  were  probably  at 
first  the  quarries,  whence  the  stones  necessary 
for  building  the  houses  of  Alexandria  were  ex- 
tracted ;  and  after  having  furnished  the  people 
of  the  country  with  materials  for  their  habitations 
during  their  lives,  they  become  their  last  abode 
after  death.  Though  of  immense  extent,  they 
did  not  require  laborious  efforts,  the  stratum  of 


CATACOMBS. 


237 


stone  being  calcareous  and  soft.  It  was,  no 
doubt,  on  account  of  the  softness  of  the  rock  that 
the  ancient  Egyptians  covered  the  inside  of  the 
galleries  with  a  kind  of  mortar,  which  has  ac- 
quired a  great  degree  of  solidity,  and  is  not 
easily  broken.  The  great  part  of  these  subter- 
raneous passages  have  fallen  in.  In  the  small 
number  of  those  in  which  it  was  still  possible  to 
penetrate,  was  perceivable,  on  each  side,  three 
rows  of  tombs  placed  one  above  another.  Their 
longest  sides  form  an  inclined  plane  inwards, 
so  that  the  bottom  of  the  tomb  is  much  nar- 
rower than  the  upper  part.  At  the  extremity 
of  some  of  these  galleries  there  are  separate 
chambers  with  their  tombs,  set  apart,  no  doubt, 
for  the  interment  of  a  family,  or  of  a  particular 
class  of  citizens. 

If  we  may  believe  the  Arabs,  the  catacombs 
have  a  subterraneous  communication  with  the 
pyramids  of  Memphis.  This  opinion  of  their 
immense  extent  appears  exaggerated.  It  does 
not,  however,  go  beyond  the  other  gigantic  works 
of  the  Egyptians,  and  might  be  worth  the  trouble 
of  verification.  It  is  more  certain  that  they  ex- 
tend as  far  as  the  sea  at  the  head  of  the  old  port. 
The  three  grottoes,  or  cavities,  hollo  wed  out  of  the 
rock  by  the  sea  side,  which  the  Egyptians  have 
honored,  rather  improperly,  with  the  name  of 
Cleopatra's  baths,  appear  to  be  a  continuation  of 
them.  See  EGYPT  and  AFRICA. 

The  catacombs  ot  Syracuse  must  now  be 
noticed.  These  excavations  commence  beneath 
the  church  of  St.  John,  and  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians are  supposed  to  have  assembled  here  se- 
cretly in  times  of  persecution,  and  also  to  have 
interred  their  brethren  in  these  vaults.  These 
subterraneous  alleys  cross  each  other  in  many 
directions,  and  are  hewn  with  more  care  and 
regularity  than  the  catacombs  of  St.  Januarius  at 
Naples.  On  each  side  of  the  walls  are  recesses 
cut  into  the  rock,  and  in  the  floor  of  these  cavi- 
ties coffins  of  all  sizes  have  been  hollowed  out. 
In  some  places  there  are  twenty  troughs,  one 
behind  another  ;  skeletons  have  been  often  found 
in  them,  with  a  piece  of  money  in  their  mouths. 
Swinburne  says  that  he  saw  '  a  gold  coin  of 
the  time  of  Icetas,  that  was  just  taken  out  of  the 
jaws  of  a  body  found  in  a  tomb  here.' 

Naples  also  boasts  its  catacombs,  though  they 
are  in  no  shape  comparable  to  those  already 
noticed.  There  is  a  curious  circumstance  con- 
nected with  the  public  exhibition  of  the  dead 
in  these  vaults,  which  deserves  to  be  noticed.  It 
is  thus  described  by  Swinburne  : — '  It  is  a  cus- 
tom here,  on  All  Souls  Day,  to  throw  open  the 
charnel-houses,  lighted  up  with  torches,  and 
decked  out  with  all  the  flowery  pageantry  of 
May-day ;  crowds  follow  crowds  through  these 
vaults  to  behold  the  coffins,  nay  the  bodies,  of 
their  friends  and  relations ;  the  floors  are  divided 
into  beds  like  a  garden ;  and  under  these  heaps 
of  earth  the  corpses  are  laid  in  regular  succes- 
sion ;  the  place  is  perfectly  dry,  for  the  soil  is 
rather  a  pounded  stone  than  earth,  and  parches 
up  the  flesh  completely  in  a  twelvemonth ;  when 
that  period  is  elapsed,  the  body  is  taken  up, 
dressed  in  a  religious  habit,  and  fixed  like  a 
statue  in  a  niche ;  many  retain  a  horrid  resem- 
blance to  what  they  were  when  animated  ;  and 


some  show  strong  marks  of  agony  in  their  dis- 
torted features.'  They  are  much  better  preserved 
than  the  mummies  of  Toulouse,  which  pass  for 
such  singular  curiosities. 

The  Parisian  catacombs  are  of  a  comparatively 
modern  date;  and  their  employment  as  burial 
places  appears  to  have  originated  in  a  '  royal  or- 
dinance, dated  1777.'  Prior  to  that  time  they 
had  been  little  more  than  a  series  of  rudely  con- 
structed excavations  or  quarries,  from  whence 
the  stone  for  the  erection  of  Paris  had  been 
raised.  The  quarries  had  been  worked  from 
time  immemorial  without  any  system,  every  man 
working  where  he  would,  till  it  became  danger- 
ous to  work  them  farther ;  and  it  was  only  known, 
as  a  popular  tradition,  that  they  extended  under 
great  part  of  the  city,  till  the  year  1774,  when 
some  alarming  accidents  roused  the  attention  of 
the  government.  They  were  then  properly  sur- 
veyed, and  plans  of  them  taken,  and  the  result 
was  the  frightful  discovery  that  the  churches, 
palaces,  and  most  of  the  southern  parts  of  Paris 
were  undermined,  and  in  imminent  danger  of 
sinking  into  the  pit  below  them.  A  special 
commission  was  appointed  to  direct  such  works 
as  might  be  required.  The  necessity  of  the 
undertaking  was  fully  shown  the  very  day  that 
the  commission  was  installed ;  a  house  in  the 
Rue  d'  Enfer  having  that  day  sunk  down  eight- 
and-twenty  metres  below  the  level  of  its  court- 
yard. Engineers  were  now  employed  to  examine 
the  whole  of  the  quarries,  and  prop  the  streets, 
churches,  palaces,  and  buildings  which  were  in 
danger  of  being  engulfed.  One  set  of  work- 
men were  employed  in  this  curious  service — 
another  in  exploring  the  labyrinth  of  excava- 
tions, some  of  which  were  under  the  others, 
and  opening  galleries  between  them,  that  the 
extent  of  the  peril  might  be  known ;  and,  to 
prevent  future  evils  of  the  same  kind,  all  the 
quarries  which  were  still  in  use  in  the  environs 
of  Paris,  were  placed  under  the  inspection  of 
the  commissioners,  that  they  might  be  worked 
upon  some  safe  system.  Never  had  any  men  a 
more  arduous  or  more  important  commission.  The 
pillars  which  had  been  left  by  the  quarriers  in  their 
operations,  without  any  regularity,  were,  in  many 
places,  too  weak  for  the  enormous  weight  above  ; 
and,  in  most  places,  had  themselves  been  under- 
mined, or  perhaps  originally  stood  upon  ground 
which  had  previously  been  hollowed.  In  some 
instances  they  hao  given  way,  in  others  the  roof 
had  dipt  and  threatened  to  fall ;  in  others  again, 
great  masses  had  fallen  in.  The  great  aqueduct 
of  Arcueil  passed  over  this  treacherous  ground  ; 
it  had  already  suffered  some  shocks,  and  if  the 
quarries  had  continued  to  be  neglected,  an  ac- 
cident must  sooner  or  later  have  happened  to 
this  water-course,  which  would  have  cut  off  the 
supply  from  the  fountains  of  Paris,  and  have 
filled  the  excavations  with  water. 

Such  was  the  state  of  the  quarries  when  the 
commission  was  appointed  in  1777,  under  M. 
Charles  Guillaumot,  as  inspector-general.  The 
thought  of  converting  them  into  a  necropolis 
originated  with  M.  Lenoir,  lie-.tenant-geneial  of 
the  police  ;  and  the  proposa .  for  removing  the 
dead  from  St.  Innocent's  was  the  more  easily 
entertained,  because  a  recep'acle  so  convenient 


CAT 


238 


CAT 


and  so  unexceptionable  in  all  respects,  was  ready 
to  receive  them.  That  part  of  the.  quarries  under 
the  Plaine  de  Mont  Souris  was  allotted  for  this 
purpose;  a  house  known  by  the  name  of  La 
Tombe  Isoire,  or  Isound  (from  a  famous  rob- 
ber who  once  infested  that  neighbourhood),  on 
the  old  road  to  Orleans,  was  purchased  with  a 
piece  of  ground  adjoining  ;  and  the  first  opera- 
tions were  to  make  an  entrance  into  the  quarries 
by  a  flight  of  seventy-seven  steps  (the  depth  be- 
ing seventeen  metres),  and  to  sink  a  well  from 
the  surface,  down  which  the  bones  might  be 
thrown.  Meantime  the  workmen  below  walled 
off  that  part  of  the  quarries  which  was  designed 
for  the  great  charnel-house,  opened  a  communi- 
cation between  the  upper  and  lower  vaults,  and 
built  pillars  to  prop  the  roof.  When  all  these 
necessary  preliminaries  had  been  completed,  the 
ceremony  of  blessing  and  consecrating  the  in- 
tended catacombs  was  performed  with  great  so- 
lemnity ;  and  on  that  same  day  the  removal  from 
the  cemetery  began. 

The  catacombs,  during  the  revolution,  were  so 
much  neglected,  that  in  many  places  the  soil  had 
fallen  in,  and  choked  the  communications ;  water 
came  in  by  nitration,  the  roof  was  cracked  in 
many  places,  and  threatened  fresh  downfalls,  and 
the  bones  themselves  lay  in  immense  heaps, 
mingled  with  the  rubbish,  and  blocking  up  the 
way.  It  was  not  till  1810  that  M.  de  Thury  was 
enabled  to  pursue  his  plans  ;  and  the  workmen 
then  had  to  make  galleries  through  the  bones 
themselves,  which  in  some  places  lay  above  thirty 
yards  thick.  It  was  necessary  also  to  provide  for 
a  circulation  of  air,  the  atmosphere  not  having 
been  improved  by  the  quantity  of  animal  remains 
which  had  been  introduced.  The  manner  in 
which  this  was  effected  is  singularly  easy.  The 
wells  which  supplied  the  houses  above  with 
water  were  sunk  below  the  quarries,  and  formed 
in  those  excavations  so.  many  round  towers. 
M.  de  Thury  merely  opened  the  masonry  of 
these  walls,  and  luted  into  the  opening  the  up- 
per half  of  a  broken  bottle,  with  the  neck  out- 
wards :  it  is  only  necessary  to  uncork  two,  three, 
or  more  of  these  bottles  when  fresh  air  is  wanted. 
Channels  were  made  to  carry  off  the  water,  steps 
constructed  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  excava- 
tion, pillars  built  in  good  taste  to  support  the 
dangerous  parts  of  the  roof,  and  the  skulls  and 
bones  built  up  along  the  walls  :  those  which  bore 
marks  of  disease,  or  were  otherwise  remarkable 
for  their  formation,  were  set  apart,  and  arranged 
in  a  cabinet.  The  whole  range  was  then  fitted 
up  with  ornaments  and  inscriptions.  Among  the 
ornaments  was  a  fountain,  in  which  four  golden 
fish  are  imprisoned.  They  appear  to  have  grown 
in  this  unnatural  situation,  but  they  have  not 
spawned  ;  three  of  them  have  retained  their  bril- 
liant color,  but  some  spots  have  appeared  upon 
the  fourth  ;  and  it  seems  probable  that  exclusion 
from  light  may  produce,  though  more  slowly, 
the  same  effect  upon  them  that  it  does  upon 
vegetables. 

The  spring  which  rises  here  was  discovered  by 
the  workmen,  the  basin  was  made  for  their  use, 
and  a  subterraneous"  aqueduct  carries  off  the 
waters.  M.  de  Thury  named  it  at  first  the 


'  Spring  of  Oblivion,'  and  inscribed  over  it  these 
lines  of  Virgil : — 

Animas  quibus  altera  fato 
Corpora  debentur,  Lethasi  ad  fluminis  uadaia 
Secures  laticcs  et  longa  oblivia.potant. 

This  inscription  has  very  properly  been  changed 
for  the  most  apposite  text  which  could  have  been 
found  in  Scripture  : — Whosoever  drinketh  of 
this  water  shall  thirst  again :  but  whosoever 
drinketh  of  the  water  that  I  shall  give  him  shall 
never  thirst :  but  the  water  that  I  shall  give  him 
shall  be  in  him  a  well  of  water,  springing  up 
into  everlasting  life.' 

Amongst  the  other  objects  of  attention  in  these 
subterranean  vaults,  may  be  particularly  enume- 
rated the  mineralogical  cabinet,  which  contains 
specimens  of  the  strata  of  the  soils  of  the  cata- 
combs ;  the  collection  of  diseased  bones ;  the  re- 
volutionary tombs  and  obelisks,  and  the  fountain 
of  the  Woman  of  Samaria. 

CATACOUSTICS,  from  Kara  and  aicsw,  I 
hear;  called  also  cataphonics,  the  science  of 
reflected  sounds,  or  that  part  of  acoustics,  which 
considers  the  properties  of  echoes.  See  ACOUS- 
TICS. 

CATADIOPTRIC,  or  CATADIOPTRICAL, 
from  Kara,  against,  and  SioirTffiai,  to  k«ok 
through  ;  belonging  to  a  reflecting  telescope. 

CATADROMUS,  from  Kara  and  Spopoc,  a 
race,  in  antiquity,  a  stretched  sloping  rope  in  the 
theatres,  down  which  the  Funambuli  walked  to 
show  their  skill.  Elephants  were  also  taught  to 
run  down  the  catadromus.  Suetonius  speaks  of 
the  exploit  of  a  Roman  knight,  who  passed 
down  the  catadromus,  mounted  on  an  elephant's 
back. 

CATAFALCO,  Ital.  a  scaffold,  a  decoration 
of  architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting;  raised 
on  a  timber  scaffold,  to  show  a  coffin  or  tomb,  in 
a  funeral  solemnity. 

CATAGMATICK,  adj.  xara^a,  a  fracture. 
That  which  has  the  power  of  consolidating  the 
parts. 

I  put  on  a  catagmatich  emplaster,  and,  by  the  use 
of  a  laced  glove,  scattered  the  pituitous  swelling,  and 
strengthened  it.  Wiseman. 

CATAGRAPIIA,  in  antiquity,  denote  oblique 
figures  or  views  of  men's  faces,  answering  to 
what  the  moderns  call  profiles. 

CATAHOOCHEE,  a  large  navigable  river  of 
the  United  States,  in  Georgia,  which  rises  in  the 
Apalachian  mountains,  and  running  south 
through  an  extensive  and  fertile  country,  belong- 
ing to  the  Creek  Indians,  unites  with  the  Flint 
in  lat.  31°,  and  forms  the  Appalachicola. 

CATALE'PSIS,and>     KaraX^.  A  lighter 

CATALEPSY,  n.  5  species  of  the  apoplexy 

or  epilepsy. 

There  is  a  disease  called  a  catalepsis,  wherein  the 
patient  is  suddenly  seized  without  sense  or  motion, 
and  remains  in  the  same  posture  in  which  the  disease 
seizeth  him.  Arbuthnot. 

And  three  fat  mice  slew  for  his  second  course  ! 
But,  while  the  third  his  grinders  dyed  with  gore, 
Sudden  those  grinders  closed — to  grind  no  more  ! 
And  (dire  to  t^ell)  commissioned  by  Old  Nick, 
A  cutalepty  made  an  end  of  Dick.  Hudduford. 


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239 


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CATALEPSIS,  from  icara\?/^ie,  to  seize  or 
hold  ;  catalepsy,  a  sudden  suppression  of  mo- 
tion and  sensation  ;  the  body  remaining  in  the 
same  posture  that  it  was  in  when  seized.  See 
MEDICINE. 

CATALOGUE,  v.  &  re.  f        Fr.     catalogue , 

C,A'TALOGIZE,  v.  \  Ital.  and  Span,  ca- 

talogo  ;  Lat.  catalogus ;  icaraXoyoc-  A  roll,  list, 
register,  or  enumeration  of  particulars  ;  a  register 
of  things  one  by  one. 

In  the  catalogue  ye  go  for  men  ; 
Showghes,  water  rugs,  and  demy  wolves,  are  cleped 
All  by  the  name  of  dogs.  Shakspeare. 

Make  a  catalogue  of  prosperous  sacrilegious  persons, 
and  I  believe  they  will  be  repeated  sooner  than  the 
alphabet.  South. 

In  the  library  of  manuscripts  belonging  to  St.  Lau- 
rence, of  which  there  is  a  printed  catalogue,  I  looked 
into  the  Virgil  which  disputes  its  antiquity  with  that 
of  the  Vatican.  Addison. 

Studied,  deliberated,  catalogued  files  of  murder. 

Burke. 
Dick,  premier  cat  upon  the  catalogue 

Of  eats  that  grace  a  caterwauling  age, 

Scared  by  fate's  cat-call  quits  this  earthly  stage  ! 

Huddesford. 

CATALONIA,  a  mountainous  province  on 
the  north-east  of  Spain,  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Pyrenees,  on  the  east  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean, on  the  south  by  Valencia,  and  on  the 
west  by  Arragon.  It  is  about  forty-four  leagues 
long,  and  forty  broad.  The  mountains  are  rich 
in  iron,  marble,  lead,  and  coal,  as  well  as  in 
copper,  tin,  antimony,  and  other  minerals.  There 
are  also  found  occasionally  here  topazes,  ame- 
thysts, colored  crystals,  and  other  stones.  The 
rivers  and  mineral  waters  of  Catalonia  are  also 
numerous,  and  almost  all  flow  into  the  Ebro. 
Irrigation  is  here  carried  on  systematically,  and 
the  agriculture,  as  well  as  the  general  state 
of  the  manufactures  and  commerce,  is  superior  to 
that  of  any  part  of  Spain.  The  principal  objects 
of  culture  aie  vines,  on  the  largest  scale;  olives, 
silk,  hemp,  and  flax ;  a  few  flocks  of  sheep  are 
also  raised.  The  wool  -produced  is  not  above 
30,000  cwt.  annually.  Another  point  in  which 
Catalonia  affords  a  striking  contrast  to  other  pro- 
vinces of  Spain,  is  in  the  abundance  of  its  plan- 
tations. Elms,  poplars,  pines,  spread  over  a 
variety  of  situations ;  and  cork  trees  are  so 
abundant,  that  this  province  exports  this  useful 
commodity  to  almost  every  part  of  Europe.  The 
inhabitants  are  in  number  about  900,000,  of 
which  about  12,500  belong  to  the  ecclesiastical 
profession  or  to  monasteries  ;  7,000  come  under 
the  description  of  students  (1020  to  the  law), 
while  the  titled  class,  or  noblesse,  are  computed 
at  1266;  and  the  number  of  servants  at  20,963. 
The  province  contains  one  university,  one  arch- 
bishopric, one  grand  priory,  seven  bishoprics, 
sixteen  commanderies  of  the  order  of  Malta,  and 
above  300  religious  establishments.  Its  capital 
is  Barcelona ;  the  other  principal  towns  are 
Tarragona,  Tortosa,  Lerida,  Gerona,  Figueras, 
and  Manresa.  A  great  trade  was  formerly  car- 
ried on  between  Catalonia  and  the  American 
colonies  of  Spain,  and  the  commerce  of  the  pro- 
vince is  still  brisk  with  Italy,  the  south  of  France 
F.ngland,  Holland,  and  the  north  of  Europe , 
the  exports  consist  in  produce  of  the  province, 


and  the  imports  in  manufactures,  corn,  and  salt 
fish.  The  inland  traffic  is  chiefly  with  Arragon, 
which  yields  the  Catalonians  corn,  wool,  and 
silk.  The  principal  manufactures  are  woollens, 
silks,  and  cottons,  hats,  leather,  gunpowder,  and 
hardware.  The  roads  are  said  to  be  much  neg- 
lected. 

Catalonia  was  that  part  of  Spain  which  first 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Romans,  anl  first 
received  the  power  and  miseries  of  their  sway. 
It  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Goths  in  470  ; 
from  the  latter  by  the  Moors  towards  the  yeaf 
712  ;  and  from  them  by  the  French  in  the  be-' 
ginning  of  the  ninth  century.  Barcelona  now 
became  the  capital  of  a  territory,  which  corres- 
ponded in  limits  with  the  present  province ;  and 
the  last  of  its  counts,  Raymond  V.,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Arragon  in  1137.  The  family  then 
extended  its  dominion  over  the  islands  of  Major- 
ca and  Minorca,  the  kingdom  of  Valencia,  and 
finally  the  whole  Spanish  monarchy.  The  counts 
of  Barcelona  divided  Catalonia  into  viguieries, 
which  were  governed  by  officers  called  viguiers. 
During  the  war  of  the  succession,  the  inhabitants 
joined  the  standard  of  the  archduke  Charles ; 
but,  when  the  imperial  troops  had  evacuated 
Spain,  they  were,  after  an  obstinate  resistance, 
obliged  to  yield  to  Philip  V.  The  province  then 
lost  its  privileges  and  peculiar  laws,  in  punish- 
ment for  its  turbulent  spirit,  and  became  govern- 
ed like  the  other  parts  of  Spain. 

The  Catalonians  are  haughty  and  authori- 
tative, looking  down  upon  the  rest  of  their 
countrymen  as  decidedly  their  inferiors;  they 
regard  the  Castilians,  in  particular,  with  aversion ; 
and  bear  towards  the  French  an  invincible  ani- 
mosity. They  are  distinguished,  it  is  said,  on 
the  other  hand,  for  their  honesty,  steadiness,  and 
diligence.  The  principal  families  in  Madrid 
generally  have  Catalans  at  the  head  of  their  af- 
fairs; and  they  are  scattered,  as  muleteers 
and  callessieros,  over  every  province  of  the 
kingdom.  Laborde  has  well  described  their 
general  character.  '  The  desire  of  wealth/ 
says  he,  *  makes  them  industrious  ;  emula- 
tion makes  them  active,  leads  them  to  every 
part  of  the  word,  and  enables  them  to  brave  the 
perils  of  long  voyages ;  and  glory  blinds  them 
to  every  kind  of  danger.  When  they  love,  they 
love  warmly;  but  their  hatred  is  implacable,  and 
they  have  rarely  sufficient  strength  of  mind  to 
stifle  their  resentment.  But  we  are  not,  there- 
fore, to  imagine  the  Catalan  disposed  to  mischief; 
he  is  not  so  naturally.  He  works  himself  into  a 
rage,  and  is  loud,  but  seldom  commits  acts  of 
violence.  In  a  political  point  of  view,  the  Ca- 
talan is  restless  and  factious ;  he  is  for  ever 
sighing  for  a  liberty,  or  rather  independence, 
which  he  has  often  attempted  to  acquire,  and 
which  has  so  frequently  impelled  him  to  take  up 
arms.  But,  as  devoted  in  his  attachment,  as  ter- 
rible in  his  hatred,  he  is  ready  to  make  every 
sacrifice  for  a  prince  who  knows  how  to  gain 
his  love.'  This  country  formed  the  principal 
theatre  of  the  revolutionary  war  against  Buona- 
parte. 

CATAMENIA,  in  medicine,  from  Kara, 
according  to,  and  /iijj/,  the  month,  menses.  The 
monthly  discharge  from  the  uterus  of  females 


CAT 


240 


CAT 


after  about  the  age  of  fourteen  till  near  fifty. 
Although  it  has  been  much  disputed,  yet  there 
can  be  but  little  doubt  that  it  is  a  natural  secre- 
tion, and  not  a  rupture  of  the  arteries  in  the 
uterus.  During  pregnancy,  and  while  giving 
suck,  if  the  person  is  in  good  health,  the  menses 
cease  to  flow.  The  discharge  is  commonly  from 
five  to  six  ounces,  and  last  from  three  to  five 
clays.  The  use  of  this  discharge  is  to  lubricate 
the  uterus,  in  order  to  render  it  fit  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  foetus,  and  after  they  have  ceased, 
women  rarely,  if  ever  conceive. 

CATANA,  or  CATINA,  in  ancient  geography, 
a  town  of  Sicily,  opposite  to  /Etna,  on  the  south- 
east, one  of  the  five  Roman  colonies ;  anciently 
built  by  the  people  of  Naxos,  seven  years  after 
the  building  of  Syracuse,  A.  A. C.  728.  It  was 
the  birth  place  of  Charondas,  the  famous  lawgiv- 
er. It  is  now  called  Catanea. 

CATANANCHE,  Candia  lion's  foot:  a  ge 
nus  of  the  polygamia  aequalis  order,  and  syngen- 
esia  class  of  plants;  natural  order  forty-ninth, 
composite  :  CAL.  imbricated  ;  receptacle  palea- 
ceous; the  pappus  furnished  with  awns  by  cali- 
culus  of  five  stiff  hairs.   There  are  three  species, 
of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  C.  cerulea 
which  sends  out  many  long,  narrow,  hairy  leaves 
which  are  jagged  on  their  edges  like  those  of 
the  buckshorn  plantain,  but  broader.     Each  of 
the  branches  is  terminated  by  single  heads  of 
flowers,  of  a  fine  blue  color.     It  is  a  perennial 
plant,  and  may  be  propagated  either  by  slips  or 
seeds.     The  seeds  ripen  in  August. 

CATANIA,  or  CATANEA,  a  city  of  Sicily, 
seated  on  the  gulph,  near  the  foot  of  Mount  R.I- 
na.  It  was  founded  by  the  Chalcidians,  soon 
after  the  settlement  of  Syracuse,  and  enjoyed 
great  tranquillity  till  Hiero  I.  expelled  the  citi- 
zens ;  and,  after  replenishing  the  town  with  a 
new  stock  of  inhabitants,  gave  it  the  name  of 
j^Etna :  immediately  after  his  decease,  it  regained 
its  ancient  name,  and  the  citizens  returned  to  it. 
Catania  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
among  their  earliest  acquisitions  in  Sicily,  and 
became  the  residence  of  a  prater.  It  was 
adorned  with  sumptuous  buildings  of  all  kinds, 
and  every  convenience  was  procured  to  supply 
the  natural  and  artificial  wants  of  life.  It  was 
destroyed  by  Pompey's  son,  but  restored  with 
superior  magnificence  by  Augustus.  The  reign 
of  Decius  is  famous  in  the  history  of  this  city, 
for  the  martyrdom  of  its  patroness  St.  Agatha. 
On  every  emergency  her  intercession  is  implored. 
She  is  piously  believed  to  have  preserved  Cata- 
nia from  being  overwhelmed  by  torrents  of  lava, 
or  shaken  to  pieces  by  earthquakes :  yet  its 
ancient  edifices  are  covered  by  repeated  streams 
of  volcanic  matter ;  and  almost  every  house, 
even  her  own  church,  has  been  thrown  to  the 
ground.  In  the  reign  of  William  the  Good, 
20,000  Catanians,  with  their  pastor  at  their  head, 
were  destroyed  before  the  sacred  veil  could  be 
properly  placed  to  check  the  flames.  In  the 
last  century,  the  eruptions  and  earthquakes  raged 
with  redoubled  violence,  and  Catania  was  twice 
demolished.  See^LxNA.  The  prince  of  Biscari 
has  been  at  great  pains,  and  spent  a  large  sum 
of  money,  in  working  down  to  the  ancient  town, 
which,  on  account  of  the  numerous  torrents  of 


lava,  that  have  flowed  out  of  Mount  ./Etna  for 
these  last  thousand  years,  is  now  to  be  sought 
for  in  dark  caverns,  many  feet  below  the  present 
surface  of  the  earth.  Swinburne  informs  us, 
that  he  descended  into  baths,  sepulchres,  an  am- 
phitheatre, and  a  theatre,  all  very  much  injured 
by  the  various  catastrophes  that  have  befallen 
them.  They  were  erected  upon  old  beds  of  lava, 
and  even  built  with  square  pieces  of  the  same 
substance,  which  in  no  instance  appears  to  have 
been  fused  by  the  contact  of  new  lavas.  The 
sciarra  or  stones  of  cold  lava  have  constantly 
proved  as  strong  a  barrier  against  the  flowing 
torrent  of  fire  as  any  other  stone  could  have  been, 
though  some  authors  were  of  opinion  that  the 
hot  matter  would  melt  the  old  mass,  and  incor- 
porate with  it.  This  city  has  been  frequently 
defended  from  the  burning  streams,  by  the  solid 
mass  of  its  own  ramparts,  and  by  the  air  com- 
pressed between  them  and  the  lava ;  as  appears 
by  the  torrent  having  stopped  within  a  small 
distance  of  the  walls,  and  taken  another  direc- 
tion. But  when  the  walls  were  broken  or  low, 
the  lava  collected  itself  till  it  rose  to  a  great 
height,  and  then  poured  over  in  a  curve.  There 
is  a  well  at  the  foot  of  the  old  walls  of  Catania, 
where  the  lava,  after  running  along  the  parapet, 
and  then  falling  forwards,  has  produced  a  very 
complete  lofty  arch  over  the  spring.  The  church 
is  a  noble  fabric.  It  is  accounted  the  largest  in 
Sicily,  though  neither  a  porch  nor  cupola  has 
been  erected,  from  a  doubt  of  the  solidity  of  the 
foundations,  which  are  no  other  than  the  bed  of 
lava  that  ran  out  of  ^itna  in  1669,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  be  full  of  cavities.  The  organ  is 
much  esteemed  by  connoisseurs  in  musical  in- 
struments. Catania,  in  Mr.  Swinburne's  time, 
was  reviving  with  great  splendor.  The  harbour 
is  at  present  considered  as  one  of  the  best  ir> 
Sicily,  and  the  exports  of  wine,  grain,  oil,  silk 
goods,  and  amber,  are  considerable.  Population 
about  16,000.  It  is  fifty-two  miles  south-west 
of  Messina. 

CATANZARO,  a  city  of  Naples,  the  capital 
of  Calabria  Ulterior,  with  a  bishop's  see.  It  is 
the  usual  residence  of  the  governor  of  the  pro- 
vince, and  seated  on  a  mountain  near  the  Gulf 
of  Squillace,  forty-two  miles  south  of  Cosenza. 

CATAPAN,  or  CATIPAN,  from  Karena™, 
captain,  a  name  given  by  the  Greeks,  about  the 
twelfth  century,  to  the  governor  of  their  domini- 
ons in  Italy. 

CATAPELTA,  an  instrument  of  punishment 
among  the  ancients,  consisting  of  a  kind  of  press, 
composed  of  planks,  between  which  the  criminal 
was  crushed  to  death. 

CATAPHONICS,  the  science  which  investi- 
gates the  properties  of  reflected  sounds.  See 
ACOUSTICS. 

CA'TAPHRACT,  n.    Lat  cataphracta ;  Kara- 
tppaKTOf.     A  horseman  in  complete  armor. 
On  each  side  went  armed  guards, 
Both  horse  and  foot ;  before  him  and  behind, 
Archers  and  slingers,  cataphracts  and  spears. 

Milton. 

CATAPHRACTA,  from  Kara,  and  Qpaairw,  to 
arm  ;  in  the  ancient  military  art,  a  piece  of  heavy 
defensive  armour,  formed  of  cloth  or  leather, 
fortified  with  iron  scales  or  links,  wherewith 


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sometimes  only  the  breast,  sometimes  the  whole 
body,  and  sometimes  the  horse  too,  was  covered. 
It  was  in  use  among  the  Sarmatians,  Persians, 
and  other  barbarians.  The  Romans  also  adopt- 
ed it  early  for  their  foot ;  and,  according  to 
Vegetius,  kept  it  till  the  time  of  Gratian,  when 
the  military  discipline  growing  remiss,  the  Ro- 
man foot  thought  the  cataphracts  as  well  as  the 
helmet  too  great  a  load  to  bear,  and  therefore 
threw  both  by,  choosing  rather  to  march  against 
the  enemy  bare-breasted  :  by  which,  in  the  wars 
with  the  Goths,  multitudes  were  destroyed. 

CATAPHRACT/E  NAVES,  ships  armed  and 
covered  in  fight,  so  that  they  could  not  be  easily 
damaged  by  the  enemy.  They  were  covered 
over  with  boards  or  planks,  on  which  the  soldiers 
were  placed  to  defend  them  ;  the  rowers  sitting 
underneath,  thus  screened  from  the  enemy's 
weapons. 

CATAPHRACTARII,  or  CATAPHRACTI 
EQUITES,  were  a  sort  of  cuirassiers,  not  only 
fortified  with  armour  themselves,  but  having 
their  horses  guarded  with  solid  plates  of  brass  or 
other  metals,  usually  lined  with  skins,  andwrought 
into  plumes,  or  other  forms.  But  their  disad- 
vantage was  their  upweildiness,  by  which,  if 
once  unhorsed,  they  were  unable  to  rise,  and 
thus  fell  a  prey  to  the  enemy. 

CATAPIIRYGIANS,  a  sect  in  the  second  cen- 
tury, so  called  from  being  originally  of  Phrygia. 
They  were  orthodox  in  everything,  except  that 
they  took  Montanus  for  a  prophet,  and  Priscilla 
and  Maximilla  for  true  prophetesses,  to  be  con- 
sulted in  everything  relating  to  religion;  as  sup- 
posing the  Holy  Spirit  had  abandoned  the  church. 
See  MONTANIST. 

CATAPLASM,  n.  A  poultice;  a  moist, 
emollient  application,  to  allay  inflammation,  and 
forward  suppuration. 

I  bought  an  unction  of  a  mountebank, 

So  mortal,  that  but  dip  a  knife  in  it, 

Where  it  draws  blood,  no  cataplasm  so  rare, 

Collected  from  all  simples  that  have  virtue 

Under  the  moon,  can  save.  Sfutkfpeare. 

The  eloquence  of  the  declaration,  not  contradicting, 
but  enforcing  sentiments  of  the  truest  humanity ;  has 
left  stings  that  have  penetrated  more  than  skin  deep 
into  my  mind ;  and  never  can  they  be  extraeted  by 
all  the  surgery  of  murder  ;  never  can  the  throbbings 
they  have  created  be  assuaged  by  all  the  emollient 
cataplasmt  of  robbery  and  confiscation.  Burke. 

CA'TAPUCE,  n.  French,  catapuce.  An  old 
name  lor  two  species  of  plants ;  the  palma  chris- 
tij  and  the  garden  spurge,  the  former  of  which 
was  called  the  great ;  the  latter,  the  less. 

A  day  or  two  ye  shal  han  degestives 
Of  wormes  or  ye  take  your  laxatives, 
Of  laureola,  centauria,  and  fumetere, 
Or  elles  of  ellebor  that  groweth  there, 
Of  catapuce  or  of  gaitre  beries, 
Or  erbe  ive  growing  in  our  yard  that  mery  is. 
Chaucer's  Canterbury  Talei. 

CATAPULT,  n.  Lat.  catapulta ;  KaraTrvXrtjs- 
An   ancient  warlike   engine,  described   in   the 
quotation,  and  more  fully  in  the  next  article. 
•    The  balista  violently  shot  great  stones  and  quar- 
ries ;  as  also  the  catapults.  Camden. 

CATAPULT,   or  CATAPULTA,   was    also   used 
for  throwing  arrows  and  darts  upon  the  enemy. 
VOL.  V, 


Some  of  these  engines  were  of  such  force  that 
they  would  throw  stones  of  a  hundred  weight. 
Josephus  takes  notice  of  the  surprising  effects  of 
them,  and  says,  that  the  stones  thrown  out  of 
them  beat  down  the  battlements,  knocked  off  the 
angles  of  the  towers,  and  would  level  a  whole 
file  of  men  from  one  end  to  the  other,  were  the 
phalanx  ever  so  deep.  The  base  is  composed  of 
two  large  beams,  2,  3.  The  length  of  those  beams 
is  fifteen  diameters  of  the  bore  of  the  capitals,  9. 
At  the  two  extremities  of  each  beam,  two  double 
mortises  are  cut  to  receive  the  eight  tenons  of  two 
cross  beams,  each  of  them  four  of  the  diameters 
in  length.  In  the  centre  of  each  of  the  beams 
of  the  base,  and  near  two-thirds  of  their  length, 
a  hole  perfectly  round,  and  nineteen  inches  in 
diameter,  should  be  bored  :  these  holes  must  be 
exactly  opposite  to  each  other,  and  should  in- 
crease gradually  to  the  inside  of  the  beams,  so 
that  each  of  them,  being  sixteen  inches  on  the 
outside  towards  the  capitals,  9,  should  be  seven- 
teen and  a  half  at  the  opening  on  the  inside,  and 
the  edges  carefully  rounded  off.  The  capitals, 
9,  are,  in  a  manner,  the  soul  of  the  machine, 
and  serve  to  twist  and  strain  the  cordage,  which 
forms  its  principle  or  power  of  motion.  The 
capitals  are  of  cast  brass  or  iron;  each  consist- 
ing of  a  wheel  with  teeth,  C  10,  of  two  inches 
and  a  half  thick.  The  hollow  or  bore  of  these 
wheels  should  be  eleven  inches  and  a  quarter  in 
diameter,  perfectly  round,  and  the  edges  smooth- 
ed down.  As  the  friction  would  be  too  great, 
if  the  capitals  rubbed  against  the  beams,  by  the 
extreme  straining  of  the  cordage,  which  draws 
them  towards  these  beams,  that  inconvenience 
is  remedied  by  the  means  of  eight  friction  wheels, 
or  cylinders  of  brass,  about  the  thirteenth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  an  inch  and  one-sixth  in 
length,  placed  circularly,  and  turning  upon 
axes,  as  represented  at  D  13,  B  12.  One  of  these 
friction  wheels  at  large  with  its  screw,  by  which 
it  is  fastened  into,  the  beam,  is  represented  at  A. 
Upon  this  number  of  cylindrical  wheels  the  ca- 
pitals, 9,  must  be  placed  in  the  beams,  2,  3,  so 
that  the  cylinders  do  not  extend  to  the  teeth  of 
the  wheels,  which  must  receive  a  strong  pinion 
14.  By  means  of  this  pinion,  the  wheel  of  the 
capital  is  made  to  turn  for  straining  the  cordage 
with  the  key  15.  The  capital  wheel  has  a  strong 
catch  16,  and  another  of  the  same  kind  may  be 
added  to  prevent  anything  from  giving  way 
through  the  extreme  and  violent  force  of  the 
strained  cordage.  The  capital  piece  of  the  ma- 
chine is  a  nut  or  cross  pin  of  iron,  17,  seen  at 
C,  and  hammered  cold  into  its  form.  It  divides 
the  bore  of  the  capitals  exactly  in  two  equal 
parts  and  is  fixed  in  grooves  about  an  inch  deep. 
This  piece,  or  nut,  ought  to  be  about  two  inches 
and  one-third  thick  at  the  top,  18,  as  represented 
in  the  section  at  B ;  and  rounded  off  and  polished 
as  much  as  possible,  that  the  cords  folded  over 
it  may  not  be  hurt  or  cut  by  the  roughness  or 
edges  of  the  iron.  Its  height  ought  to  be  eight 
inches,  decreasing  gradually  in  thickness  to  the 
bottom,  where  it  ought  to  be  only  one  inch.  It 
must  be  very  exactly  inserted  in  the  capitals. 
After  placing  the  two  capitals  in  the  holes  of  the 
two  beams,  in  a  right  line  with  each  other,  and 
fixing  the  two  cross  diametrical  nuts,  or  pieces 


CAT 


242 


CAT 


6var  which  the  cordage  is  to  wind,  one  end  of  the 
cord  is  reeved  throusrh  a  hole  in  one  of  the  capi- 
tals in  the  base,  and  made  fast  to  a  nail  within 
the  beam.  The  other  side  of  the  cord  is  then 
carried  through  the  hole  in  the  opposite  beam 
and  capital,  and  so  wound  over  the  cross  pieces 
of  iron  in  the  centre  of  the  two  capitals  till  they 
are  full,  the  cordage  forming  a  large  skain.  The 
tension  of  the  cordage  ought  to  be  exactly  equal, 
that  is,  the  several  foldings  of  the  cord  over  the 
capital  pieces  should  be  equally  strained,  and  so 
near  each  other,  as  not  to  leave  the  least  space 
between  them.  As  soon  as  the  first  fold  or  skain 
of  cord  has  filled  up  one  whole  space  or  breadth 
of  the  capital  pieces,  another  must  be  carried 
over  it;  and  so  on,  always  equally  straining  the 
end  till  no  more  will  pass  through  the  capitals, 
and  the  skain  of  cordage  entirely  fills  them,  ob- 
serving to  rub  it  from  time  to  time  with  soap. 
At  three  or  four  inches  behind  the  cordage,  thus 
wound  over  the  capital  piece,  two  very  strong 
upright  beams,  21,  are  raised;  these  are  posts  of 
oak  fourteen  inches  thick,  crossed  over  at  top 
by  another  of  the  same  solidity.  The  height  of 
the  upright  beams  is.  seven  and  a  half  diameters; 
each  supported  behind  with  very  strong  props, 
25,  fixed  at  bottom  in  the  extremities  of  the  base 
2,  3.  The  cross  beam  24  is  supported  in  the 
same  manner  by  a  prop  in  the  centre.  The  tree, 
arm,  or  stylus,  22,  should  be  of  sound  ash.  Its 
length  is  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  diameters  of  the 
bore  of  the  capitals.  The  end  of  the  bottom,  or 
that  fixed  in  the  middle  of  the  skain,  is  ten  in- 
ches thick,  and  fourteen  broad.  To  strengthen 
the  arm  or  tree,  it  should  be  wrapt  round  with  a 
cloth  dipped  in  strong  glue,  like  the  tree  of  a 
saddle,  and  bound  very  hard  with  waxed  thread, 
of  the  sixth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  from  the  large 
end  at  bottom  almost  to  the  top,  as  represented 
in  the  figure.  At  the  top  of  the  arm,  just  under 
the  iron  hand  or  receiver  27,  a  strong  cord  is 
fastened,  with  two  loops  twisted  one  within  ano- 
ther, for  the  greater  strength.  Into  these  two 
oops  the  hook  of  a  b  "iss  pulley  28  is  put.  The 
cord  29  is  then  reeved  through  the  pulley,  and 
fastened  to  the  roll  30.  The  cock  or  trigger  31, 
which  serves  as  a  stay,  is  then  brought  to  it,  and 
made  fast  by  its  hook  to  the  extremity  of  the 
hand,  27,  in  which  the  body  to  be  discharged  is 
placed.  The  pulley  at  the  neck  of  the  arm  is  then 
unhooked ;  and  when  the  trigger  is  to  let  it  off, 
a  stroke  must  be  given  upon  it  with  an  iron  bar 
or  crow  of  about  an  inch  in  diameter;  on  which 
the  arm  flies  up  with  a  force  almost  equal  to  that 
of  a  modern  mortar.  The  cushion  or  stomacher, 
23,  placed  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  cross 
beam  24,  should  be  covered  with  a  tanned  ox 
hide,  and  stuffed  with  hair,  the  arm  striking 
against  it  with  inconceivable  force.  It  is  to  be 
observed,  that  the  tree  or  arm,  22,  describes  an 
angle  of  ninety  degrees,  beginning  at  the  cock, 
and  ending  at  the  stomacher  or  cushion.  Some 
of  the  spears,  &c.  thrown  by  these  engines,  are 
said  to  have  been  eighteen  feet  long,  and  to  have 
been  thrown  with  such  velocity  as  to  take  fire  in 
their  course  In  fig.  2  A  B  C  D  is  the  frame 
that  holds  the  darts  or  arrows,  which  may  be  of 
different  numbers,  and  placed  in  different  direc- 
tions. E  F  is  a  large  and  strong  iron  spring, 


which  is  bent  by  a  rope  that  goes  over  three  pu^ 
lies,  I,  K,  L ;  and  is  drawn  by  one  or  severa. 
men ;  this  rope  may  be  fastened  to  a  pin  at  M. 
The  rope,  therefore,  being  set  at  liberty,  the 
spring  must  strike  the  darts  with  great  violence, 
and  send  them,  with  surprising  velocity,  to  a 
great  distance.  This  instrument  differs  in  some 
particulars  from  the  description  we  have  of  that 
of  the  ancients ;  principally  in  the  throwing  of 
several  darts  at  the  same  time,  one  only  being 
thrown  by  theirs.  See  BALISTA. 

CATARACT,  n.  FT.  cataracts ;  Lat.  cuta- 
racta ;  jcaraicapr*;.  A  fall  of  water  from  an  ele- 
vation ;  a  shoot  of  water ;  a  cascade ;  but  the 
latter  word  is  now  more  commonly  applied  to 
minor  or  artificial  cataracts.  Cataract  formerly 
meant  also  a  flood  gate,  and  a  portcullis. 

Blow,  winds,  and  crack  your  cheeks  j  rage,  blow  ' 
You  cataracts  and  hurricanoes,  spout 
Till  you  have  drenched  our  steeples.          Shakspeare. 

What  if  all 

Her  stores  were  opened,  and  the  firmament 
Of  hell  should  spout  her  cataracts  of  fire  ? 
Impendent  horrors  !  Paradise  Lost. 

Go,  fool,  and  teach  a  cataract  to  creep ! 
Can  thirst  of  empire,  vengeance,  beauty,  wait? 

Young's  Brothers. 

Too  charming  visions  of  intense  delight ! 
Why  ?  whither  vanish  ye  ?     Her  eagle  flight 
Fancy  renews  ;  and  full  athwart  mine  eye 
Throws  an  enormous  cataract : — from  on  high 
In  awful  stillness  deepening  waters  glide 
E'en  to  the  ru8e  rocks  ridge  abrupt,  then  slide 
Ponderous  down,  down,  the  void,  and  pitch  below 
In  thunders.  •  Bishop. 

"Nymphs  !  you  from  cliff  to  cliff  attendant  guide 
In  headlong  cataracts  the  impetuous  tide  j 
Or  lead  o'er  wastes  of  Abyssinian  sands, 
The  bright  expanse  to  Egypt's  showerless  lands. 

Darwin. 
O  paragon  of  cats,  whose  loss  distracts 

My  soul,  and  turns  my  tears  to  cataracts, 

Nor  craft  nor  courage  could  thy  doom  prorogue. 

fftifldesfortt, 

CA'TARACT,  n.  This  word,  in  its  medical 
sense  of  a  disorder  in  the  eye,  has  been  derived 
from  the  same  root  as  the  former  word.  Cle- 
land,  however,  and  with  apparent  reason,  con- 
tends that  it  is  only  a  barbarous  formation  of  the 
words  cakoeroc  or  cacoeroco,  still  in  use  in  the 
southern  parts  of  France ;  the  meaning  of  which 
is  a  speck,  or  any  gathering  over  the  eye. 

Saladine  (celandine),  hath  a  yellow  milk,  which 
hath  likewise  much  acrimony  ;  for  it  cleanseth  the 
eyes  :  it  is  good  also  for  cataracts.  Bacon. 

CATARACT,  in  hydrography,  is  occasioned  by 
a  precipice  in  the  channel  of  a  river,  caused  by 
rocks  or  other  obstacles,  stopping  the  course  of 
the  stream,  from  whence  the  water  falls  with  a 
greater  noise  and  impetuosity.  Such  are  the  ca- 
taracts of  the  Nile,  the  Danube,  Rhine,  &c.  In 
that  of  Niagara,  the  perpendicular  fall  of  the  wa- 
ter is  137  feet;  and  in  that  of  Pistill  Rhaiadr,  in 
North  Wales,  the  fall  of  water  is  nearly  240  feet 
from  the  mountain  to  the  lower  pool.  Strabo 
calls  that  a  cataract  which  we  call  a  cascade;  and 
what  we  call  a  cataract,  the  ancients  usually 
called  catadupa.  Herminius  has  an  express  dis- 
sertation, De  Admirandis  Mundi  Cataractis,  Supra 
et  Subterraneis :  where  he  uses  the  word  in  a  nev 


CAT 


243 


CAT 


sense ;  signifying,  by  cataract,  any  violent  motion 
of  the  elements. 

CATARACT  is  defined  a  disorder  of  the  humors 
of  the  eye,  by  which  the  pupil,  that  ought  to  ap- 
pear transparent  and  black,  looks  opaque,  blue, 
gray,  brown,  &c.  whereby  vision  is  variously  im- 
peded, or  totally  destroyed.  See  SURGERY. 

CATA'RRH,  n.     -}      Fr.   catarre;    old   Fr. 

CATA'RRHAL,  adj.    ^catarrhe;  from  KarappeM, 

C&TA'TiRiiovs,adj.jdeJiuo.  A  defluxion  of 
sharp  serum  from  the  glands  about  the  head  and 
throat ;  a  species  of  that  disorder  which  is  fa- 
miliarly termed  a  cold.  See  MEDICINE,  Index. 
The  adjectives  signify  that  which  relates  to,  or 
proceeds  from,  a  catarrh. 

All  feverous  kinds, 
Convulsions,  epilepsies,  fierce  catarrhs. 

Paradise  Lost. 

Neither  was  the  body  then  subject  to  die  by  piece- 
meal, and  languish  under  coughs,  catarrhs,  or  con- 
sumptions. South. 

The  catarrhal  fever  requires  evacuations.       Floyer. 

Old  age  attended  -with  a  glutinous,  cold,  catarrhous, 
leucophlegmatick  constitution.  Arbuthnot, 

Cat-grandams  vexed  with  asthmas  and  catarrhs, 
And  superstitious  cats  who  curse  their  stars. 

Huddesford. 

CATASTASIS,  in  poetry,  the  third  part  of 
the  ancient  drama;  being  that  wherein  the  iu- 
trigue,  or  action,  set  forth  in  the  epitasis,  is  sup- 
ported, carried  on,  and  heightened,  till  it  be  ripe 
for  the  unravelling  in  the  catastrophe.  Scaliger 
defines  it,  the  full  growth  of  the  fable,  while 
things  are  at  a  stand  in  that  confusion  to  which 
the  poet  has  brought  them. 

CATASTROMA,  in  ancient  ships  of  war,  a 
sort  of  scaffold  on  the  head  and  stern,  whereon 
the  soldiers  were  posted. 

CATA'STROPHE,  n.  Fr.  catastrophe  ;  Ka- 
T<tffTpo(pi).  The  unravelling  of  a  plot ;  the  wind- 
ing up  of  a  story  or  play ;  the  issue  or  conclusion 
of  an  event ;  a  fatal  event ;  death. 

Pa-t !  he  comes  like  the  catastrophe  of  the  old  co- 
medy. Shakspeare. 

That  philosopher  declares  for  tragedies,  whose  catas- 
trophes are  unhappy,  with  relation  to  the  principal 
characters.  Dennis. 

Here  was  a  mighty  revolution,  the  most  horrible 
and  portentous  catastrophe  that  nature  ever  yet  saw  ; 
an  elegant  and  habitable  earth  quite  shattered. 

Woodward. 
Cats  of  each  class,  craft,  calling,  and  degree, 

Mourn  Dick's  calamitous  catastrophe.      Huddesford. 

CATASTROPHE,  in  the  ancient  dramatic  poetry, 
the  fourth  and  last  part,  or  that  immediately 
succeeding  the  catastasis:  or,  according  to  others, 
the  third  only;  the  whole  drama  being  divided 
into  protasis,  epitasis,  and  catastrophe ;  or  in  the 
terms  of  Aristotle,  prologue,  epilogue,  and  exode. 
The  catastrophe  clears  up  everything,  and  is  the 
discovery  or  winding  up  of  the  plot.  It  has 
its  peculiar  place:  for  it  ought  entirely  to  be 
contained,  not  only  in  the  last  act,  but  in  the 
very  conclusion  of  it;  and  when  the  plot  is 
finished,  the  play  should  be  so  also. 

CATAWESSY,  or  HUGHESBURG,  a  town  of 
Pennsylvania,  in  Northumberland  county,  si- 
tuated at  the  mouth  of  the  Catawessy  creek,  on 
the  east  branch  of  the  Susquehannah,  twenty-five 


miles  E.N.E.  of  Suubury,  and  100  north-west 
of  Philadelphia. 

CATCH,  v.  &  n.  ~\        This  word    has 

CA'TCHABLE,  adj.  many  claimants  for 

CA'TCHER,  n.  (its  origin.     Junius, 

CA'TCHPENNY,  n.  &  adj.  fin  the  most  peremp- 
CA'TCHPOLE,  n.  I  tory  terms,  refers  it 

CA'TCHWORD,  n.  j  to  the  Greek:  Kart- 

X«v  (says  he)  quod  detinere,  obtinere,  occupa- 
re,  significat :  mutuatur  sua  tempora  ab  inus.  the- 
mate  Kara<rx«v,  unde  catch  contractum  esse  nemo 
non  videt.  Serenius,  without  any  comment,  points 
out  to  us,  &u.  katsa  ;  an  instrument  for  catching 
fish.  Minsheu  resorts  to  Ital.caccia;  cacciare ;  the 
chase;  to  hunt;  aud  Mr.  Todd  suggests,  that 
the  word  may,  perhaps,  be  -derived  from  the 
substantive  cat,  as  that  creature  seizes  suddenly 
on  its  prey.  The  meanings  of  the  verb  and  noun 
are  numerous.  The  power  of  stopping  that 
which  is  in  motion,  and  of  retaining  after  hav- 
ing stopped,  is  the  primary  idea.  The  verb,  in 
its  active  sense,  signifies  to  lay  hold  on  with  the 
hand ;  to  stop  anything  in  its  flight ;  to  seize  by 
pursuing  ;  to  stop  anything  falling  ;  to  ensnare 
or  entrap ;  to  receive  suddenly  ;  to  seize  sud- 
denly, eagerly,  unexpectedly  ;  to  gain  the  affec- 
tions ;  to  charm  ;  to  receive  any  contagion  or 
disease.  Catching  at,  is  a  sudden  endeavour  to 
seize ;  catching  up,  is  snatching ;  catching  a 
Tartar,  is  to  be  taken  at  the  moment  when  we 
are  expecting  to  take.  In  the  neuter  sense  the 
verb  denotes,  to  be  contagious  ;  to  lay  hold  sud- 
denly. The  noun  is  expressive  of  seizure ; 
watching  to  seize ;  an  advantage  taken  ;  quick 
taking  ;  the  thing  caught ;  profit ;  advantage  ;  a 
short  interval  of  action  ;  anything  that  catches  ; 
a  small  swift-sailing  ship,  often  written  ketch ; 
and,  lastly,  a  peculiar  species  of  musical  compo- 
sition. Catchable  is  liable  to  be  caught.  A 
catchpenny  is  a  worthless  publication;  whether 
it  be  a  silly  journey  to  the  north,  a  novel,  a  lam- 
poon, or  a  piece  of  doggrel.  A  catchpole  is  a 
serjeant;  a  bum-bailiff.  A  catchword  is  the  last 
word  at  the  corner  of  a  page,  under  the  last  line. 

And  when  he  arose  against  me,  I  caught  him  by 
his  beard,  and  smote  him,  and  slew  him. 

1  Sam.  xvii.  35. 

And  they  sent  unto  him  certain  of  the  Pharisees 
and  of  the  Herodians,  to  catch  him  in  his  words. 

Mark,  xii.  13. 

The  mule  went  under  the  thick  boughs  of  a  great 
oak,  and  his  head  caught  hold  of  the  oak. 

2  Sam.  xvii.  19. 
To  catch  something  out  of   his  mouth  that  they 

might  accuse  him.  Luke,  xi.  54. 

And  in  the  meen  whils  that  Beryn  thus  gan  pleyn, 
A  cachepoll  stode  besides,  his  name  was  Machaign, 
And  herd  all  the  wordes,  and  knew  also  tofore 
How  Beryn  was  tormented  both  with  las  and  more. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 
Taught  by  his  open  eye, 

His  eye,  that  even  did  mark  her  trodden  grass, 
That  she  would  fain  the  catch  of  Streplion  fly. 

Sidney. 

I  saw  him  run  after  a  gilded  butterfly,  and,  when 
he  caught  it,  he  let  it  go  again  ;  and  after  it  again  ; 
and  over  and  over  he  conies,  and  up  again  :  and 
caught  it  again.  Shakfj/cure. 

H  2 


CAT 


244 


CAT 


I've  perused  her  well ; 
Beauty  and  honour  in  her  are  so  mingled, 
That  they  have  caught  the  king.  Id. 

Those  measles, 

Which  we  disdain  should  tetter  us,  yet  seek 
The  very  way  to  catch  them.  Id. 

Saucy  lictors 

Witt  catch  at  us  like  strumpets,  and  scald  rhimers 
Ballad  us  out  of  tune.  Id. 

'Tis  time  to  give  them  physic,  their  diseases 
Are  grown  so  catching.  Id. 

This  is  the  tune  of  our  catch,  played  by  the  picture 
of  uobody.  Id. 

Here  Hector  shall  have  a  great  catch,  if  he  knock 
out  your  b'rains ;  he  were  as  good  crack  a  fusty  nut 
with  no  kernel.  Id. 

All  which  notions  are  but  ignorant  catches  of  a  few 
things,  which  are  most  obvious  to  men's  observations. 

Bacon. 

Several  quires,  placed  one  over  against  another, 
and  taking  the  voice  by  catches  anthemwise,  give  great 
pleasure.  Id. 

Catchpoll,  though  now  it  be  used  as  a  word  of  con- 
tempt, yet,  in  ancient  times,  it  seems  to  have  been 
used  without  reproach,  for  such  as  we  now  call  ser- 
jeants  of  the  mace,  or  any  other  that  uses  to  arrest 
men  upon  any  cause.  Cow  ill. 

Here  she  comes,  but  with  a  look 
Far  more  catching  than  my  hook.  Marvell. 

Scallops  will  move  so  strongly,  as  oftentimes  to 
leap  out  of  the  catclter,  wherein  they  are  caught. 

Grew. 

We  retain  a  c>ttch  of  those  pretty  stories,  and  our 
awakened  imagination  smiles  in  the  recollection. 

Glanville. 

The  curling  smoke  mounts  heavy  from  the  fires, 
At  length  it  catches  flame,  and  in  a  blaze  expires. 

Dryden. 

For  I  am  young,  a  novice  in  the  trade, 
The  fool  of  love,  unpractised  to  persuade, 
And  want  the  soothing  arts  that  catch  the  fair, 
But  cuught  myself,  lie  struggling  in  the  snare.         Id. 

Fate  of  empires,  and  the  fall  of  kings, 
Should  turn  on  flying  hours  and  catch  of  moments. 

Id. 

These  artificial  methods  of  reasoning  are  more 
adapted  to  catch  and  entangle  the  mind,  than  to  in- 
struct and  inform  the  understanding.  Locke. 

It  has  been  writ  by  catches,  with  many  intervals.  Id. 
Others,  to  catch  the  breeze  of  breathing  air, 
To  Tusculum  or  Algido  repair.  Addison. 

Both  of  them  lay  upon  the  catch  for  a  great  action. 

Id. 

Or  call  the  winds  through  long  arcades  to  roar, 

:     Proud  to  catch  cold  at  a  Venetian  door.  Pope. 

A  shepherd  diverted  himself  with  tossing  up  eggs, 

and  catching  them  again.  Spectator. 

The   eagerness   of   a  knave   makes   him  often   as 

cute/table,  as  the  ignorance  of  a  fool.       Lord  Halifax. 

Another  monster, 

Sullen  of  aspect,  by  the  vulgar  called 
A  catchpoll,  whose  polluted  hands  the  gods 
With  force  incredible  and  magic  charms 
Erst  have  endued,  if  he  his  ample  palm 
Should  haply  on  ill-fated  shoulder  lay 
Of  debtor.  Philips. 

Sonnets  or  elegies  lo  Chloris 
Might  raise  a  house  about  two  stories  ; 
A  lyric  ode  would  slate  j   a  catch 
Would  tile  ;  an  epigram  would  thatch.      Swift. 


Now   twenty   springs  had    clothed  the   park   with 

green 

Since  Lydia  knew  the  blossoms  of  fifteen, 
No  lovers  now  her  morning  hours  molest, 
And  catch  her  at  her  toilette  half  undrest.  Gay. 

When  poor  Alicia's  maddening  brains  are  racked, 
And  strongly  imaged  griefs  her  mind  distract,  — 
Struck  with  her  grief,  I  catch  the  madness  too  ! 
My  brain  turns  round,  the  headless  trunk  I  view. 

Churchill. 
Hear,   thou,    of   heaven   unconscious  !    From   the 

blaze 

Of  glory  stream'd  from  Jove's  eternal  throne 
Thy  soul,  0  mortal,  caught  the  inspiring  rays 

That  to  a  god  exalt  earth's  raptured  son.  Beattie. 

CATCH,  in  the  musical  sense  of  the  word,  a 
fugue  in  the  unison,  wherein,  to  humor  some 
conceit  in  the  words,  the  melody  is  broken, 
and  the  sense  interrupted  in  one  part,  and  caught 
again  or  supported  by  another.  Mr.  Jackson 
defines  a  catch,  '  a  piece  for  three  or  more  voices, 
one  of  which  leads,  and  the  others  follow  in  the 
same  notes.  It  must  be  so  contrived,  that  rests 
(which  are  made  for  that  purpose)  in  the  music 
of  one  line  be  filled  up  with  a  word  or  two  from 
another  line;  these  form  a  cross  purpose,  or 
catch,  from  whence  the  name. 

CATCHFLY.     See  LYCHNIS  and  SILENE. 

CATECHESIS,  an  instruction  given  any 
person  in  the  first  rudiments  of  an  art  or  science; 
but  more  particularly  of  the  Christian  religion. 
In  the  ancient  church  it  was  an  instruction  given 
viva  voce,  either  to  children  or  adult  heathens, 
preparatory  to  their  receiving  baptism. 

-  The  root 
this  word  is 
Itywc,  echo,  sonus, 
repetitio;  because 
in  catechising  the 
thing  is  repeated, 
resounded.  To  ca- 
techise  is  to  instruct 
by  asking  questions, 
and  correcting  the 
answers  ;  to  ques- 
don  ;  to  interrogate. 
Catechism,  in  its 
oldest  sense,  denotes 


of 


CATECHISE,  v. 

CATECHISA'TION,  n, 

CA'TECHISER,  n. 

CA'TECHISIKG,  n. 

CA'TECHISM,  n. 

CA'TECHIST,  n. 

CATECHI'STICAL,  adj. 

CATECHI'STICALLY,  adv. 

CATECHE'TICAL,  adj. 

CATECHE'TICALLY,  adv. 

CATECHE'TICK,  adj. 

CATECHU'MEN,  n. 

CATECHUME'NICAL,  adj. 

CATECHU'MENIST,  n. 
a  form  of  religious  instruction,  by  question  and 
answer  ;  but  it  is  now  applied  to  books  written 
in  the  interrogative  manner,  upon  any  subject. 
Catechist  and  catechiser  are  synonymous,  and 
signify  the  person  who  interrogates.  Catechising 
and  catechisation  are  also  equivalent  terms,  to 
express  the  act  of  interrogation.  That  which 
consists  of,  or  instructs  by,  questions  and  an- 
swers, is  described  by  the  adjectives  catechetic, 
catechetical,  and  catechistical.  Catechumen,  and 
catechumenist  (the  latter  word  is  of  rare  occur- 
rence), signify  one  who  has  not  yet  gone  beyond 
the  first  rudiments  of  Christianity  ;  the  lowest 
order  of  Christians  in  the  primitive  church.  See 
CATECHUMENS. 

I  will  catechise  the  world  for  him,  that  is,  make 
questions,  and  bid  them  answer.  Shakspeare. 

Why,  then,  I  suck  my  teeth,  and  catechise 

My  piked  man  of  countries.  Id. 

Ways  of  teaching  there  have  been  sundry  always 
usual  in  God's  church,  for  the  first  introduction  of 


CAT 


245 


CAT 


youth  to  the  knowledge  of  God,  the  Jews  even  to  this 
<lay  have  their  catechisms.  Hooker. 

Hark  you,  good  Maria, 
Have  you  got  a  good  catechiser  here  ? 

Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 

None  of  years  and  knowledge  was  admitted,  who 
had  not  been  instructed  by  the  catechist  in  this  foun- 
dation, which  the  catechist  received  from  the  bishop. 

Hammond. 

He  had  no  catechitm  but  the  creution,  needed  no 
study  but  reflection,  and  read  no  book  but  the  volume 
of  the  world.  South. 

Could  turn  the  Covenant,  and  translate 

The  Gospel  into  spoons  and  plate  ; 

Expound  upon  all  merchants'  cases, 

And  open  the  intricatest  places  ; 

Could  catechise  a  money-box, 

And  prove  all  pouches  orthodox.  Butter. 

The  prayers  of  the  church  did  not  begin  in  St. 
Austin's  time,  till  the  Catechumens  were  dismissed. 

Stillingflect. 

Socrates  introduced  a  catechetical  method  of  argu- 
ing ;  he  would  ask  his  adversary  question  upon  ques- 
tion, till  he  convinced  him,  out  of  his  own  mouth,  that 
his  opinions  were  wrong.  Spectator. 

There  flies  about  a  strange  report, 
Of  some  express  arrived  at  court, 
I'm  stopped  by  all  the  fools  I  meet, 
And  catechised  in  every  street.  Swift. 

CATECHISM,  in  its  primary  sense,  signifies  an 
instruction  in  the  principles  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, delivered  viva  voce,  so  as  to  require  fre- 
quent repetitions  from  the  disciple  or  hearer. 
Anciently  the  candidates  for  baptism  were  thus 
instructed  in  the  principles  of  religion. 

CATECHIST  denotes  a  person  appointed  to  in- 
struct those  intended  for  baptism,  by  word  of 
mouth,  in  the  fundamental  articles  of  Christianity. 
The  catechists  of  the  ancient  churches  were 
ministers  usually  distinct  from  the  bishops  and 
presbyters,  and  had  their  catechumena  or  audi- 
tories apart.  But  they  did  not  constitute  any 
distinct  order  of  the  clergy,  being  chosen  out  of 
any  order.  The  bishop  himself  sometimes  per- 
formed the  office ;  at  other  times  presbyters, 
readers,  or  deacons.  Origen  was  made  catechist 
at  Alexandria  when  only  eighteen  years  of  age, 
and  consequently  incapable  of  the  deaconship. 

CATECHU,  in  botany.     See  MIMOSA. 

CATECHUMLNS,  in  church  history,  had  a  title 
to  the  common  name  of  Christians,  being  a  de- 
gree above  pagans  and  heretics,  though  not  con- 
summated by  baptism.  They  were  admitted  to 
this  state  by  the  imposition  of  hands,  and  the 
sign  of  the  cross.  The  children  of  believing 
parents  were  admitted  catechumens  as  soon  as 
they  were  capable  of  instruction  ;  but  at  what  age 
those  of  heathen  parents  were  admitted  is  not  so 
clear.  As  to  the  time  of  their  continuance  in  this 
state,  there  were  no  general  rules ;  but  the  prac- 
tice varied  according  to  the  difference  of  times 
and  places,  and  the  proficiency  of  the  catechu- 
mens. There  were  four  degrees  of  catechumens; 
the  first  were  those  instructed  privately  without 
the  church,  and  kept  for  some  time  from  the 
privilege  of  entering  it,  to  make  them  the  more 
desirous  of  it,  The  next  were  the  audientes,  so 
called  from  their  being  admitted  to  hear  sermons, 
and  the  Scriptures  read  in  the  church,  but  not  al- 


lowed to  partake  of  the  prayers.  The  third  were 
the  genuflectentes,  so  called  because  they  re- 
ceived imposition  of  hands  kneeling.  The  fourth 
were  the  competentes  and  electi,  denoting  the 
immediate  candidates  for  baptism,  appointed  to 
be  baptised  at  next  festival.  These,  after  exami- 
nation, were  exercised  for  twenty  days  together, 
and  were  obliged  to  fasting  and  confession  some 
days  before  baptism  they  were  veiled  ;  and  it  be- 
came customary  to  touch  their  ears,  saying, 
'  Ephatha,'  i.  e.  be  opened  ;  also  to  anoint  their 
eyes  with  clay,  in  pretence  of  imitating  our 
Saviour's  practice. 

CATECHUMENUM  ;  1.  A  name  given  to  an 
upper  gallery  in  the  churches :  2.  A  sort  of 
school-house  near  the  church,  where  the  catechu- 
mens met  to  receive  the  instructions  of  the  cate- 
chists. 

CATEGAT,  sometimes  called  the  Sound,  an 
entrance  into  the  Baltic  from  the  German  Ocean, 
running  between  Denmark,  Jutland,  Sweden, 
and  Norway. 

CATEGORIARES,  a  minister  in  the  Greek 
church,  whose  business  is  to  proclaim  the  feast- 
days,  take  care  of  the  lights,  &c. 

CA'TEGORY,  n.        ^    Kcmjyopia ;  the  root 

CATEGO'RICAL,  adj.       >is  by  some  supposed 

CATEGU'RICALLY,  adv.  j  to  be  Ayopa,  forum, 
the  bar;  an  harangue;  others  find  it  in  Kara 
and  ayttpw,  congrego,  colligo,  which  seems  to  be 
the  most  rational  opinion.  A  category  is  a  class ; 
rank ;  order  of  ideas ;  predicament.  See  the 
next  article.  Categorical  denotes  absolute ;  ade- 
quate ;  positive ;  equal  to  the  thing  to  be  ex- 
pressed. Categorically  is  directly;  expressly; 
positively ;  plainly.  Give  me  a  categorical  an- 
swer, or,  answer  me  categorically,  means,  give 
me  a  plain,  full,  and  final  answer. 

The  king's  commissioners  desired  to  know,  whether 
the  parliament's  commissioners  did  believe  that  bi- 
shops were  unlawful  1  Tiiey  could  never  obtain  a 
categorical  answer.  Clarendon. 

I  dare  affirm,  and  that  categorically,  in  all  parts 
wherever  trade  is  great,  and  continues  so,  that  tiade 
must  be  nationally  profitable.  Child. 

The  absolute  infinitude,  in  a  manner,  quite  changes 
the  nature  of  beings,  and  exalts  them  into  a  different 
category.  Chcyne. 

A  single  proposition,  which  is  also  categorical,  may 
be  divided  again  into  simple  and  complex.  Watts. 

—  Prudes,  who  when  they're  asked  the  question, 

squall, 
And  ne'er  give  answer  categorical.  Huddesford. 

CATEGORY,  in  logic,  a  series  of  all  the  attri- 
butes contained  under  any  genus.  The  ancient 
philosophers  distributed  all  the  objects  of  our 
thoughts  and  ideas  into  certain  genera  or  classes, 
not  so  much,  say  they,  to  learn  what  they  do  not 
know,  as  to  communicate  a  distinct  notion  of 
what  they  do  know.  These  classes  the  Greeks 
called  categories,  and  the  Latins  predicaments. 
Aristotle  made  ten  categories,  comprehending 
under  the  first  all  substantives ;  and  all  accidents 
under  the  nine  last,  viz.  quantity,  quality,  rela- 
tion, action,  passion,  time,  place,  situation,  and 
habit,  which  ure  usually  expressed  by  the  follow- 
ing technical  distich : 

Arbor,  sex,  servos^  ardore,  refrigerat.  ustos, 
Rure  eras  stabo,  nee  tunicatus  ero. 


CAT 


246 


CAT 


CATEIA,  in  ancient  writers,  a  kind  of  javelin, 
used  among  the  ancient  Gauls  and  Germans, 
made  heavy,  and  therefore  not  fitted  to  fly  far, 
but  doing  great  execution  where  it  did  reach; 
and  having  an  apparatus  by  which  the  person 
who  threw  it  might  draw  it  back  again.  It  is 
mentioned  by  Virgil,  jEn.  lib.  vii.  ver.  741. 

CATENARY,  in  the  higher  geometry,  is  a 
curve  line  formed  by  a  cord  hanging  freely  from 
two  points  of  suspension,  whether  the  points  be 
horizontal  or  not.  It  is  otherwise  called  the 
elastic  curve.  The  nature  of  this  curve  was 
sought  after  by  Galileo,  who  thought  it  was  the 
same  with  the  parabola ;  but  though  Jungius  de- 
tected this  mistake,  its  true  nature  was  not  dis- 
covered till  1691,  in  consequence  of  M.  John 
Bernouilli  having  published  it  as  a  problem  in  the 
Acta  Eruditorum,  to  the  mathematicians  in 
Europe.  In  1697  Dr.  D.  Gregory  published  an 
investigation  of  its  properties,  which  before  had 
been  discovered  by  Bernoulli!  and  Leibnitz.  This 
curve  is  of  the  mechanical  kind,  and  cannot  be 
expressed  by  a  finite  algebraical  equation  in  sim- 
ple terms  of  its  abciss  and  ordinate.  The  inves- 
tigation of  the  nature  and  chief  properties  of  this 
curve  will  be  found  under  the  article  FLUXIONS. 


,  o__,_  ,__^ 

or  physically.  The  noun  signifies  link  ;  regular 
connexion ;  the  adjective,  having  a  relation  or 
resemblance  to  a  chain ;  but  it  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
used,  except  as  descriptive  of  a  peculiar  geome- 
trical curve.  See  the  preceding  article. 

This  catenation  or  conserving  union,  whenever  his 
pleasure  shall  divide,  let  go,  or  separate,  they  shall 
'all  from  their  existence.  Browne. 

In  geometry,  the  catenarian  curve  is  formed  by  a 
rope  or  chain  hanging  freely  between  two  points  of 
suspension.  Harris. 

The  back  is  bent  after  the  manner  of  the  catenarian 
curve,  by  which  it  obtains  that  curvature  that  is  safest 
for  the  included  marrow.  Cheyne. 

CATER,  v.  &  n.~\      Fr.queter;  It.  accatare; 
GATE,  n.  fSp.  cator;   Ger.  kaufen; 

CA'TERER,  n.  \  Ang.-Sax.  ceapian ;  acea- 
CA'TERESS,  n.  lpian;Goth.  kates.  The 
CA'TERY,  n.  J  noun  cate,which  Dr.  John- 
son erroneously  represents  as  having  no  plural, 
Skinner  conjectures  to  be  a  contraction  of  the  word 
delicates.  ButMr.Todd  more  happily  considers  it 
it  as  a  variation  of  the  antiquated  English  word 
acates,  which  he  derives  from  the  old  Fr.  acat, 
achat,  purchase.  Both  the  English  wordshowever, 
are  probably  from  the  Goth.  Cates,  are  viands, 
food ;  and  almost  uniformly  denote  something 
more  delicate  than  usual.  To  cater  is  to  provide 
victuals;  the  cater,  caterer,  or  cateress,  is  the 
provider ;  and  eatery  was  formerly  a  name  of  the 
larder  or  pantry.  The  four  of  cards  and  dice  is 
called  cater;  but  this  is  a  corruption  of  the  Fr. 
quatre. 

The  dearest  cates  are  best;  and  'tis  an  ordinary 
thing  to  bestow  twenty  or  thirty  pounds  on  a  dish,  some 
thousand  crowns  upon  a  dinner.  Burton.  Anat.  Mel. 

Well,  say  what  cates  you  have, 
For  soldiers'  stomachs  always  serve  them  well. 

SlMktpeare. 


He  that  doth  the  ravens  feed, 
Yea  providently  caters  for  the  sparrow. 
Be  comfort  to  my  age.  Id. 

The  fair  acceptance,  sir,  creates 
The  entertainment  perfect,  not  the  cates. 

B.  Jonson, 

O  wasteful  riot,  never  well  content, 
With  low-prized  fare  ;  hunger  ambitious 
Of  cates,  by  land  and  sea  far-fetched  and  sent. 

Raleigh. 

The  oysters  dredged  in  this  Lyner,  find  a  welcomer 
acceptance,  where  the  taste  is  cater  for  the  stomach, 
than  those  of  the  Tamar.  Carew's  Cornwall. 

He  made  the  greedy  ravens  to  be  Elias's  caterers, 
and  bring  him  food.  King  Charles. 

Impostor  !  do  not  charge  most  innocent  nature, 
As  if  she  would  her  children  should  be  riotous 
With  her  abundance  :  she,  good  cateress, 
Means  her  provision  only  to  the  good.  Milton. 

Alas !  how  simple  to  these  cafe*, 
Was  that  crude  apple  that  diverted  Eve  !          Id. 
Seldom  shall  one  see  in  cities  and  courts  that  ath- 
letic  vigour,  which  is  seen   in  poor   houses,  where 
nature  is  their  cook,  and  necessity  their  caterer.  South. 

They,  by  the  alluring  odour  drawn,  in  haste 
Fly  to  the  dulcet  cates,  and  crowding  sip 
Their  palatable  bane.  Philips. 

Near  him  Retirement,  pointing  to  the  shade, 
And  Independence,  stood  :  the  generous  pair 
That  simple  life,  the  quiet- whispering  grove, 
And  the  still  raptures  of  the  free-born  soul, 
To  cates  prefer  by  virtue  bought,  not  earned. 

Thomson, 
Fastidious  cats  who  pine  for  costly  cates. 

Huddesfvd. 

CA'TER-COUSIN,  a  corruption  of  quatre- 
cousin;  from  the  ridiculousness  of  claiming 
affinity  with  so  remote  a  degree. 

His  master  and  he,  saving  your  worship's  reve- 
rence, are  scarce  cater-cousins.  Shakspeare. 
CATERPILLAR.  '  This  word,'  says  John- 
son, 'Skinner,  and  Minsheu  are  inclined  to 
derive  from  chatte  peleuse,  a  weasel .  It  seems 
easily  deducible  from  cates,  food ;  and  piller, 
Fr.  to  rob  ;  the  animal  that  eats  up  the  fruits  of 
the  earth.'  It  appears  evident  either  that  there  is 
a  typographical  error  in  the  dictionary  of  the 
great  lexicographer,  or  that  he  has  overlooked 
the  real  meaning  of  Skinner  and  Minsheu,  which 
seems  simply  to  be  that  the  insect  is  hairy  like  a 
cat.  That  'weasel'  is  a  press  error,  is  rendered 
almost  certain  by  the  fact  that  chatte  peleuse 
never  designated  that  animal,  but  has  always 
been  an  appellation  of  the  weevil.  The  cater- 
pillar is  a  well-known  insect,  which  is  a  potent 
destroyer  of  vegetation.  The  name  is  given  to 
anything  that  is  voracious  and  useless. 

The  caterpillar  breedeth  of  dew  and  leaves  ;  for  we 
see  infinite  caterpillars  breed  upon  trees  and  hedges, 
by  which  the  leaves  of  the  trees  or  hedges  are  con- 
sumed. Bacon. 
Auster  is  drawn  with  a  pot  pouring  forth  water 
with  which  descend  grasshoppers,  caterpillars,  and 
creatures  bred  by  moisture.  Peacham. 

And  what's  a  butterfly  at  best, 
He's  but  a  caterpillar  drest  j 
And  all  thy  race  (a  numerous  seed) 
Shall  prove  of  caterpillar  breed.  Gay. 

CATERPILLAR,  in  zoology,  is  the  name  of  all 
winged  insects,  while  in  their  reptile  or  worm 
state. 


CAT 

CATESB^A,  the  lily-thorn  :  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  and  tetandria  class  of  plants  ; 
natural  order  twenty-eighth,  luridae :  COR.  is 
monopetalous,  funnel-shaped,  very  long  above 
the  receptacle  of  the  fruit;  the  STAM.  are  within 
its  throat ;  the  fruit  a  polyspermous  berry.  There 
are  two  species ;  the  principal  is  C.  spinosa,  a 
native  of  the  island  of  Providence. 

CATFISH,  n.  The  name  of  a  sea-fish  in  the 
West  Indies,  so  named  from  its  round  head  and 
large  glaring  eyes,  by  which  they  are  discovered 
in  hollow  rocks.  See  SQUALUS. 

CATGUT,  a  denomination  given  to  small 
strings  for  fiddles,  and  other  instruments,  made 
of  the  intestines  of  sheep  or  lambs,  dried  and 
twisted  together,  either  singly,  or  several  together. 
These  are  sometimes  colored  red,  sometimes  blue, 
but  are  commonly  left  whitish  or  brownish,  the 
natural  color  of  the  gut.  They  are  also  used  by 
watch-makers,  cutlers,  turners,  and  other  arti- 
ficers. Great  quantities  are  imported  into  England, 
and  other  countries,  from  Lyons  and  Italy. 

CATHARINE  (St.),  a  virgin  of  Alexandria, 
celebrated  for  her  learning  as  well  as  piety,  who 
is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  under  the 
emperor  Maximin,  about  A.D.  236.  Her  body 
being  afterwards  discovered  on  Mount  Sinai, 
gave  rise  to  the  order  of  Knights  of  St.  Catharine. 
There  are  also  two  other  saints  of  this  name  ;  but 
their  history  will  be  more  fit  for  the  pages  of  a 
Romish  calendar  than  for  those  of  an  encyclo- 
paedia. 

CATHARINE  (St.),  FRATERNITY  OF,  AT  SIENNA, 
a  religious  society  instituted  in  that  city,  in 
.lonor  of  St.  Catharine,  whose  wedding  ring, 
said  to  have  been  presented  to  her  by  our  Saviour, 
is  still  preserved  as  a  valuable  relic.  This  fra- 
ternity yearly  endows  a  certain  number  of  desti- 
tute virgins,  and  has  the  privilege  of  redeeming 
annually  two  criminals  condemned  for  murder, 
and  the  same  number  of  debtors,  by  paying  their 
debts. 

CATHARINE  (St.),  OF  MOUNT  SINAI,  KNIGHTS 
OF,  an  ancient  military  order,  erected  for  the  as- 
sistance and  protection  of  the  numerous  pilgrims 
who  went  to  pay  their  devotions  to  the  body  of 
St.  Catharine,  on  mount  Sinai.  Travelling  being 
very  dangerous,  by  reason  of  the  Arabs,  an  order 
of  knighthood  was  erected  in  1063,  on  the  model 
of  that  of  the  holy  sepulchre,  and  under  the 
patronage  of  St.  Catharine  :  the  knights  of  which 
obliged  themselves  by  oath  to  guard  the  body  of 
the  saint,  keep  the  roads  secure,  observe  the  rule 
of  St.  Basil,  and  obey  their  grand  master.  Their 
habit  was  white,  and  on  it  were  represented  the 
instruments  of  martyrdom  whereby  the  saint  had 
suffered ;  viz.  a  half  wheel  armed  with  spikes, 
and  traversed  with  a  sword  stained  with  blood. 

CATHARINE  (St.),  ORDER  OF,  an  order  of 
ladies  of  the  first  quality  in  the  Russian  court, 
instituted  in  1714,  by  Catherine,  wife  of  Peter  the 
Great,  in  memory  of  his  signal  escape  from  the 
Turks,  in  1711.  The  ensigns  of  this  order  are  a 
red  cross,  supported  by  a  figure  of  St.  Catharine, 
and  fastened  to  a  scarlet  string  edged  with  silver, 
on  which  are  inscribed  the  name  of  St.  Catha- 
rine, and  the  motto  '  Pro  fide  et  patria.' 

CATHARINENSTADT,  the  head  of  the  Ger- 
man colonies  on  the  Wolga  in  European  Russia, 


CAT 

government  of  Saratov.  It  contains  one  long 
street,  with  eight  smaller  ones  running  off  at  right 
angles,  and  a  small  fortress  to  protect  it  against 
the  attacks  of  the  Tartars.  Grain,  tobacco,  arid 
cattle  are  the  productions  of  the  neighbourhood. 

CA'T-HARPINGS,  n.  Small  ropes  in  a  ship, 
running  in  little  blocks  from  one  side  of  the 
shrouds  to  the  other,  near  the  deck  ;  they  belong 
only  to  the  main  shrouds ;  and  their  use  is  to 
force  the  main ,  shrouds  tight,  for  the  ease  and 
safety  of  the  masts,  when  the  ship  rolls. 

CATHA'RTICAL,  adj.  ^      Ka0apnic6c,  from 

CATHA'RTIC,  adj.  >  Kara  and  alp<*i,tollo. 

CATHA'RTICALNESS.  j  Purging  medicines; 
purging;  having  a  purging  quality.  The  ver- 
micular or  peristaltick  motion  of  the  gut,  says 
Quincy,  continually  helps  on  their  contents  from 
the  pylorus  to  the  rectum ;  and  every  irritation 
either  quickens  that  motion  in  its  natural  order, 
or  occasions  some  little  inversions  in  it.  In  both, 
what  but  slightly  adheres  to  the  coats  will  be 
loosened,  and  they  will  be  more  agitated  and 
thus  rendered  more  fluid.  By  this  only  it  is  ma- 
nifest, how  a  cathartic  hastens  and  increases  the 
discharges  by  stool ;  but  where  the  force  of  the 
stimulus  is  great,  all  the  appendages  of  the 
bowels,  and  all  the  viscera  in  the  abdomen,  will 
be  twitched ;  by  which  a  great  deal  will  be 
drained  back  into  the  intestines,  and  made  a 
part  of  what  they  discharge. 

Quicksilver  precipitated  either  with  gold,  or  with- 
out addition,  into  a  powder,  is  wont  to  be  strongly 
enough  cathartical.  Boyle. 

Lustrations  and  catharticks  of  the  mind  were  sought 
for,  and  all  endeavour  used  to  calm  and  regulate  the 
fury  of  the  passions.  Decay  of  Piety. 

The  piercing  causticks  ply  their  spiteful  power, 
Emeticks  ranch,  and  keen  catharticks  scour.        Garth. 

Plato  has  called  mathematical  demonstrations  the 
catharticks  or  purgatives  of  the  soul. 

Addison's  Spectator. 

CATHARTICS.     See  MATERIA  MEDICA. 

CA'THEAD,  n.,  a  kind  of  fossil. 

The  nodules  with  leaves  in  them,  called  catheads, 
seem  to  consist  of  a  sort  of  iron  stone,  not  unlike  that 
which  is  found  in  the  rocks  near  Whitehaven  in 
Cumberland,  where  they  call  them  catscaups. 

Woodward  on  Fossils. 

CAT-HEADS,  two  strong  short  beams  of  timber, 
which  project  almost  horizontally  over  the  ship's 
bows  on  each  side  of  the  bowsprit ;  being  like 
two  radii  which  extend  from  a  centre  taken  in 
the  direction  of  the  bowsprit.  That  part  of  the 
cat-head  which  rests  upon  the  forecastle,  is  se- 
curely bolted  to  the  beams :  the  other  part  pro- 
jects like  a  crane  as  above  described,  and  carries 
in  its  extremity  two  or  three  small  wheels  or 
sheaves  of  brass  or  strong  wood,  about  which  a 
rope  called  the  cat-fall  passes,  and  communicates 
with  the  cat-block,  which  also  contains  three 
sheaves.  The  machine  formed  by  this  combina- 
tion of  pullies  is  called  the  cat,  which  serves  to 
pull  the  anchor  up  to  the  cat-head,  without  tear- 
ing the  ship's  sides  with  its  flukes.  The  cat-head 
also  serves  to  suspend  the  anchor  clear  of  the 
bow,  when  it  is  necessary  to  let  it  go :  it  is  sup- 
ported by  a  sort  of  knee,  which  is  generally  or- 
namented with  sculpture.  The  cat  block  is  filled 
with  a  large  and  strong  hood,  which  catches  the 
ring  of  the  anchor  when  it  is  to  be  drawn  up. 


248 


CATHERINE. 


CATHEDRA,  Kafyfya,  Gr.  a  chair,  is  used 
for,  1.  a  professor's  chair;  2.  a  preacher's  pulpit; 
and  3.  a  bishop's  see,  or  throne,  in  a  church. 
CATHE'DRAL,  n  &  adj.  }      KaOtSpa,  a  seat, 
CATHE'DRATED,  adj.  $  or  chair,  from  Kara 

and  ttipa,  a  seat.  The  noun  signifies  the  head 
church  of  a  diocese.  The  adjective  denotes  epis- 
copal ;  containing  a  bishop's  see ;  appertaining 
to  an  episcopal  church ;  and,  adds  Johnson, 
though  doubtingly,  '  in  lovr  phrase,  antique,  ve- 
nerable, old.'  He  gives  the  subjoined  quotation 
from  Pope,  as  illustrative  of  this  sense  of  the 
\7ord.  But  it  seems  probable  that  Pope  had  no 
such  meaning.  He  is  describing  long  alleys  of 
trees,  and  apparently  alludes  to  the  resemblance 
which  their  tall  equidistant  trunks  and  over- 
arching branches  bear  to  the  aisles  of  a  Gothic 
cathedral.  His  friend  Warburton  considers  Go- 
thic architecture  as  having  originated  in  an  imi- 
tation of  a  grove  of  tress.  Cathedrated  denotes 
relating  to  the  chair,  or  authority,  of  a  teacher ; 
but  is  obsolete. 

A  cathedral  church  is  that  wherein  there  are  two  or 
more  persons,  with  a  bishop  at  the  head  of  them, 
that  do  make,  as  it  were,  one  body  politick. 

Ayliffe's  Parergon. 
Methought  I  sat  in  seat  of  majesty, 

In  the  cathedral  church  of  Westminster.  Shahspeare. 

Nature  in  vain  us  in  one  land  compiles, 
If  the  cathedral  still  shall  have  its  aisles.         MarveU. 

If  his  reproof  be  private  or  with  the  cathedrated  au- 
thority of  a  praelecter  or  puhlick  reader.  Whitlock. 

His  constant  and  regular  assisting  at  the  cathe- 
dral service  was  never  interrupted  by  the  sharpness 
of  weather.  '  Locke. 

Here  aged  trees  cathedral  walks  compose, 
And  mount  the  hill  in  venerable  rows; 
There  the  green  infants  in  their  beds  are  laid.    Pope. 

There  is  nothing  in  Leghorn  so  extraordinary  as 
the  cathedral,  which  a  man  may  view  with  pleasure 
after  he  has  seen  St.  Peter's.  Addiaon. 

Who  can  forsake  thy  walls  and  not  admire 

The  proud  cathedral  and  the  lofty  spire.  Gay. 

CATHEDRAL.  The  name  seems  to  have  taken 
its  rise  from  the  manner  of  sitting  in  the  ancient 
churches,  or  assemblies  of  primitive  Christians. 
In  these,  the  presbyterium ;  at  their  head  was 
the  bishop  who  held  the  place  of  chairman,  ca- 
thedralis,  or  cathedraticus ;  and  the  presbyters, 
who  sat  on  either  side  also  called  by  the  ancient 
fathers,  assessores  episcoporum.  The  episcopal 
authority  did  not  reside  in  the  bishop  alone;  but 
in  all  the  presbyters,  whereof  the  bishop  was 
president.  A  cathedral,  therefore,  originally  was 
different  from  what  it  is  now;  the  Christians, 
till  the  time  of  Constantine,  having  no  liberty  to 
build  any  temple;  by  their  churches  they  only 
meant  their  assemblies ;  and,  by  cathedrals,  no- 
thing more  than  consistories. 

CATHERINE  I.  empress  of  Russia,  a  woman 
who  rose  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  rank  in 
life,  was  the  natural  daughter  of  a  peasant,  and 
born  at  Ringen,  a  small  village  in  Livonia,  April 
the  5th,  1687.  Her  original  name  was  Martha, 
which  she  changed  for  Catherine  when  she  em- 
biaced  the  Greek  religion.  Count  Rosen,  a  lieu- 
tenant-colonel in  the  Swedish  service,  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  village,  supported,  according  to 


the  custom  of  the  country,  both  the  mother  an« 
the  child ;  and  was  supposed  by  many  to  have 
been  her  father.  She  lost  her  mother  when  she 
was  only  three  years  old;  and,  as  the  count  died 
about  the  same  time,  she  was  left  in  so  destitute 
a  situation,  that  the  parish-clerk  of  the  village 
took  her  into  his  house.  Soon  afterwards,  M. 
Gluck,  Lutheran  minister  of  Marienburgh,  took 
her  under  his  protection,  brought  her  up  in  his 
family,  and  employed  her  in  attending  his  chil- 
dren. In  1701,  about  the  fourteenth  year  of  her 
age,  she  espoused  a  dragoon  of  the  Swedish  gar- 
rison of  Marienburgh  :  who,  according  to  some 
writers,  lived  only  eight  days  with  her.  It  is 
certain  that  he  was  absent  when  Marienburgh 
surrendered  to  the  Russians ;  and  Catherine 
never  saw  him  more.  General  Baur,  upon  the 
surrender  of  Marienburgh,  being  smitten  with 
her  beauty,  took  the  young  bride  to  his  house, 
where  she  superintended  his  domestic  affairs, 
and  was  supposed  to  he  his  mistress.  Soon 
afterwards  she  was  removed  into  the  family  of 
prince  Menzikof,  who  was  no  less  struck  with 
her  charms.  With  him  she  lived  until  1704; 
when,  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  her  age,  she  be- 
came the  mistress  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  won  so 
much  upon  his  affections,  that  he  espoused  her 
on  the  29th  of  May,  1711,  at  Jawerof  in  Poland; 
and  on  the  20th  of  February,  1 71 2,  the  marriage 
was  publicly  solemnised  at  Petersburg.  Cathe- 
rine, by  the  most  unwearied  assiduity  and  unre- 
mitted  attention,  by  the  softness  and  complacency 
of  her  disposition,  but  above  all  by  an  extraordi- 
nary liveliness  and  gaiety  of  temper,  acquired  a 
wonderful  ascendancy  over  the  mind  of  the  czar; 
and  the  emperor  particularly  specified  her  be- 
haviour at  Pruth,  in  which  she  alone  prevailed 
with  him  to  sign  a  truce,  as  one  of  the  reasons 
which  induced  him  to  crown  her  publicly  at 
Moscow  with  his  own  hand.  This  ceremony 
was  performed  in  1724.  On  the  death  of  Peter 
in  1725  she  ascended  the  throne  as  his  successor. 
Her  favorite,  prince  Menzikof,  chiefly  managed 
the  public  affairs  during  her  short  reign,  which 
terminated  by  her  death  in  a  fit  of  apoplexy, 
May,  1727.  The  empress  Elizabeth,  who  after- 
wards succeeded  to  the  throne,  was  one  of  her 
daughters  by  Peter  I. 

CATHERINE  II.  of  Russia,  a  '  queen  who 
doubless  has  a  claim  to  be  ranked  among  the 
great  sovereigns  of  Europe,  according  to  the 
usual  acceptation  of  the  word  greatness,  was  the 
daughter  of  Christian  Augustus,  prince  of  An- 
halt-Zerbst.  She  was  born,  May  the  2d,  1729, 
and  baptised  Sophia  Augusta;  but,  upon  her 
marriage  with  the  grand  duke  of  Russia,  Sep- 
tember the  1st,  1745,  and  admission  into  the 
Greek  church,  she  assumed  the  name  of  Cathe- 
rine. Her  husband,  Peter  III.  succeeded  his 
aunt  Elizabeth,  January  the  5th,  1762,  but  had 
not  reigned  six  months,  when  he  fell  a  sacrifice 
to  his  wife's  ambition ;  being  deposed  on  the 
28th  of  June,  and  barbarously  murdered  on  the 
9th  of  July  following.  Upon  the  deposition  of 
her  unfortunate  husband,  Catherine  II.  was  pro- 
claimed empress  of  all  the  Russias;  and  soon 
after  endeavoured  to  conceal  the  crimes  by  which 
she  ascended  the  throne,  by  the  dazzling  lustre 
of  some  of  those  actions  which  have  blotted  the 


CAT 


249 


CAT 


page  of  history  with  blood  in  all  ages  of  the 
world,  and  have  too  long  employed  the  pens  of 
historians  and  poets.  The  history  of  these  trans- 
actions will  be  found  under  the  article  RUSSCA  ; 
but  future  historians  will  decide,  whether  the 
great  exploits,  displayed  during  her  reign,  are 
not  more  to  be  ascribed  to  the  natural  strength  of 
the  empire,  the  force  of  which  it  was  her  business 
to  collect  and  concentrate,  than  to  any  superior 
personal  genius  which  she  possessed.  As  to  the 
justice  of  these  exploits,  it  need  hardly  be  left  to 
posterity  to  judge.  Without  entering  into  the 
merits  of  her  claims  upon  the  Turkish  dominions, 
her  invasion  and  partition  of  Poland,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  other  powers,  particularly  the  king  of 
Prussia,  affords  as  flagrant  an  instance  of  the 
violation  of  the  rights  of  nations,  by  open  and 
unprovoked  robbery  and  murder,  as  is  to  be 
found  in  the  annals  of  the  most  barbarous 
savages.  In  short,  the  chief  merit  of  Catherine, 
as  a  sovereign,  seems  like  that  of  queen  Elizabeth 
of  England,  to  have  consisted  in  selecting  able 
ministers,  admirals,  and  generals,  to  carry  on  the 
operations  she  had  planned.  In  this  respect, 
even  her  vices  as  a  woman,  which  gave  her  the 
ascendant  of  an  imperious  character  over  her 
favorites,  exempt  from  the  weakness  of  sentiment, 
supplied  the  place  of  public  virtues;  and  ba- 
nished from  her  government  the  degrading  in- 
fluence, which  courtiers  elsewhere  often  exercise. 
She  at  last,  however,  allowed  herself  to  be  ruled 
by  her  freed  man,  Sabor,  who  deceived  her  with 
regard  to  the  state  of  her  forces,  which  did  not 
amount  to  200,000  men,  though  her  military  lists 
contained  400,000 :  and  her  long  preparations 
for  the  field  terminal«l  in  a  disastrous  war  in 
Persia,  by  which  two  of  her  armies  were  con- 
sumed. If  her  policy  in  relation  to  Austria  and 
Poland  was  attended  with  success,  it  is,  perhaps, 
less  to  be  ascribed  to  her  interference,  than  to  the 
good  sense  she  displayed  in  allowing  her  minis- 
ters to  govern.  Yet  this  policy  was  over-reached 
in  her  last  war  against  the  Turks,  when,  in  spite 
of  pompous  promises,  assisting  Austria  only  with 
feeble  succours,  and  suddenly  finding  her  squad- 
rons held  bound  by  those  of  Sweden,  she  left  to 
her  rival  all  the  advantages  of  many  bloody  cam- 
paigns ;  and  excited  in  the  grand  seignior  a  de- 
sire of  vengeance,  which  he  was  not  long  in 
inflicting.  Nor  were  her  plans  of  political  ag- 
grandisement free  from  fluctuations  and  contra- 
dictions. During  the  American  war,  one  would 
have  imagined  that  the  trident  of  Neptune  was, 
by  her  exertions,  about  to  become  the  sacred 
.symbol  of  liberty.  She  presented  to  the  courts 
of  Versailles,  Madrid,  and  London,  a  memorial, 
in  which  she  demanded,  that  the  commerce  of 
all  nations,  even  of  the  belligerent  powers,  should 
be  free  and  respected.  She  proposed  that  a 
league  should  be  formed  for  its  support,  and  for 
this  purpose  deputed  prince  Gallitzin  to  the 
States  General.  But,  in  1793,  she  avowed  prin- 
ciples directly  opposite.  Influenced  solely  by 
her  rage  against  France,  she  announced  war 
against  that  republic,  without  discussion,  without 
manifesto,  without  even  being  able  to  allege, 
with  regard  to  a  state  so  remote  from  her  terri- 
tories, that  barbarous  maxim,  which  has  slipped 
from  the  pen  of  Montesquieu  himself; — '  that  the 


lavv  of  natural  defence  sometimes  involves  the 
necessity  of  attack,  when  a  people  sees,  that  a 
longer  peace  would  enable  another  power  to 
effect  their  destruction.'  Esprit  de  Loix,  L.  1  "*. 
c.  2.  With  all  her  foibles,  however,  Catherine 
had  some  right  to  the  panegyrics  of  men  of  let- 
ters. She  purchased  the  praises  of  several  French 
philosophers,  and  she  did  not  overlook  the  merits 
of  various  British  authors.  After  the  example  of 
some  of  the  tyrants  of  antiquity,  she  renewed  the 
singularity  of  royal  and  philosophic  banquets. 
Like  Dionysius,  Pisistratus,  and  Iliero,  she  col- 
lected Platos,  Aristippi,  and  Pindars  at  her  sup- 
pers. The  imperial  resentment,  however,  was 
sometimes  excited ;  on  which  occasions  the  wit 
was  rewarded  with  banishment;  a  premium 
which  Diderot  received  for  his  frankness.  The 
compliment  she  paid  to  the  rhetorical  merits  of 
Mr.  Fox,  by  requesting  his  bust,  and  placing  it 
between  those  of  Cicero  and  Demosthenes  in  her 
library,  for  his  having  prevented  the  threatened 
rupture  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  re- 
flects honor  on  her  memory,  as  well  as  on  that  of 
the  orator.  Her  purchasing  the  libraries,  letters, 
and  papers  of  Messrs.  Voltaire  and  D'  Alembert 
also  evidenced  her  literary  taste ;  unless,  as  a 
French  writer  suspects,  she  did  it  with  a  view  to 
bury  the  relics  of  these  great  men.  This  extra- 
ordinary woman  died  suddenly  and  unseen,  in 
her  water-closet,  on  the  17th  of  November,  1796, 
in  the  sixty-seventh  year  of  her  age. 

CA'THERINE  PEAR.     See  PYRUS. 
For  steaks  of  red  were  mingled  there, 

Sucu  as  arc  on  a  Catherine  pear, 

The  side  that's  next  the  sun.  Suckling. 

CATHERINEBERG,  a  town  of  Sweden, 
in  the  province  of  West  Gothland.  It  is  the 
birth-place  of  the  celebrated  chemist,  Sir  Torbern 
Bergman. 

CA'THETER.  n.  s.  KaQtTTjp,  from  KaQiripi,  I 
let  down  into.  A  hollow  and  somewhat  crooked 
instrument,  to  thrust  into  the  bladder,  to  assist  in 
bringing  away  the  urine,  when  the  passage  is 
stopped  by  a  stone  or  gravel. 

A  large  clyster,  suddenly  injected,  hath  frequently 
forced  the  urine  out  of  the  bladder;  but  if  it  fail,  a 
catheter  must  help  you.  Wiseman's  Surgery. 

CATHETOLIPES,  in  natural  history,  the 
name  of  a  genus  of  fossils  of  the  class  of  the  se- 
lenitse,  but  differing  from  the  common  kinds,  in 
the  constituent  plates  being  ranged  perpendicu- 
larly, and  not  horizontally  on  each  other. 

CATHETUS,  in  architecture,  a  perpendicular 
line,  supposed  to  pass  through  the  middle  of  a 
cylindrical  body,  as  a  baluster,  column,  &c. 

CATHETUS,  in  geometry,  a  line  or  radius  fall- 
ing perpendicularly  on  another  line  or  surface ; 
thus  the  catheti  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  are 
the  two  sides  that  include  the  right  angle. 

CATHO'LICISE,  or  ~\      Fr.  catholique ;  Ital. 

CA'THOLISE,  s-  I  cattolico;  Spxatolico; 

CA'THOLICK,  n.  &  adj.  \  Gr.   eaOoXticoc,    from 

CA'THOLICKLY,  S-oXoc,    universal,    the 

CA'THOLICKNESS,  n.      ]  whole,  all;  thence  ap- 

CATHO'LICAL,  adj.  plied    to    the    whole 

CATHO'LICISM,  n.  J  Christian  church. — 
The  verb  is  not  in  use.  Cotgrave  and  Sherwood 
define  it '  to  catholikize  it,play  the  catholicke,  be- 


CAT 


250 


CAT 


come  a  catholicke.'  Catholicism  is  adherence 
to  the  Catholic  church ;  orthodox  faith ;  catho- 
lickly  is  generally ;  catholickness ;  universality. 

The  church  of  Jesus  Christ  is  called  catholic, 
because  it  extends  throughout  the  whole  world, 
and  is  not  limited  by  time.  Some  truths  are  said 
to  be  catholic  because  they  are  received  by  all 
the  faithful.  Catholic  is  often  set  in  opposition 
to  heretic  or  sectary,  and  to  schismatic.  Ca- 
tholic or  canonical  epistles,  are  seven  in  num- 
ber ;  that  of  St.  James,  two  of  St.  Peter,  three  of 
St.  John,  and  that  of  St.  Jude.  They  are  called 
catholic,  because  they  are  directed  to  all  the 
faithful,  and  not  to  any  particular  church  ;  and 
canonical,  because  they  contain  excellent  rules  of 
faith  and  morality. 

Doubtless  the  success  of  those  your  great  and  ca- 
tholich  endeavours  will  promote  the  empire  of  man 
over  nature,  and  bring  plentiful  accession  of  glory  to 
your  nation.  Glanville's  Scepsis. 

All  pope's  believers  think  something  divine, 
When  images  speak,  possesseth  the  shrine ; 
But  they  -who  faith  cathalick  ne'er  understood, 
When  shrines  give  an  answer,  a  knave's  on  the  rood. 

Marvell. 

Those  systems  undertake  to  give  an  account  of  the 
formation  of  the  universe,  by  mechanical  hypotheses 
of  matter,  moved  either  uncertainly,  or  according  to 
some  catholick  laws.  Ray. 

CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  The  rise  of  heresies  in- 
duced the  primitive  Christian  church  to  assume 
to  itself  the  appellation  of  catholic,  being  a  cha- 
racteristic to  distinguish  itself  from  all  sects,  who, 
though  they  had  party  names,  sometimes  shel- 
tered themselves  under  the  name  of  Christians. 
The  Romish  church  now  distinguishes  itself  by 
the  name  of  catholic,  in  opposition  to  all  who 
have  separated  from  her  communion,  and  whom 
she  considers  as  heretics  and  schismatics,  and  her- 
self only  as  the  true  and  Christian  church.  In 
the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  there  is  no  catholic 
church  in  being,  that  is,  no  universal  Christian 
communion.  We  shall  treat  of  the  existing  state 
of  the  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  church  under  that  more 
appropriate  title. 

CATHOLIC  KING  is  a  title  which  has  been  long 
hereditary  to  the  king  of  Spain.  Mariana  pre- 
tends, that  Recarede  first  received  this  title  after 
he  had  destroyed  Arianism  in  his  kingdom,  and 
that  it  is  found  in  the  council  of  Toledo  for  the 
year  589.  Vasce  ascribes  the  origin  of  it  to  Al- 
phonsus  I.  in  738.  Some  allege  that  it  has  been 
used  only  since  the  time  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella. Colombiere  says,  it  was  given  them  on 
occasion  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors.  The 
Bollandists  pretend  it  had  been  borne  by  their 
predecessors  the  Visigoth  kings  of  Spain;  and 
that  Alexander  VI.  only  renewed  it  to  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella.  Others  say,  that  Philip  of  Valois 
first  bore  the  title ;  which  was  given  him  after 
his  death  by  the  ecclesiastics,  on  account  of  his 
favoring  their  interests.  In  some  epistles  of  the 
ancient  popes,  the  title  catholic  is  given  to  the 
kings  of  France  and  of  Jerusalem,  as  well  as  to 
several  patriarchs  and  primates. 

CATHO'LICON,  n.  *.  from  catholic ;  Ca0o- 
XIKOV  ia^a  ;  a  universal  medicine. 

Preservation  against  that  sin,  is  the  contemplation 
of  the  last  judgment.  This  is  indeed  a  catMiivn 


against  all ;  but  we  find  it  particularly  applied  by  8t, 
Paul  to  judging  and  despising  our  brethren. 

Government  of  the  Tongue. 
Here  the  great  masters  of  the  healing  art, 
These  mighty  mock-defrauders  of  the  tomb. 
Spite  of  their  juleps  and  catftolicon, 
Resign  to  fate  !  Blair's  Grave. 

CATILINISM,  n.  from  Catiline  ;  a  conspi- 
racy. 

CATILINE  (Lucius  Sergius),  a  Roman  of  a 
patrician  family,  who,  having  spent  his  fortune  in 
debauchery,  formed  the  design  of  destroying  the 
senate,  seizing  the  public  treasury,  setting  Rome 
on  fire,  and  usurping  a  sovereign  power  over  his 
fellow  citizens.  He  drew  some  young  noblemen 
into  his  plot ;  whom  he  prevailed  upon,  it  is  said, 
to  drink  human  blood  as  a  pledge  of  their  union. 
His  conspiracy,  however,  was  discovere4  by  the 
vigilance  of  Cicero,  who  was  then  consul.  Upon 
which,  retiring  from  Rome,  he  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  an  army,  with  several  of  the  conspirators, 
and  fought  with  incredible  valor  against  Pe- 
treius,  lieutenant  to  Anthony,  who  was  colleague 
with  Cicero  in  the  consulship  ;  but  was  defeated 
and  killed  in  battle.  See  ROME.  Sallust  has 
given  an  excellent  history  of  this  conspiracy. 

CATO  (Marcus  Porcius),  Major,  the  censor, 
one  of  the  greatest  men  among  the  ancients,  was 
born  at  Tusculum,  A. U. C.  519,  and  A.A.C. 
232.  He  began  to  bear  arms  at  seventeen ;  and, 
on  all  occasions,  showed  extraordinary  courage 
and  great  sobriety ;  considering  no  bodily  exer- 
cise unworthy  of  him.  He  had  but  one  horse  for 
himself  and  his  baggage,  arid  he  always  groomed 
it.  At  his  return  from  his  first  campaign,  he 
plowed  his  own  ground,  though  he  had  slaves  to 
do  it.  He  dressed  also  like  his  slaves,  sat  at  the 
same  table  with  them,  and  partook  of  the  same 
fare.  He  employed  his  rhetorical  talents  in 
pleading  causes  in  the  neigbouring  cities  without 
fee  or  reward.  Valerius  Flaccus,  who  had  a 
country  seat  near  Cato,  conceiving  an  esteem  for 
him,  persuaded  him  to  come  to  Rome;  and  here, 
by  his  own  merit,  and  the  influence  of  so  power- 
ful a  patron,  he  was  soon  noticed.  He  was  first 
elected  tribune  of  the  soldiers  for  Sicily.  Next 
he  was  made  questor  in  Africa  under  Scipio, 
whom  he  reproved  for  his  profuseness  to  his 
soldiers.  Being  afterwards  prator,  he  fulfilled 
the  duties  of  that  office  with  the  strictest  justice. 
He  conquered  Sardinia,  governed  it  with  ad- 
mirable moderation,  and  was  elected  consul. 
Being  tribune  in  the  Syrian  war,  he  gave  dis- 
tinguished proofs  of  his  valor  against  Antiochus 
the  Great ;  and  at  his  return  stood  candidate  for 
the  censorship.  But  the  nobles,  who  not  only 
envied  him  as  a  new  man,  but  dreaded  his  se- 
verity, set  up  against  him  several  powerful  com- 
petitors. Valerius  Flaccus,  who  had  been  his 
colleague  in  the  consulship,  was  a  ninth  candi- 
date, and  these  two  united  their  interests.  On 
this  occasion  Cato,  far  from  flattering  the  people, 
or  giving  hopes  of  gentleness  in  the  execution  of 
his  office,  declared  from  the  rostra,  with  a  threaten- 
ing look  and  voice,  'That  the  times  required 
firm  and  vigorous  magistrates  to  put  a  stop  to 
that  luxury  which  menaced  the  republic  with 
ruin  ;  censors  who  would  cut  up  the  evil  by  the 
roots,  and  restore  the  rigor  of  ancient  discipline.' 


CATC. 


251 


To  the  honor  of  the  Romans,  notwithstanding 
these  intimations,  they  preferred  him  to  all  his 
competitors.  The  comitia  also  appointed  his 
friend  Valerius  to  be  his  colleague,  without 
whom  he  had  declared  that  he  could  not  hope 
to  compass  the  reformations  he  had  in  view. 
With  all  these  accomplishments,  Cato  had  very 
great  faults.  His  ambition,  poisoned  with  envy, 
disturbed  both  his  own  peace  and  that  of  the 
whole  city,  as  long  as  he  lived.  Though  he 
would  not  take  bribes,  he  amassed  wealth  by  all 
such  means  as  the  law  did  not  punish.  His 
fiFst  act  in  his  new  office  was  naming  his  col- 
league to  be  prince  of  the  senate.  But  what  most 
offended  the  nobles  and  their  ladies  was  the 
taxes  he  imposed  on  luxury  in  all  its  branches ; 
dress,  household  furniture,  women's  toilets, 
chariots,  slaves,  and  equipage.  The  people, 
however,  were  so  pleased  with  his  regulat'ons, 
that  they  ordered  a  statue  to  be  erected  f>  his 
honor  in  the  temple  of  Health,  with  an  inscrip- 
tion importing,  that  by  his  wise  ordinances  he 
had  reformed  the  manners  of  the  republic.  Plu- 
tarch relates,  that  before  this,  upon  some  of  Cato's 
friends  expressing  their  surprise,  that  while  many 
persons  without  merit  or  reputation  had  statues, 
he  had  none  ;  he  answered,  '  I  had  much  rather 
it  should  be  asked  why  the  people  have  not 
erected  a  statue  to  Cato,  tl  an  why  they  have.' 
Being,  in  the  third  Punic  %var,  despatched  to 
Africa,  he  warmly  exhorted  the  senate  to  destroy 
a  city  and  republic,  during  the  existence  of  which, 
Rome  could  never  be  safe :  and  after  this  time 
never  spoke  in  the  senate  upon  any  subject,  with- 
out concluding  with  these  words,  '  I  am  also  of 
opinion  that  Carthage  ought  to  be  destroyed.' 
Cato,  however  severe  as  a  public  magistrate, 
was,  in  private  life,  sociable  and  good-humored, 
and  intermixed  his  conversation  with  the  liveliest 
and  happiest  wit.  Plutarch  has  collected  a  pretty 
large  number  of  his  sayings.  He  had  married  a 
very  handsome  wife,  who,  being  extremely  afraid 
of  thunder,  always  threw  herself  into  her  hus- 
band's arms  at  the  least  noise  she  heard  in  the 
sky.  Cato,  who  was  very  willing  to  be  caressed, 
told  his  friends  that  '  his  wife  had  found  out  a 
way  to  make  him  love  bad  weather  ;  and  that  he 
never  was  so  happy  as  when  Jupiter  was  angry.' 
Cato  died  A.U.C.  604,  aged  eighty-five.  He 
wrote,  1 .  A  Roman  History ;  2.  Concerning  the 
Art  of  War;  3.  Of  Rhetoric;  4.  A  Treatise  of 
Husbandry.  Of  these,  the  last  only  is  extant. 

CATO  (Marcus  Portius),  Minor,  was  great 
grandson  of  Cato  the  Censor,  and  from  his  in- 
fancy discovered  a  singular  inflexibility  of  mind. 
Sylk,  having  had  a  friendship  for  the  father  of 
Cato,  sent  often  for  him  and  his  brother.  Cato, 
who  was  then  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  seeing 
the  number  of  heads  sometimes  brought  in,  asked 
his  preceptor,  'Why  does  nobody  kill  this  man?' 
'  Because,'  said  the  other,  '  he  is  more  feared  than 
he  is  hated.'  The  boy  replied,  '  Why  then  did 
you  not  give  me  a  sword  when  you  brought  me 
hither,  that  I  might  have  stabbed  him,  and  freed 
my  country  from  this  slavery  ?'  He  imbibed  the 
principles  of  the  Stoic  philosophy,  under  Anti- 
pater  of  Tyre.  To  increase  his  bodily  strength, 
he  inured  himself  to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  ; 
and  used  to  make  journeys  on  foot,  and  bare- 


headed, in  all  seasons.  When  he  was  sick,  pa- 
tience and  abstinence  were  his  only  remedies. 
Though  remarkably  sober  in  the  beginning  of  his 
life,  making  it  a  rule  to  drink  but  once  after 
supper,  he  insensibly  contracted  a  habit  of  drink- 
ing more  freely,  and  of  sitting  at  table  till  morn- 
ing. His  friends  excused  this,  by  saying  that  the 
affairs  of  the  public  engrossed  his  attention  all 
the  day ;  and  that,  being  ambitious  of  knowledge, 
he  passed  the  night  in  the  conversation  of  phi- 
losophers. Caesar  wrote  that  Cato  was  once  found 
dead  drunk  at  the  corner  of  a  street,  early  in  the 
morning,  and  that  the  people  blushed  when  they 
found  it  was  Cato.  He  affected  singularity  ;  and 
magnanimity  and  constancy  are  generally  ascribed 
to  him.  '  Cato,'  says  Seneca,  '  having  received  a 
blow  in  the  face,  neither  took  revenge  nor  was 
angry  ;  he  did  not  even  pardon  the  affront,  but 
denied  that  he  had  received  it.  His  virtue  raised 
him  so  high,  that  injury  could  not  reach  him. 
Our  Stoic,  however,  was  for  going  to  law  with 
Scipio ;  but  his  friends  diverted  him  from  that 
design,  and  he  revenged  himself  by  making  verses 
\ipon  his  rival.  He  married  Attilia  the  daughter 
of  Serranus,  had  two  children  by  her,  and  after- 
wards divorced  her  for  very  indiscreet  conduct. 
He  served  as  a  volunteer  under  Gallius  in  the 
war  of  Spartacus;  but  refused  the  military  re- 
wards offered  him  by  the  commander.  ,  Some 
years  after,  he  went  a  legionary  tribune  into 
Macedonia,  in  which  station  he  appeared,  in  his 
dress,  and  during  a  march,  more  like  a  private 
soldier  than  an  officer.  On  his  return  home  he 
was  chosen  questor ;  and  had  scarce  entered  on 
his  charge,  when  he  made  a  great  reformation 
with  regard  to  the  registrars,  whose  places  were 
for  life,  and  through  whose  hands  all  the  public 
accounts  passed.  He  greatly  pleased  the  people, 
by  making  the  assassins,  to  whom  Sylla  had  given 
considerable  rewards,  for  murdering  the  pro- 
scribed, disgorge  their  gains.  At  first  his  aus- 
terity and  stiffness  displeased  his  colleagues ;  but 
afterwards  they  were  glad  to  have  his  name  to 
oppose  to  all  the  unjust  solicitations,  against 
which  they  would  have  found  it  difficult  to  de- 
fend themselves.  To  keep  out  a  very  bad  man, 
he  put  in  for  the  tribunate.  He  sided  with  Cicero 
against  Catiline,  and  opposed  Caesar  on  that  oc- 
casion. His  enemies  sent  him  to  recover  Cyprus, 
which  Ptolemy  had  forfeited,  thinking  to  hurt  his 
reputation  by  so  difficult  an  undertaking;  yet 
none  could  find  fault  with  his  conduct.  He  tried 
to  bring  about  an  agreement  between  Caesar  and 
Pompey ;  but,  seeing  it  in  vain,  sided  with  the 
latter.  When  Pompey  was  slain,  he  fled  to 
Utica ;  and,  being  pursued  by  Caesar,  advised  his 
friends  to  be  gone,  and  throw  themselves  on 
Caesar's  clemency.  His  son,  however,  remained 
with  him;  and  Statilius,  a  young  man,  remarkable 
for  his  hatred  to  Caesar.  The  evening  before  his 
death,  after  bathing,  he  supped  with  his  friends 
and  the  magistrates  of  the  city.  They  sat  late, 
and  the  conversation  was  lively.  *  The  discourse 
falling  upon  this  maxim  of  the  Stoics,  that '  the 
wise  man  alone  is  free,  and  that  the  vicious  are 
slaves ;'  Demetrius,  who  was  a  Peripatetic,  under- 
took to  confute  it.  Cato,  in  answer,  treated  the 
matter  with  so  much  earnestness  and  vehemence 
of  voice,  that  he  confirmed  the  suspicions  of  his 


CAT 


252 


CAT 


friends  that  Tie  designed  to  kill  himself.  When 
he  had  done  speaking,  a  melancholy  silence  en- 
sued ;  and  Cato  perceiving  it,  turned  the  dis- 
course to  the  present  situation  of  affairs,  express- 
ing his  concern  for  those  who  had  been  obliged 
to  put  to  sea,  as  well  as  for  those  who  had  deter- 
mined to  make  their  escape  by  land,  and  had  a 
dry  and  sandy  desert  to  pass.  The  company 
being  dismissed,  he  walked  for  some  time  with  a 
few  friends,  and  going  into  his  chamber,  em- 
braced his  son  with  more  than  usual  tenderness, 
which  farther  confirmed  the  suspicions  of  his 
resolution.  Then  lying  down  on  his  bed,  he 
took  up  Plato's  Dialogue  on  the  Immortality  of 
the  Soul.  Having  read  for  some  time,  he  looked 
up,  and  missing  his  sword,  which  his  son  had  re- 
moved, he  called  a  slave,  and  asked  who  had 
taken  it  away;  and,  receiving  no  pertinent  answer, 
he  resumed  his  reading.  Some  time  after,  he 
asked  again  for  his  sword  ;  and,  without  showing 
any  impatience,  ordered  it  to  be  brought  to  him ; 
but,  having  read  out  the  book,  and  finding  nobody 
had  brought  it,  he  called  for  all  his  servants, 
fell  into  a  rage,  and  struck  one  of  them  on  the 
mouth  with  so  much  violence  that  he  very  much 
hurt  his  own  hand,  crying  out  in  a  passionate 
manner,  '  What !  do  my  own  son  and  family  con- 
spire to  betray  me,  and  deliver  me  up  naked  and 
unarmed  to  the  enemy  ?'  Immediately  his  son 
and  friends  rushed  into  the  room ;  and  began  to 
lament,  and  to  beseech  him  to  change  his  resolu- 
tion. Cato  raising  himself,  and  looking  fiercely 
at  them,  '  How  long  is  it,'  said  he,  '  since  I  have 
lost  my  senses,  and  my  son  is  become  my  keeper?' 
They  withdrew,  and  the  sword  was  brought  by  a 
young  slave.  Cato  drew  it,  and  finding  the 
point  to  be  sharp,  '  Now,'  said  he,  '  I  am  my 
own  master :'  and,  laying  it  down,  he  took  up 
his  book  again,  which  he  read  twice  over.  After 
this  he  slept  so  soundly  that  he  was  heard  to 
snore  by  those  near  him.  About  midnight  he 
called  two  of  his  freed  men,  Cleauthes  his  phy- 
sician, and  Butas,  whom  he  chiefly  employed  in 
the  management  of  his  affairs.  •  The  last  he  sent 
to  the  port,  to  see  whether  all  the  Romans  were 
gone;  to  the  physician  he  gave  his  hand  to  be 
dressed,  which  was  swelled  by  the  blow  he  had 
given  his  slave.  This  was  thought  an  intimation 
that  he  intended  to  live,  and  gave  great  joy  to 
his  family.  It  was  now  break  of  day,  and  Cato 
slept  yet  a  little  more,  till  Butas  returned  to  tell 
him  that  all  was  perfectly  quiet.  He  then 
ordered  him  to  shut  his  door,  and  flung  himself 
upon  his  bed,  as  if  he  meant  to  finish  his  night's 
rest;  but  immediately  he  took  his  sword,  and 
stabbed  himself  a  little  below  his  chest ;  yet  not 
being  able  to  use  his  hand  so  well  by  reason  of 
the  swelling,  the  wound  did  not  kill  him.  It 
threw  him  into  a  convulsion,  in  which  he  fell 
upon  his  bed,  and  overturned  a  table  near  it. 
The  noise  gave  the  alarm  ;  and  his  son  and  friends 
entering  the  room,  found  him  weltering  in  his 
blood,  and  his  bowels  half  out  of  his  body.  The 
surgeon,  upon  examination,  found  that  his  bowels 
were  not  cut ;  and  was  preparing  to  replace  them, 
and  bind  up  the  wound,  when  Cato  recovering, 
thrust  the  surgeon  from  him,  and  tearing  out  his 
bowels,  immediately  expired,  in  the  forty-eighth 
year  of  his  age.  By  this  rash  act,  independent 
of  all  other  considerations,  he  carried  his  patriotism 


to  the  highest  degree  of  political  frenzy:  for 
Cato,  dead,  could  be  of  no  use  to  his  country ; 
but  had  he  preserved  his  life,  his  counsel  might 
have  moderated  Caesar's  ambition,  and,  as  Mon- 
tesquieu observes,  hate  given  a  different  turn  to 
public  affairs. 

CATO'NIAN,  adj.  from  Cato;  Cato-like, 
grave,  austere. 

CATOPTRICKS.     See  OPTICS  and  LIGHT. 

CAT-SALT,  a  name  given  by  salt  workers  to 
a  very  beautifully  granulated  kind  of  common 
salt.  It  is  formed  out  of  the  bittern,  or  leach- 
brine,  which  runs  from  the  salt  when  taken  out 
of  the  pan.  When  they  draw  out  the  common 
salt  from  the  boiling  pans,  they  put  it  into  long 
wooden  troughs,  with  holes  bored  at  the  bottom 
for  the  brine  to  drain  out ;  under  these  troughs 
are  placed  vessels  to  receive  this  brine,  and  across 
them  small  sticks  to  which  the  cat-aalt  affixes  it- 
self in  very  large  and  beautiful  crystals.  This 
salt  contains  some  portion  of  the  bitter  purging 
salt,  is  very  sharp  and  pungent,  and  is  white 
when  powdered,  though  pellucid  in  the  mass.  It 
is  used  by  some  for  the  table,  but  the  greatest 
part  of  it  is  used  by  the  makers  of  soap 

CATSUP.     See  KETCHUP. 

CATTARO,  a  fortified  town  of  Austria,  situ- 
ated at  the  bottom  of  a  gulf  of  the  same  name, 
twenty-eight  miles  W.  N.  W.of  Scutari,  and  ca- 
pital of  the  district  of  Cattaro.  It  is  defended  by 
a  castle  and  battlements,  and  tue  rocks  around 
it  are  so  steep  and  high,  that  in  winter  the  sun 
is  seen  only  for  a  few  hours.  This  is  a  bishop's 
see  ;  and  a  chapter  of  twelve  prebendaries  meet 
here.  There  are  alse  three  monasteries  and  two 
nunneries.  Cattaro  was  ceded  by  the  Austrians, 
its  original  possessors,  to  the  French,  at  the  peace 
of  Presburg,  1805.  The  Russians,  however, 
took  possession  of  it  till  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  when 
it  was  again  given  up  to  France,  but  was  re- 
turned to  Austria  at  the  congress  of  Vienna 

CATTI,  an  ancient  people  of  Germany,  who 
inhabited  the  country  reaching  on  the  east  to 
the  river  Sala,  and  on  the  north  to  Westphalia ; 
besides  Hesse,  Wetteravia,  and  part  of  the  tract 
on  the  Rhine,  and  the  banks  of  the  Lahn. 

CATTI,  or  CATTI  VELLAUXI,  one  of  the  bravest 
of  the  ancient  nations  of  Britain,  seated  in   tht 
country  which  is  now  divided  into   the  counties 
of  Hertford,  Bedford,  and  Bucks.     The  name  o 
this  people  is  written  in  different  ways  by  Creel 
and   Roman   authors,   being   sometimes   callet 
Cassi,  Catticuchlani,   Catticlaudani,  &c.     The; 
were  of  Belgic  origin,  and  it  is  not  improbable  tha 
they  derived  their  name  Catti  from  the  Belgic  won 
Katten,  which  signifies  illustrious  or  noble,  an 
that  the  addition  of  Vellauni,  on  the  banks  c 
rivers,  might  be  given  to  them  after  their  arrival 
in  Britain,  as  descriptive  of  the  situation  of  their 
country.     Cassibelan,    their  prince,  was  made 
commander-in-chief  of  the  confederated  Britons, 
not  only  on  account  of  his  own  personal  qualities, 
but  also  because  he  was  at  the  head  of  one  of 
their  bravest  and  most  powerful  tribes.     In  the 
interval  between  the  departure  of  Caesar  and  tht 
next  invasion  under  Claudius,  the  Cattivellauni 
had  reduced  several  of  the  neighbouring  states 
under  their  obedience ;  and  again  took  the  lead 
in  opposition  to  the  Romans  at  the  second  in- 
vasion, under  their  brave  but  unfortunate  prince 


CAT 


253 


CAV 


Caractacus.  The  country  of  the  Cattivellauni 
was  much  frequented  and  improved  by  the  Romans 
after  it  was  subdued.  See  DUROCOBRIVA. 

CATTLE,  n.  The  etymology  of  this  word  is 
uncertain.  Skinner,  Menage,  and  Spelman,  de- 
rive it  from  capitalia,  personal  goods,  whence  the 
word  chattels;  and  their  conjecture  seems  not  to 
be  without  foundation,  as  in  the  old  French  catal 
means  moveables  of  any  kind ;  and  the  term 
chattail  is  provincially  used  in  France,  in  the  vici- 
nity of  Lyons,  to  signify  all  the  beasts  on  an  estate. 
The  word  in  the  quotation  from  Chaucer,  will 
admit  of  a  double  meaning ;  but  it  probably 
stands  for  chatties,  as  we  still  say  in  legal  lan- 
guage, goods  and  chatties ;  but  in  that  case  it 
shows  that  there  was  no  difference  in  the  spelling 
of  the  two  words.  Cattle,  besides  its  primary 
sense  of  beasts  of  pasture,  is  also  used  as  a  term 
of  reproach. 

For  body,  good,  and  catell,  and  lyff,  he  set  at  nought, 
So  was  his  hert  ywoundit  for  anger  and  for  thought. 
Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales^ 

Make  poor  men's  Qattle  break  their  necks. 

Shakspeare. 

Boys  and  women  are  for  the  most  partcaW/e  of  this 
colour.  Id. 

When  Lubberkin  to  town  his  cattle  drove, 
A  maiden  fine  bedight  he  hapt  to  love  ; 
The  maiden  fine  bedight  his  love  retains, 
And  for  the  village  he  forsakes  the  plains.        Gay. 

The  exercise  of  fraud  or  rapine  is  unpunished  in  a 
lawless  community ;  and  the  market  is  continually 
replenished  by  the  abuse  of  civil  and  paternal  author- 
ity. Such  a  trade,  which  reduces  the  human  species 
to  the  level  of  cattle,  may  tend  to  encourage  marriage 
and  population.  Gibbon. 

CATTLE  is  a  collective  word,  implying  those 
quadrupeds  which  serve  either  for  tilling  the 
ground,  or  for  food  to  men.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished into  large,  or  black  cattle,  and  small 
cattle :  the  former  including  horses,  seldom 
known  under  that  name,  bulls,  oxen,  cows, 
calves,  and  heifers ;  the  latter,  rams,  ewes, 
sheep,  lambs,  goats,  kids,  &c.  Cattle  are  the 
chief  stock  of  a  farm,  and  those  who  raise  them 
are  called  graziers. 

CATULLUS  (C.),  or  Q.  Valerius,  a  poet 
of  Verona,  who  wrote  in  the  times  of  Caesar  and 
Pompey,  and  whose  compositions,  though  elegant, 
abound  with  the  licentiousness  common  to  that 
period.  He  was  intimate  with  the  most  dis- 
tinguished men  of  his  age,  and  directed  his  sa- 
tire against  Caesar,  whose  only  revenge  was  to 
invite  the  poet  to  his  table.  Catullus  was  the 
first  Roman  who  imitated  with  success  the  Greek 
writers,  and  introduced  their  numbers  among 
the  Latins :  and  he  died  in  the  forty-sixth  year 
of  his  age,  B.  C.  40.  The  best  editions  of  his 
works,  which  consist  only  of  epigrams,  are  that  of 
Vulpius,  4to.  Patavii,  1737,  and  that  of  Barbou, 
12mo.  Paris,  1754. 

CATURUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  class  dicecia,  and  order  triandria.  Male: 
CAL.  none  :  COR.  three-cleft.  Female  :  CAL.  tri- 
partite :  COR.  none:  styles  three:  CAPS,  three- 
grained  and  three-celled  :  SEED,  solitary  :  spe- 
cies, two,  one  a  native  of  India,  the  other  of  Co- 
chin China. 


CATY,  CATI,  OI-CATTI,  an  East  Indian  weight 
used  especially  at  China,  equivalent  to  twenty  - 
five  ounces  and  two  drams  English.  It  is  also 
used  in  Japan,  Batavia,  and  other  parts  of  the 
Indies,  but  differs  in  weight. 

CATZENELBOGEN,  a  town  and  castle  of 
Germany,  in  the  late  circle  of  the  Upper  Rhine, 
which  gives  name  to  a  county.  The  river  of 
Maine  and  the  city  of  Mentz,  with  its  territories, 
divide  the  county  into  Upper  and  Lower  ,  the 
former  belongs  to  Hesse  Darmstadt,  and  is  called 
Darmstadt  from  its  capital;  and  the  latter 
to  Hesse  Reinfields,  of  which  St.  Goar  is  the  ca- 
pital. The  town  of-  Catzenelbogen  lies  twenty- 
eight  miles  N.N.  W.  of  Mentz,  and  has  an  iron 
mine  near  it. 

CAVA,  in  anatomy,  the  largest  vein  in  the 
body,  terminating  in  the  right  ventricle  of  the 
heart.  It  is  divided  in  cava  ascendens  and  cava 
descendens.  See  ANATOMY. 

CAVALCA'DE,  n.  Old  Fr.  cavalcade  ;  Ital. 
cavalcuta  ;  low  Lat.  caballicare  ;  from  caballus, 
A  procession  on  horseback. 


First  he  that  led  the  cavalcate 
Wore  a  sow-gelder's  flagellate, 
On  which  he  blew  as  strong  a  levete 
As  well-feed  lawyer  on  his  brev'ate, 
When  over  one  another's  heads 
They  charge,  three  ranks  at  once,  like  Sweads. 

Hudibra*. 

Your  cavalcade  the  fair  spectators  view, 
From  their  high  standings,  yet  look  up  to  you  j 
From  your  brave  train  each  singles  out  a  ray, 
And  longs  to  date  a  conquest  from  your  day. 

Dryden. 

How  must  the  heart  of  the  old  man  rejoice,  when 
he  saw  such  a  numerous  cavalcade  of  his  own  raising. 

Addison. 

CAVALCADEUR,  or  CAVELCADOUR,  an- 
ciently denoted  a  riding-master,  but  is  now  only 
applied  to  a  sort  of  equerries  who  have  the  di- 
rection of  princes'  stables. 

CAVALI'ER,  n  &  adj.- 

CAVALIE'RISH,  adj. 

CAVALI'ERLY,  adv. 

CAVALI'ERNESS,  n. 

CAVALI'ERO,  n. 
in  its  primary  sense,  indicates  one  who  rides  on 
horseback  ;  and,  as  that  was  anciently  done  only 
by  persons  of  birth,  the  word  was  also  applied 
to  any  gay,  sprightly,  military  man  or  gentleman. 
Cavalier,  as  an  adjective,  not  only  means  spright- 
ly, warlike,  generous,  brave,  but  also  haughty, 
disdainful.  In  this  last  sense  it  became  the 
designation  of  the  party  of  Charles  I.  ;  some  of 
his  military  officers  having  given  words  of 
'  great  contempt,'  and  even  blows,  to  the  '  vile 
rabble,'  as  Clarendon  calls  them.  Cavalierly  is 
haughtily;  disdainfully.  Cavalierness  is  arro- 
gant or  contemptuous  conduct. 

For  who  is  he,  whose  chin  is  but  enriched 
With  one  appearing  hair,  that  will  not  follow 
These  culled  and  choice  drawn  cavaliers  to  France. 

Shakspeare. 

The  people  are  naturally  not  valiant,  and  not  much 
cavalier.  Now  it  is  the  nature  of  cowards  to  hurt, 
where  they  can  receive  none.  Stickling. 


Fr.  chevalier,  cava- 
lier ;  It.  cavaliere  ; 
•  Sp.  caballcro  ;  from 
Fr.  chevul;  Lat.  ca- 
ballus.  The  noun, 


CAV 


254 


CAV 


Presbyter  Hollis  the  first  point  should  clear, 
The  second  Coventry,  the  cavalier, 
But  would  they  not  be  argued  back  from  sea, 
Then  to  return,  home  strait  infecta  re.         Marcell. 
Each  party  grows  proud  of  that  appellation   which 
their  adversaries  at  first   intended  as  a  reproach  :  of 
this  sort  were  the  Guclfs  and    Gibelines,  Huguenots, 
and  cavalier*.  Swift. 

In  short,  he  was  a  very  perfect  cavaliero, 
And  to  his  very  valet  seemed  a  hero. 

Byron's  Beppo. 

CAVALIER,  in  history,  an  appellation,  given  in 
the  revolution  of  1649  to  the  royalists  and  parti- 
sans of  Charles  I.  in  opposition  to  the  roundheads 


piler.  He  never  aspires  indeed  to  form  new 
and  comprehensive  views;  yet,  he  generally  im- 
proves, in  some  degree,  the  stock  of  valuable  facts, 
by  his  own  occasional  experiments.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  papers,  published  at  dif- 
ferent times  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  His  publica- 
tions were  as  follows :  A  Complete  Treatise  of 
Electricity  in  Theory  and  Practice,  with  Original 
Experiments,  one  vol.  8vo.  1777,  enlarged  to 
three  volumes  in  1795.  An  Essay  on  the  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Medical  Electricity,  one  vol.8vo. 
1780.  A  Treatise  on  the  Nature  and  Properties 
of  Air,  and  other  Permanently  Elastic  Fluids, 


or  puritans,  the  favorites  of  the  parliament  and    with  an  Introduction   to   Chemistry,  4to.  1781. 


Cromwell.     See  ENGLAND,  HISTORY  OF. 


The  History  and  Practice  of  Aerostation,   8yo. 


CAVALIER,  in   fortification,  an    elevation    of  1735.     Mineralogical  Tables,  fol.  accompanied 

earth  of  different  shapes,  situated  ordinarily  in  with  an  expianat0ry  pamphlet,  1785.      A  Trea- 

the  gorge  of  a  bastion,  bordered  with  a  parapet,  tise  Qn  Magnetism,  in  Theory  and  Practice,  with 

and  cut  ir-to  more  or  fewer  embrasures,  accord-  orjginai  experiments,   8vo.  1787.      Description 

ing  to  its  capacity.     Cavaliers  are  a  double  de-  and   Use   of  tlie  Telescopical    Mother-of-Pearl 

fence  for  the  faces  of  the  opposite  bastion  :  they  Micrometer,  invented  by  T.  C.  8vo.  1793.     An 

defend  the  ditch,  break  the  besiegers'  galleries,  Essav  on  tlie  Medicinal  Properties  of  Factitious 

command  the  traverses  in  dry  moats,  scour  the  Airs>  wit^  an  Appendix  on  the  Nature  of  Blood, 

saliant  angle  of  the  counterscarp,  where  the  be-  gvo.  1798.  He  died  in  London  in  the  beginning 

siegers  have  their  counter  batteries,  and  enfilade  Of 


. 

the  enemies  trenches,  or  oblige  them  to  multi-  CA'VALRY.  Fr.  cavalerie.  This  word  was 
ply  their  parallels.  They  are  likewise  very  ser-  formerly  written  and  pronounced  in  four  sylla- 
viceable  in  defending  the  breach  and  the  re-  ^les,  and  meant  horsemanship,  as  well  as  horse- 
trenchments  of  the  besieged,  and  can  greatly  men  .  but  fae  former  sense  has  grown  obsolete. 
incommode  the  entrenchments  which  the  enemy  Cavalry  signifies  horse  troops  ;  bodies  of  men 


make,  being  lodged  in  the  bastion. 

CAVELIERI  (Bonaventure),  an  eminent  ma- 
thematician  of  the  seventeenth  century,  a  native 


furnished  with  horses  for  war. 

If  a  state  ^  most  to  gentlemen(  and  the  husband- 
p\owmen  be  but  as  their  workfolks,  you  may 

" 


of  Milan,  and  professor  of  mathematics  at  Bo-    jjave  a'g00(]  cavalry,  but  never  good  stable  "bands  of 

logna,  where  he  published  several  works  on  that    f00t. 

science,  particularly  the  Method  of  Indivisibles. 

He  was  a  scholar  of  Galileo.     His  Directorium 

Generate  Uranometricum  contains  a  great  variety 

of  most  useful  rules  in  trigonometry  and  astro- 

nomy 


Bacon's  Henry  VII. 
Their   cavalry,   in    the  battle  of  Blenheim,  could 
not  sustain  the  shock  of  the  British  horse. 

Addison  on  the  War. 

CAVALRY,  a  body  of  men   that  fight  only  on 
horseback.     The  word  is  derived  from  cavale- 


CAVALLO  (Tiberius),  was  born  at  Naples,  in  rie  (French),  and  that  from  the  Latin,  caballus, 

1749,  and  was  the  son  of  an  eminent  physician  a  horse.     The  Roman  cavalry  consisted  wholly 

of  that  place.     His  original  destination  was  to  a  of  equites,   or  knights.      The  Grecian  cavalry 

mercantile  profession  at  London,  and  he  came  to  were  divided   into   cataphractse  and  non-cata- 

England  with  that  view  in  the  year  1771.  But  the  phractae,   i.  e.  into  heavy  and  light  armed.     Of 

study  of  nature  displaying  superior  attractions,  the  Greeks,    the  Thessalians  excelled  most  in 


he  was  seduced  from  the  counting-house,  to  the 
leisure  of  philosophical  retreat ,  and  acquired  a 
well  merited  reputation  as  a  digester  and  eluci- 
dator  of  philosophical  discoveries.  In  the  year 


cavalry.  The  Lacedaemonians,  inhabiting  a 
mountainous  country,  were  but  meanly  furnished 
with  cavalry,  till,  carrying  their  arms  into  other 
countries,  they  found  great  occasion  for  horse  to 


1779  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Neapoli-  support  and  cover  their  foot.     The  Athenian  ca- 

tan  Academy  of  Sciences,  as  well  as  of  the  Royal  valry,  for  a  considerable  time,  consisted  only  of 

Society  of  London.     For  the  progress  and  dif-  ninety-six  horsemen ;    but,  after   expelling  the 

fusion  of  science,  we  are  indebted  not  more  to  the  Persians  out  of  Greece,  they  increased  the  num- 

happy  efforts  of  original  genius,  than  to  the  ju-  ber  to  300,  and  afterwards  to  1200,  which  was 

dicious  industry  of  those  authors  who,  from  time  the  highest  number  of  cavalry  the  Athenians  ever 

to   time,  employ  their  talents  in  digesting  and  kept.    The  Turkish   cavalry  consists  partly  of 

elucidating  successive  discoveries.     The  distin-  spahis  and  partly  of  horsemen,  raised  and  main- 

guished  rank  which  Mr.  Cavallo  held  in  this  use-  tained  by  the  zaims  and  timariots.     The  chief 

ful  class  of  philosophical  laborers,  is  sufficiently  use  of  the  cavalry  is  to  make  frequent  excursions 

known.    His  treatises  on  popular  and  interesting  to  disturb  the  enemy,  intercept  his  convoys,  and 

branches  of  physics,  may  be  justly  esteemed  destroy  the  country :  in  battle   to  support  and 

some  of  the  best  elementary  works  which  are  cover  the  foot,  and  to  break  through  and  disor- 

extant  in  our  language.     They  possess  every  re-  der  the  enemy ;  also  to  secure  the  retreat  of  the 

quisite   of  such    performances,   perspicuity   of  foot.     Formerly  the  manner  of  the  fighting  of 

style,  proper  selection  of  'materials,   and  clear  the  cavalry  was,  after  firing  their  pistols  or  cara- 

arrangement.     The  merit  of  Mr.  Cavallo  is  not,  bines  to  wheel  off,  to  give  opportunity  for  loading 

however,  the  merit  of  a  merely  judicious  com-  again.     Gustavus  Adolphus  is  said  to  have  firs'. 


;AU 


255 


CAU 


taught  the  cavalry  to  charge  through,  to  march 
straight  up  to  the  enemy,  with  the  sword  drawn  in 
the  bridlehand,  and  each  man  having  fired  his 
piece,  at  the  proper  distance,  to  betake  himself  to 
his  sword,  and  charge  the  enemy  as  was  found 
most  advantageous. 

Modern  cavalry  consists  of,  first,  Heavy  Horse ; 
in  England  the  Horse  Guards  and  the  Oxford 
Blues  are  the  only  troops  of  heavy  horse ; 
second,  Dragoons,  distinguished  from  the  former 
by  being  obliged  to  fight  on  foot  as  well  as  on 
horseback  ;  thirdly,  Light  Horse  regiments, 
mounted  on  light  swift  horses,  whose  men  are  of 
middling  stature,  and  but  lightly  accoutred; 
fourth,  Hussars,  originally  Hungarian  Horse, 
who  wear  a  very  short  waistcoat,  and  a  curious 
doublet,  which  generally  hangs  loose  on  the 
left  shoulder,  having  several  rows  of  buttons. 
Their  arms  are  a  long  crooked  sabre,  and  pistols 
and  carbine ;  fifth,  Lancers,  whose  principal  in- 
strument is  a  lance  with  a  streamer  to  its  head 
to  frighten  the  horses  of  the  enemy.  See  LANCERS. 

CAVAN,  a  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  province 
of  Ulster,  forty-seven  miles  long,  and  twenty- 
four  broad ;  bounded  on  the  west  by  Leitrim ; 
on  the  north  by  Fermanagh ;  on  the  east  by 
Monaghan,  Louth,  and  East  Meath  ;  and  on  the 
south  by  West  Meath  and  Longford.  It  con- 
tains upward  of  8000  houses,  tliirty-seven  pa- 
rishes, seven  baronies,  and  two  boroughs  ;  viz. 
Cavan  and  Kilmore.  It  is  populous,  and  carries 
on  the  linen  manufacture  to  a  great  extent.  It 
sends  two  members  to  parliament.  It  is  bleak 
and  open  in  many  parts,  but,  between  Cavan  and 
Lough  Erne,  the  country  is  picturesque  and  well 
wooded,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  are  many 
beautiful  little  lakes. 

CAVAN,  jhe  capital  of  the  above  county,  is 
fifty-four  miles  north-west  of  Dublin. 

CA'VATE,  v.  Lat.  cavo.  To  hollow  out;  to 
dig  into  a  hollow. 

CAVA'ZION,  n.  Lat.  cavo.  In  architecture 
The  hollowing  or  under-digging  of  the  earth  for 
cellarage ;  allowed  to  be  the  sixth  part  of  the 
height  of  the  whole  building. 

CAUBUL,  CABUL  or  KABOUL,  a  considerable 
province  of  Afghaunistaun,  between  the  thirtieth 
and  thirty-fifth  degrees  of  north  latitude.  It 
is  about  250  miles  long,  and  150  miles  broad  ; 
being  bounded  on  the  north  by  Kuttore,  or  Caff- 
ristan;  on  the  south  by  Candahar  and  Baloo- 
chistan;  on  the  east  by  the  Indus;  and  on  the 
west  by  Hindoo  Kho  Mountains,  and  the  pro- 
vince of  Bamian.  The  surface  is  diversified  by 
vast  snowy  mountains,  hills,  extensive  plains,  and 
woods.  Noble  rivers  traverse  the  province,  of 
•which  Cabul,  called  also  in  some  parts  of  its 
course  Attacka,  and  Cow  or  Cowraull,  are  the 
principal.  The  leading  ridge  of  high  mountains, 
usually  covered  with  snow,  runs  from  west  to 
east  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Ghizni  to  that  of 
Deenkote  on  the  Indus,  below  Attock,  and  di- 
vides the  country  into  two  parts.  The  tract  ly- 
ing to  the  north  of  this  is  named  Lumghanat, 
and  to  the  south  Bungishat ;  each  having  one 
or  more  considerable  streams  that  finally  fall 
into  the  Indus.  From  the  neighbourhood  of 
this  river  to  the  city  of  Caubul  there  is  so  great 
deficiency  of  wood,  that  all  classes  of  the  people 
suffer  at  times  from  want  of  fuel  Near  Baramow 


is  a  sandy,  uninhabited  valley,  twenty  miles  in 
length  ;  and  around  Gundamouck  the  exposed 
part  of  the  body  is  frequently  covered  with  a  ni- 
trous, scaly,  and  white  substance,  which  exco- 
riates the  skin,  and  tastes  very  salt.  The  chief 
towns  are  Cabul  and  Peshawer. 

The  soil  and  productions  are  very  various. 
The  plains  of  Peshawer  and  Candahar  are  fertile, 
and  produce  two  crops  annually  of  wheat  and 
barley,  which  are  here  preferred  to  Indian  corn 
and  rice.  The  mountain  chains  are,  many  of  them, 
condemned  to  perpetual  sterility,  and  on  the 
south,  the  moving  sand  being  blown  over  the 
fertile  tracts,  often  covers  them  and  converts 
them  into  deserts.  From  Peshawer  the  central 
districts  receive  sugar  and  cotton  cloths  in  ex- 
change for  leather,  iron,  and  tobacco ;  and  the 
same  commodities,  with  lamp-oil,  are  exported  to 
Candahar,  for  which  the  returns  are  made  in 
European  and  Persian  manufactures.  Horses, 
furs,  and  hides,  are  brought  to  Caubul  from 
Bocharia. 

The  regal  government  of  Caubul  has  been 
compared  to  that  which  was  exercised  by  the 
ancient  Scottish  monarchs.  Over  the  great 
towns  and  their  vicinity,  and  in  regard  to  foreign 
dependencies,  his  authority  is  supreme  and  di- 
rect. The  rest  of  the  country  is  divided  into 
clans,  called  Oolooss,  who  act  nearly  inde- 
pendently of  the  sovereign,  furnishing  contin- 
gents of  troops  or  money  in  war.  These  are  go- 
verned by  a  khaun ;  who  is  appointed  by  the 
king,  out  of  the  oldest  family  of  the  oolooss,  and 
who  always  acts  in  concert  with  the  jeerga,  or 
representative  assembly  of  the  people.  Much  of 
the  ordinary  judicial  power  is  also  in  this  body. 
The  Afghauns  of  this  district  are  rude  in  their 
manners,and  the  country  affords  abundant  sheltt 
to  banditti ;  but  the  improvements  that  follow 
every  portion  of  political  liberty  are  seen  very 
distinctly  here,  according  to  Mr.  Elphistone,  and 
their  hospitality  is  unbounded.  See  AFGHAUNIS- 
TAUN. 

The  British  government,  in  1809,  sent  an  em- 
bassy to  the  sovereign  of  this  country,  and  at. 
alliance  was  entered  into,-  in  which  it  was  agreed 
that  the  armies  of  Caubul  should  oppose  the 
progress  of  the  French  and  Persians,  in  case 
they  should  attempt  a  passage  to  the  British  ter- 
ritories. Mr.  Elphinstone's  account  of  this  mis- 
sion is  the  only  description  of  the  territory  worth 
referring  to. 

CAUBUL,  the  capital  of  the  foregoing  province, 
stands  in  a  spacious  plain,  which  is  well  watered 
by  the  river  of  that  name,  and  interspersed  with 
other  small  walled  towns.  The  capital  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in 
circumference,  and  the  houses  are  built  of  stone, 
clay,  and  bricks  unburnt.  The  vicinity  is 
adorned  by  excellent  fruit  gardens,  and  the  great 
bazaar,  or  market-place,  is  much  crowded.  The 
city  is  frequented  by  the  Usbec  Tartars,  and  Hin- 
doo merchants,  who  are  protected  by  the  govern- 
ment. It  is  839  amiles  distant  from  Delhi,  and 
1815  from  Calcutta. 

CAUCA,  an  ancient  town  in  Old  Castile, 
Spain,  taken  by  the  Romans  under  Lucullus, 
A.  U.  C.  601.  when  adreadful  massacre  of  the  in- 
habitants took  place.  It  is  eighteen  miles  noith 
of  Segovia. 


CAU 


256 


CAV 


CATTCA,  a  large  river  of  South  America,  which 
has  its  rise  in  the  province  of  Popayan,  between 
the  great  western  and  middle  ridges  of  the  Andes. 
After  a  course  of  about  500  miles,  it  falls  into 
the  Rio  Magdalena,  .in  lat.  4°  30'  S.  Also  a 
river  in  the  province  of  Venezuela. 

CAUCALIS,  in  botany,  bastard  parsley,  a 
genus  of  the  digynia  order  and  pentandria  class 
of  plants ;  natural  order  forty-fifth,  umbellatae  : 
Involucres  undivided  :  flowers  radiate  :  florets  of 
the  centre  male ;  fruit  subovate,  striate,  muricate 
with  stiff  bristles.  Species  thirteen ;  many  of  them 
natives  cf  the  hedges  or  corn  fields  of  our  own 
country,  the  rest  chiefly  of  the  south  of  Europe. 

CAUCASUS,  a  general  name  for  a  high  ridge 
of  mountains  in  Asia.  Sir  John  Chardin  de- 
scribes one  mountain  under  this  name  as  the 
highest  of  the  ridge,  and  the  most  difficult  to 
pass.  It  has  frightful  precipices,  and  in  many 
places  the  roads  are  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock. 
This  .mountain  is  thirty-six  leagues  over,  and  the 
summit  eight  leagues  broad.  The  top  is  per- 
petually covered  with  snow.  Other  parts,  how- 
ever, are  extremely  fruitful. 

The  ridge  extends  between  the  Caspian  and 
the  Black  Seas,  and  makes  a  curve  near  Astrakhan, 
directing  its  course  towards  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Caspian,  where  they  become  secondary  moun- 
tains, being  disposed  in  strata.  As  they  are  an 
inexhaustible  magazine  of  combustible  substances, 
they  contain  an  astonishing  quantity  of  metals. 
Along  the  foot  of  the  chain  we  sometimes  meet 
with  warm  springs  of  naphtha  of  different  qua- 
lities, &c.  see  CASPIAN  ;  sometimes  we  find  native 
sulphur,  mines  of  vitriol,  or  lakes  heated  by  in- 
ternal fires.  These  mountains,  excepting  the 
tops,  which  are  always  covered  with  snow,  are 
very  fertile ;  abounding  in  corn,  wine,  honey, 
gum,  fruits,  hogs,  and  large  cattle.  The  vines 
twine  about  the  trees,  and  rise  so  high, 
that  the  inhabitants  cannot  gather  the  fruit 
from  the  uppermost  branches.  They  are  in- 
habited by  various  nations;  as  the  ABKUAS, 
CIRCASSIANS,  GEORGIANS,  TARTARS,  &c.  who 
all  speak  different  languages.  See  these  articles. 
They  have  many  streams  of  excellent  water,  and 
a  vast  number  of  towns  and  villages.  The  inha- 
bitants are  for  the  most  part  Christians  of  the 
Georgian  church.  They  have  fine  complexions, 
and  the  women  are  very  beautiful.  In  winter 
they  wear  snow  shoes  in  the  form  of  rackets, 
which  prevent  them  from  sinking  in  the  snow,  and 
enable  them  to  run  upon  it  with  great  swift- 
ness. 

CA'UDAL,  adj.  ^  Lat.  cauda.  That  which 
CA'UDATE,  adj.  > relates  to  the  tail  of  an  ani- 
CA'UDATED,  adj.  j  mal ;  having  a  tail. 

How  comete,  caudate,  crinite  stars  are  framed 
I  know.  Fairfax.    Tasso. 

The  tail,  instead  of  scuta  is  furnished  -with  sub- 
caudal,  squama.  Russel. 

CA'UDEBECK,  n.  A  sort  of  light  hat,  so 
called  from  a  town  in  France  where  they  were 
first  made. 

CAUDEX,  by  Malpighi  and  others,  is  used 
for  the  stem  or  trunk  of  a  free  :  by  Linnaeus  for 
the  body  of  the  root,  part  of  which  ascends,  part 
descends  See  BOTANY. 


CAUDIN./E  FURCJE,  or  CAUOINJE  FUKCULJE, 
spears  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  gallows,  under 
which  prisoners  of  war  were  made  to  pass. 
They  gave  name  to  a  narrow  pass  near  Caudium, 
where  theSamnites  obliged  the  Roman  army  and 
the  two  consuls  to  lay  down  their  arms  and  pass 
undet  the  gallows,  or  yoke,  as  a  token  of  subjec- 
tion. 

CA'UDLE,  v.  &  n.  Fr.  chaudeuu,  says  Dr. 
Johnson ;  but  the  old  Fr.  caudeiee,  conies  still 
nearer.  Those  who  are  fond  of  etymological 
travelling,  may  proceed  to  the  Lat.  calidus,  and 
Gr.  KavSavXof,  as  Junius  and  Skinner  have  done 
before  them.  The  thing  itself  is  a  mixture  of 
gruel,  wine,  or  beer,  sugar,  and  spices ;  which  is 
given  to  women  in  childbed,  to  those  who  visit 
them,  and  to  sick  people.  To  caudle  is  to  make 
caudle ;  to  mix  as  caudle. 

He  had  good  broths,  cuiulle,  and  such  like;  and  I 
believe  he  did  drink  some  wine.  Wiseman. 

Ye  shall  have  a  hempen  caudle  then,  and  the  help 
of  a  hatchet.  Stiakspeare. 

Will  the  cold  brook, 

Candied  with  ice,  caudle  thy  morning  toast, 
To  cure  thy  o'eruight's  surfeit.  Id. 

CA'VE,  v.  &  n.    -\      Fr.  cave,  caver,  cavite ; 

CA'VERN,  n.     f  Ital..cauar, cavare,  caverna ; 

CA'VERNOUS,  adj.  t^Lat.  cavea,  caveus,  hollow. 

CA'VITY,  «.  J  frora^aoc.  Eol.  dial,  ^a  Foe 

In  the  Goth,  kaf  means  prqfundum,  and  may 
thence  have  been  borrowed  to  signify  any  thing 
deep  or  hollow.  A  cave,  or  cavern,  is  a  den  ; 
a  habitation  in  the  earth ;  it  formerly  meant  also 
any  hollow  place.  To  cave,  is  to  dwell  in  a  cave. 
Cavernous,  and  caverned,  indicate  anything  full 
of  caverns,  hollow,  excavated ;  and  the  latter 
word  has  likewise  the  sense  of  dwelling  in  a  ca- 
vern. Cavity  is  hollowness ;  hollow ;  a  hollow 
place. 

Two  little  windows  ever  open  lie, 
The  sound  unto  the  cave's  third  part  conveying ; 

And  slender  pipe,  whose  narrow  cavity. 
Doth  purge  the  inborn  air,  that  idly  staying, 
Would  else  corrupt,  and  still  supplies  the  spending  j 
The  cave's  third  part  in  twenty  by-ways  bending, 
Is  called  the  labyrinth,  in  hundred  crooks  ascending. 
Fletcher's  Purple  Isla  nd. 

Such  as  we, 
Cave  here,  haunt  here  as  outlaws.  Shahspcure. 

The  wrathful  skies 

Gallow  the  very  wanderers  of  the  dark 
And  make  them  keep  their  caves.  Id. 

Bid  him  bring  bis  power 
Before  sun-rising,  lest  his  son  George  fall 
Into  the  blind  cave  of  eternal  night.  Id. 

Where  wilt  thou  find  a  cavern  dark  enough 
To  mask  thy  monstrous  visage  ?  Id. 

The  object  of  sight  doth  strike  upon  the  pupil  of  the 
eye  directly  ;  whereas  the  cave  of  the  ear  doth  hold 
off  the  sound  a  little.  Bacon's  Nat.  Hist. 

Clorinda  pastures,  caves,  and  springs, 
These  once  had  been  enticing  things.      Marvell. 
Through  this  a  cave  was  dug  with  vast  expence ; 
The  work  it  seemed  of  some  suspicious  prince. 

Dryden. 

There  is  nothing  to  be  left  void  in  a  firm  building ; 
even  the  cavities  ought  not  to  be  filled  with  rubbish, 
which  is  of  a  perishing  kind.  Id. 

High  at  his  head  from  out  the  caverned  rock, 
In  living  rills,  a  gushing  fountain  broke. 

Pope's  Odyssey. 


CAV 


257 


CAV 


No  bandit  fierce,  no  tyrant  mad  with  pride, 
No  caverned  hermit,  rests  self-satisfied.  Pope. 

No  great  damages  are  done  by  earthquakes,  except 


to  conduct  a  printing-house  at  Norwich,  and 
publish  a  weekly  paper.  In  this  undertaking  he 
met  with  some  opposition,  which  produced  a 


only  in  those  countries  which  are  mountainous,  and     pUDlic  controversy,  and  procured  Cave  the  repu- 


consequently  stony  and  cavernous  underneath. 

Woodward's  Natural  History. 
Embattled  troops,  with  flowing  banners,  pass 
Through  flowery  meads,  delighted  ;  nor  distrust 
The  smiling  surface  ;  whilst  the  caverned  ground 
Bursts  fatal,  and  involves  the  hopes  of  war 
In  fiery  whirles.  Philipt. 


tation  of  a  writer.  He  afterwards  obtained  by 
his  wife's  interest  a  place  in  the  post-office  ;  but 
still  continued,  at  his  intervals  of  attendance,  to 
exercise  his  business.  He  corrected  the  Gradus 
ad  Parnassum :  for  which  he  was  liberally  re- 
warded by  the  company  of  stationers.  He  was 
afterwards  raised  to  the  office  of  clerk  of  the 


If  the  atmosphere  was  reduced  into  water,  it  would  frank  in  which  he  acted  with  great  spirit  and 
notmake  an  orb  above  tlnrty-two  feet  deep  wh.ch  firmne'  and  his  opposition  to  ?he  abuse  of  this 
would  soon  be  swallowed  up  by  the  camty  of  the  sea,  .  .  JX  .  , 

and  the  depressed  parts  of  the  earth.  Bentley.     privilege  occasioned  his  ejectment  from  the  office . 

He  had  now,  however,  collected  a  sum  sufficient 


For  as  he  spoke  the  rending  glebe  gave  way, 

And  fires  infernal  from  beneath  broke  forth, 
Disclosing  horrid  cavet  unknown  to  day, 

Deep  in  the  bowels  of  the  groaning  earth. 
Goltho  he  calls  ;  his  manly  voice  he  rears 

Oft  to  its  pitch,  which  hill  and  dale  rebound  ; 

The  much-loved  name  each  grot  and  cavern  hears 

And  Goltho  echoes  through  the  sylvan  bound. 

Monsters  of  the  foaming  deep, 

From  the  deep  ooze  and  gelid  cavern  roused 

They  flounce  and  tremble  in  unweildy  joy 


Id. 


for  the  purchase  of  a  small  printing-office,  and 
began  the  Gentleman's  Magazine ;  to  the  suc- 
cess of  which  he  owed  the  affluence  in  which 
he  passed  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life,  and 
the  fame  deservedly  attached  to  the  name  of  its 
projector.  Mr.  Cave  continued  to  improve  his 
Magazine,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  its 
success  proportionate  to  his  diligence,  till,  in 
1753,  he  fell  into  a  diarrhoea,  and  afterwards  into 
a  kind  of  lethargic  insensibility ;  and  died  Jan. 


Who  from  the  black  and  bloody  cavern  led 
The  savage  stern,  and  soothed  his  boisterous  breath, 
Who  spokf,  and  Science  reared  her  radiant  head 
And  brightened  o'er  the  long  benighted  waste. 

Bealtie. 
Yet  lingering  comfortless  in  lonesome  wild, 

Where  Echo  sleeps  mid  caverned  vales  profound, 
The  pride  of  Troy,  Dominion's  darling  child, 
Pines  while  the  slow  hour  stalks  its  sullen  round. 

Beattie 

Is  there  no  forest, 

Whose  shades  are  dark  enough  to  shelter  us, 
Or  cavern,  rifled  by  the  perilous  lightning, 
Where  we  must  grapple  with  the  tenantry  wolf 
To  earn  our  bloody  lair?  there  let  us  bide, 
Nor  hear  the  voice  of  man,  nor  call  of  heaven. 


Thomson.    10th,  \  754,  having  just  concluded  the  twenty-third 


volume  of  his  Magazine. 

CA'VEAT,  n.  s.  Lat.  caveat,  let  him  beware. 
Intimation  of  caution. 

A  caveat  is  an  intimation  given  to  some  ordinary 
or  ecclesiastical  judge  by  the  act  of  man,  notifying  to 
him,  that  he  ought  to  beware  how  he  acts  in  such  or 
such  an  affair.  Ayliffe. 

The  chiefest  caveat  in  reformation  must  be  to  keep 
out  the  Scots.  Spenser  on  Ireland. 

I  am  in  danger  of  commencing  poet,  perhaps  lau- 
reat  j  pray  desire  Mr.  Rowe  to  enter  a  caveat. 

Trumbull  to  Pope^ 

CAVEAT,  in  law,  an  intimation  to  an   ecclesi- 
astical judge,  to  beware  how  he  acts  in  such  an 
affair,  is  used  to  stop  the  proving  of  a  will,  the 
Haturin.    granting  letters  of  administration,  &c.  to  the  pre- 
CAVE  (Dr.  William),  a  learned  English  di-    judice  of  another. 

vine,  born  in  1637,  educated  in  St.  John's  Col-  CAVEATING,  in  fencing,  is  the  shifting  the 
ledge,  Cambridge,  and  successively  minister  of  sword  from  one  side  of  that  of  the  adversary  to 
Hasely  in  Oxfordshire,  All-hallows  in  London,  the  other. 

and  Islington.  He  became  chaplain  to  Charles  CAVENDISH  (Sir  William),  descended  of 
II.  and  in  1684  was  installed  a  canon  of  Wind-  an  ancient  family,  was  born  about  1503.  Having 
sor.  He  compiled  the  Lives  of  the  Primitive  had  a  liberal  education,  he  was  taken  into  the 
Fathers  in  the  Three  First  Centuries  of  the  family  of  cardinal  Wolsey,  whom  he  served  as 
Church,  esteemed  a  very  useful  work ;  and  His-  gentleman  usher  of  the  chamber.  In  1527  he 
toria  Literaria,  &c.  in  which  he  gives  an  exact  attended  his  master  on  his  splendid  embassy  to 
account  of  all  who  had  written  for  or  against  France,  returned  with  him  to  England,  and  was 
Christianity,  from  the  time  of  Christ  to  the  four-  one  of  the  few  who  continued  faithful  to  him  ni 
teenth  century  :  which  works  produced  a  warm  his  disgrace.  He  was  with  him  when  he  died, 
controversy  between  Dr.  Cave  and  M.  Le  Clerc,  and  delayed  going  to  court  till  he  had  performed 
who  was  then  writing  his  Bibliotheque  Univer-  the  last  duty  of  a  faithful  servant,  by  seeing  his 
selle  in  Holland.  Dr.  Cave  died  in  1713.  body  decently  interred.  The  king  was  so  far 

CAVE  (Edward),  celebrated  as  the  projector  of  from  disapproving  of  his  fidelity,  that  he  im- 
the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  the  first  publication  mediately  took  him  into  his  household,  made  him 
of  the  kind  in  England,  was  born  in  1691.  After  treasurer  of  his  chamber,  a  privy-counsellor,  and 
passing  some  time  at  the  free  school  of  Rugby,  a  knight.  In  1540  he  was  nominated  one  of  the 
he  became  clerk  to  a  collector  of  excise  ;  but  auditors  of  the  court  of  augmentations,  and  soon 
soon  left  that  situation  and  came  up  to  London  after  obtained  a  grant  of  several  lordships  in 
in  quest  of  more  suitable  employment.  Here  Hertfordshire.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  his 
he  bound  himself  apprentice  to  Mr.  Collins,  a  estates  were  much  increased  by  royal  grants  in 
printer  of  some  reputation.  Within  two  years  seven  different  counties  :  and  he  continued  in 
he  attained  to  such  skill  in  his  art,  and  gained  so  favor  during  the  reign  of  Mary  I.  He  died  in 
far  the  confidence  of  his  master,  that  he  was  sent  1557.  He  was  the  founder  of  Chatsworth,  arrd 
VOL.  V.  S 


CAV 


258 


CAV 


ancestor  of  the  dukes  of  Devonshire.  He  wrote 
The  Life  and  Death  of  Cardinal  Wolsey  :  Lon- 
don 1667;  reprinted  in  1706. 

CAVENDISH  (William),  duke  of  Newcastle, 
grandson  of  Sir  William,  was  born  in  1592. 
In  1610  he  was  made  knight  of  the  bath;  in 
1620  created  baron  Ogle,  and  viscount  Mans- 
field; and  in  1628  earl  of  Newcastle,  and  baron 
Cavendish.  lie  was  after  this  made  governor  to 
the  prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  Charles  II. 
When  the  troubles  broke  out  in  Scotland,  and 
the  king's  treasury  was  low,  he  contributed 
£'10,000,  and  raised  a  troop  of  horse,  consisting 
of  about  200  knights  and  gentlemen,  who  served 
at  their  own  charge,  were  commanded  by  the 
«arl,  and  entitled  the  prince's  troop.  He  after- 
wards raised  a  body  of  8000  horse,  foot,  and 
dragoons ;  with  which  he  took  some  towns,  and 
gained  several  unimportant  victories.  On  this 
he  was  created  marquis  of  Newcastle ;  bxit  the 
king's  affairs  being  ruined  by  the  rashness  of 
prince  Rupert,  he  went  abroad,  and  staid  for 
some  time  at  Paris ;  where  his  circumstances 
were  so  bad,  that  he  and  his  wife  were  obliged 
to  pawn  their  clothes  for  a  dinner.  He  after- 
wards removed  to  Antwerp,  where,  notwithstand- 
ing his  distress,  he  was  treated,  during  an  exile 
of  eighteen  years,  with  extraordinary  marks  of 
distinction.  On  his  return  at  the  Restoration,  he 
was  created  earl  of  Ogle  and  duke  of  Newcastle. 
He  spent  his  time  in  a  country  retirement,  was 
the  patron  of  men  of  merit,  and  died  in  1697, 
aged  eighty-four.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  Horse- 
manship, which  is  esteemed  ;  also  four  comedies. 

CAVENDISH  (William).  This  nobleman,  who 
was  the  first  duke  of  Devonshire,  was  born  in 
1640  ;  and,  in  his  twenty-first  year,  was  elected 
one  of  the  representatives  of  the  county  of 
Derby.  In  1665  he  served  as  a  volunteer  in 
the  fleet,  under  the  duke  of  York.  As  a  mem- 
ber of  parliament  he  distinguished  himself  against 
the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  court ;  he  appeared 
as  a  witness  in  favor  of  Lord  Russell ;  and  he 
offered  to  exchange  clothes  with  that  nobleman, 
to  enable  him  to  escape.  His  country  is  last- 
ingly indebted  to  him,  for  his  having  been  a 
very  active  planner  of  the  revolution  of  1688. 

CAVENDISH  (Hon.  Henry),  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, on  the  10th  of  October,  1731.  His  father 
was  lord  Charles  Cavendish,  of  the  Devonshire 
family.  During  his  father's  lifetime  he  was  kept 
rather  in  narrow  circumstances,  being  only  al- 
lowed an  annuity  of  £500  a  year.  It  was  during 
this  period  that  he  acquired  those  habits  of 
economy,  and  those  oddities  of  character,  which 
he  ever  afterwards  exhibited.  At  his  father's 
death  he  was  left  a  very  considerable  fortune  ; 
and  an  aunt,  who  died  at  a \later  period,  be- 
queathed him  a  very  handsome  addition.  It  ap- 
peared to  be  finally  not  in  his  power  to  spend  the 
greater  part  of  his  income  :  so  that  at  the  period 
of  his  death  he  left  behind  him  nearly  £1,300,000, 
and  was  the  greatest  proprietor  in  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land. His  private  bankers,  at  one  period  thinking 
it  improper  to  keep  so  large  a  balance  as  he 
had  left  in  their  hands,  sent  one  of  the  partners 
to  wait  upon  him,  in  order  to  learn  how  he 
wished  to  dispose  of  it.  The  banker  was  ad- 
mitted, and,  after  employing  the  necessary  pre- 


cautions with  a  man  of  Mr.  Cavendish's  peculiar 
disposition,  stated  the  circumstance,  and  begged 
to  know  whether  it  would  not  be  proper  to  lay 
out  the  money.  Mr.  Cavendish  dryly  answered, 
*  You  may  lay  it  out  if  you  please,'  and  left  the 
room.  Mr.  Cavendish  hardly  ever  went  into  any 
other  society  than  that  of  his  scientific  friends. 
He  never  was  absent  from  the  weekly  dinner  of 
the  Royal  Society  Club,  at  the  Crown  and  Anchor 
Tavern.  At  these  dinners,  when  he  happened 
to  be  seated  near  those  he  liked,  he  often  con- 
versed a  great  deal ;  though  at  other  times  he 
was  very  silent.  He  was,  likewise,  a  constant 
attendant  at  Sir  Joseph  Banks's  Sunday  evening 
meetings.  He  had  a  house  in  London,  which 
he  only  visited  once  or  twice  a  week  at  stated 
times,  and  without  ever  speaking  to  the  servants. 
It  contained  an  excellent  library,  to  which  he 
gave  all  literary  men  the  freest  and  most  unres- 
trained access.  But  he  lived  in  a  house  on 
Clapham  Common,  where  he  scarcely  ever  re- 
ceived any  visitors.  His  relation,  lord  George 
Cavendish,  to  whom  he  left  by  will  the  greatest 
part  of  his  fortune,  visited  him  only  once  a  year; 
and  the  visit  hardly  ever  exceeded  ten  or  twelve 
minutes.  He  was  shy  and  bashful,  to  a  degree 
bordering  upon  disease.  He  could  not  bear  any 
person  to  be  introduced  to  him,  or  to  be  pointed 
out,  in  any  way,  as  a  remarkable  man.  One 
Sunday  evening,  he  was  standing  at  Sir  Joseph 
Banks's,  in  a  crowded  room,  conversing  with  Mr. 
Hatchett,  when  Dr.  Ingenhousz,  who  had  a  good 
deal  of  pomposity  of  manner,  came  up,  with  an 
Austrian  gentleman  in  his  hand,  and  introduced 
him  formally  to  Mr.  Cavendish.  He  mentioned 
the  titles  and  qualifications  of  his  friend  at  great 
length,  and  said  that  he  had  been  peculiarly 
anxious  to  be  introduced  to  a  philosopher  so  pro- 
found, and  so  universally  known  and  celebrated, 
as  Mr.  Cavendish.  As  soon  as  Dr.  Ingenhousz 
had  finished,  the  Austrian  gentleman  began,  and 
assured  Mr.  Cavendish  that  his  principal  reason 
for  coming  to  London  was  to  see  and  converse 
with  one  of  the  greatest  ornaments  of  the  age,  and 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  philosophers  that  ever 
existed.  To  all  these  high-flown  speeches  Mr.  Ca- 
vendish answered  not  a  word  ;  but  stood  with  his 
eyes  cast  down,  quite  abashed  and  confounded.  At 
last,  spying  an  opening  in  the  crowd,  he  darted 
through  it  with  all  the  speed  he  was  master  of; 
nor  did  he  stop  till  he  reached  his  carriage,  which 
drove  him  directly  home.  Mr.  Cavendish  died 
on  February  the  4th,  1810,  aged  seventy-eight 
years,  four  months,  and  six  days.  His  appear- 
ance did  not  much  prepossess  strangers  in  his 
favor;  and  in  his  speech  he  had  an  impediment. 
His  education  seems  to  have  been  very  complete ; 
for  he  was  an  excellent  mathematical  scholar,  a 
profound  electrician,  and  a  most  acute  and  in- 
genious chemist.  He  never  ventured  to  give  an 
opinion  upon  any  subject,  unless  he  had  studied 
it  to  the  bottom.  The  whole  of  his  literary 
labors  consist  of  seventeen  papers,  published  in 
the  .Philosophical  Transactions,  ana  occupying 
each  only  a  few  pages ;  but  full  of  the  most 
important  discoveries,  and  the  most  profound 
investigations.  Ten  of  them  treat  of  chemical 
subjects,  two  of  electricity,  two  of  meteorology, 
and  three  relate  to  asronomy. 


CAV 


259 


CAV 


CAVE'SSON,  n.  Fr.  cavcsson,  cave$on ;  Ital. 
and  Span,  cabesson;  Lat.  caputrum.  In  horse- 
manship, a  sort  of  noseband,  sometimes  made 
of  iron,  and  sometimes  of  leather  or  wood ; 
sometimes  flat,  and  sometimes  hollow  or  twisted ; 
which  is  put  upon  the  nose  of  a  horse,  to  for- 
ward the  suppling  and  breaking  of  him. 

An  iron  caveisan  saves  and  spares  the  mouths  of 
y  oung  horses  when  they  are  broken ;  for,  by  the  help 
•->f  it,  they  are  accustomed  to  obey  the  hand,  and  to 
bend  the  neck  and  shoulders,  without  hurting  their 
mouths,  or  spoiling  their  bars  with  the  bit. 

Farrier' i  Diet. 

CAUF,  Goth,  kqf,  kaj'a.  A  chest  with  holes  in 
the  top,  to  keep  fish  alive  in  the  water. 

CAUHQ-ROY,  in  natural  history,  a  fossil 
which  the  natives  of  the  East  Indies  calcine,  and 
give  in  large  doses  in  the  hiccough,  and  pul- 
monary complaints.  It  is  also  used  in  dyeing. 
It  is  a  kind  of  ochre,  or  clayey  iron  ore,  found 
in  great  abundance  in  the  hills.  Iron  is  some- 
times extracted  from  it. 

CAVIA,  the  cavy,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of 
quadrupeds,  belonging  to  the  order  of  glires. 
They  have  two  wedge-like  cutting  teeth  in  each 
jaw  ;  eight  grinders  in  both.  The  fore  feet  have 
four  or  five  toes ;  the  hind  three,  four,  or  five 
each.  The  tail  is  very  short  or  entirely  wanting; 
and  the  collar  bones  are  wanting.  They  seem  to 
hold  a  middle  place  between  the  marine  quadru- 
peds and  the  rabbit  genus ;  and  have  a  slow  and 
mostly  kind  of  leaping  pace.  They  never  climb 
trees,  but  dwell  in  hollow  trees  or  in  burrows  which 
they  dig  in  the  earth;  and  live  on  vegetables. 
There  are  seven  species,  viz.  1.  C.  acuachy, 
the  akouchy  of  Buffon,  and  olive  cavy  of  Pen- 
nant, has  a  short  tail ;  is  olive  colored  above  and 
whitish  below.  It  inhabits  Guiana,  Cayenne, 
and  Brasil ;  is  about  the  size  of  a  half  grown 
rabbit ;  is  easily  tamed,  and  is  esteemed  delicate 
food.  The  female  brings  one  or  two  at  a  lit- 
ter. It  inhabits  woods,  and  lives  on  fruits. 
They  are  natives  of  Brasil.  2.  C.  aguti,  the 
agouty,  has  a  very  short  tail,  the  upper  parts 
are  brown,  mixed  with  red  and  black  ;  the  rump 
a  bright  orange,  and  the  belly  yellowish.  They 
inhabit  South  America  and  the  West  India 
Islands.  They  search  for  their  food  through  the 
day,  and  carry  it  home  to  their  dwellings,  where 
they  hoard  what  they  cannot  eat.  They  feed 
sitting  on  their  hind  legs,  and  carry  their  food 
with  their  fore  paws  to  their  mouth.  Their  flesh 
is  savoury  like  that  of  a  rabbit.  They  grunt  like 
pigs,  and  are  very  voracious.  When  angry  they 
beat  the  ground  with  their  feet.  3.  C.  aperea, 
the  aperea,  or  Brasilian  coney,  has  no  tail ;  is 
reddish  above,  and  white  below ;  has  short  ears ; 
four  toes  before  and  three  behind,  the  middle  one 
longest;  the  upper  lip  divided;  the  fore  feet 
black  and  naked.  It  lives  in  holes  of  rocks,  from 
which  it  is  hunted  by  small  dogs.  It  is  about  a 
foot  long,  and  runs  like  a  hare.  The  flesh  resem- 
bles that  of  a  rabbit,  but  excels  it  in  flavor. 
4.  C.  capybara,  the  sus  hydrochaeris  of  Lin- 
naeus, or  river  hog  of  Dampier,  has  five  webbed 
toes  guarded  by  hoofs,  on  the  hind  feet,  but  no 
tail ;  is  above  two  feet  and  a  half  long ;  the 
head  and  nose  are  large  and  thick ;  the  eyes 
black ;  the  ears  small,  erect,  rounded  and  naked ; 


the  upper  jaw  long ;  and  the  upper  lip  divided. 
The  neck  and  legs  are  short,  and  the  hair  is 
harsh  like  bristles.  These  animals  inhabit  the 
east  of  South  America,  from  the  isthmus  to 
Brasil  and  Paraguay ;  live  in  fenny  woods  near 
rivers ;  swim,  dive,  and  keep  under  water  ;  catch 
fish  at  night,  but  bring  them  on  shore  and  eat 
them  sitting  on  their  hind  legs,  like  apes.  They 
feed  also  on  vegetables.  They  keep  together 
in  large  herds,  and  make  a  noise,  like  the  braying 
of  asses.  5.  C.  cobaya,  the  mus  porcellus,  gui- 
nea pig,  or  pig-like  mouse  of  Linnasus,  and  the 
restless  cavy  of  Pennant,  has  four  toes  on  the 
fore,  and  three  on  the  hind  feet,  but  no  tail :  the 
color  is  white,  variegated  with  irregular  orange 
and  black  blotches.  The  body  is  thick,  and  sel- 
dom exceeds  seven  inches  in  length.  They  have 
short  broad  ears,  and  large  prominent  brownish 
eyes ;  are  very  restless,  and  grunt  continually 
like  young  pigs.  They  feed  on  bread,  grain, 
fruits,  &c. ;  are  very  delicate,  and  cannot  bear 
cold  or  moisture.  The  female  breeds  at  three 
months  old  ;  goes  with  young  three  weeks,  and 
brings  from  four  to  twelve  at  a  birth,  though  she 
has  only  two  teats.  6.  C.  magellanica,  the  Pa- 
tagonian  hare  or  cavy,  is  so  large  as  to  weigh 
sometimes  twenty-six  pounds.  It  has  long  legs, 
with  four  toes  before,  and  three  behind,  armed 
with  long  black  claws ;  hardly  any  tail ;  the 
nose  has  tufts  of  curly  hair,  and  long  numerous 
whiskers  ;  the  ears  are  long  and  dilated ;  the 
upper  lip  divided  ;  the  face  and  back  ash-co- 
lored; breast  and  sides  tawny  ;  the  belly  a  dirty 
white.  It  inhabits  the  country  about  Port  De- 
sire in  Patagonia.  The  flesh  is  white  and  well 
flavored.  It  feeds  on  vegetables,  and  burrows 
in  the  ground.  8.  C.  paca,  the  mus  paca  of 
Linnaeus,  or  spotted  cavy  of  Pennant,  has  five 
toes  on  all  the  feet;  and  the  sides  are  marked 
with  rows  of  gray  or  pale  yellow  spots.  The 
body  and  head  measure  about  two  feet  in  length ; 
the  tail  is  like  a  small  button,  and  so  extremely 
short  as  to  be  hardly  apparent ;  the  mouth  is  very 
small ;  the  "upper  lip  divided  ;  the  nostrils  are 
very  large,  and  the  muzzle  is  garnished  with  long 
whiskers ;  the  ears  are  short  and  roundish ;  the 
eyes  are  large,  prominent,  and  brownish  ;  the 
two  cutting  teeth  in  each  jaw  are  very  long  and 
of  great  strength  ;  the  hind  legs  are  longer  than 
the  Ibre.  This  species  inhabits  Brasil,  Guian? 
and  probably  all  the  warmer  parts  of  America. 
It  lives  in  fenny  places  near  rivers,  burrowing 
in  the  ground,  and  keeping  its  hole  exceedingly 
clean,  to  which  it  has  always  three  distinct  out- 
lets. It  grows  very  fat,  and  is  esteemed  a  great 
delicacy.  The  female  has  two  teats  situate  be- 
tween the  hind  thighs,  and  has  only  a  single 
young  one  at  a  litter. 

CAVIA'RE,  n.  )      '  The   etymology   is   un- 

CA'VIEB.  )  certain/  says  Johnson,  '  un- 

less it  come  from  Lat.  garum,  sauce  or  pickle, 
made  of  fish  salted.'  Its  Russian  name  is  ikari. 
Todd  is  of  opinion  that  it  is  adopted  from  the 
barb.  Greek  Kafiiapi  or  navinpt. 

The  eggs  of  a  sturgeon,  being  salted  and  made  up 
into  a  mass,  were  first  brought  from  Constantinople 
by  the  Italians,  and  called  civiare.  Grew's  Museum. 

CAVIARE,  the  hard  roes  of  the  sturgeon,  are 
formed  into  small  cakes,  ahout  an  inch  thick 

S  2 


CAV 


260 


CAU 


and  three  or  four  inches  broad,  by  taking  out  all 
the  nerves  or  strings;  then  washing  the  spawn 
in  white  wine  or  vinegar,  and  spreading  it  on  a 
table.  It  is  then  salted  and  pressed  in  a  fine 
bag;  after  which  it  is  cased  up  in  a  vessel  with 
a  hole  at  the  bottom,  that  if  any  moisture  is  left 
it  may  run  out.  Caviare  is  in  great  request 
among  the  Muscovites,  on  account  of  their  three 
Lents,  which  they  keep  with  a  superstitious  exact- 
ness. The  Italians  settled  at  Moscow  carry  on 
a  very  great  trade  in  it  throughout  that  empire, 
there  being  a  prodigious  quantity  of  sturgeon 
taken  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wolgaand  other  .rivers 
which  fall  into  the  Caspian  sea.  A  pretty  large 
quantity  of  caviare  is  also  consumed  in  Italy  and 
France.  They  get  it  from  Archangel,  but  com- 
monly buy  it  of  the  English  and  Dutch.  Ac- 
cording to  Savary,  the  best  caviare  brought  from 
Muscovy  is  prepared  from  the  belluga,  which  is 
much  preferable  to  that  made  of  the  spawn  of 
sturgeon.  A  kind  of  caviare,  or  rather  sausage, 
is  also  made  from  the  spawn  of  some  other  fishes; 
particularly  a  sort  of  mullet  caught  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. 


CA'VIL,  v.  &  n. 

CAVILLA'TION,  n. 
CA'VILLER,  s. 
CA'VILLINGLY,  adv. 
CA'VILLINGNESS,  n. 
CA'VILLOUS,  adj. 


\  Fr.  caviller;  Ital. 
I  cavillare;  Span,  cavi- 
\  lar ;  Lat  cavillor.  To 
)>  cavil  is  to  carp ;  to 
raise  captious,  frivo- 
lous, verbal  objec- 


CA'VILLOUSLY,  adj.  J  tions;  to  contest  about 
trifles ;  to  wrangle  without  a  solid  reason ;  to  re- 
ceive with  objections.  It  was  once  used  in  the  sense 
of  to  mock,  to  scoff.  The  caviller  is  a  character 
who  has  a  strong  relationship  with  the  captious 
man ;  the  former,  however,  is  less  disposed  per- 
haps to  quarrel  than  the  latter,  less  snappish, 
but  equally  teazing.  Cavillation  formerly  meant 
a  merry  taunt,  a  subtle  forged  tale,  but  is  now 
confined  to  the  practice  of  making  captious  ob- 
jections. 

I'll  give  thrice  so  much  land 
.  To  any  well-deserving  friend  ; 

But,  in  the  way  of  bargain,  mark  ye  me, 

I'll  cavil  on  the  ninth  part  of  a  hair.       Skakspeare. 
My  lord,  you  do  not  well  in  obstinacy 

To  cavil  in  the  course  of  this  contract.  Id. 

I  might  add  so  much  concerning  the  large  odds  be- 
tween the  case  of  the  eldest  churches  in  regard  of 
heathens,  and  ours  in  respect  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
that  very  cavillation  itself  should  be  satisfied.  Hooker. 

Wiser  men  consider  how  subject  the  best  things 
have  been  unto  cavil,  when  wits,  possessed  with  dis- 
dain, have  8et  them  up  as  their  mark  to  shoot  at.  Id. 

Socrates  held  all  philosophers  cavillers  and  mad- 
men. Burton's  Anat.  Mel. 

Thou  didst  accept  them  :  wilt  thou  enjoy  the  good, 
Then  cavil  the  conditions  ?  Paradise  Lost. 

Since  that  so  cavittously  is  urged  against  us. 

Milton.  Art.  of  Peace. 

Several  divines,  in  order  to  answer  the  cavils  of 
those  adversaries  to  truth  and  morality,  began  to  find 
out  farther  explanations.  Swift. 

He  cavils  first  at  the  poet's  insisting  so  much  upon 
the  effects  of  Achilles's  rage.  Pope's  Notes  on  the  Iliad. 

The  candour  which  Horace  shews,  is  that  which 
distinguishes  a  critic  from  a  cavillnr.  Addison. 

Those  persons  are  said  to  be  caviUous  and  unfaithful 
advocates,  by  whose  fraud  and  iniquity  justice  is  de- 
stroyed. Ayliffe. 


Let  cavillers  deny 

That  brutes  have  reason  :  sure  'tis  something  more  ; 
'Tis  Heaven  directs,  and  stratagems  inspires, 
Beyond  the  short  extent  of  human  thought.  Somervile. 
CA'VIN,   n.,   in   the  military  art,  a  natural 
hollow,  fit  to  cover  a  body  of  troops,  and  conse- 
quently facilitate  their  approach  to  a  place. 

CAUK,  n.       I       A 

CAU'KY,  adj.  \      A  coarse  talky  spar. 

A  white,  opaque,  cauky  spar,  shot  or  pointed. 

Woodward. 

CAUL,  n.  Isl.  Ml;  Per.  kulah;  Goth,  kulle- 
A  net  for  women's  hair ;  the  hind  part  of  a  wo- 
man's cap ;  any  kind  of  small  net ;  the  omen- 
turn  ;  vulgarly,  the  membrane  which  sometimes 
envelopes  the  head  of  a  child  at  the  birth,  and 
is  superstitiously  believed  to  be  a  preservative 
from  being  drowned. 

Let  see  which  is  the  proudest  of  hem  allc, 
That  wereth  or  a  kerchef  or  a  calle, 
That  dare  say  nay  of  what  I  shall  you  teche. 

Chaucer.   Cant  Tales. 
A   solemn  silence  was  proclaimed,  the  judges  sat 

and  heard, 
What  truth  could  tell,  or  craft  could  fain,  and  who 

should  be  preferred  : 
Then  beauty  slept  before  the  bar,  whose  breast  and 

neck  was  bare, 

With  hair  trust  up,  and  on  her  head  a  caul  of  gold 
she  ware.  Surrey. 

Ne  spared  they  to  strip  her  naked  all, 
Then  when  they  bed  despoiled  her  tire  and  caul, 
Such  as  she  was,  their  eyes  might  her  behold. 

Spenser. 

Her  head  with  ringlets  of  her  hair  is  crowned, 
And  in  a  golden  caul  the  curls  are  bound. 

Dryden  Mneid. 

An  Indian  mantle  of  feathers,  and  the  feathers 
wrought  into  a  caul  of  packthread.  Grew. 

The  caul  serves  for  the  warming  the  lower  belly, 
like  an  apron  or  piece  of  woollen  cloth.  Hence  a  cer- 
tain gladiatour,  whose  caul  Galen  cut  out,  was  so 
liable  to  suffer  cold,  that  he  kept  his  belly  constantly 
covered  with  wool.  Ray. 

The  beast  they  then  divide,  and  disunite 
The  ribs  and  limbs,  observant  of  the  rite : 
On  these,  in  double  cauls  involv'd  with  art, 
The  choicest  morsels  lay.  Pope's  Odyssey. 

CAUL,  in  midwifery,  a  small  part  of  the  pla- 
centa sometimes  found  on  the  head  of  the  new 
born  child,  and  formerly  applied  to  several  su- 
perstitious uses.  To  this  day  we  sometimes  see 
advertisements  of  this  substance  in  the  public 
papers ;  sailors  considering  it  a  protection  against 
drowning. 

CAULABAGH,  a  town  of  Caubul,  in  the 
province  of  Paishawur,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
river  Indus.  Near  this  place  are  large  rocks  of 
pure  salt,  and  a  considerable  alum  manufacture. 
All  the  houses  are  built  on  terraces  cut  out  of 
the  hill,  and  the  river  here  is  confined  to  a  chan- 
nel only  about  400  yards  wide.  The  town  is  some- 
times called  Khara  Bagh,  or  the  Garden  of  Salt. 
CAULI'FEROUS.  Lat.  caulis  and  fero,  a 
term  in  botany  for  such  plants  as  have  a  true 
stalk. 

CAULKING,  orCAUKiNG,  OF  A  SHIP,  is  driving 
very  close  a  quantity  of  oakum,  or  old  ropes  un- 
twisted and  drawn  asunder,  into  the  seams  of  the 
planks,  or  into  the  intervals  where  the  planks  are 


CAU 


261 


CAU 


joined  together,  in  the  ship's  decks  or  sides,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  water.  After 
the  oakum  is  driven  very  hard  into  these  seams, 
it  is  covered  with  hot  melted  pitch  or  resin,  to 
keep  the  water  from  rotting  it.  Among  the  an- 
cients, the  first  who  made  use  of  caulking,  were 
the  inhabitants  of  Phceacia,  now  Corfu.  Wax 
and  resin  appear  to  have  been  commonly  used 
previously  to  that  period.  The  Poles  use  a  sort 
of  unctuous  clay  for  the  same  purpose,  on  their 
navigable  rivers. 

CAULKING  IRONS,  iron  chissels  formed  for 
caulking.  Some  of  these  are  broad,  some  round, 
and  others  grooved. 

CAU'PONATE.  i      Lat.  caupono  ;  to  keep  a 

CA'UPONISE.  )  victualling-house;  to  sell 
wine  or  victuals ;  to  act  as  a  sutler. 

CAURSINES,  CAURSINI,  Italians  who  came 
into  England  about  1235,  terming  themselves 
the  pope's  merchants,  but  driving  no  other  trade 
but  letting  out  money ;  and  having  great  banks 
in  England,  they  differed  little  from  Jews,  ex- 
cept that  they  were  more  merciless  to  their 
debtors. 

CAUSALTY,  among  miners,  denotes  the 
lighter,  sulphureous,  earthy  part  of  ores,  carried 
off  in  the  operation  of  washing.  This,  in  the 
mines,  they  throw  in  heaps  upon  banks,  which 
in  six  or  seven  years  they  find  it  worth  their 
while,  to  work  over  again. 

CAUSA  MATRIMONII  PR^LOCUTI,  in  common 
law,  a  writ  that  lies  where  a  woman  gives  land 
to  a  man  in  fee  to  the  intent  he  shall  marry  her, 
and  he  refuses  to  do  it  in  a  reasonable  time, 
being  required  by  the  woman ;  and  in  such  case, 
for  not  performing  the  condition,  the  entry  of 
the  woman  into  the  lands  again  has  been  ad- 
judged lawful.  The  husband  and  wife  7«ay  sue 
this  writ  against  the  person  who  ought  to  have 
married  her. 


Lat.  causa.  Etymo- 
logists have  been  woe- 
fully at  fault,  with  re- 
spect to  the  origin  of  this 
word.  It  has  been  seri- 
ously traced  to  chaos,  be- 
cause all  things  sprung 
from  chaos ;  to  icai'ireiv ; 
a  cavendo ;  a  casu  ;  and 
to  caiso ;  but  nothing 


CAUSE,  v.  &  n. 

CA'USAL,  adj. 

CAUSA'LITY,  n. 

CAT/SALLY,  adv. 

CAUSA'TION,  n. 

CA'USATIVE,  adj. 

CAUSA'TOR,  n. 

CA'USELESS,  adj. 

CA'USELESSLY,  adv. 

CA'USER,  n. 

satisfactory  has  been  written  on  the  subject.  A 
cause  signifies  that  which  produces  or  effects  any 
thing;  the  reason,  the  agent,  the  inducing,  or 
motive,  power;  reason  of  debate;  subject  of  li- 
tigation ;  side,  party,  ground  or  principle  of  ac- 
tion or  opposition.  To  cause,  is  to  effect,  to 
bring  about ;  to  produce.  There  is  an  obsolete 
usage  of  the  verb,  meaning  to  give  a  cause  or 
reason  which  is  trivial,  not  valid.  Causable  is 
that  which  may  be  caused ;  causal,  is  relating 
to,  implying,  or  containing  causes ;  causality,  is 
the  agency  of  a  cause  ;  causally,  according  to  the 
order,  or  series  of  causes  ;  causation,  the  act  or 
capability  of  causing.  In  grammar,  causative 
denotes  that  which  expresses  a  cause  or  reason. 

Whan  he  withstandeth  our  temptation, 
It  is  a  caute  of  his  salvation. 

Cluntcer'r  ''ji»terlury  Talcs. 


Yet  is  my  truth  yplight, 
And  love  avowed  to  other  lady  late, 
That,  to  remove  the  same,  I  have  no  might 
To   change  love   causeless,  is   reproach    to  warlike 
knight.  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene. 

His  whole  oration  stood  upon'  a  short  narration, 
which  was  the  cause  of  this  metamorphosis.  Sidney. 

Never  was  man  whose  apprehensions  are  sober,  and 
by  a  pensive  inspection  advised,  but  hath  found  by  an 
irresistible  necessity  one  everlasting  being,  all  for  ever 
causing,  and  all  for  ever  sustaining.  Raleigh. 

The  rest  shall  bear  some  other  sight, 
As  cause  will  be  obeyed.  Shakipeare. 

O  madness  of   discourse  ! 

That  cause  sets  up  with  and  against  thyself.          Id. 
Is  not  the  causer  of  these  timeless  deaths 

As  blameful  as  the  executioner.  Id. 

The  wise  and  learned,  amongst  the  very  heathens 
themselves,  have  all  acknowledged  some  first  cause, 
whereupon  originally  the  being  of  all  things  dependeth  : 
neither  have  they  otherwise  spoken  of  that  cause,  than 
as  an  agent,  which,  knowing  what  and  why  it  worketh, 
observeth,  in  working,  a  most  exact  order  or  law. 

Hooker. 

Human  laws  are  not  to  be  broken  with  scandal,  nor 
at  all  without  reason  ;  for  he  that  does  it  causelessly, 
is  a  despiser  of  the  law,  and  undervalues  its  autho- 
rity. Taylor's  Holy  Living. 

Spices  cause  hot  and  head  melancholy,  and  are  for 
that  cause  forbidden  by  our  physicians,  to  such  men 
as  are  inclined  to  this  malady,  as  pepper,  ginger,  cin- 
namon, cloves,  mace,  dates,  &c.,  honey  and  sugar. 

Burton.     Anat.  Mel. 
Well  hast  thou  fought 

The  better  fight,  who  single  hast  maintained, 

Against  revolted  multitudes,  the  cause 

Of  truth,  mightier  than  they  in  arms.  Milton. 

That  may  be  miraculously  effected  in  one,  which 
is  naturally  causable  in  another. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errortrs. 

As  he  created  all  things,  so  is  he  beyond  and  in 
them  all,  in  his  very  essence,  as  being  the  soul  of 
their  causalities,  and  the  essential  cause  of  their  ex- 
istence. Id. 

Thus  may  it  more  be  causally  made  out,  what  Hip- 
pocrates affirmeth.  Id. 

Demonstratively  understanding  the  simplicity  of 
perfection,  and  the  invisible  condition  of  the  first 
causator,  it  was  out  of  the  power  of  earth,  or  the  areo- 
pagy  of  hell,  to  work  them  from  it.  Id. 

Thus  doth  he  sometimes  delude  us  in  the  conceits 
of  stars  and  meteors,  besides  their  allowable  actions, 
ascribing  effects  thereunto  of  independent  causation. 

Id. 
As  women  yet  who  apprehend 

Some  sudden  cause  of  causeless  fear, 

Although  that  seeming  caute  take  end, 

A  shaking  through  their  limbs  they  find.      Waller 

Yet  he  does  himself  excuse, 
Nor  indeed  without  a  cause, 
For,  according  to  the  laws, 

Why  did  Chloe  once  refuse.  Marvell, 

So  great,    so   constant,  and  so  general  a  practice, 
must  needs  have  not  only  a  cause,  but  also  a  great,  a 
a  constant,  and  a  general  cause,  every  way  commensu- 
rate to  such  an  effect.  South. 
Cause  is  a  substance  exerting  its  power  into  act,  to 
make  one  thing  begin  to  be.                                   Locke 
Things  that  move  so  swift  as  not  to  affect  the  senses 
distinctly,  and  so  cause  not  any  train  of  ideas  in  the 
mind,  are  not  perceived  to  move.  "• 


202 


CAUSE. 


Reach  the  Almighty's  sacred  throne, 
And  make  his  causeless  power,  the  cause   of  all  things 
known  Blackmore's  Creation. 

Ere  to  thy  cause,  and  thee,  my  heart  inclined, 
Or  love  to  party  had  seduced  my  mind.  Tickell. 

Says  my  uncle,  I  pray  you  discover, 
What  hath  been  the  cause  of  your  woes, 

That  you  pine  and  you  whine  like  a  lover, 
I  have  seen  Molly  Mog  of  the  Rose.  Gay. 

Causal  propositions  are,  where  two  propositions  are 
joined  by  causal  particles  ;  as,  houses  were  not  built, 
that  they  might  be  destroyed ;  Rehoboam  was  un- 
happy, because  he  followed  evil  counsel. 

Watts'  Logic. 

Yet  soon  the  dance  will  cause  the  cheeks  to  glow. 
And  melt  the  waxen  lips,  and  neck  of  snow.    Bishop. 

Now,  virtue,  now  thy  powerful  succour  lend, 
Shield  them  for  liberty  who  dare  to  die ! 

Ah  !  Liberty  !  will  none  thy  cause  befriend  ? 
Are  these  thy  sons,  thy  generous  sons  that  fly. 

Beattie. 

Not  to  understand  a  treasure's  worth, 
Till  time  has  stolen  away  the  slighted  good, 
Is  cause  of  half  the  poverty  we  feel, 
And  makes  the  world  the  wilderness  it  is.    Cowper. 

CAUSE  stands  opposed  to  effect.  We  obtain 
the  idea  of  cause  and  effect  from  observing  the 
vicissitudes  of  things,  while  we  perceive  some 
qualities  or  substances  begin  to  exist,  and  that 
they  receive  their  existence  from  the  due  appli- 
cation and  operation  of  other  beings.  Thus,  flui- 
dity in  wax  or  metals,  is  the  effect  of  a  certain 
degree  of  heat,  which  we  observe  to  be  constantly 
produced  by  the  application  of  such  heat ;  which 
we  therefore  style  the  cause. 

Aristotle,  and  the  schoolmen  after  him,  distin- 
guished four  kinds  of  causes ;  the  efficient,  the 
material,  the  formal,  and  the  final.  This,  like 
many  of  Aristotle's  distinctions,  is  only  a  dis- 
tinction of  the  various  meanings  of  an  ambiguous 
word ;  for  the  efficient,  the  matter,  the  form,  and 
the  end,  have  nothing  common  in  their  nature, 
by  which  they  may  be  accounted  a  species  of  the 
same  genus ;  but  the  Greek  word,  which  we 
translate  cause,  had  these  four  different  mean- 
ings in  Aristotle's  days,  and  we  have  added  other 
meanings.  We  do  not  indeed  call  the  matter  or 
the  form  of  a  thing  its  cause ;  but  we  have  final 
causes,  instrumental  causes,  occasional  causes, 
and  many  others.  Thus  the  word  cause  has 
been  so  hackneyed,  and  made  to  have  so  many 
different  meanings  in  the  writings  of  philoso- 
phers, and  in  the  discourse  of  the  vulgar,  that 
its  original  and  proper  meaning  is  lost.  With 
regard  to  the  phenomena  of  nature,  the  impor- 
tant end  of  knowing  their  causes,  is,  that  we 
may  know  when  to  expect  them,  or  how  to  bring 
them  about.  'This  is  very  often  of  real  impor- 
tance in  life;  and  this  purpose  is  served,  by 
knowing  what,  by  the  course  of  nature,  goes  be- 
fore them  and  is  connected  with  them ;  and  this, 
therefore,  we  call  the  cause  of  such  a  phenome- 
non. If  a  magnet  be  brought  near  to  a  mariner's 
compass,  the  needle,  which  was  before  at  rest, 
immediately  begins  to  move,  and  bends  its  course 
towards  the  magnet,  or  perhaps  the  contrary 
way.  If  an  unlearned  sailor  is  asked  the  cause 
f»f  this  motion  of  the  needle,  he  is  at  no  loss  for 
an  answer.  He  tells  you  it  is  the  magnet ;  and 
the  proof  is  clear;  for,  remove  the  magnet,  and 


the  effect  ceases ;  bring  it  near,  and  the  effect  is 
again  produced.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  to 
sense,  that  the  magnet  is  the  cause  of  this  effect. 
A  Cartesian  philosopher  enters  deeper  into  the 
cause  of  this  phenomenon.  He  observes,  that 
the  magnet  does  not  touch  the  needle,  and  there- 
fore can  give  it  no  impulse.  He  pities  the  ig- 
norance of  the  sailor.  The  effect  is  produced, 
says  he,  by  magnetic  effluvia,  or  subtile  matter, 
which  passes  from  the  magnet  to  the  needle,  and 
forces  it  from  its  place.  He  can  even  show  you, 
in  a  figure,  where  these  magnetic  effluvia  issue 
from  the  magnet,  what  round  they  take,  and 
what  way  they  return  home  again.  And  thus 
he  thinks  he  comprehends  perfectly  how,  and 
by  what  cause,  the  motion  of  the  needle  is  pro- 
duced. A  Newtonian  philosopher  enquires  what 
proof  can  be  offered  for  the  existence  of  magne- 
tic effluvia,  and  can  find  none.  He  therefore 
holds  it  as  a  fiction,  an  hypothesis;  and  he  has 
learned  that  hypotheses  ought  to  have  no  place 
in  the  philosophy  of  nature.  He  confesses  his 
ignorance  of  the  real  cause  of  this  motion,  and 
thinks  that  his  business  as  a  philosopher  is  only 
to  find  from  experiment  the  laws  by  which  it  is 
regulated  in  all  cases.  These  three  persons 
differ  much  in  their  sentiments  with  regard  to 
the  real  cause  of  this  phenomenon ;  and  the  man 
who  knows  most  is  he  who  is  sensible  that  he 
knows  nothing  of  the  matter.  Yet  all  the  three 
speak  the  same  language,  and  acknowledge  that 
the  cause  of  this  motion  is  the  attractive  or  re- 
pulsive power  of  the  magnet.  What  has  been 
said  of  this,  may  be  applied  to  every  phenome- 
non that  falls  within  the  compass  of  natural  phi- 
losophy. We  deceive  ourselves,  if  we  conceive 
that  we  can  point  out  the  real  efficient  cause  of 
any  one  of  them.  The  grandest  discovery  ever 
made  in  natural  philosophy,  was  that  of  the  law 
of  gravitation,  which  opens  such  a  view  of  our 
planetary  system,  that  it  looks  like  something 
divine.  But  the  author  of  this  discovery  was 
aware  that  he  discovered  no  real  cause,  but  only 
the  law  or  rule  according  to  which  the  unknown 
cause  operates.  Natural  philosophers,  who  think 
accurately,  have  a  precise  meaning  to  the  terms 
they  use  in  the  science ;  and  when  they  pretend 
to  show  the  cause  of  any  phenomenon  of  nature, 
they  mean  by  the  cause  a  law  of  nature  of  which 
that  phenomenon  is  a  necessary  consequence. 
The  whole  object  of  natural  philosophy,  as  New- 
ton teaches,  is  reducible  to  these  two  heads : 
first,  by  just  induction  from  experiment  and  ob- 
servation, to  discover  the  laws  of  nature;  and 
then  to  apply  those  laws  to  the  solution  of  the 
phenomena  of  nature.  This  was  all  that  this 
great  philosopher  attempted,  and  all  that  he 
thought  attainable.  And  this  indeed  he  attained 
in  a  great  measure,  with  regard  to  the  motions 
of  our  planetary  system,  and-with  regard  to  the 
rays  of  light.  But  supposing  that  all  the  phe- 
nomena, which  fall  within  the  reach  of  our  senses, 
were  accounted  for  from  general  laws  of  nature, 
justly  deduced  from  experience;  that  is,  sup- 
posing natural  philosophy  brought  to  its  utmost 
perfection,  it  does  not  discover  the  efficient 
cause  of  any  ore  phenomenon  in  nature.  The 
laws  of  nature  are  the  rules  according  to  which 
the  effects  are  produced ;  but  there  must  be  a 


CAU 


263 


CAU 


cause  which  operates  according  to  these  rules.  The 
rules  of  navigation  never  navigated  a  ship.  The 
rules  of  architecture  never  built  a  house.  Natural 
philosophers,  hy  great  attention  to  the  course  of 
nature,  have  discovered  many  of  her  laws,  and 
have  very  happily  applied  them  to  account  for 
many  phenomena :  but  they  have  never  disco- 
vered the  efficientcause  of  any  one  phenomenon ; 
nor  do  those  who  hare  distinct  notions  of  the 
principles  of  the  science  make  any  such  pretence. 
Upon  the  theatre  of  nature  we  see  innumerable 
effects,  which  require  an  agent  endowed  with 
active  power ;  but  the  agent  is  behind  the  scene. 
Whether  it  be  the  Supreme  Cause  alone,  or  a 
subordinate  cause  or  causes ;  and  if  subordinate 
causes  be  employed  by  the  Almighty,  what  their 
nature,  their  number,  and  their  different  offices 
may  be,  are  things  hid,  doubtless  for  wise  rea- 
sons, from  the  human  eye. 

CAUSE,  in  medical  language.  The  cause  of  a 
disease  is  denned  by  Galen  to  be  that  during  the 
presence  of  which  we  are  ill,  and  which  being 
removed  the  disorders  immediately  cease.  The 
doctrine  of  the  causes  of  diseases  is  called  etio- 
logy. Physicians  divide  causes  into  procatarc- 
tic,  proximate,  and  remote. 

Caise,  procatarctic,  curia  ?rpoicarapcru:a,  or 
primitive  incipient,  is  either  an  occasion  which 
of  its  Dwn  nature  does  not  beget  a  disease,  but 
happening  on  a  body  inclined  to  diseases  occa- 
sions a  fever,  gout,  8tc.  (such  as  watching,  fast- 
ing, and  the  like),  or  an  evident  and  manifest 
Ciuse  which  immediately  produces  the  disease, 
as  being  sufficient  thereto ;  such  as  a  sword  in 
respect  of  a  wound. 

Cause,  proximate,  that  principle  in  the  body, 
which  being  present,  the  disease  is  also  present; 
or,  which  being  removed,  the  disease  is  taken 
avay ;  such  as  the  stone  in  a  nephritic  patient, 
th>  virus  of  the  small  pox,  syphilis,  &c. 

Cause,  remote,  predisponent,  or  antecedent, 
euna  Trpojjys/uv?;,  a  latent  disposition  of  the 
bocy,  from  whence  some  disease  may  arise ;  such 
as  a  plethora  in  respect  of  a  fever,  or  cacochymia 
in  respect  of  a  scurvy. 

CAUSEWAY,  DEVIL'S,  a  famous  road  of  stones 
and  rubbish,  which  ranges  through  the  county 
of  Northumberland,  commonly  supposed  to  be 
Romai. 

CATSEWAV,  GIANT'S,  a  huge  pile  of  Basaltic 
columis  in  Antrim,  Ireland.  See  BASALTES, 
and  G  ANT'S  CAUSEWAY. 

CA'USEY,  or  )      Fr.  chaussee  ;  Ital.  calzata  ; 

CA'USEWAY,  n.  J  Scot,  calsey ;  Mid.  Lat.  cal- 
ceata.  A.  raised,  paved  path ;  a  path  elevated 
above  tie  rest  of  the  ground.  Causeway  is  an 
incorrect  spelling. 

To  Shippim  the  lot  came  forth  westward  by  the 
causey.  \  Chron.  xxvi.  16. 

The  other  way  Satan  went  down, 
The  causeway  to  hell-gate.  Milton. 

-out  that  broad  causey  will  direct  your  way. 
And  /ou  may  reach  the  town  by  break  of  day. 

Dryden. 

Wiose  causeway  parts  the  vale  with  shady  rows  ? 
Whoe  seats  the  weary  traveller  repose  ?  Pope. 

CAUSTIC  CURVE,  in  the  higher  geometry,  a 
curvi  formed  by  the  concourse  or  coincidence  of 
the  nys  of  light  reflected  from  some  other  curve. 


CA'USTICAL,  adj.^       Fr.   caitstiquc  ;    Lat. 

CATISTI'CITY,  «.        *  causticus;  KUV-IKOQ.  That 

CA'USTICK,  n.  &  adj.  ( which    can    burn.      A 

CA'USTICKNESS,  n.  J  burning  application.  It 
usually  designates  a  chemical  preparation  in- 
tended to  destroy  some  part  of  the  flesh ;  figu- 
ratively, a  bitter,  sarcastic  speaker. 

If  extirpation  be  safe,  the  best  way  will  be  by  caus- 
tical  medicines,  or  escaroticks.  Wiseman's  Surg. 

I  proposed  eradicating  by  escaroticks,  and  began 
with  a  caustic  stone.  Id. 

Air  too  hot,  cold,  and  moist,  abounding  perhaps 
with  caustic,  astringent,  and  coagulating  particles. 

Arbuthnot. 

It  was  a  tenderness  to  mankind,  that  introduced 
corrosives  and  caustics,  which  are  indeed  but  artificial 
fires.  Temple. 

The  piercing  caustict  ply  their  spiteful  power, 

Emetics  ranch,  and  keen  catharticks  scour.     Garth. 

CAUSTICITY,  a  quality  belonging  to  several 
substances,  by  the  acrimony  of  which  the  parts 
of  living  animals  may  be  corroded  and  destroyed. 
Bodies  which  have  this  quality,  when  taken  in- 
ternally, are  true  poisons.  The  causticity  of 
some  of  these,  as  of  arsenic,  is  so  deadly,  that 
even  their  external  use  is  proscribed  by  most 
physicians.  Several  others,  as  nitrous  acid,  lapis 
infernalis  or  lunar  caustic,  common  caustic,  and 
butter  of  antimony,  are  daily  and  successfully 
used  to  consume  fungous  flesh,  to  open  issues, 
&c.  They  succeed  very  well  when  properly  em- 
ployed and  skilfully  managed. 

CAUSTICS  are  generally  divided  into  four 
sorts ;  the  common  stronger  caustic,  the  common 
milder  caustic,  the  antimonial  caustic,  and  the 
lunar  caustic.  See  CAUSTICITY,  CHEMISTRY, 
and  PHARMACY. 

CA'UTEL,  n. 

CA'UTELOUS,^'. 

CA'UTELOUSLY,  adv. 

CA'UTELOUSNESS,  n.  I 

CA'UTELTY,  n. 

reach  or  fetch  ;  guileful  devise  or  endeavour ; 
also  craft,  subtiltie,  trumperie,  deceit,  cousenage. 
Cauteller,  to  deceive,  beguile,  cousen,  over- 
reach.' These  definitions  are  so  full,  that  it  is 
unnecessary  to  say  more  in  addition,  than  that 
cautel  sometimes  was  used  in  the  sense  of  a  cau- 
tion. Cautelous  and  cautelously  had,  also,  in 
former  times,  an  innocent  as  well  as  a  sinister 
meaning ;  they  stood  for  cautious,  wary,  provi- 
dent. 

Of  themselves,  for  the  most  part,  they  are  so  caute- 
lous  and  wily-headed,  especially  being  meii  of  so  small 
experience  and  practice  in  law  matters,  that  you  would 
wonder  whence  they  borrow  such  subtilties  and  sly 
shifts.  Spenser  on  Ireland. 

Perhaps  he  loves  you  now  j 
And  now  no  soil  of  cautel  doth  besmirch 
The  virtue  of  his  will.  S/iakspeare. 

Your  son 

Will  or  exceed  the  common,  or  be  caught 
With  cautelous  baits  and  practice.  Id. 

Palladio  doth  wish,  like  a  ctiuteloui  artisan,  that  the 
inward  walls  might  bear  some  good  share  in  the  bur- 
den. Wottan. 
All  pretorian  courts,  if  any  of  the  parties  be  laid 
asleep,  under  pretence  of  a  retirement,  and  the  other 


Old  Fr.  cautelk,  cau- 
teleux,  cauteller  ;  Lat. 

.  cautus.  '  Cautelle,'  says 
Sherwood,  '  a  wile,  cau- 

'telle,  sleight;    a  crafty 


CAU 


264 


CAW 


party  doth  cautelously  get  the  start  and  advantage  ; 
ret  they  will  set  back  all  things  in  statu  quo  prius. 

Bacon. 

The  Jews,  not  resolved  of  the  sciatica  side  of  Jacob, 
do  cautelously,  in  their  diet,  abstain  from  both. 

Browne. 

CA'UTERIZE,  v.  *\  Fr.  cauteriser  ;  Lat. 
CAUTERIZA'TION,  n.  I  cauterium  ;  rawnjptov. 
CA'UTERIZING,  n.  >To  cauterise  is  to  burn 
CA'UTERISM,  n.  4  the  flesh  with  a  hot 
CA'UTFV.Y,  n.  J  iron,  which  is  called 

the  actual  cautery,  or  with  some  chemical  caus- 
tic, which  is  denominated  the  potential  cautery. 
Cauterising  signifies  burning  with  a  cautery. 
Cauterism  is  the  application  of  cautery. 

For  each  word  a  blister,  and  each  false 
Be  as  a  cauterizing  to  the  root  o'  th'  tongue,     • 
Consuming  it  with  speaking.  Shaktpeare. 

No  marvel  though  cantharides  have  such  a  corro- 
sive and  cauterizing  quality  ;  for  there  is  not  one  other 
of  the  insecta  but  is  bred  of  a  duller  matter. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

In  heat  of  fight  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  your 
actual  cautery  always  ready  ;  for  that  will  secure  the 
bleeding  arteries  in  a  moment.  Wiseman's  Surgery. 
The  design  of  the  cautery  is  to  prevent  the  canal 
from  closing  •,  but  the  operators  confess  that,  in  per- 
sons cauterized,  the  tears  trickle  down  ever  after. 

_Sharpr3  Surgery. 

CAUTERISATION,  in  medicine,  the  art  of  burn- 
ing flesh.  In  some  places  they  cauterise  with 
burning  tow,  in  others  with  cotton  or  moxa,  in 
others  with  live  coals  ;  some  use  Spanish  wax, 
others  pyramidal  pieces  of  linen,  others  gold  er 
silver ;  Severinus  recommends  flame  blown 
through  a  pipe ;  but  what  is  usually  preferred 
among  us  is  a  hot  iron.  Cauterising  irons  are  of 
various  figures :  some  flat,  others  round,  some 
curved,  &c.  of  all  which  we  find  draughts  in  Al- 
bucasis,  Scultetus,  Ferrara,  and  others.  Some- 
times a  cautery  is  applied  through  a  capsula,  to 
prevent  any  terror  from  tire  sight  of  it.  This 
method  was  invented  by  Placentinus,  and  de- 
scribed by  Scultetus.  In  the  use  of  all  cauteries, 
care  is  to  be  taken  to  defend  the  neighbouring 
parts,  either  by  a  lamina,  defensive  plaster,  or 
lint  moistened  in  oxycrate.  Sometimes  the  hot 
iron  is  transmitted  through  a  copper  canula,  for 
the  greater  safety  of  the  adjoining  parts.  The 
degrees  and  manners  of  cauterising  are  varied 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  disease  and  the 
part  affected. 

CAUTERY,  in  surgery,  a  medicine  for  burning, 
eating,  or  corroding  any  solid  part  of  the  body. 
See  PHARMACY. 

CA'UTION,  v.  &  w.^l      Fr.  caution;  It.  cau- 
CA'UTIONAL,  adj.          to;  Span. caution ;  Lat. 
CA'UTIONARY,  adj.     [  cautio.     The  verb  sig- 
CA'UTIOUS,  adj.          f  nifies  to  warn  ;  to  ap- 
CA'UTIOUSLY,  adv.     I  prise  of  a  danger.    The 
CA'UTIOUSNESS,  n.    j  noun  bears  the  various 
meanings   of  wariness ;  provident  care  to  avert 
danger  or  evil ;  security  for  and  against ;  a  pro- 
visionary  precept ;  warning.      Cautionary   is  a 
pledge  given  as  a  security  ;  and,  also,  a  hint  of 
something  to  be  avoided. 

Such  conditions,  and  cautions  of  the  condition,  as 
might  assure  with  as  much  assurance  as  worldly  mat- 
ters bear.  Sidney. 


The  Cedar,  upon  this  new  acquest,  gave  him  part 
of  Baccharia  for  caution  for  his  disbursements. 

Hmcell. 

I  could  not  but  approve  their  generous  constancy 
and  tautiousness.  King  Charlet. 

The  parliament  would  yet  give  his  majesty  suffi- 
cient caution  that  the  war  should  be  prosecuted. 

Clarendon. 

I  am  made  the  cautionary  pledge, 
The  gage  and  hostage  of  your  keeping  it. 

Southerne. 

They  know  how  fickle  common  lovers  are  ; 
Their  oaths  and  vows  are  cautiously  bolieved  ; 
For  few  there  are  but  have  been  once  deceived. 

Drydm. 

In  despite  of  all  the  rules  and  cautions  of  govern- 
ment, the  most  dangerous  aid  mortal  of  vices  will 
come  off.  L'Estratge. 

How  shall  our  thought  avoid  the  various  snare : 
Or  wisdom  to  our  cautioned  soul  declare 
The  different  shapes  thou  pleasest  to  employ, 
When  bent  to  hurt,  and  certain  to  destroy  1       Prior. 
Attention  to  the  forementioned  symptoms  af&rds 
the  best  cautions  and  rules  of  diet,  by  way  of  preven- 
tion. Arbuthnot 
We  should  always   act  with  great  cautiousness  and 
circumspection,  in  points,  where  it  is   not  impossible 
that  we  may  be  deceived.  Adiison. 
Is  there  no  security  for  the  island  of  Britain?  Has 
(he  enemy  no  cautionary  tovms  and  sea-ports  :o  give 
us  for  securing  trade  1  Swift. 
fie  cautious  of  him  ;  for  he  is  sometimes  an  incon- 
stant lover,  because  he  hath  a  great  advantage.     Id, 

To  nutter  here,  to  flutter  there,  on  wing ; 
To  talk,  to  tease,  to  simper  or  to  sing. 
To  prude  it,  to  coquette  it, — him  to  trust, 
Whose  vain,  loose  life  should  caution,  or  disgust.  It. 

This  shall  direct  thy  cautious  tread  aright, 
Though  not  one  glaring  lamp  enliven  night.      G<y. 

For  youth  alas,  nor  cautious  age, 
Nor  strength,  nor  speed,  eludes  their  rage. 

Beatie. 

There  is  a  courageous  wisdom  :  there  is  also  a  false 
reptile  prudence,  the  result  not  of  caution  but  of  f«ar. 

Btfhe. 

'  Life's  a  poor  player.' — Then,  '  play  out  the  rlay, 
Ye  villains !'  and  above  all  keep  a  sharp  eye, 

Much  less  on  what  you  do  than  what  you  say; 
Be  hypocritical,  be  cautious,  be 
Not  what  you  seem,  but  always  what  you  see. 

Byron's  Don  Juan. 

CAUVERY,  or  CAVERY,  a  noble  ri»er  of 
Hindustan,  in  the  province  of  Tanjore,  which 
rises  near  the  coast  of  Malabar,  among  theCoory 
hills,  and  passing  through  the  Mysore,  mar  Se- 
ringapatam,  below  the  Ghauts,  falls  into  the  sea 
by  several  mouths,  after  a  course  of  nearly  400 
miles.  The  island  of  Seringham  is  opjosite  to 
Trichinopoly,  formed  by  it. 

To  CAW,  v.  n.  A  word  imitative  of  the  sound. 
To  cry  as  the  raven,  or  crow :  a  term  of  'eproach. 

Russet-pated  choughs,  many  in  sort, 
Rising  and  cawing  at  the  gun's  report 

Shak&eare. 

A  walk  of  aged  elms,  so  very  high,  that  therooks 
and  crows  upon  the  tops  seem  to  be  cawing  in  arother 
region.  Adiison. 

The  rook,  who  high  amid  the  boughs, 
In  early  spring,  his  airy  city  builds, 
And  ceaseless  caws.  Thomson's  Spring. 

Cawing  rooks,  and  kites  that  swim  sublime 
In  still  repeated  circles,  screaming  loud, 


CAX 


265 


CAX 


The  jay,  the  pie,  and  even  the  boding  owl, 
That  hails  the  rising  moon,  have  ch  \rcas  for  me. 

Cowper, 

Our  '  royal  bird' 

Gone  down  it  seems  to  Scotland,  to  be  fiddled 
Unto  by  Sawney's  violin,  we  have  heard  : 
•  Caw  me,  caw  thee,'  for  six  month*  hath  been  hatching, 
This  scene  of  royal  itch  and  loyal  scratching. 

Byron'f  Don  Juan. 

CAXAMARCA,  a  province  of  Peru,  South 
America,  bounded  on  the  north  by  that  of  Jaen, 


the  Peruvian  incas,  when  the  celebrated  Pizarro 
landed  at  Tumpai,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Guaya- 
quil. Here  are  still  shown  a  large  room,  part 
of  the  old  palace,  and  the  residence  of  the  ca- 
cique Astopilco,  where  this  ill-fated  monarch 
was  kept  a  prisoner  for  the  space  of  three  months, 
or  from  the  first  day  of  his  meeting  Pizarro  to 
the  day  on  which  he  was  murdered  by  order  of 
that  general ;  and  in  this  room  is  the  mark  which 
he  made  on  the  wall,  promising  to  fill  it  to  that 


-  ,.  ™  height  with  silver  and  gold  as  a  ransom.     In  the 

west  by  that  of  Sana   and  by  a  part  ot   Irux-    ch      .  bel       j      to  the  Comm0n  gaol  ,  which  was 
illo,  south  by  that  of  Huamachuco,   south-east    fon£erl          °  o|  the     al        the  altar  stands  oa 

r 


by  the  province  of  Caxamarquilla,  east  by  that 


Atahualpa  was  placed  by  the 


of  Chachapoyas,  and  north-west  by  that  of  Luya,     s  aniards  and  strangled,  and  under  which  he 
Chillaos,   and  Piura.     It  is  120  miles  m  length,    Jg  ^.^     ^^  ^  fountain  in  the  plasaare 


from  south-east  to  north-west,  and  108 
breadth,  lying  between  the  fifth  and  eighth  de- 
grees of  south  latitude.  This  province  is  much 
intersected  by  ramifications  of  the  Cordillera ; 
and,  having  several  low  valleys,  exhibits  an  epi- 
tome of  all  the  various  climates  of  the  earth,  from 
extreme  heat  to  intense  cold":  all  kinds  of  fruit 
and  grain  peculiar  to  different  climates  are  there- 
fore cultivated.  It  abounds  also  in  cattle  and 


also  visible  the  foundation  stones  of  the  small 
battery  erected  by  Pizarro,  in  the  front  of  which 
Valverde  delivered  his  famous  harangue  to  the 
inca,  and  whence  he  commanded  the  Spanish 
soldiers  to  massacre  the  Indians.  About  a  league 
from  the  city  are  the  baths  where  the  inca  was 
living  when  Pizarro  arrived ;  the  one  on  the  right 
hand  is  called  the  bath  of  the  inca.  The  present 

aiso  m   caiueanu     population   of  this  city   is  about  12,000.      See 

poultry;  and  several  obrages,  manufactories  of    *j£.  Stcphenson's     Twenty  Years'  Residence    in 

South  America,  vol.  ii. 

CAXAMARQUILLA,  PATAZ,  or  PATA,a  town 
and  province  of  Peru,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
mountainous  Indian  country,  on  the  north-east 
and  north  by  the  province  of  Chachapoyas,  on 
the  west  and  north-west  by  the  river  Amazons, 
here  called  the  Tunguragua,  which  separates  it 
from  the  provinces  of  Caxamarca,  Guamachuco, 
and  Conchucos;  and  on  the  south  by  that  of 
Huamalies.  It  is  seventy-eight  miles  long  from 


cloth,  baizes,  blankets,  and  tocuyos,  have  been 
established  here.  The  most  extensive  manufac- 
tories of  woollen  cloths  are  Polloc  and  Sondor, 
belonging  in  1812  to  Don  Tomas  Bueno  ;  and 
that  for  blankets,  at  Yana-cancha,  belonging  at 
the  same  date  to  Don  Miguel  Sarachaga.  The 
blankets  are  tastefully  embroidered  with  loose 
yarn  by  the  Indians,  before  they  undergo  the  ope- 
ration of  fulling.  Many  silver  and  gold  mines 
also  exist  in  the  province  ;  but  since  the  disco- 
very of  the  rich  ores  of  Gualgayoc,  in  the  neigh- 


north  to  south,  and  eighteen  wide.     From  the 


_  -       .  .  _          _,.  ~        -  _      _„  1HJI  L1I      \.\J     aVSUlll*        O.HVA        ^AKM»****M          T»iv«\*«  J      *wu*       u*u 

oounng  province  of  Chota,  those  of  Caxamarca  eagt  bound       of  this  province  flow  the  principal 

have   been   abandoned      On   the  shores  of  the  tribut       slT^ms  of  thle  Amazons.     It  is  of  very 

de  las  Crisnejas  which  falls  into  the  Mara-  d[veTsi&d  temperature,  but,  in   the  warm  and 

are  several  washing  places  (lavaderos),  of  t         rate   regi£ns    very  productive  in  wheat, 


nver 

non, 

gold.     On  the  north  side  of  the  province,  where 

it  joins  that  of  Jaen,  excellent  bark   trees  are 

found.     The  population  is  about  50,000. 

CAXAMARCA,  the  capital,  is  well  supplied  with 
flesh  meat,  poultry,  bread,  grain,  vegetables, 
fruit,  and  every  necessary  of  life ;  cheese  and 
butter  are  plentiful ;  of  the  latter,  a  fresh  supply 
is  brought  from  the  country  every  day.  Fine 
fruits  are  also  obtained  from  the  valleys,  such  as 
paltas,  the  vegetable  marrow,  chirimoyas,  and 
pine- apples,  particularly  from  that  part  called 
de  las  Balsas,  where  the  road  to  Chachapoyas 
crosses  the  Maranon.  It  carries  on  a  consider- 
able trade  with  Lambayeque  and  other  places 
on  the  coast,  furnishing  them  with  the  different 
home  manutactured  articles ;  such  as  baizes, 


maize,  bark,  potatoes  and  sugar.  There  are  also 
some  gold  and  silver  mines  in  the  province.  Po- 
pulation about  8,000.  This  is  likewise  the 
name  of  several  small  settlements  of  Peru.  The 
capital  is  in  latitude  7°  36'  S. 

CAXATAMBO,  a  mountainous  and  cold  pro- 
vince of  Peru,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  pro- 
vince of  Huailas,  or  Guailas,  on  the  north-east 
by  that  of  Conchuios,  on  the  east  by  that  of 
Huamalies7  or  Guamalies,  on  the  south-east  by 
that  of  Tarma,  on  the  south  by  that  of  Chancay, 
and  on  the  north-west  by  that  of  Santa.  It  is 
100  miles  from  north-east  to  south-west,  and 
about  the  same  extent  from  north-west  to  south- 
east. It  produces  grain  and  cochineal,  and 
abounds  in  cattle,  seeds,  and  fruits,  and  still  more 


r.  ,  •     i      ,.  ,,,,  auumius  in  uaiiie,  sccus,  aiiu  uiuwj  O.IK-I  omi  iw»> 

bayetones,  panetes,  a  kind  of  coarse  cloth,  blan-  jn  sh         from  the  fleece  of  which  its  inhabitants 

xets,  flannels,  tocuyos,  &c.  and  receiving  in  re-  manufaVture   a  cloth  peculiar  to  the  province. 

turn  European  manufactures  soap,  sugar,  cocoa  Caxatambo   the  chief  town,  is  in  lat.  10°  27'  S. 
brandy,  wine,  indigo,  hierba  de  Paraguay,  salted 
fish,  iron,  steel,  &c.    The  inhabitants  of  the  in-        CA'XON,  n.    A  burlesque  appellation  of  a 


tenor  resort  hither  as  to  a  kind  of  mart,  for  the 
purpose  of  selling  their  own  produce  and  manu- 
factures, and  for  purchasing  others  which  they 
may  require ;  some  of  the  shops  are  well  stored 
wLa  European  goods.  Caxamarca  is  interesting 
in  Jie  history  of  Peru,  as  being  the  residence  of 
the  unfortunate  emperor  Atahualpa,  the  last  of 


wig. 

The  nuptials  to  grace,  came  from  every  quarter 
The  worthies  of  Rag  Fair,  old  caxora  who  barter  ; 
Who  the  coverings  of  judges  and  counsellors'  nobs, 
Cut  down  into  majors,  queus,  scratches,  and  bobs. 

Huddesfvd. 

CAXON,  in  metallurgy,  a  chest  of  ores  of  sil- 


CAY 


266 


CAY 


ver,  or  any  other  metal  that  has  been  burnt, 
ground,  and  washed,  and  is  ready  to  be  re- 
fined. 

CAXTON  (William),  commonly  known  as 
the  first  English  printer,  as,  although  Corsellis 
brought  wooden  types  from  Haerlem,  yet  Caxton 
was  the  first  who  used  fusile  types  in  England. 
He  was  born  in  Kent  about  the  year  1412,  and 
was  apprenticed  to  a  mercer  of  London.  On 
his  master's  death,  he  was  appointed  agent 
for  that  company  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  was 
also  employed,  together  with  R.  Whitehall,  Esq. 
by  Edward  IV.  to  conclude  a  commercial  treaty 
with  the  duke  of  Burgundy.  During  his  resi- 
dence in  Flanders  he  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
the  new  invention  of  printing,  and  the  first  book 
he  executed  was  the  Recuyell  of  the  History  of 
Troy,  translated  by  himself  from  the  French, 
1471.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  set  up  a 
press  near  Westminster  Abbey,  and  the  first 
book  there  printed  was,  as  far  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained, the  Game  of  Chesse.  In  the  Bodleian 
library  there  is  a  copy  of  ^Esop's  Fables,  printed 
by  Caxton,  which  is  believed  to  be  the  first  book 
which  has  its  leaves  numbered.  After  living  to 
upwards  of  eighty,  he  died  in  1494. 

CAYANG,  in  botany,  a  leguminous  plant, 
cultivated  in  the  Mogul  dominions  for  food.  It 
is  a  kind  of  coarse  pulse  ;  of  which  the  Euro- 
peans use  great  quantities  on  ship-board  in  the 
East  Indies.  It  is  a  species  of  the  cytisus. 

CAYENNE,  an  island  of  French  Guiana, 
South  America,  about  eighteen  miles  in  length 
from  north  to  south,  and  ten  miles  broad.  It  is 
separated  from  the  main  land  of  Guiana  by  the 
river  Cayenne,  and  the  Ouya.  The  soil  towards 
the  north  is  fertile  and  pleasant,  but  southward 
the  country  is  flat,  and  abounds  in  marshy  mea- 
dows, which  are  inundated  periodically.  Horses, 
cattle,  goats,  and  sheep,  abound  every  where.  This 
island  is  well  known  to  have  given  name  to  the 
pepper  capsicum  minimum  which  is  now  obtained, 
however,  both  in  the  East  and  West  Indies. 
This  island  was  first  settled  by  the  French  in 
1625,  and  abandoned  by  them  in  1654,  when 
the  English  took  possession  of  it,  and  were  in 
their  turn,  compelled  to  leave  it  in  1664.  The 
Dutch  seized  it  in  1676,  but  it  was  recovered  by 
France  in  the  following  year,  and,  though  it  ca- 
pitulated to  the  British  in  1 809,  was  confirmed 
to  its  old  masters  at  the  peace  of  Paris  in  1814. 
The  north  point  is  in  5°  0  N.  lat.,  and  long.  53° 
15'  W. 

CAYENNE,  the  capital,  stands  on  tbx  north 
shores  of  the  island,  and  is  defended  by  the  fort 
San  Louis.  The  harbour  is  convenient,  though 
small,  and  the  town,  built  in  the  form  of  a  regu- 
lar hexagon,  contains  about  200  houses. 

CAYLLAC,  a  sweet  scented  wood  which 
prows  in  Siam ;  the  Siamese  and  Chinese  burn 
it  in  their  temples. 

CAYLUS  (Count  de),  Marquis  de  Sternay, 
baron  de  Bransac,  was  born  at  Paris  1692.  He 
entered  into  the  corps  of  the  mousquetaires ;  and 
in  his  first  campaign,  in  1709,  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  valor  in  such  a  manner,  that 
Louis  XIV.  commended  him  before  all  the  court. 
Upon  the  peace  of  Rastadt  he  travelled  into 
Italy,  and  after  a  year's  absence  returned  to 
Paris,  and  quitted  the  army.  He  then  set  out 


for  the  Levant,  arrived  at  Smyrna,  visited  the 
ruins  [of  Ephesus,  and  travelled  through  a  great 
part  of    Europe   and  Asia.     The  Academy   of 
Painting  and  Sculpture  adopted  him  an  honorary 
member  in  1731  ;  the  academy  of  Belles  Lettres 
conferred  on  him  a  similar  honor  in  1742.     A 
fortunate  accident  soon  after  furnished  him  with 
the  means  of  showing  the  composition  and  the 
coloring  of  the  pictures  of  ancient  Rome.     The 
colored  drawings  which  the  famous  Bartoli  had 
taken  there  from  antique  pictures,  fell  into  his 
hands.     He  had  them  engraved  ;  and,  before  he 
enriched  the  French  king's  cabinet  with  them,  he 
gave  a  beautiful  edition  of  them  at  his  own  ex- 
pense.    Amidst  his  researches,  nothing  afforded 
him  so  much  pleasure  as  his  discovery  of  en- 
caustic painting.     A  description  of  Pliny's,  but 
too  concise  to  give  a  clear  view  of  the  matter, 
suggested  the  first  idea  of  it.    He  availed  him- 
self of  the  skill  of  Dr.  Magault,    a  celebrated 
chemist  of  Paris,  and  by  repeated  experiments 
found  out  the  secret  of  incorporating  wax  with 
divers  tints  and  colors,  and  of  making  it  obe- 
dient to  the  pencil.     Pliny  mentions  two  kinds 
of  encaustic  painting  practised  by  the  ancients ; 
one  performed  with  wax,  and  the  other  upon 
ivory,  with  hot  punches  of  iron.     It  was  the  for- 
mer that  count  Caylus  had  the  merit  of  reviving; 
and  M.  Muntz  afterwards  made  many  experi- 
ments to  carry  it  to  perfection.     In  the  hands  of 
count  Caylus,  literature  and  the  arts  lent  each 
other  mutual  aid.     He  published  about  forty  dis- 
sertations in   the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of 
Belles  Lettres,  and  founded  a  prize  of  500  livres, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  explain,  by  means  ot 
authors  and  monuments,  the  usages  of  ancient 
nations.     That  he  might  enjoy  with  the  whole 
world  the  treasures  he  had  collected,  he  caused 
them  to  be  engraved,  and  gave  a  learned  des- 
cription of  them  in  a  work  which  he  embellished 
with   800  plates.      To  him  the  world   is   also 
indebted   for  that   magnificent    work,   the   De- 
scription of  the  Gems  in   the  Royal   Cabinet, 
He   died    in    September     1765.      His    monu 
ment,  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Germain  1'Auxerrois, 
is  perfectly  the  tomb  of  an   antiquary.     It  was 
an  ancient  sepulchral  antique,  of  tiie  most  beau- 
tiful porphyry,  with  ornaments   in  the  Egyptian 
taste.    From  the  moment  he  procured  it,  he  had 
destined  it  to  grace  the  place  of  his  interment. 

CAYMAN,  in  zoology,  a  species  of  alligator, 
£xmd  in  the  southern  parts  of  America,  and  on 
the  coast  of  Guinea.  This  animal  is  the  scourge 
and  terror  of  all  the  large  rivers  of  South  Ame 
rica.  Their  boldness  is  such  that  a  cayman 
has  been  known  to  come  into  the  centre  of 
an  assembly  of  people  in  a  public  walk, 
seize  a  full  grown  man  and  drag  him  into  the 
bed  of  the  river  for  food.  This  happened  once 
at  Angustura  in  the  presence  of  the  governor 
and  several  other  persons.  The  following  ac- 
count of  catching  the  cayman  we  quote  from  the 
Travels  of  Mr.  Waterton  in  1824.  Having  baited 
a  large  hook  witii  meat,  they  waited  till  one  of 
these  animals  swallowed  the  bait,  and  they  then 
had  to  pull  him  up  and  secure  him.  'If  you 
pull  him  up,' say  the  Indians,  'as  soon  as  he 
sees  you  on  the  brink  of  the  river,  he  will  run  at 
you  and  destroy  you.'  'Never  mind,'  says  our 
traveller,  '  pull  away,  and  leave  the  rest  to  me.' 


CAY 


267 


CEA 


And  accordingly  he  placed  himself  upon  the 
shore,  with  the  mast  of  the  canoe  in  his  hand, 
ready  to  force  it  down  the  throat  of  the  crocodile 
as  soon  as  soon  as  he  made  his  appearance. 

'  By  the  time  the  cayman  was  within  two  yards 
of  me,  I  saw,  says  Mr.  Waterton,  he  was  in  a  state 
of  fear  and  perturbation.  I  instantly  dropped 
the  mast,  sprung  up  and  jumped  upon'his  back, 
turning  half  round  as  I  vaulted,  so  that  I  gained 
my  seat  with  my  face  in  a  right  position.  I  im- 
mediately seized  his  fore  legs,  and,  by  main 
force,  twisted  them  on  his  back;  thus  they 
served  me  for  a  bridle. 

'  He  now  seemed  to  have  recovered  from  his 
surprise,  and  probably  fancying  himself  in  hos- 
tile company,  he  began  to  plunge  furiously,  and 
lashed  the  sand  with  his  long  and  powerful  tail. 
I  was  out  of  reach  of  the  strokes  of  it,  by  being 
near  his  head.  He  continued  to  plunge  and 
strike,  and  made  my  seat  very  uncomfortable.  It 
must  have  been  a  fine  sight  for  an  unoccupied 
spectator. 

'  The  people  roared  out  in  triumph,  and  were  so 
vociferous,  that  it  was  some  time  before  they  heard 
me  tell  them  to  pull  me  and  my  beast  of  burden  far- 
ther inland.  I  was  apprehensive  the  rope  might 
break,and  then  there  would  have  been  every  chance 
of  going  down  to  the  regions  under  water  with 
the  cayman.  That  would  have  been  more  peri- 
lous than  Arion's  marine  morning  ride  : — 
Delphini  insidens,  vada  coerula  sulcat  Arion. 

'  The  people  now  dragged  us  above  forty  yards 
on  the  sand,  it  was  the  first  and  last  time  I  was 
ever  on  a  cayman's  back.  Should  it  bo  asked 
how  I  managed  to  keep  my  seat,  I  would  answer, 
I  hunted  some  years  with  Lord  Darlington's  fox 
hounds.' 

CAYSTER,  or  CAYSTRUS,  in  ancient  geogra- 
phy, a  river  of  Ionia,  whose  mouth  Ptolemy 
places  between  Colophon  and  Ephesus ;  com- 
mended by  the  poets  for  the  number  of  its  swans. 
Its  source  was  in  the  Montes  Cilbiani. 

CAYUGA,  a  river  of  North  America,  which 
falls  into  the  Lake  Erie  on  the  south  shore,  about 
forty  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of  Huron.  Its 
mouth  is  capable  of  being  navigated  by  sloops 
from  the  lake. 

CAYUGA  LAKE  is  in  the  state  of  New  York 
and  county  of  Onondaga.  It  extends  north  and 
south  to  the  length  of  thirty-eight  miles,  its 
breadth  varies  from  one  to  four  miles,  and  its 
shore  is  very  irregular.  The  north  point  is 
twenty-fire  miles  south  of  lake  Ontario.  This 
lake  freezes  in  winter  about  six  or  eight  miles 
above  the  outlet ;  remaining  open  in  the  deeper 
parts.  Lat.  of  the  North  Point  42°  28'  N.  Ions. 
76°  42'  W. 

CAYUGA  is  also  in  the  state  of  New  York,  and 
was  erected  into  a  separate  county  in  1799.  Its 
form  is  irregular.  On  the  north,  where  it  is 
narrow,  it  is  bounded  by  Lake  Ontario,  east 
by  Onondaga  and  Cortlandt  counties,  south  by 
Tioga  county,  west  by  Seneca  county.  Its  great- 
est length  north  and  south  is  seventy  miles ;  its 
greatest  width  is  twenty  miles.  The  whole  area, 
which  is  broken  and  hilly,  is  computed  at  845 
square  miles,  or  540,800  acres.  Calcareous  petri- 
factions are  frequent  here,  and  salt  springs  are 


found,  and  wrought  to  a  considerable  extent, 
also  good  limestone.  The  manufactures  are 
woollen,  linen,  and  cotton  cloths.  The  county 
has  also  several  flourishing  iron  works,  distille- 
ries and  tanning  establishments ;  it  sends  three 
members  to  Congress. 
CAZIQUE,  CACIQUE.  See  CACIQUE. 
CEANOTHUS,  New  Jersey  Tea,  in  botany, 
a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and  pentan- 
dria  class  of  plants ;  natural  order  forty-third, 
dumosjE  :  CAL.  quinquepartite ;  petals  five, 
pouched  and  arched  :  FRPIT  a  diy,  trilocular, 
and  trispermous  berry.  There  are  ten  species, 
of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  C.  Ameri- 
canus,  a  native  of  most  parts  of  North  America, 
from  whence  the  seeds  have  been  imported  into 
Europe.  In  England  this  plant  seldom  rises 
more  than  three  feet  high.  •  The  stem,  which  is 
of  a  pale  brown  color,  sends  out  branches  from 
the  bottom.  These  are  thin,  flexible,  and  of  a 
reddish  color,  which  has  occasioned  this  tree  to 
be  called  red  twig.  The  leaves  stand  on  reddish 
pedicles,  about  half  an  inch  in  length.  They 
are  oval,  serrated,  pointed,  about  two  inches  and 
a  half  long,  are  proportionably  broad,  and  have 
three  nerves  running  lengthwise.  The  flowers 
grow  at  the  ends  of  the  twigs  in  clusters  :  they 
are  of  a  white  color,  and  when  in  blow  give  the 
shrub  a  most  beautiful  appearance.  Indeed,  it 
seems  to  be  almost  covered  with  them,  as  there 
is  usually  a  cluster  at  the  end  of  nearly  every 
twig  :  and  the  leaves  which  appear  among  them 
serve  as  ornaments  only.  This  tree  blows  in 
July ;  and  the  flowers  are  succeeded  by  small 
brownish  fruit,  in  which  the  seeds  sometimes 
ripen  in  England.  It  is  propagated  by  layers  ; 
or  from  seeds  sown  in  pots  of  compost,  consisting 
of  two  parts  of  virgin  earth  well  tempered  and 
one  part  sand,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep. 
The  young  seedlings  must  be  defended  from  ex- 
treme cold  in  winter,  as  well  as  from  the  parching 
drought  in  summer.  The  best  time  of  layering 
is  in  summer,  just  before  they  begin  to  flower : 
At  that  time  lay  the  tender  twigs  of  the  spring 
shoots  in  the  earth,  and  nip  off  the  end  which 
would  produce  the  flowers.  Within  fifteen 
months  some  of  them  will  be  rooted. 

CEASE,  n.,  v.  n.  &  a.~\      Fr.  cesser ;  Lat.  & 
CE'ASEING,  n.  fltal.    cessare ;     from 

CE'ASELESS,  fcedo,   to   give  place, 

CE'ASELESSLY.  *  give  ground,  retreat. 

To  stop,  to  quit,  to  leave,  to  depart  from,  to  de- 
sist from  being  or  doing ;  to  put  an  end  to ;  to 
discontinue;  to  decease,  to  die.  It  is  followed 
by  from  before  a  noun. 

Therefore  for  Christ  suffride  in  fleisch,  be  ye  also 
aarmed  bi  the  same  thenking.  for  he  that  suffride  iu 
fleische  ceesride  fro  synnes. 

Wicklif't  Neu>  Test.  2  Pet.  iv. 
Evermore  joie  ghe,  withoute  ceetyng  preie  ghe. 

Id.   1  f  hess.  v. 

Wash  you,  make  you  cleane  :  take  away  the  euill 

of  your  workes   from  before   mine  eyes  :  cease  to  do 

euill.  Breeches  Bible.   Isai.  i. 

Get  on  your  cloak,  and  haste  you  to  lord  Timon 

Importune  him  for  my  monies  ;  be  not  ceased 

With  slight  denial.     Shakspeare.    Timon  of  Athens. 

Cease  to  persuade,  my  loving  Proteus ; 
Home-keeping  youth  have  ever  homely  wits. 
.  Id.   Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona. 


CEC 


268 


CEC 


The  cease  of  majesty 

Dies  not  alone  j  but,  like  a  gulf,  doth  draw 
What's  near  it,  with  it.  Id.  Hamlet. 

The  main  consents  are  had ;  and  here  we'll  stay 
To  see  our  widower's  second  marriage-day. 

COUNT.  Which  better  than  the  first  O  dear  heaven 

bless ! 
Or,  ere  they  meet,  in  me,  O  nature  cease. 

Id.  Att's  Well. 

The  care  of  God  ceaseth  not  over  his  own,  either  in 
death  or  after  it.  Bp.  Hall. 

At  first,  every  man  thinks  his  fellow  mocks  him  ; 
but  now,  perceiving  this  serious  confusion,  their  only 
Answer  was  silence  and  ceasing  :  they  could  not  come 
together,  for  no  man  could  call  them  to  be  understood . 

Id. 

You  may  sooner,  by  imagination,  quicken  or  slack 

a  motion,  than   raise  or  cease   it ;  as  it   is   easier  to 

make  a  dog  go  slower,  than  to  make  him  stand  still. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

•  He  scarce  had  ceased,  when  the  superior  fiend 
Was  moving  toward  the  shore  ;  his  pondrous  shield, 
Ethereal  temper,  massy,  large,  and  round, 
Behind  him  cast.  Milton. 

All  these  with  ceaseless  praise  his  works  behold, 
Both  day  and  night.  /•/. 

There  the  wicked  cease  from  troubling  ;  and  there 
the  weary  be  at  rest.  Job  iii.  17. 

That  praying  always  the  ensuing  discourse  showeth 
to  import  restless  importunity,  and  perseverance  in 
prayer :  the  same  which  is  so  often  commended  to  us 
by  the  phrases  not  to  fainc,  or  faulter ;  not  to  cease, 
or  give  over  ;  to  continue  instant,  or  hold  out  stoutly  ; 
to  strive  earnestly,  or  contest  and  struggle  in  prayers. 

Barrow's  Sermons. 

My  guiltless  blood  must  quench  the  ceaseless  fire, 
On  which  my  endless  tears  were  bootless  spent. 

Fairfax. 

The  soul  being  removed,  the  faculties  and  opera- 
tions of  life,  sense,  and  intellection,  cease  from  that 
moles  corporea,  and  are  no  longer  in  it. 

Hole's  Origin  of  Mankind. 

But  now  the  wonder  ceases,  since  I  see 
She  kept  them  only,  Tityrus,  for  thee.          Dryden. 

The  ministers  of  Christ  have  ceased  from  their  la- 
bours. Bp.  Spratt. 

Like  an  oak 

That  stands  secure,  though  all  the  winds  employ 
Their  ceaseless  roar  ;  and  only  sheds  its  leaves, 
Or  mast,  which  the  revolving  spring  restores. 

Philips. 

Cease,  fond  nature,  cease  thy  strife, 
And  let  me  languish  into  life.  Pope's  Ode. 

When  it  is  the  one,  ruling,  never-ceo«'n</  desire  of 
our  hearts,  that  God  may  be  the  beginning  and  end, 
the  reason  and  motive,  of  our  doing  or  not  doing, 
from  morning  to  night ;  then  every  where,  we  are 
equally  offered  up  to  the  eternal  Spirit.  Law. 

Defender  of  my  rightful  cause, 
While  anguish  from  my  bosom  draws 
The  deep-felt  sigh,  the  ceaseless  prayer, 
O  make  thy  servant  still  thy  care.  Merrick. 

And  too  short-lived  to  reach  the  realms  of  peace, 
Must  cease  for  ever  when  the  poor  shall  cease. 

Cowper. 

By  ceaseless  action  all  that  is  subsists, 
Constant  rotation  of.the  unwearied  wheel 
That  nature  rides  upon,  maintains  her  health, 
Her  beauty,  her  fertility.  Id. 


It  is  that  settled  ceaseless  gloom, 

The  fabled  Hebrew  wanderer  bore, 
That  will  not  look  beyond  the  tomb, 

But  cannot  hope  for  rest  before.  Byron. 

What  is  my  being  ?     Thou  hast  ceased  to  be  !       Id, 

CEBES,  of  Thebes,  a  Socratic  philosopher 
author  of  the  admired  Tales  :  or,  Dialogues  on 
the  Birth,  Life,  and  Death  of  Mankind.  He 
flourished  about  A.  A.  C.  405.  The  above  piece 
is  mentioned  by  Lucian,  D.  Laertius,  Tertullian, 
and  Suidas  :  but  of  Cebes  himself  we  have  no 
account,  except  that  he  is  once  mentioned  by 
Plato,  and  once  by  Xenophon.  The  former  says 
of  him,  in  his  Phaedo,  that  he  was  a  sagacious 
investigator  of  truth,  and  never  assented  without 
the  most  convincing  reasons  :  the  latter,  in  his 
Memorabilia,  ranks  him  among  the  few  intimates 
of  Socrates,  who  excelled  the  rest  in  innocence 
of  life. 

CECIL,  a  county  of  Maryland,  on  the  eastern 
shore,  and  in  the  north-east  corner  of  the  state, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Pennsylvania ;  on 
the  west  by  the  Susquehanna  and  Chesapeake 
Bay ;  on  the  south  by  the  Sassafras,  which  se- 
parates it  from  Kent  county ;  and  on  the  east 
by  the  state  of  Delaware.  The  lands,  though 
hilly,  are  fertile.  The  chief  town  is  Elkton. 

CECIL  (William),  lord  Burleigh,  treasurer  of 
England  in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  the 
son  of  Richard  Cecil,  Esq.  master  of  the  robes 
to  king  Henry  VIII.,  was  born  at  Bourn,  in 
Lincolnshire,  in  1 520,  and  received  the  rudiments 
of  his  education  at  Grantham.  About  1535  he 
was  entered  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  read  a  sophistry  lecture, 
and  at  nineteen  another  on  the  Greek  language, 
which  was  not  then  much  cultivated.  In  1541 
he  went  to  London  with  an  intention  to  study 
law ;  and  accordingly  entered  himself  of  Gray's 
Inn,  but  Henry  VIII.  hearing  of  his  classical 
and  other  learning,  gave  him  the  reversion  of  the 
custos  brevium,  worth  £210  a  year.  About  this 
time  he  married  the  sister  of  Sir  John  Cheke ; 
and  in  1547  was  appointed  master  of  requests 
by  the  protector,  Somerset ;  and  soon  after  at- 
tended his  noble  patron  on  his  expedition  against 
the  Scots.  In  1548  Mr.  Cecil  was  made  secre- 
tary of  state ;  but  in  1549,  the  duke  of  Northum- 
berland's faction  prevailing,  he  suffered  in  the 
disgrace  of  the  protector,  and  was  sent  prisoner 
to  the  Tower.  After  three  months  confinement 
he  was  released  ;  in  1551  restored  to  his  office, 
and  soon  after  knighted,  and  sworn  of  the  privy- 
council.  In  1553  he  was  made  chancellor  of 
the  Order  of  the  Garter.  On  the  death  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  Cecil  prudently  refused  to  have  any 
concern  in  Northumberland's  attempt  in  favor  of 
the  unfortunate  Lady  Jane  Grey ;  and,  when 
queen  Mary  acceded  to  the  throne,  he  was  gra- 
ciously received  at  court,  but,  not  choosing  to 
change  his  religion,  he  was  dismissed  from  his 
employments.  During  this  reign  he  was  twice 
elected  knight  of  the  shire  for  Lincoln,  and  often 
spoke  in  the  house  of  commons  with  great  free- 
dom and  firmness,  in  opposition  to  the  ministry. 
Nevertheless,  though  a  protestant  and  a  patriot, 
he  had  the  address  to  steer  through  a  very  dan- 
gerous time  without  much  inconvenience.  Queen 
Elizabeth's  accession,  in  1558,  dispelled  the  cloud 


CEC  v 

which  had  obscured  his  fortunes.  During  the 
reign  of  her  sister,  he  had  constantly  corresponded 
with  princess  Elizabeth  ;  and,  on  the  day  of  her 
accession,  he  presented  her  with  a  paper  con- 
taining twelve  articles  necessary  for  her  imme- 
diate despatch ;  and  in  a  few  days  was  sworn  of 
the  privy  council,  and  made  secretary  of  state. 
His  first  advice  to  the  queen  was  to  call  a  parlia- 
ment; and  the  first  business  he  proposed  was 
the  establishment  of  a  national  church.  A  plan 
of  reformation  was  accordingly  drawn  up  under 
his  immediate  inspection,  and  the  legal  establish- 
ment of  the  church  of  England  was  the  conse- 
quence. His  next  important  concern  was  to 
restore  the  value  of  the  coin,  which  had  in  the 
preceding  reigns  been  considerably  debased.  In 
1561  he  was  appointed  master  of  the  wards ; 
and  in  1571  created  baron  of  Burleigh  as  a  re- 
ward for  his  services,  particularly  in  having  lately 
stifled  a  formidable  rebellion  in  the  north.  In 
1561  he  was  honored  with  the  garter,  and  raised 
to  the  office  of  Lord  High  Treasurer  of  England. 
From  this  period  we  find  him  the  primum  mo- 
bile of  every  material  transaction  during  the 
glorious  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  temporary  influence  of  other  favorites, 
lord  Burleigh  was  the  person  in  whom  she  chiefly 
confided  in  matters  of  importance.  Having  filled 
the  highest  and  most  important  offices  of  the 
state  for  forty  years,  and  guided  the  helm  of  go- 
vernment during  the  most  glorious  period  of 
English  history,  he  died  August  4th,  1598,  aged 
seventy-eight.  He  lived,  indeed,  in  a  manner 
suitable  to  his  high  rank.  He  had  four  places 
of  residence,  and  at  Theobalds,  his  favorite  seat, 
he  often  entertained  the  queen  at  vast  expense. 
He  was  a  man  of  singular  abilities  and  pru- 
dence, amiable  in  his  private  character,  and  one 
of  the  most  able,  upright,  and  indefatigable 
ministers  recorded  in  the  English  annals.  His 
principal  works  are :  1.  La  Complainte  de  1'ame 
Pecheresse,  or  the  Complaint  of  a  Sinful  Soul, 
in  French  verse,  in  the  king's  library.  2.  Ma- 
terials for  Patten's  Diarium,  exped.  Scotica;. 
Lond.  1541, 12mo.  3.  Slanders  and  Lies  mali- 
ciously, grossly,  and  impudently  vomited  out,  in 
certain  Traiterous  Books  and  Pamphlets,  against 
two  counsellors,  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  and  Sir 
William  Cecil.  4.  Precepts  or  Directions  for 
the  well-ordering  of  a  Man's  Life,  1634.  Harl. 
Cat  Tol.  ii.  p.  755.  .  5.  Meditations  on  the  State 
of  England  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
MS.  6.  The  Execution  of  Justice  in  England 
for  the  Maintenance  of  Public  and  Christian 
Peace,  &c.  Lond.  1581,  1583,  Somer's  Tracts, 
4th  collect,  vol.  i.  p.  5.  7.  Advice  to  Queen 
Elizabeth  in  Matters  of  Religion  and  State,  ib. 
p.  101.  16. 

CECILIA  (Saint),  the  patroness  of  music, 
has  been  honored  as  a  martyr  ever  since  the 
fifth  century.  Her  story,  as  delivered  by  the 
notaries  of  the  Roman  church,  is,  that  she  was 
a  Roman  lady  born  of  noble  parents  about  A.  D. 
235.  That  her  parents  married  her  to  a  young 
Pagan  nobleman,  named  Valerianus,  who,  going 
to  bed  on  her  wedding  night,  was  told  by  his 
spouse  that  she  was  nightly  visited  by  an  angel, 
and  that  he  must  forbear  to  approach  her, 
otherwise  the  angel  would  destroy  him.  Vale- 


»9  CED 

rianus  desired  that  he  might  see  his  rival  tin 
angel,  but  his  spouse  told  him  that  was  impos- 
sible, unless  he  would  consent  to  become  a 
Christian.  This  he  consented  to,  and  was  bap- 
tised by  Pope  Urban  I. ;  after  which,  returning 
to  his  wife,  he  found  her  in  her  closet  at  prayer, 
and  by  her  side,  the  angel  in  the  shape  of  a 
beautiful  young  man,  clothed  with  brightness. 
After  some  conversation  with  the  angel,  Valeri- 
anus told  him  that  he  had  a  brother  named  Ti- 
burtius,  whom  he  wished  to  partake  of  the  grace 
which  he  himself  had  received.  The  angel  told 
him  that  his  desire  was  granted,  and  that  they 
should  be  both  crowned  with  martyrdom  in  a 
short  time.  Upon  this  the  angel  vanished,  and 
his  prophecy  was  soon  fulfilled.  Tiburtius  was 
converted,  and  he  and  his  brother  were  beheaded. 
Cecilia  was  offered  her  life  if  she  would  sacrifice 
to  the  Roman  idols,  but  she  refused  ;  upon  which 
she  was  thrown  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  water ; 
others  say  that  she  was  stifled  in  a  dry  bath,  i.e. 
an  enclosure,  from  whence  the  air  was  excluded, 
having  a  slow  fire  underneath.  There  is  a  tradi- 
tion of  St.  Cecilia,  that  she  excelled  in  music ; 
and  that  the  angel  was  drawn  from  the  celestial 
regions  by  the  charms  of  her  melody.  This  has 
been  deemed  authority  sufficient  for  making  her 
the  patroness  of  music.  The  above  legend  has 
given  occasion  to  painters  and  sculptors  to  exer- 
cise their  genius  in  representations  of  her  playing 
on  the  organ  or  harp. 

CE'CITY  n.     |       Ctecitas,   Lat.  blindness ; 
CECU'TIENCY.    J  or  tendency  to   blindness ; 
privation  or  cloudiness  of  sight. 

They  are  not  blind,  nor  yet  distinctly  see  ;  ther3 
is  in  them  no  cecity,  yet  more  than  a  cecutiency ;  they 
have  sight  enough  to  discern  the  light,  though  not 
perhaps  to  distinguish  objects  or  colors. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errvuri. 

CECROPIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  dian- 
dra  order  and  dioecia  class  of  plants,  natural 
order  fifty-third,  scabrida?.  Male,  spathe  cadu- 
cous, cunent  imbricated  with  pear-shaped  scales  : 
COR.  none.  Female,  germs  imbricated :  STYLE 
one :  STIG.  lacerated  :  SEED,  a  one  seeded  berry. 
Species  one  only,  C.  pellala,  snake  wood  or 
trumpet  tree,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies  and 
South  America. 

CECROPS  I.  and  II.,  kings  of  Athens.  See 
ATTICA. 

CE'DAR.     -x      Ang.-Sax.  ceder ;   Tr.cedre; 
CE'DARLIKE.*  Lat.cedrws  ;  iwfyoc,  a  tree,  of 
CE'DARN.       V  which  there   are  various  spe- 
CE'DRINE.      i  cies.     The  description  will  be 
CE'DRY.         J  found     under     the    botanical 
names.     Cedarn    and    cedrine,    the    former  of 
which    epithets   is   used   in    Milton's     Comus, 
signify  that  which  is  of,  or  belonging  to,  the  ce- 
dar tree.     Evelyn  uses  the  adjective  cedry,  to 
express  cedar-colored. 

Wherever  the  bright  sun  of  heaven  shall  shine, 
His  honor,  and  the  greatness  of  his  name 
Shall  be,  and  make  new  nations  :  He  shall  flourish, 
And,  like  a  mountain  cedar,  reach  his  branches 
To  all  the  plains  about  him. 

Shakspeare.  Henry    VIII. 

Crowing  gravity,  so  cedar-like.  Ben  Jor.xw. 


CEI 


270 


CEL 


He  spake  of  trees,  from  the  cedar  tree,  that  is  in 
Lebanon,  enen  unto  the  hyssope  that  springeth  out  of 
the  wall. — [From  the  hiest  to  the  lowest  note.] 

Breeches'  Bible,  1  Kings,  iv.  33. 

There  was  nothing  but  white  marble  without ;  no- 
thing but  cedar  and  gold  within.  Upon  the  hill  of 
Sion  stands  that  glittering  snowy  pile,  which  both 
inviteth  and  dazzleth  the  eyes  of  passengers  afar  off : 
so  much  more  precious  within,  as  cedar  is  better  than 
stone  ;  gold  than  cedar.  Bp.  Hall. 

Hark  !  his  voice  in  thunder  breaks  ; 
Hushed  to  silence,  while  he  speaks, 
***** 

See,  as  louder  yet  they  rise, 
Echoing  through  the  vaulted  skies, 
Loftiest  cedart  lie  o'erthrown, 
Cedars  of  steep  Lebanon.  Merrick. 

CEDAR,  in  botany.    See  JUNIPERUS. 
CEDAR,  BASTARD.     See  THEOBROMA. 
CEDAR  OF  BUSACO.     See  CUPRESSUS. 
CEDAR  OF  LEBANON,  called  by  the  ancients 
cedrus  magna,  or  the  great  cedar ;  also  cedrelate, 
KfSptXart].     See  PINUS. 

CEDAR,  WHITE.     See  CUPRESSUS. 
CEDE,  Lat.  cedo,  cedere.     To  give  place;  to 
yield.     In  modern  time  applied  to  the  yielding, 
giving  up,  or  resigning  by  treaty,  some  object  or 
place  that  has  been  contested.     See  CESSION. 

This  fertile  glebe,  this  fair  domain, 
Had  well  nigh  ceded  to  the  slothful  hands 
Of  monks  libidinous.  Sherutone. 

On  the  10th  of  February  (1697)  Callieres,  in  the 
name  of  his  master,  agreed  to  the  following  prelimi- 
naries : — 

'  That  Din  ant  should  be  ceded  to  the  Bishop  of 
Liege,  and  all  reunion  since  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen 
be  made  void  :  that  the  French  king  should  make 
restitution  of  Lorraine,  and,  upon  conclusion  of  the 
peace,  acknowledge  the  prince  of  Orange  as  king  of 
Great  Britain  without  condition  or  reserve.'  Smollett. 
Much  of  the  navigation  of  1763  was  also  owing  to 
the  war ;  this  is  manifest  from  the  large  part  of  it 
employed  in  the  carriage  for  the  ceded  islands,  with 
which  the  communication  still  continued  open. 

Burke. 

CEDRELA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants, 
natural  order  fifty-fourth,  miscellanea :  CAL. 
withering:  COR.  quinquepetallous,  funnel- 
shaped,  and  adhering  to  the  receptaculum,  a 
third  of  its  length :  CAPS,  fire-celled  and  five- 
valved :  SEED,  winged  and  imbricated  down- 
ward :  species  one  only,  C.  novata,  a  tall  tree 
growing  in  South  America  and  the  West  In- 
dies. 

CEDRUS,  the  cedar-tree,  mahogany,  &c. 
See  JUNIPERUS,  and  PINUS. 

CEFALU,  a  small  city  of  Sicily,  in  the  vale 
Demona,  anciently  called  Cephaloedis.  It  is  a 
bishop's  see,  and  has  a  strong  fort.  This  town 
has  a  considerable  fishery,  but  the  harbour  will 
not  contain  above  thirty  or  forty  vessels.  Long. 
13°  13'E.,  lat.  38°  5' N. 

CEIL,  v.  a.    i     Lat.  calo,  Fr.  ciel ;  (heaven). 

CEIL'ING,  n.  \  This  word  was  written  for- 
merly (see  below)  siel ;  and  is  at  the  present 
time  spelt  both  ciel,  after  the  French  word, 
(although  Cotgrare  contends  it  cannot  come 
from  that  quarter,  the  plurals  of  ciel,  heaven, 
and  ciel,  a  canopy,  being  different)  and  ceil.  To 


form  the  inner  covering  of  a  room  or  building , 
or  to  ornament  it.  '  A  ceiled  house,'  la  queatis, 
Vulg.  in  the  Bible,  Haggai  i.  4,  clearly  means 
a  superior  and  respectable  house.  The  ceiling  is 
the  inner  covering  made. 

He  saytli  I  wil  build  me  wide  house,  and  large 
chambers  :  so  he  will  make  himselfe  large  \vindowes, 
and  sieling  with  cedars,  and  paint  them  with  vermil- 
lion.  Breeches'  Bible.  Jer.  xxii.  14. 

Is  it  time  for  yourselves  to  dwell  in  your  sieled 
houses,  and  this  house  lie  waste.  [Shewing  that 
they  sought  not  only  their  own  necessities  but  their 
very  pleasures  before  God's  honour.  Note]. 

Id.  Hag.  i.  4. 

And  he  built  the  walls  of  the  house  within  with 
boards  of  cedar,  both  the  floor  of  the  house,  and  the 
walls  of  the  ceiling.  1  Kinys  vi.  15. 

And  now  the  thickened  sky, 

Like  a  dark  ceiling  stood  ,  down  rushed  the  rain 

Impetuous.  Milton's  Paradise  Lott. 

Varnish  makes  ceilings  not  only  shine,  but  last. 

Bacon. 

How  will  he,  from  his  house  ceiled  with  cedar,  be 
content  with  his  Saviour's  lot,  not  to  have  where  to 
lay  his  head  ?  Decay  of  Piety, 

So  when  the  sun  by  day,  or  moon  by  night, 
Strike  on  the  polished  brass  their  trembling  light, 
The  glittering  species  here  and  there  divide, 
And  cast  their  dubious  beams  from  side  to  side  : 
Now  on  the  walls,  now  on  the  pavement  play, 
And  to  the  ceiling  flash  the  glaring  day.  Dryden. 

A  rude  hand  may  build  walls,  form  roofs,  and  lay 
floors,  and  provide  all  that  warmth  and  security  re- 
quire, we  only  call  the  nicer  artificers  to  carve  the 
cornice,  or  to  paint  the  ceiling*.  Johnson's  Idler. 

CEILING,  in  architecture,  the  top  or  roof  of  a 
lower  room,  or  a  covering  of  plaster  over  laths 
nailed  on  the  bottom  of  the  joists  that  bear  the 
floor  of  the  upper  room ;  or,  where  there  is  no 
upper  room,  on  joists  for  the  purpose;  hence 
called  ceiling  joists.  Plastered  ceilings  are 
almost  universal  in  Britain,  more  so  than  in  any 
other  country. 

CEIMELIA;  from  Kupcu,  to  be  laid  up;  in 
antiquity,  precious  pieces  of  furniture  or  orna- 
ments, reserved  for  extraordinary  occasions  and 
uses.  Sacred  garments,  vessels,  &c.  are  re- 
puted of  the  ceimelia  of  a  church.  Medals,  an- 
tique stones,  figures,  MSS.  records,  &c.  are  the 
ceimelia  of  meh  of  letters. 

CEL&N7E,  in  ancient  geography,  the  capital 
of  Phrygia  Magna,  situated  on  a  mountain,  at 
the  common  sources  of  the  Meander  and  Mar- 
syas.  The  king  of  Persia  had  a  strong  palace 
beneath  the  citadel,  by  the  springs  of  the  Mar- 
syas,  which  rose  in  the  market  place,  and  flowed 
through  the  city.  Cyrus  the  younger  had  also  a 
palace  there,  but  by  the  springs  of  the  Meander 
which  river  passed  likewise  through  the  city. 
He  had  also  an  extensive  park,  full  of  wild 
beasts,  and  watered  by  the  Meander,  which  ran 
through  the  middle.  Xerxes  is  said  to  have 
built  these  palaces  and  the  citadel  after  his  return 
from  Greece.  Antiochus  Soter  removed  the  in- 
habitants of  Celaenae  into  a  city  named,  from  his 
mother,  Apamea;  which  became  afterwards  a 
mart  inferior  only  to  Ephesus. 
CELANDINE,  in  botany.  See  CHELIDO- 

NIUM. 

CELANDINE,  LESSER.    See  RANUNCULUS. 


CEL 


271 


CEL 


CELANDINE  TREE.    See  BOCCONI*.. 

CELARENT,  among  logicians,  a  mode  of 
syllogism,  wherein  the  major  and  conclusion  are 
universal  negative  propositions,  and  the  minor 
a  universal  affirmative  :  e.  g. 

CE  None  whose  understanding  is  limited  can 

be  omniscient. 

LA  Every  man's  understanding  is  limited, 
RENT  Therefore  no  man  is  omniscient. 

CELASTRUS,  in  botany,  the  staff  tree,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  monogynia  order  and  pentandria  class 
of  plants,  natural  order  forty-third,  dumosae  : 
COR.  pentapetalous  and  patent:  CAPS,  quinquan- 
gular  and  trilocular :  SEED,  veiled.  There  are 
thirty  known  species,  two  of  which  are  inured 
to  our  climate:  viz.  1.  C.  bullatus,  an  uncertain 
deciduous  shrub,  a  native  of  Virginia,  about  four 
feet  high,  rising  from  the  ground  with  several 
stalks,  which  divide  into  many  branches,  and  are 
covered  with  a  brownish  bark.  2.  C.  scan- 
dens,  or  bastard  euonymus,  with  woody,  twining 
stalks,  rising  by  the  help  of  neighbouring  trees  to 
twelve  feet.  In  Senegal  the  iiegroes  use  the 
powder  of  the  root  as  a  specific  against  gonorr- 
hoeas, which  it  is  said  to  cure  in  eight,  or  some- 
times in  three  days.  An  infusion  of  the  bark  of 
a  species  of  staff  tree,  which  grows  in  the  Isle  of 
France,  is  said  to  possess  the  same  virtues. 

CELEBES,  or  MACASSAR.     See  MACASSAR. 

CEL'EBRATEji?.^      Lat.  celebro,  Fr.  cele- 

CELEBRA'TION,  n.    tkrer,  Ital.  celebrare.   To 

CELE'BRIOUS,          t speak  of;  to  praise;   to 

CELEB'RITY.  3  commend  ;   to   make  fa- 

mous.   That  is  celebrated  which  is  much  spoken 
of,  or  distinguished  by  solemn  rites. 

Besides  the  times  which  God  himself  in  the  law  of 
Moses  particularly  specified,  there  were,  through  the 
wisdom  of  the  church,  certain  others  devised  by  oc- 
casion of  like  occurrence  to  those  whereupon  the  for- 
mer had  arisen ;  as  namely  that  which  Mordecai  and 
Esther  did  first  celebrate  in  memory  of  the  Lord's  most 
wonderful  protection,  when  Haman  had  laid  his  in- 
evitable plot,  to  man's  thinking,  for  the  utter  extirpa- 
tion of  the  Jews,  even  in  one  day.  Hooker. 

The  law  of  God,  which  appointed  them  days  of  so- 
lemnity, taught  them  likewise  in  what  manner  the 
same  should  be  celebrated.  Id. 

He  shall  conceal  it, 

While  you  are  willing  it  shall  come  to  note  ; 

What  time  we  will  our  celebration  keep, 

According  to  my  birth.  Shakspeare. 

For  (as  that  worthy  man  St.  Ambrose  saith)  he  is 
unworthy  of  the  Lord,  that  otherwise  doth  celebrate 
that  mystery,  than  it  was  delivered  by  him. 

Homilies  of  the  Church. 

On  the  feast  day,  the  father  cometh  forth,  after  di 
vine  service,  into  a  large  room,  where  the .  feast  is 
celebrated.  Bacon. 

The  manner  of  her  receiving,  and  the  celebrity  of 
the  marriage,  were  performed  with  great  magnificence. 

Id. 

For  the  grave  cannot  praise  thee;  death  cannot 
celebrate  thee  ;  they  that  go  down  into  the  pit  cannot 
hope  for  thy  truth.  Isaiah  xxxviii.  18. 

This  boldness,  together  with  my  eminent  ignorance, 
makes  him  admire  the  scarcity  of  learned  men  in  our 
country,  that  could  find  no  better  Doctors  to  send  to 
Dort-Conference  than  Master  Hall.  To  your  grief, 
Sir,  it  was  a  synod  ;  and  that  noble  and  cekkrious. 

Bishop  Hall. 


It  is  evident  by  this,  that  the  custom  of  the  church 
was  not  only  in  celebration  of  the  holy  communion, 
but  in  all  her  other  offices  to  say  this  prayer,  not  only 
for  Christ's  Catholic  church,  but  for  all  the  world. 

Bishop  Taylor. 

No  more  shall  be  added  in  this  place,  his  memory 
deserving  a  particular  celebration,  than  that  his  learn- 
ing, piety,  and  virtue,  have  been  attained  by  few. 

Clarendon. 

By  not  joining  at  stated  times  in  celebration  of  di- 
vine worship,  we  may  be  well  conceived  wholly  to 
disclaim  God,  or  greatly  to  disesteem  him. 

Barrow's  Sermon*. 

The  Jews,  Jerusalem,  and  the  temple,  having  been 
always  so  celebrious;  yet  when,  after  their  captivities, 
they  were  despoiled  of  their  glory,  even  then  As- 
syrians, Greeks,  and  Romans,  honoured  with  sacri- 
fices the  Most  High  God,  whom  that  nation  wor- 
shipped. Grew. 

This  pause  of  power  'tis  Ireland's  hour  to  mourn  ; 
While  England  celebrates  your  safe  return.  Dryden. 

The  songs  of  Sion  were  psalms  and  pieces  of  poetry, 
that  adored  or  celebrated  the  Supreme  Being. 

Addison. 

I  would  have  him  read  over  the  celebrated  works  of 
antiquity,  which  have  stood  the  test  of  so  many  dif- 
ferent ages.  Id. 

It  has  lately  been  a  celebrated  question  in  the 
schools  of  philosophy,  '  whether  the  soul  always 
thinks.'  Johnson's  Idler. 

CELERES;  from  celer,  quick;  in  Roman 
antiquity,  a  regiment  of  body  guards  belonging 
to  the  Roman  kings,  established  by  Romulus, 
and  composed  of  300  young  men,  chosen  out  of 
the  most  illustrious  Roman  families,  and  ap- 
proved by  the  suffrages  of  the  curias  of  the 
people,  each  of  which  furnished  ten.  The  cele- 
res  always  attended  near  the  king's  person,  to 
guard  him  and  to  execute  his  orders.  In  war 
they  made  the  van-guard  in  the  engagement, 
which  they  always  began  first ;  in  retreats  they 
made  the  rear  guard.  Though  they  were  a 
body  of  horse,  yet  they  usually  dismounted  and 
fought  on  foot ;  their  commander  was  called  tri- 
bune, or  prefect  of  the  celeres.  They  were  di- 
vided into  three  troops  of  100  each,  commanded 
by  a  centurion  ;  their  tribune  was  the  second 
person  in  the  kingdom.  Brutus,  who  overturned 
the  monarchy,  was  tribune  of  the  celeres. 

CELERIACK,  in  botany,  a  variety  of  the 
apium.  See  APIUM. 

CELE'RITY,  n.  nSp,  i«XXw,  to  run  swiftly. 
Hence  the  the  Latin  celero,  to  hasten  ;  and  cele- 
rity, accelerate,  acceleration,  Eng.  speed,  swift- 
ness, quickness. 

Forasmuch  as  that  motion  is  circular  whereby  we 
make  our  divisions  of  time,  and  the  compass  of  that 
circuit  such  that  the  heavens,  which  are  therein  con- 
tinually moved  and  keep  in  their  motions  celerity, 
must  needs  touch  often  the  same  points,  they  cannot 
choose  but  bring  unto  us  by  equal  distances  frequent 
returns  of  the  same  times.  Hooker. 

CLEO.   Celerity  is  never  more  admired 
Than  by  the  negligent. 

ANT.  A  good  rebuke 

Which  might  have  well  becomed  the  best 

of  men 
To  taunt  ai  slackness. 

Shakspeare.     Ant.  and  Cleop. 
Hence  hath  offence  its  quick  celerity, 
When  it  is  borne  in  high  authority. 

Id.  Measure  for  Jfea&tre 


CEL 


272 


CEL 


In  desire  celerity  itself  is  delay.  Bacon. 

Three  things  concur  to  make  a  percussion  great ; 
the  bigness,  the  density,  and  the  celerity  of  the  body 
moved.  Digby. 

Whatever  encreaseth  the  density  of  the  blood, 
even  without  encreasing  its  celerity,  heats,  because  a 
denser  body  is  hotter  than  a  rarer. 

Arbuthnot  on  Aliments. 

I  wondered  .by  what  malignant  power  my  peace 
was  blasted,  till  I  discovered  at  last  that  I  had  no- 
thing to  do.  Time,  with  all  its  celerity,  moves 
slowly  to  him  whose  whole  employment  is  to  watch 
its  flight.  I  am  forced  upon  a  thousand  shifts  to 
enable  me  to  endure  the  tediousness  of  a  day. 

Johnson. 

CELERITY,  in  mechanics,  the  swiftness  of 
any  body  in  motion.  It  is  also  defined  to  be  an 
affection  of  motion,  by  which  any  moveable  body 
runs  through  a  given  space  in  a  given  time. 

CELERY,  in  botany,  the  English  name  of  a 
variety  of  the  apium  graveolens.  See  APIUM. 

CELE'STIFY,  v'  "*    Gr.  KOI\OV,  cavern,  hol- 

CELE'STIAL,  n.        Slow;   whence  calum,  ce- 

CELE'STICAL,  adj.  3  lestes,  Lat.  heavens,  hea- 
venly. Celestify  is  to  make  heavenly ;  celestial, 
that  which  is  heavenly,  or  tending  toward  heaven, 
excellent,  superior. 

We  should  affirm,  that  all  things  were  in  all  things, 
that  heaven  were  but  earth  terrestrified,  and  earth  but 
heaven  celestified,  or  that  each  part  above  had  influence 
upon  its  affinity  below.  Browne's  Vulgar  Enours. 

There  stay  until  the  twelve  celestial  signs 
Have  brought  about  their  annual  reckoning. 

Shakspeare. 
Play  that  sad  note 

I  named  my  knell,  whilst  I  sit  meditating 

On  that  celestial  harmony  I  go  to.  Id. 

You  have  heard  with  what  constant  faith,  we 
should  clothe  and  deck  ourselves,  that  we  might  be 
fit  and  decent  partakers  of  that  celestial  food. 

Homilies  of  the  Church. 

There  are  also  celestial  bodies,  and  bodies  terres- 
trial :  but  the  glory  of  the  celestial  is  one,  and  the 
glory  of  the  terrestrial  is  another.  1  Cor.  xv.  40. 

HOST.  Peace,  I  say ;  hear  mine  host  of  the  gar- 
ter. Am  I  politic?  Ami  subtle?  Am  I  a  machia- 
vel  ?  Shall  I  lose  my  doctor  ?  No  ;  he  gives  me  the 
potions  and  the  motions.  Shall  I  lose  my  parson  ? 
my  priest  ?  my  Sir  Hugh  ?  No ;  he  gives  me  the  pro- 
verbs, and  the  noverbs.  Give  me  thy  hand  terres- 
trial, so  :  Give  me  thy  hand,  celestial ;  so. 

Shakspeare's  Merry  Wives. 

If  onions  and  garlic  had  grown  as  ripelv  in  tha 
wilderness,  and  manna  had  rained  down  no  where 
but  in  Egypt,  how  would  ye  have  hated  those  rude 
and  strong  sallads,  and  have  run  mad  for  these  celes- 
tial delicates.  Bishop.  Hall. 

My  warbling  lute,  the  lute  I  whilom  strung, 
When  to  king  John  of  Portugal  I  sung, 
Was  but  the  prelude  of  that  glorious  day, 
When  thou  on  silver  Thames  didst  cut  thy  way,        % 
With  well-timed  oars  before  the  royal  barge, 
Swelled  with  the  pride  of  thy  celestial  charge.   Dryden. 

Thus  affable  and  mild  the  prince  precedes, 
And  to  the  dome  the  unknown  celestial  leads.     Pope. 

Celestial  powers  thy  servants  are, 
Then  what  can  earth  to  thee  compare.       Watts. 
Celestial  maid,  receive  this  prayer! 

If  e'er  thy  beam  divine 
Should  gild  the  brow  of  toiling  care, 

And  bless  a  hut  like  mine.  Carter. 

And  didst  thou  not,  thy  breast  to  his  replying, 
Blend  a  celestial  with  a  human  heart, 


And  love,  which  dies  as  it  was  born  in  sighing, 
Share  with  immortal  transports  ?  Byron. 

CELESTIN,  the  name  of  five  popes  of  Rome  • 
of  whom  the  most  remarkable  was, 

CELESTIN  V.  whose  original  name  was  Peter 
de  Meuron.  He  was  born  at  Ifernia,  in  Naples, 
in  1215,  of  mean  parents.  He  retired,  while 
very  young,  to  a  solitary  mountain,  to  dedicate 
himself  to  prayer  and  mortification.  The  fame 
of  his  piety  brought  several,  out  of  curiosity,  to 
see  him ;  some  of  whom,  charmed  with  his  vir- 
tues, renounced  the  world  to  accompany  him  in 
his  solitude.  With  these  he  formed  a  kind  of 
community  in  1254 ;  which  was  approved  by 
pope  Urban  IV.  in  1264,  and  erected  into  a  dis- 
tinct order,  called  the  hermits  of  St.  Damien. 
Peter  governed  this  order  till  1286,  when  his 
love  of  solitude  and  retirement  induced  him  to 
quit  the  charge.  In  July,  1294,  the  great  repu- 
tation of  his  sanctity  raised  him,  though  much 
against  his  will,  to  the  pontificate.  He  then  took 
the  name  of  Celestin  V.  and  his  order  that  of 
Celestins  from  him.  By  his  bull  he  approved 
their  constitution,  and  confirmed  all  their  monas- 
teries, to  the  number  of  twenty.  But  he  sat  too 
short  a  time  in  the  chair  of  St.  Peter  to  do  much 
for  his  order;  for  having  governed  the  church 
five  months  and  a  few  days,  and  considering  the 
great  burden  he  had  taken  upon  him,  to  which 
he  thought  himself  unequal,  he  solemnly  re- 
nounced the  pontificate  in  a  consistory  held  at 
Naples ;  and  died  in  1269. 

CELESTINS,  a  religious  order  so  called  from 
their  founder  pope  Celestin  V.  After  his  death 
his  order  made  great  progress  in  Italy  anJ 
France ;  whither  the  then  general  Peter  of  Tivoli 
sent  twelve  religious,  at  the  request  of  Philip  the 
Fair,  who  gave  them  two  monasteries;  one  in 
the  forest  of  Orleans,  and  the  other  in  that  of 
Compiegne.  This  order  likewise  passed  into 
several  provinces  of  Germany.  They  had  about 
ninety-six  convents  in  Italy,  and  twenty-one  in 
France,  under  the  title  of  priories,  before  the 
revolution.  The  Celestins  rise  two  hours  after 
midnight,  to  say  matins.  They  eat  no  flesh  ex- 
cept when  sick.  They  fast  every  Wednesday 
and  Friday,  from  Easter  to  the  feast  of  the  ex- 
altation of  the  holy  cross ;  and,  from  the  feast  to 
Easter,  every  day.  Their  habit  consists  of  a 
white  gown,  a  capuche,  and  a  black  scapulary. 
In  the  choir,  and  when  they  go  out  of  the  monas- 
tery, they  wear  a  black  cowl  with  the  capuche  : 
their  shirts  are  of  serge. 

CELEUMA,  or  CELEUSMA,  from  Kt\tven>,  to 
call ;  in  antiquity,  1 .  The  shout  or  cry  of  the  sea- 
men, whereby  they  animated  each  other  in  their 
work  of  rowing.  2.  A  kind  of  song  or  formula, 
rehearsed  or  played  by  the  master  or  others,  to 
direct  the  strokes  and  movement  of  the  mariners, 
as  well  as  to  encourage  them  to  labor. 

CELEUSTES,  in  ancient  navigation,  the  boat- 
swain or  officer  appointed  to  give  the  rowers  the 
signal,  when  they  were  to  pull,  and  when  to  stop. 

CE'LIACK,  adj.  KoiXia,  the  belly.  Relating 
to  the  lower  belly. 

The  blood  moving  slowly  through  the  eeliack  and 
mesenterick  arteries,  produces  complaints. 

Arbuthnot  on  Aliments. 


CEL 


273 


CEL 


CELI'BACY,  n.  }      Lat.   Calebs,    from    Gr. 

CELI'BATE.  S  icoiXuf/  (icoir»/  et  \«7rw),  the 

state  of  a  single  man  ;  one  who  is  without  the 
nuptial  bed  :  unmarried. 

And  surely,  if  this  man  had  not  presumed,  that, 
by  reason  of  the  long  discontinuance  of  Popery,  time 
had  worn  out  of  men's  minds  the  memory  of  their 
odious  filthinesses,  he  durst  not  thus  boldly  have 
pleaded  for  their  abominable  celibate.  Bishop  Hall. 

Celibate,  like  the  fly  in  the  heart  of  an  apple, 
dwells  in  a  perpetual  sweetness,  but  sits  alone. 

Bishop  Taylor. 

Had  the  apostle  known  of  any  vow  of  continence, 
or  any  ecclesiastical  law  rendering  it  a  damnable  sin, 
and  a  renouncing  their  first  faith  to  marry,  he  would 
have  restrained  his  words  as  Esthius  here  doth  to 
those  who  were  free  from  the  law  of  celibacy  :  but  I 
believe  he  knew  of  none  whom  God's  law  had  placed 
under  a  necessity  of  burning.  Whitby  on  1  Cor.  vii.  9. 

The  case  of  celibacy  is  the  great  evil  of  our  nation ; 
and  the  indulgence  of  the  vicious  conduct  of  men  in 
that  state,  with  the  ridicule  to  which  women  are  ex- 
posed, though  ever  so  virtuous,  if  long  unmarried,  is 
the  root  of  the  greatest  irregularities  of  this  nation. 

Spectator,  No.  528. 

I  can  attribute  their  numbers  to  nothing  but  their 
frequent  marriages ;  for  they  look  on  celibacy  as  an 
accursed  state,  and  generally  are  married  before 
twenty.  Id. 

By  teaching  them  how  to  carry  themselves  in  their 
relations  of  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and  children, 
they  have  without  question,  adorned  the  gospel,  glo- 
rified God,  and  benefited  man,  much  more  than  they 
could  have  done  in  the  devoutest  and  strictest  celibacy. 

Atterbwty. 

This  decree  was  confirmed  by  Pope  Innocent  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century  ;  and  the  celibacy  of  the 
clergy  was  fully  decreed  by  Gregory  the  Seventh  in 
the  eleventh  century  ;  and  this  has  been  the  univer- 
sal law  and  practice  of  the  church  ever  since.  Thus 
hath  the  worship  of  demons  and  the  prohibition  of 
marriage  gone  constantly  hand  in  hand  together. 

BisTuip   New  ton. 

As  an  option  of  marriage,  from  which  they  can 
reasonably  expect  happiness,  is  not  presented  to  every 
woman  who  deserves  it,  especially  in  times  in  which 
a  licentious  celibacy  is  in  fashion  with  the  men,  a  fa- 
ther should  endeavour  to  enable  his  daughters  to  lead 
a  single  life  with  independence  and  decorum.  Paley. 

CELIBACY.  The  ancient  Romans  very  wisely 
used  all  means  imaginable  to  discourage  celibacy. 
Nothing  was  more  usual  than  for  the  censors  to 
impose  a  fine  on  bachelors.  Dionysius  Hali- 
carnassensis  mentions  an  ancient  constitution 
whereby  all  persons  of  full  age  were  obliged  to ' 
marry.  The  first  law  of  that  kind,  of  which  we 
have  any  certainty,  is  that  under  Augustus, 
called  lex  Julia  de  maritandis  ordinibus.  It 
was  afterwards  denominated  Papin,  Poppaea,  and 
more  usually  Julia  Papia,  in  regard  of  some 
amendments  made  to  it  under  the  consuls  Papius 
and  Poppaeus.  By  this  law,  divers  prerogatives 
were  given  to  persons  who  had  many  children ; 
penalties  imposed  on  those  who  lived  a  single 
life,  as  that  they  should  be  incapable  of  receiving 
legacies,  and  not  exceeding  a  certain  proportion. 

CELIBATE  is  a  term  chiefly  used  in  speaking 
of  the  single  life  of  the  popish  clergy,  or  the  ob- 
ligation they  are  under  to  abstain  from  marriage. 
In  this  sense  we  say  the  law  of  celibate.  Monks 
and  religious  take  a  vow  of  celibate  ;  and,  what 
is  sometimes  very  distinct,  of  chastity.  The 
VOL.  V. 


church  of  Rome  imposes  a  universal  celibacy 
on  its  clergy,  from  the  pope  to  the  lowest  sub- 
deacon.  The  advocates  for  this  usage  pretend, 
that  a  vow  of  perpetual  celibacy  was  required  in 
the  ancient  church  as  a  condition  of  ordination, 
even  from  the  earliest  apostolic  ages.  It  is  gene- 
rally agreed,  however,  that  most  of  the  apostles 
were  married  :  some  say  all  of  them,  except  St 
Paul  and  St.  John.  Be  this  as  it  may,  in  the 
next  age  after  the  apostles,  we  have  accounts  of 
many  married  bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons. 
Novatus  was  a  married  presbyter  of  Carthage,  as 
we  learn  from  Cyprian  ;  who  himself  was  also 
a  married  man  ;  and  so  was  Caecilius  the  pres- 
byter who  con  verted  him;  and  Numidius,  another 
presbyter  of  Carthage.  The  Romanists  reply  to 
this,  that  all  married  persons,  when  ordained, 
promised  to  live  separate  from  their  wives  by 
consent,  which  answered  the  vow  of  celibacy  in 
other  persons.  But  this  is  not  only  said  without 
proof,  but  against  it.  There  seems  early  indeed 
to  have  been  a  tendency  towards  the  introduc- 
tion of  such  a  law,  by  one  or  two  zealots  ;  but 
the  motion  was  no  sooner  made  than  it  was 
quashed  by  the  authority  of  wise  men.  Thus 
Eusebius  observes,  that  Piuytus,  bishop  of  Gnos- 
sus  in  Crete,  was  for  imposing  the  law  of  celi- 
bacy upon  his  brethren  ;  but  Dionysius,  bishop  of 
Corinth,  wrote  to  him,  that  he  should  consider 
the  weakness  of  men.  In  the  council  of  Nice, 
A.  D.  325,  the  motion  was  renewed  for  a  law  to 
oblige  the  clergy  to  abstain  from  all  conjugal 
society  with  their  wives,  whom  they  had  married 
before  ordination;  but  Paphnutius,  a  famous 
Egyptian  bishop,  and  one  who  himself  was  never 
married,  vigorously  declaimed  against  it,  upon 
which  it  was  unanimously  rejected.  The  council 
in  Trullo,  held  in  692,  made  a  difference  in  this 
respect  between  bishops  and  presbyters  ;  allow- 
ing presbyters,  deacons,  and  all  the  inferior  or- 
ders, to  cohabit  with  their  wives  after  ordination  ; 
and  giving  the  Romish  church  a  rebuke  for  the 
prohibition  :  but  at  the  same  time  laying  an  in- 
junction upon  bishops  to  live  separate  from  their 
wives,  and  appointing  the  wives  to  betake  them- 
selves to  a  monastic  life,  or  become  deaconesses 
in  the  church.  And  thus  was  a  celibate  esta- 
blished in  the  Greek  church,  but  only  as  to 
bishops.  In  the  Latin  church,  the  like  establish- 
ment was  also  made,  but  by  slow  steps  in  many 
places.  For  in  Africa,  even  bishops  cohabited 
with  their  wives  at  the  time  of  the  council  "of 
Trullo. 
CELL,  n. 
CE'LLAR, 

CE'LLAEAGE,       |or    hollow     place     where 
CE'LLULAR,  ad.  J  things  are  hidden  or  con- 
cealed :  hence  a  place  of  retirement  or  seclusion  ; 
and  a  cellar  or  storehouse  under  the  ground. 

The  lyf  is  more  than  mete,  and  the  body  more  than 
clothing.  Behold  the  crowis  :  for  thei  sowen  not, 
neither  repen,  to  which  is  no  celer,  no  berne,  and  God 
fedith  them,  how  myche  more  ye  ben  of  more  prys 
than  thei  t  Widif's  New  Test.  Luke,  xii 

Besides,  she  did  intend  confession, 
At  Patrick's  cell  this  even  ;  and  there  she  was  not. 

Shakspearet 

HAM.  Ha,  ha,  boy!  sayest  thou  so  ?  art  thou  thero, 
come  on,  true-penny  ?  —  you  hear  this  fellow  m  the 
cellerage  —  consent  to  s'.vfar.  Id.  Hamlet. 

T 


~\     vs,  confinement;  whence 
fcelo;  Lat.  to  hide.    A  cave 


GEL 


274 


GEL 


Mine  ryes  he  closed,  but  open  left  the  cell 
Of  fancy,  my  internal  sight.      Milton.  Par.  Lost. 

Then  did  religion  in  a  lazy  cell, 
In  empty,  airy  contemplations  dwell.  Denham. 

The  brain  contains  ten  thousand  cells, 
In  each  some  active  fancy  dwells.  Prior. 

In  cottages  and'  lowly  cells 
True  piety  neglected  dwells  ; 
Till  called  to  heaven,  its  native  seat, 
Where  the  good  man  alone  is  great. 

Somervile. 

How  bees  for  ever,  though  a  monarch  reign, 
Their  separate  cells  and  properties  maintain.   Pope. 

Let  these,  by  thy  inflictions  won 
The  example  of  his  deeds  to  shun, 
(While  as  from  morn  to  eve  they  roam, 
Some  ruined  cell  their  casual  home, 
Each  night  affords),  by  hunger  led, 
Seek  at  the  rich  man's  gate  their  bread. 

Merrick. 

How  soft  the  music  of  those  village  bells, 
Falling  at  intervals  upon  the  ear 
In  cadence  sweet,  now  dying  all  away, 
l^ow  pealing  loud  again,  and  louder  still, 
Clear  and  sonorous    as  the  gale  comes  on ' 
With  easy  force  it  opens  all  the  cells 
Where  memory  slept.  Cowper. 

Adieu,  thou  dreary  pile,  where  r.ever  dies 
The  sullen  echo  of  repentant  sighs  ! 
Ye  sister  mourners  of  each  lonely  cell 
nured  to  hymiis  and  sorrow,  fare  ye  well ! 
For  happier  scenes  I  fly  this  darksome  grove  ; 
To  saints  a  prison,  but  a  tomb  to  love.   Sheridan. 
This  cave  was  surely  shaped  out  for  the  greeting 
Of  an  enamoured  goddess,  and  the  cell 
Haunted  by  holy  love — the  earliest  oracle  !        Byron. 
The  urine,  insinuating  itself  amongst  the  neighbour- 
ing muscles,  and  cellular  membranes,  destroyed  four. 

Sharp's  Surgery. 

The  interstices  of  the  cellular  substance  are  lubri- 
cated and  moistened  by  a  serous  or  watery  fluid, 
poured  out  from  the  exhalent  arteries,  and  again 
taken  in  by  the  absorbents.  It  thus  acquires  a  pli- 
ancy and  softness,  which  adapt  it  particularly  to 
serve  as  a  connecting  medium  for  parts,  which  have 
motion  on  each  other.  The  importance  of  this  pro- 
perty will  be  best  understood  by  observing  the  effects 
of  its  loss.  Dr.  A.  Reen. 

CELL  is  also  used  for  a  lesser  or  subordinate 
sort  of  monastery  dependent  on  a  great  one,  by 
which  it  was  erected,  and  continues  to  be  go- 
verned. The  great  abbeys  in  England  had  most 
of  them  cells  in  places  distant  from  the  mother 
abbey,  to  which  they  were  accountable,  and  from 
which  they  received  their  superiors.  The  alien 
priories  in  England  were  cells  to  abbeys  in  Nor- 
mandy, France,  Italy,  &c.  The  name  was  also 
given  to  rich  monasteries,  not  dependent  on  any 
other.  It  signifies  also  a  little  apartment,  wherein 
the  ancient  monks,  solitaries,  and  hermits,  lived 
in  retirement.  The  name  is  still  retained  in 
various  monasteries.  The  dormitory  is  frequently 
divided  into  cells  or  lodges.  The  Carthusians 
have  each  a  separate  cell.  The  hall  wherein  the 
Roman  conclave  is  held,  is  divided,  by  partitions, 
into  cells,  for  the  cardinals  to  lodge  in. 

CELLAR  differs  from  vault,  as  the  latter  is  sup- 
posed to  be  deeper,  the  former  being  frequently 
little  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Cellars, 
in  modern  buildings,  are  the  lowest  rooms  in  a 
house,  the  ceilings  of  which  usually  lie  level  with 


the  surface  of  the  ground  on  which  the  house  is 
built ;  or  they  are  situated  under  the  pavement 
before  the  house,  especially  in  streets  and  squares. 
CELLARER,  or  CELLERER,  CELLERARIUS,  or 
CELLARIUS,  an  officer  in  monasteries,  to  whom 
belong  the  care  and  procurement  of  provisions  for 
the  convent.  The  cellerarius  was  one  of  the  four 
obedientiarii,  or  great  officers  of  monasteries : 
under  his  ordering  was  the  pistrinum  or  bake- 
house, and  the  bracinum,  or  brew-house.  In  the 
richer  houses  there  were  particular  lands  set 
apart  for  the  maintenance  of  his  office,  called  in 
ancient  writings  ad  cibum  monachorum.  His 
whole  office  in  ancient  times  had  a  respect  to 
that  origin  :  he  was  to  see  his  lord's  corn  got  in, 
and  laid  up  in  granaries ;  and  his  appointment 
consisted  in  a  certain  proportion  thereof,  usually 
fixed  at  a  thirteenth  part  of  the  whole,  together 
with  a  furred  gown.  *  The  office  of  cellarer  then 
only  differed  in  name  from  those  of  bailiff  and 
minstrel ;  excepting  that  the  cellarer  had  the  re- 
ceipt of  his  lord's  rents  through  the  whole  extent 
of  his  jurisdiction.  The  cellarer  was  also  an 
officer  in  chapters,  to  whom  belonged  the  care 
of  the  temporals,  and  particularly  the  distributing 
of  bread,  wine,  and  money,  to  canons  for  their 
attendance  in  the  choir.  In  some  places  he  was 
called  burser. 

CELLARIUM,  in  antiquity,  an  allowance  of 
provisions  furnished  out  of  the  cella,  to  the  go- 
vernor of  the  province  and  his  officers,  &c.  Cel- 
larium  differed  from  penus,  as  the  former  was 
only  a  store-house  for  several  days,  the  latter  for 
a  long  time.  Thus  the  Bactroperatae  are  said  by 
St.  Jerome  to  carry  cellar  about  with  them. 

CELLARIUS  (Christopher),  was  born  in 
1638,  at  Smalcalde,  in  Franconia,  where  his 
father  was  minister.  He  was  successively  rector 
of  the  colleges  at  Weymar,  Zeits,  and  Merse- 
bourg ;  and  the  king  of  Prussia  having  founded 
an  university  at  Hall,  in  1693,  he  was  prevailed 
on  to  be  professor  of  eloquence  and  history  thece, 
where  he  composed  the  greatest  part  of  his  works. 
His  great  application  to  study  hastened  the  infir- 
mities of  old  age.  His  works  relate  to  grammar, 
geography,  history,  and  the  oriental  languages, 
and  the  number  of  them  is  amazing.  lie  died 
in  1707. 

CELLEPOR7E,  a  genus  of  marine  plants,  or 
rather  animals ;  a  class  of  worms  in  the  Linnsean 
system.  They  are  of  the  genus  of  the  lytho- 
phyta.  See  CORAL. 

CELLINI  (Benvenuto),  an  eminent  statuary, 
contemporary  with  Michael  Angelo,  and  Julio 
Romano,  and  was  employed  by  popes,  kings, 
and  other  patrons  of  arts  and  sciences.  Some  of 
his  productions  are  much  esteemed.  He  lived 
to  a  very  considerable  old  age;  and  his  life, 
almost  to  the  last,  was  a  continued  scene  of  alter- 
nate adventure,  patronage,  persecution,  and  mis- 
fortune. He  wrote  his  own  history,  which  was 
not,  however,  published  till  1730,  probably  on 
account  of  the  freedom  with  which  he  therein 
treated  many  distinguished  personages  of  Italy 
and  other  countries.  It  was  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Dr.  Nugent,  in  1771,  to  which  the  reader 
is  referred,  as  it  will  not  admit  of  a  proper  abridg- 
ment. He  also  wrote  treatises  on  goldsmiths' 
work  and  on  casting  statues. 


GEL 


275 


CEL 


CELLULAR  INTERSTICES,  or  CELLULAR  MEM- 
BRANE. See  ANATOMY. 

CELOSIA,  cocks-comb  :  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  pentandria  class  of  plants ;  na- 
tural order  fifty-fourth,  miscellanese  :  CAL.  tri- 
phyllous :  COR.  five-petalled  in  appearance : 
STAM.  conjoined  at  the  base  to  the  plaited  nec- 
turium :  CAPS,  gaping  horizontally.  There  are 
eighteen  species,  of  v.hich  the  most  worthy  of 
notice  is  the  C.  cristata,  or  common  cocks-comb, 
so  called  on  account  of  its  crested  head  of  flowers, 
resembling  a  cock's  comb ;  of  which  there  are 
many  varieties.  The  principal  colors  of  their 
flowers  are  red,  purple,  yellow,  and  white ;  but 
there  are  some  whose  heads  are  variegated  with 
two  or  three  colors.  The  heads  are  sometimes 
divided  like  a  ],iume  of  feathers,  and  are  of  a 
beautiful  scarle.;  color.  These  plants  are  very 
tender  exotics,  and  require  a  great  deal  of  care  to 
cultivate  them  in  this  country. 

C  ELS  I  A,  in  botany:  a  genus  of  the  angio- 
spermia  order,  and  tridynamia  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  twenty-eighth,  luridae :  CAL.  quin- 
quepartite :  con.  wheel-shaped ;  the  filaments 
bearded  or  woolly :  CAPS,  bilocular.  Species, 
five ;  two  being  natives  of  Candia  and  the 
East  Indies,  two  of  Armenia,  and  one  of  the 
plains  of  Algiers. 

CE'LSITUDE,  n.  s.    Lat.  celsitudo.    Height. 

CELSUS  (Aurelius  Cornelius).  It  is  com- 
monly supposed,  that  this  esteemed  ancient  au- 
thor was  a  Roman,  of  the  Cornelian  family,  born 
towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and 
still  living  in  the  time  of  Caligula.  But  these 
points  are  not  established  upon  certain  testimony, 
and  it  is  even  disputed  whether  he  practised 
medicine;  though  his  perfect  acquaintance  with 
the  doctrines  of  his  predecessors,  his  accurate 
descriptions  of  diseases,  and  his  judicious  rules 
of  treatment,  appear  to  leave  little  room  for 
doubt  on  that  head.  At  any  rate,  his  eight  books, 
De  Medicina,  have  gained  him  deserved  cele- 
brity in  modern  times,  containing  a  large  fund  of 
valuable  information ;  detailed  in  remarkably 
elegant  and  concise  language.  In  surgery  par- 
ticularly he  has  been  greatly  admired,  for  the 
methods  of  practice  laid  down,  and  for  describing 
several  operations  as  they  are  still  performed. 
He  was  the  Hippocrates  of  the  Latins,  and,  with- 
out him,  the  writings  of  that  father  in  physic 
would  be  often  unintelligible,  and  often  misun- 
derstood by  us.  He  shows  us  also  how  the  an- 
cients cured  distempers  by  friction,  bathing,  &c. 
The  Elzevir  edition  of  Celsus,  in  1650,  by  Van- 
der  Linden,  is  the  best,  being  entirely  corrected 
from  his  MSS. 

CELSUS,  an  Epicurean  philosopher,  in  the 
second  century.  He  wrote  a  work  against  the 
Christians,  entitled,  The  True  Discourse;  to 
which  Origen,  at  the  desire  of  Ambrose  his  friend, 
wrote  a  learned  answer.  To  this  philosopher 
Lucian  dedicated  his  Pseudomanies. 

CELT^i,  or  CELTES,  an  ancient  nation,  by 
which  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe  are 
thought  to  have  been  peopled.  The  general 
opinion  is  that  they  are  descended  from  Corner, 
the  eldest  son  of  Japhet:  that  Gomer  settled  in 
Phrygia;  his  sons  Ashkenaz  and  Togarmah  in 
Armenia,  and  Kiphath  in  Cappadocia :  that  the 


Celtae,  took  the  left  hand,  spreading  westward 
towards  Poland,  Hungary,  Germany,  France, 
and  Spain;  while  the  descendants  of  Magog, 
Gomer's  brother,  moving  eastward,  peopled  Tar- 
tary.  In  this  large  European  tract,  the  Celtes 
began  to  appear  a  powerful  nation  under  several 
considerable  kingdoms.  Mention  is  made  of 
them  indeed  in  so  many  parts  of  Europe,  by 
ancient  geographers  and  historians,  that  Ortelius 
took  Celtica  to  be  a  general  name  for  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  and  made  a  map  of  it  bearing 
this  title.  In  those  parts  of  Asia  which  they 
possessed,  as  well  as  in  the  different  parts  of 
Europe,  the  Celtes  went  by  various  names.  In 
Lesser  Asia  they  were  known  by  the  names  of 
Titans  and  Sacks ;  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe  by  those  of  Cimmerians,  Cimbrians,  &c. 
and  in  the  southern  parts  they  were  called  Celtes, 
Gauls,  or  Galatians.  As  to  the  government  of 
the  Celtes,  all  we  know  is,  that  the  curetes,  and 
afterwards  druids  and  bards,  were  the  inter- 
preters of  their  laws ;  judged  all  causes  criminal 
and  civil ;  and  their  sentence  was  reckoned  so 
sacred,  that  whoever  refused  to  abide  by  it  was 
excluded  from  assisting  at  their  sacred  rites; 
after  which  no  man  dared  to  converse  with  him ; 
so  that  this  punishment  was  reckoned  even  severer 
than  death  itself.  They  neither  reared  temples 
nor  statues  to  the  Deity,  but  destroyed  them 
wherever  they  could  find  them,  planting  in  their 
stead  large  spacious  groves ;  which,  being  open 
on  the  top  and  sides,  were,  in  their  opinion,  more 
acceptable  to  the  divine  Being,  who  is  absolutely 
unconfined.  The  Celtes  accounted  the  oak  the 
emblem  of  the  Deity,  and  preferred  that  tree 
above  all  others  to  plant  their  groves  with,  attri- 
buting several  supernatural  virtues  both  to  it« 
wood,  leaves,  fruit,  and  misletoe ;  all  which  were 
made  use  of  in  their  sacrifices  and  other  parts  of 
their  worship.  But  after  they  had  adopted  the 
idolatrous  superstition  of  the  Romans  and  other 
nations,  and  the  apotheosis  of  their  heroes  and 
princes,  they  came  to  worship  them  much  in  the 
same  manner:  as  Jupiter  under  the  name  of 
Taran,  which  in  the  Celtic  signifies  thunder; 
Mercury,  whom  some  authors  call  Heus,  or  He- 
sus,  probably  from  the  Celtic  huadh,  which  sig- 
nifies a  dog,  and  might  be  the  Anubis  latrans  of 
the  Egyptians.  But  Mars  was  held  in  the 
greatest  veneration  by  the  warlike,  and  Mercury 
by  the  trading  part  of  the  nation.  The  care  of 
religion  was  immediately  under  their  curetes-, 
druids,  and  bards.  See  BARDS,  DRUIDS,  and 
GAUL. 

CELTES,  certain  ancient  instruments  of  a 
wedge-like  form,  of  which  several  have  been 
discovered  in  different  parts  of  Great  Britain. 
Antiquarians  have  generally  attributed  them  to 
the  Celtae;  but,  not  agreeing  as  to  their  use,  dis- 
tinguished them  by  the  above  appellation. 
Whitaker  makes  it  probable  that  they  were  Bri- 
tish battle-axes.  See  BATTLE-AXE. 

CELTIBERI,  or  CELTIBERIANS  (i.  e.  the 
Celtae  seated  on  the  Iberus),  the  inhabitants  of 
Celtiberia.  They  were  very  brave  and  warlike, 
their  cavalry  in  particular  was  excellent.  They 
wore  a  black  rough  cloak,  the  shag  of  which  was 
like  goats'  hair.  Some  of  them  had  light  bucklers 
like  the  Gauls ;  others,  hollow  and  round  ones 

T  2 


CEMENT. 


like  those  of  other  nations.  They  all  wore  boots 
made  of  hair,  aid  iron  helmets  adorned  with 
crests  of  a  purple  color.  They  used  swords 
which  cut  on  both  sides,  and  poniards  of  a  foot 
long.  Their  arms  were  of  an  admirable  temper, 
and  are  said  to  have  been  prepared  in  the  follow- 
.ng  manner:. they  buried  plates  of  iron  under 
ground,  where  they  let  them  remain  till  the  rust 
aad  eaten  the  weakest  part  of  the  metal,  and  the 
rest  was  consequently  hard  and  firm.  Of  this 
excellent  iron  they  made  their  swords,  which 
were  so  strong  and  well  tempered,  that  there  was 
neither  buckler  nor  helmet  that  could  resist  their 
edge.  The  Celtiberians  were  very  cruel  towards 
their  enemies  and  malefactors,  but  showed  the 
greatest  humanity  to  their  guests.  They  not  only 
cheerfully  granted  their  hospitality  to  strangers 
who  travelled  in  their  country,  but  were  desirous 
that  they  should  seek  protection  under  their  roof. 

CELTIBERIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  terri- 
tory south-west  of  Spain,  along  the  side  of  the 
river  Iberus.  Sometimes  the  greatest  part  of 
Spain  was  called  by  this  name. 

CELTIS,  in  botany,  the  lote,  or  nettle-tree ; 
a  genus  of  the  monc~cia  order,  and  polygamia 
class  of  plants;  natural  order  fifty-third,  scabridae. 
It  is  a  hermaphrodite  plant :  female  CAL.  quin- 
quepartite  :  COR.  none :  there  are  five  stamina, 
and  two  styles :  FRUIT  a  monospermous  plum. 
Male  CAL.  hexapetalous :  COR.  none  :  there  are 
six  stamina,  and  an  embryo  of  a  pistillum.  There 
are  twelve  known  species,  all  of  them  deciduous. 
The  principal  are  :  1.  C.  occidentalis,  the  western 
celtis,  a  native  of  Virginia,  growing  with  large, 
fair,  straight  stems ;  the  branches  are  numerous 
and  diffuse  ;  the  bark  is  of  a  darkish  gray  color; 
the  leaves  are  of  a  pleasant  green,  three  or  four 
inches  long,  deeply  serrated,  and  in  a  narrow 
point,  nearly  resemble  the  leaves  of  the  common 
stinging  nettle,  and  continue  on  the  trees  till  late 
in  the  autumn.  '  The  wood  of  the  lote  tree  is 
extremely  durable.  In  Italy  they  make  their 
flutes,  pipes,  and  other  wind  instruments  of  it. 
With  us  the  coach-makers  use  it  for  the  frames  ot 
their  vehicles.'  2.  C.  orientalis,  the  eastern  cel- 
tis, a  native  of  Armenia.  It  grows  to  about 
twelve  feet;  and  the  branches  are  numerous, 
smooth,  and  of  a  greenish  color.  The  leaves  are 
smaller  than  those  of  the  others,  though  they  are 
of  a  thicker  texture,  and  a  lighter  green.  The 
flowers  come  out  from  the  wings  of  the  leaves, 
on  slender  foot-stalks  :  they  are  yellowish,  appear 
early  in  spring,  and  are  succeeded  by  large  yel- 
low fruit. 

CE'JVI  ENT,  v.  a.  ~\      Lat.  ctzmentum,  from  c<z- 

CEME'KT,  n.         {do,   to   break  by  beating; 

CEME'NTEU,  n.  j  because  ancient  cements 
were  made  of  small,  broken  stones  :  to  join,  or 
make  to  cohere ;  to  come  into  union  or  cohesion; 
anything  that  binds  or  unites. 

MEN,  What's  the  news? — 

COM,  Your  temples  burned  in  their  cement;  and 
Your  franchises,  whereon  you  stood,  confined 
Into  an  augur's  bore.  Shahs.  Coriolanus. 

But  how  the  fear  of  us 
May  cement  their  divisions,  and  bind  up 
The  petty  difference, 'we  yet  not  know.         Id. 

There  is  a  cement  compounded  of  flour,  whites  of 
eggs,  and  stones  powdered,  that  becometh  hard  as 


marble. — You  may  see  divers  pebbles,  and  a  crust  of 
cement  or  stone  between  them,  as  hard  as  the  pebbles 
themselves.  Bacon. 

Look  over  the  whole  creation,  and  you  shall  see, 
that  the  band  or  cement,  that  holds  together  all  the 
parts  of  this  great  and  glorious  fabrick,  is  gratitude. 

South. 

It  is  very  observable  that  Arrianus,  saith  L.  VII., 
the  temple  of  Belus,  in  the  midst  of  the  city  of 
Babylon,  of  a  vast  bigness,  was  made  of  bricks  ce- 
mented with  asphakus. 

Whiiby's  Commentary,  Gen.  xi.  3. 

Madam,  religion  is  the  foundation  and  cement  of 

human  societies  :   and  when  they  that  serve  at  God's 

altar  shall  be  exposed  to  poverty,  then  religion  itself 

will  be  confined  to  them. 

Hooker's  Speech  to  Q.  Elizabeth, 
God  having  designed  man  for  a  sociable  creature, 
furnished   him  with  language,  which  was  to  be  the 
great  instrument  and  cementer  of  society.  Locke. 

Liquid  bodies  have  nothing  to  cement  them  ;  they 
are  all  loose  and  incoherent,  and  in  a  perpetual  flux  : 
even  an  heap  of  sand  or  fine  powder,  will  suffer  no 
hollowness  within  them,  though  they  be  dry  substan- 
ces, Burnet's  Theory  of  the  Earth. 

Love  with  white  lead  cements  his  wings  ; 
White  lead  was  sent  us  to  repair 

Two  brightest,  brittlest,  earthly  things, 
4  lady's  face,  and  china  ware.  Swift. 

The  foundation  was  made  of  rough  stone,  joined 
together  with  a  most  firm  cement ;  upon  this  was  laid 
another  layer,  consisting  of  small  stones  and  cement. 

Arbuthnot. 

When  a  wound  is  recent,  and  the  parts  of  it  are 
divided  by  a  sharp  instrument,  they  will,  if  held  in 
close  contact  for  some  time,  reunite  by  inosculation, 
and  cement  like  one  branch  of  a  tree  ingrafted  on 
another.  Sharp's  Surgery. 

These  walls  were  drawn  round  the  city  in  the  form 
of  an  exact  square,  each  side  of  which  was  120  fur- 
longs, or  fifteen  miles  in  length,  and  all  built  of  large 
bricks,  cemented  together  with  bitumen,  a  glutinous 
slime -arising  out  of  the  earth  in  that  country,  which 
binds  in  building  much  stronger  and  firmer  than  lime, 
and  soon  grows  much  harder  than  the  brick  or  stones 
themselves  which  it  cements  together. 

Prideuux's  Connection. 

On  the  side  altar  censed  with  sacred  smoke, 
And  bright  with  flaming  fires.  Dryden. 

The  foundation  was  made  of  rough  stones,  joined 
together  with  a  most  firm  cement ;  upon  this  was  laid 
another  layer,  consisting  of  small  stones  and  cement. 
Arbuthnot  on  Coins. 

An  advantageous  peace  was  at  last  concluded, 
•where  he  had  given  the  law.  The  allies  were  so  en- 
raged against  each  other,  that  they  were  not  likely  to 
cement  soon  in  any  new  confederacy.  Hume. 

CEMENT  comprehends  mortar,  solder,  glue, 
&c. ;  but  has  been  sometimes  restrained  to  com- 
positions used  for  holding  together  broken  glasses, 
china,  and  earthenware.  For  this  purpose  the 
juice  of  garlic  is  recommended  as  exceedingly 
proper,  being  both  very  strong,  and,  if  the  opera- 
tion is  performed  with  care,  leaving  little  or  no 
mark.  Quicklime  and  the  white  of  an  egg 
mixed  together,  and  expeditiously  used,  are  also 
very  proper  for  this  purpose.  Dr.  Lewis  recom- 
mends a  mixture  of  quicklime  and  cheese,  in  the 
following  manner  : — '  Sweet  cheese  shaved  thin 


CEMENT. 


277 


and  stirred  with  boiling  hot  water,  changes  into 
a  tenacious  slime,  which  does  not  mingle  with 
the  water.  Worked  with  fresh  quantities  of  hot 
water,  and  then  mixed  upon  a  hot  stone  with  a 
proper  quantity  of  unslaked  lime,  into  the  con- 
sistence of  a  paste,  it  proves  a  strong  and  durable 
cement  for  wood,  stone,  earthenware,  and  glass. 
When  thoroughly  dry,  which  it  will  be  in  two  or 
three  days,  it  is  not  in  the  least  acted  upon  by 
water.  Cheese  barely  beaten  with  quick  lime,  as 
directed  by  some  ofthechemistsfor  luting  cracked 
glasses,  is  not  near  so  efficacious.'  A  composition 
of  the  drying  oil  of  linseed  and  white  lead  is 
also  used  for  the  same  purposes,  but  is  greatly 
inferior. 

CEMENT,  in  building,  is  used  to  denote  any 
kind  of  mortar  of  a  stronger  kind  than  ordinary. 
The  cement  commonly  used  is  of  two  kinds ;  hot, 
and  cold.  The  hot  cement  is  made  of  resin, 
bees-wax,  brick-dust,  and  chalk,  boiled  together. 
The  bricks  to  be  cemented  are  heated,  and  rubbed 
one  upon  another,  with  cement  between  them. 
The  cold  cement  is  that  above  described  for  ce- 
menting china,  &c.,  which  is  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  employed  in  building.  The  ruins  of  the 
ancient  Roman  buildings  are  found  to  cohere  so 
strongly,  that  most  people  have  imagined  the 
ancients  were  acquainted  with  some  kind  of 
mortar,  which,  in  comparison  of  ours,  might 
justly  be  called  cement ;  and  that  to  our  want  of 
knowledge  of  the  materials  they  used,  is  owing 
the  great  inferiority  of  modern  buildings  in  their 
durability.  Dr.  Anderson,  in  his  Essays  on 
Agriculture,  has  discussed  this  subject  at  con- 
siderable length,  and  seemingly  with  great  judg- 
ment. He  is  the  only  person  who  has  given 
a  rational  theory  of  the  uses  of  lime  in  building, 
and  why  it  comes  to  be  the  proper  basis  of  all 
cements.  It  is  in  substance  as  follows :  Lime 
which  has  been  slacked  and  mixed  with  sand, 
becomes  hard  and  consistent  when  dry,  by  a 
process  similar  to  that  which  produces  the  natu- 
ral stalactites  in  caverns.  These  are  always 
formed  by  water  dropping  from  the  roof.  By 
some  unknown  and  inexplicable  process  of  na- 
ture, this  water  has  dissolved  in  it  a  small  por- 
tion of  calcareous  matter  in  a  caustic  state.  As 
long  as  the  water  continues  covered  from  the  air, 
it  keeps  the  earth  dissolved  in  it;  it  being  the 
natural  property  of  calcareous  earths,  when  de- 
prived of  their  fixed  air,  to  dissolve  in  water. 
But  when  the  small  drop  of  water  comes  to  be 
exposed  to  the  air,  the  calcareous  matter  contained 
in  it  begins  to  attract  the  fixable  part  of  the  at- 
mospbere.  In  proportion  as  it  does  so,  it  also 
begins  to  separate  from  the  water,  and  to  resume 
its  native  form,  the  limestone  of  marble.  This 
process  Dr.  Anderson  calls  a  crystallisation ;  and 
when  the  calcareous  matter  is  perfectly  crystal- 
lised in  this  manner,  he  affirms  that  it  is  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  limestone  or  marble  of  the 
same  consistence  as  before :  and  '  in  this  manner,' 
says  he,  '  within  the  memory  of  man,  have  huge 
rocks  of  marble  been  formed  near  Matlock  in 
Derbyshire.'  If  lime  in  a  caustic  state  is  mixed 
with  water,  part  of  the  lime  will  be  dissolved, 
and  will  also  begin  to  crystallise.  The  water 
which  parted  with  the  crystallised  lime,  will  then 
begin  to  act  upon  the  remainder,  which  it  could 


not  dissolve  before  ;  and  thus  the  process  will 
continue,  either  till  the  lime  be  all  reduced  to  an 
effete,  or  crystalline  state,  or  something  hinders 
the  action  of  the  water  upon  it.  It  is  this  crys- 
tallisation which  is  observed  by  the  workmen 
when  a  heap  of  lime  is  mixed  with  water,  and 
left  for  some  time  to  macerate.  A  hard  crust  is 
formed  upon  the  surface,  which  is  ignorantly 
called  frosting,  though  it  takes  place  in  summer 
as  well  as  in  winter.  If  therefore  the  hardness  of 
the  lime,  or  its  becoming  a  cement,  depends  en- 
tirely on  the  formation  of  its  crystals,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  perfection  of  the  cement  must 
depend  on  the  perfection  of  the  crystals,  and  the 
hardness  of  the  matters  which  are  entangled 
among  them.  The  additional  substances  used  in 
making  of  mortar,  such  as  sand,  brick-dust,  or 
the  like,  according  to  Dr.  Anderson,  serve  only 
for  a  purpose  similar  to  what  is  answered  by 
sticks  put  into  a  vessel  full  of  any  saline  solution, 
namely,  to  afford  the  crystals  an  opportunity  of 
fastening  themselves  upon  it.  If  therefore  the 
matter  interposed  between  the  crystals  of  the  lime 
is  of  a  friable,  brittle  nature,  such  as  brick-dust 
or  chalk,  the  mortar  will  be  of  a  weak  and  im- 
perfect kind ;  but  when  the  particles  are  hard, 
angular,  and  very  difficult  to  be  broken,  such  as 
those  of  river  or  pit-sand,  the  mortar  turns  out 
exceedingly  good  and  strong.  Sea-sand  is  found 
to  be  an  improper  material  for  mortar,  which  Dr. 
Anderson  ascribes  to  its  being  less  angular  than 
the  other  kinds.  That  the  crystallisation  may  be 
more  perfect,  he  also  recommends  a  large  quantity 
of  water,  that  the  ingredients  be  perfectly  mixed 
together,  and  that  the  drying  be  as  slow  as  pos- 
sible. An  attention  to  these  circumstances,  he 
thinks,  would  make  the  buildings  of  the  moderns 
equally  durable  with  those  of  the  ancients ;  and 
from  what  remains  of  the  ancient  Roman  works, 
he  thinks  a  very  strong  proof  of  his  hypothesis 
might  be  adduced.  The  great  thickness  of  their 
walls  necessarily  required  a  vast  length  of  time 
to  dry.  The  middle  of  them  was  composed  of 
pebbles  thrown  in  at  random,  and  which  have 
evidently  had  mortar  so  thin  as  to  be  poured  in 
among  them.  Thus  a  great  quantity  of  lime 
would  be  dissolved,  and  the  crystallisation  per- 
formed in  the  most  perfect  manner ;  and  the  inde- 
fatigable pains  and  perseverance  for  which  the 
Romans  were  so  remarkable  in  all  their  under- 
takings, leaving  no  room  to  doubt  that  they  would 
take  care  to  have  the  ingredients  mixed  together 
as  well  as  possible.  The  consequence  of  all  thij 
is,  that  the  buildings  formed  in  this  manner  are 
all  as  firm  as  if  cut  out  of  a  solid  rock ;  the  mor- 
tar being  equally  hard,  if  not  more  so,  than  the 
stones  themselves,  Nowithstanding  the  bad  suc- 
cess of  those  who  have  attempted  to  repeat  M. 
Loriot's  experiments,  however,  Dr.  Black  informs 
us  that  a  cement  of  this  kind  is  certainly  practica- 
ble. It  is  done,  he  says,  by  powdering  the  lime 
while  hot  from  the  kiln,  and  throwing  it  into  a 
thin  paste  of  sand  and  water ;  which  not  slaking 
immediately,  absorbs  the  water  from  the  mortal 
by  degrees,  and  forms  a  very  hard  mass.  '  It  is 
plain,'  he  adds,  '  that  the  strength  of  this  mortal 
depends  on  using  the  lime  hot  or  fresh  from  the 
kiln.'  By  mixing  together  gypsum  and  quick 
lime,  and  then  adding  water,  we  may  form  a  c<?- 


CEN 


278 


CEN 


ment  of  tolerable  hardness,  and  which  apparently 
might  be  used  to  advantage  in  making  troughs 
for  holding  water,  or  lining  small  canals  for  it  to 
run  in.  Mr.  Weigleb  says,  that  a  good  mortar  or 
cement  which  will  not  crack,  may  be  obtained  by 
mixing  three  parts  of  a  thin  magma  of  slaked 
lime  with  one  of  powdered  gypsum ;  but  adds, 
that  it  is  only  used  in  a  dry  situation.  A  mix- 
ture of  tarras  with  slaked  lime  acquires  in  time 
a  stony  hardness,  and  may  be  used  for  preventing 
water  from  entering.  See  MORTAR,  STUCCO, 
and  BRICKLAYING. 

CEMENT,  in  chemistry,  is  used  to  signify  all 
those  powders  and  pastes  with  which  any  body  is 
surrounded  in  pots  or  crucibles,  and  which  are 
capable,  by  the  help  of  fire,  of  producing  changes 
upon  that  body.  They  are  made  of  various  ma- 
terials ;  and  are  used  for  different  purposes,  as 
for  parting  gold  from  silver,  converting  iron  into 
brass;  and  by  cementation  more  considerable 
changes  can  be  effected  upon  bodies,  than  by  ap- 
plying to  them  liquids  of  any  kind ;  because  the 
active  matters  are  then  in  a  state  of  vapor,  and 
assisted  by  a  very  considerable  degree  of  heat. 

CE'METERY,  n.  Koi/ujjrijpiov ;  Lat.  camen- 
terium,  i.  e.  a  sleeping  place,  or  dormitory.  '  The 
Christians,'  says  Suicer,  '  because  they  believe 
in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  will  have  death 
rather  styled  Koiprjffig  and  VTTVOQ  than  Bavaro^ ; 
hence  they  called  burying-places  icot/ijjrjjpia,  i.  e. 
places  designed  for  rest  and  sleep.'  (Suicer. 
Thesaur.)  which  Estrus  confirms. 

In  this,  therefore,  say  the  Platonists,  consist  the 
punishment  of  a  voluptuous  man  after  death.  The 
souls  of  the  dead  appear  frequently  in  cemeteries,  and 
hover  about  the  places  where  their  bodies  are  buried, 
as  still  hankering  about  their  own  brutal  pleasures, 
and  desiring  again  to  enter  the  body.  Addison. 

In  the  early  ages,  the  Christians  held  their  assem- 
blies in  the  cemeteries,  as  we  learn  from  Eusebius  and 
Tertullian ;  the  latter  of  whom  calls  those  cemeteries 
where  they  met  to  pray,  areas.  Valerian  seems  to 
have  confiscated  the  cemeteries  and  places  destined  for 
divine  worship,  which  were  restored  again  to  the 
Christians  by  Gallian.  Dr.  A.  Rees. 

CEMETERY.  Anciently  none  were  buried  in 
churches  or  church-yards :  it  was  even  unlawful 
to  inter  in  cities,  and  the  cemeteries  were  without 
the  walls.  It  appears  from  Eusebius  and  Ter- 
tullian, that,  in  the  early  ages,  the  Christians  as- 
sembled ior  divine  worship  in  the  cemeteries. 
Valerian  confiscated  the  cemeteries  and  other 
places  of  divine  worship,  but  they  were  restored 
again  by  Gallienus.  As  the  martyrs  were  buried 
in  these  places,  the  Christians  chose  them  for 
building  churches  on,  when  Constantine  estab- 
lished their  religion  ;  and  hence  some  derive  the 
rule  which  still  obtains  in  the  church  of  Rome, 
never  to  consecrate  an  altar,  without  putting  un- 
der it  the  relics  of  some  saint.  The  practice  of 
consecrating  cemeteries  is  of  some  antiquity. 
The  bishop  walked  round  it  in  procession,  with 
the  crozier  or  pastoral  staff  in  his  hand,  the  holy 
water  pot  being  carried  before,  out  of  which  the 
aspersions  were  made. 

'CE'NATOR-Y,  adj.  From  Lat.  c«na,  an 
evening  meal.  Relating  or  belonging  to  supper. 

The  Romans  washed,  were  anointed,  and  wore  a 
"snatury  garment j  and  the  same  was  practised  by 
the  Jews.  Brown. 


CENCHRUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  tne  mo- 
noecia  order,  and  polygamia  class  of  plants; 
natural  order  fourth,  gramina.  The  involucrum 
is  facinated,  echinated,  and  biflorous  :  CAL.  a  bi- 
florous  glume,  with  one  floret  male,  and  the  other 
hermaphrodite.  The  hermaphrodite  COR.  is  a 
pointless  glume :  there  are  three  STAM.  :  one  SEED  : 
male  COR.  a  pointless  glume ;  with  three  stamina. 
Species  fifteen ;  scattered  in  various  parts  of  the 
globe. 

CENEGILD,  in  the  Saxon  antiquities,  an  ex- 
piatory mulct,  paid  by  one  who  had  killed  a  man, 
to  the  kindred  of  the  deceased.  The  word  is 
compounded  of  the  Saxon  cinne,  i.  e.  relation, 
and  gild,  payment. 

CENIS  MOUNT,  or  MONT  CENIS,  a  lofty 
mountain  of  the  Savoy  Alps,  separating  the  mar- 
quisate  of  Susa  from  the  county  of  Maurienue, 
and  situated  at  an  equal  distance  between  Turin 
and  Chamberry.  Its  principal  peak,  La  Roche 
St.  Michael,  is  above  9000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  ocean  :  across  it  is  one  of  the  most  important 
passes  of  the  Alps,  very  much  improved  by 
Buonaparte.  There  is  an  hospital  near  the  sum- 
mit, called  La  Ramaire,  on  the  plan  of  that  of 
the  Great  St.  Gothard.  Lady  Morgan  collects 
some  lively  details  of  the  passage  of  the  moun- 
tain in  former  times.  Benvenuto  Cellini's  jour 
ney  over  them  to  France,  in  the  sixteenth  century 
Evelyn's  in  the  seventeenth,  and  Lady  Mar* 
Wortley's,  and  Horace  Walpole's,  in  the  eigh 
teenth,  are  all  described  in  terms  which  seem  to 
exhaust  the  details  of  possible  danger.  '  I  in- 
tend to  set  out  to-morrow,'  says  the  brilliant  am- 
bassadress to  the  Ottoman  Porte,  '  and  pass  those 
dreadful  Alps  so  much  talked  of.  If  I  come  to 
the  bottom  you  shall  hear  of  me.'  '  We  began, 
to  ascend  Mont  Cenis,  being  carried  on  little 
seats  of  twisted  osier  fixed  upon  poles,  upon 
men's  shoulders.'  Horace  Walpole's  description 
is  still  mere  formidable.  '  At  the  foot  of  Mont 
Cenis  we  were  obliged  to  quit  our  chaise,  which 
was  taken  to  pieces  and  loaded  on  mules ;  and 
we  were  carried  in  low  arm-chairs  on  poles, 
swathed  in  beaver  bonnets,  beaver  gloves,  beaver 
stockings,  muffs,  and  bear-skins.'  '  The  dexterity 
and  nimtJleness  of  the  mountaineers  is  incon- 
ceivable ;  they  run  down  steeps  and  frozen  preci- 
pices.'— '  We  had  twelve  men  and  nine  mules  to 
carry  us.' — '  On  the  top  of  the  highest  Alps,  by 
the  side  of  a  wood  of  firs,  there  darted  out  a 
young  wolf,  seized  poor  dear  Tory  by  the  throat ; 
and,  before  we  could  possibly  prevent  it,  sprung 
up  by  the  side  of  the  rock,  and  carried  him  off.' 
This  lady's  description  of  her  own  passage  of 
this  once  formidable  barrier  of  rival  states,  is 
equally  animated.  '  Descending  to  the  inn-yard 
to  begin  our  journey,  we  found  our  carriage  un- 
disturbed, with  four  post-horses,  and  two  smart 
postilions,  whose  impatient,  '  Allons,  Monsieur, 
aliens,  Madame,'  recalled  the  technical  jargon 
of  the  first  stage  from  Paris.  Their  '  vif,  vif,' 
put  the  horses  into  motion ;  and  we  ascended  in 
a  trot  that  broad,  smooth,  magnificent  road,  which, 
carried  over  the  mightiest  acclivities  of  the  migh- 
tiest regions,  exceeds  the  military  highways  of 
antiquity,  and  shames  the  paved  roads  of  modern 
France,  whose  price  was  the  degradation  of  a 
nation  (the  Corvee).  The  roar?,  indeed,  when 


CEIS 


279 


CEN 


we  passed  it,  was  covered  with  snow ;  but  the 
fences  on  either  side  marked  its  breadth  ;  and  the 
facility  of  its  winding  ascent  proved  the  boldness, 
ingenuity,  and  perfection  of  its  design.  At  cer- 
tain distances  arose  the  safe  asylums  (maisons  de 
refuge)  against  the  tormenta,  or  the  avalanche  : 
and  the  Cantonieri  presented  themselves  with 
their  pick-axes  and  shovels,  giving  courage  where 
aid  was  not  wanted.  A  post-house,  or  a  barrack, 
disputed  the  site  with  the  bears  and  wolves ;  and 
the  rapidity  of  the  whole  passage  rendered  beaver 
swathings,  or  any  other  extraordinary  precautions 
against  cold,  unnecessary  All  that  had  been 
danger,  difficulty,  and  suffering,  but  twenty  years 
back,  was  now  safe,  facile,  and  enjoyable  ;  secure 
beyond  the  chance  of  accident,  sublime  beyond 
the  reach  of  thought.  Legitimate  princes  !  divine- 
righted  sovereigns !  houses  of  France !  Austria 
and  Savoy !  '  which  of  you  hai-e  done  this  ?' 
There  is  not  one  among  you,  descendants  of  a 
Clovis,  a  Barbarossa,  or  an  Amadeus,  but  may 
in  safe  conscience  shake  his  innocent  head,,  and 
answer,  '  Thou  canst  not  say  'twas  I  did  it ! 
Neither  does  the  world  accuse  you !' 

CENOBI'TICAL,  adj.  From  KOIVOQ,  com- 
mon, or  belonging  to  many,  and  /3ioc,  life. 
Living  in  community :  applied  principally  to 
religious  communities. 

They  have  multitudes  of  religious  orders  :  black 
-Vid  gray,  eremitical  and  cenubitical,  and  nuns. 

Stillingfleet. 

CE'NOTAPH,  n.      From  KEJ/OC,  void,  empty, 
and  ra^oc,  a  tomb.     A  monument  for  one  else- 
where buried ;  or  among  the  Greeks,  as  Potter 
says,  '  for  one  that  never  obtained  a  just  funeral.' 
Priam,  to  whom  the  story  -was  unknown, 

As  dead,  deplored  his  metamorphosed  son  ; 

A  cenotaph  his  name  and  title  kept, 

And   Hector  round  the  tomb  with  all  his  brothers 
wept.  Dryden's  Fables. 

The  Athenians,  when  they  lost  any  men  at  sea, 
raised  a  cenotaph,  or  empty  monument. 

Notes  on  Odyssey. 

It  has  been  a  question,  whether  the  cenotaphia  had 
the  same'religious  regard  that  was  paid  to  sepulchres 
where  the  remains  of  the  deceased  were  deposited  ? 
For  the  resolution  hereof  it  may  be  observed,  that 
such  of  them,  as  were  only  erected  for  the  honour  of 
the  dead,  were  not  held  so  sacred  as  to  call  for  any 
judgment  upon  such  as  profaned  them  ;  but  the  rest, 
wherein  ghost's  were  thought  to  reside,  seem  to  have 
been  in  the  same  condition  with  sepulchres,  the  want 
whereof  they  were  designed  to  supply. 

Potter's  Antiquities. 

CENOTAPH,  in  antiquity,  an  empty  tomb, 
ejected  by  way  of  honor  to  the  deceased.  It  is 
distinguished  from  a  sepulchre,  in  which  a  coffin 
was  deposited.  Of  these  there  were  two  sorts ; 
one  for  those  who  had,  and  another  for  those 
who  had  not,  been  honored  with  funeral  rites  in 
another  place.  The  sign,  whereby  honorary 
sepulchres  were  distinguished  from  others,  was 
commonly  the  wreck  of  a  ship,  to  denote  the  de- 
cease of  the  person  in  some  foreign  country. 

CENSE,  7i.  •>      Lat.  census.     The  numbering 

CE'NSION,     >  of  the  people  and  the  valuation 

CE'NSUS.  j  of  their  property.  Hence,  a  tax, 
rate,  or  assessment.  In  Great  Britain  and  Ame- 
rica the  Roman  custom  of  taking  a  regular  cen- 


sus, or  enumeration  of  the  people,  has  been  re- 
vived in  modern  times ;  but  is  not  of  sufficient 
standing  to  have  been  much  used  by  authors. 

We  see  what  floods  of  treasure  have  flowed  into 
Europe  by  that  action ;  so  that  the  cense  or  rates  of 
Christendom,  are  raised  since  ten  times,  yea,  twenty 
times  told.  Bacon. 

What,  did  Caesar  know  Joseph  and  Mary  ?  His 
charge  was  universal,  to  a  world  of  subjects,  through 
all  the  Roman  empire.  God  intended  this  censhn 
only  for  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  her  Son,  that  Christ 
might  be  born  where  he  should.  Caesar  meant  to 
fill  his  coffers ;  God  meant  to  fulfil  his  prophecies. 

Bishop  Hall. 

CENSE,  v.    -)      Fr.   encenser;    Ital.   incenso, 

CE'NSER,TZ.    f  from  incendere,  Lat.     To  burn. 

CE'NSING,  n.  3 '  Contracted,'  says  Dr.  John- 
son, '  from  incense ;'  and  now  signifying  to  per- 
fume with  odors,  i.  e.  spices  burnt,  or  burning. 

And  after  the  veil  the  seconde  tabernacle,  that  is, 
seid  sancta  sanctorum,  that  is,  hooli  of  hooli  thingis, 
hauynge  a  goldun  censer  and  the  arke  of  the  testament 
kevered  aboute  on  eache  side  with  gold. 

Wiclif's  New  Testament.     Heb.  ix. 

And  like  as  in  the  Scriptures,  ofte  tymes  under  the 
name  of  Jerusalem  is  ment  the  whole  kingdom  of 
Juda,  so,  under  the  name  of  Rome,  here  may  be  un- 
derstanded  the  unyversall  worlde,  with  all  their  abomi- 
nations and  divilishnesses,  their  idolatryes,  witch- 
craftes,  sectes,  superstitions,  papacyes,  priesthoodes, 
relygions,  shavings,  anointings,  blessings,  censings, 
processions,  and  the  divil  of  all  such  beggeryes. 

Bale's  Image  of  both  Churchet. 

In  his  hand  he  bore  a  golden  censor  with  perfume  ; 
and,  censing  about  the  altar,  having  first  kindled  his 
fire  >n  the  top,  is  interrupted  by  the  genius. 

Ben  Jonson. 

I'll  tell  thee  what,  thou  thin  man  in  a  censer!  I 
will  have  you  soundly  swinged  for  this,  you  blue-bottle 
rogue  !  you  filthy  famished  correctioner.  Shakspeare. 

Here's  snip,  and  nip,  and  cut,  and  slish,  and  slush, 
Like  to  a  censer  in  a  barber's  shop. 

Why,  what  o'  devils'  name,  tailor,  callest  thou  this  ? 

Id. 

Had  Aaron  thrust  in  himself  with  empty  hands,  I 
doubt  whether  he  had  prevailed  ;  now  the  censer  w«.s 
his  protection:  when  we  come  with  supplications  in 
our  lianas,  we  need  not  fear  the  strokes  of  God. 

Bishop  Hall. 

And  the  priest  did  cense  the  surplus  carcase,  and 
holy  water  was  sprinkled  on  the  vile  bodie  in  the  form 
accustomed.  Tltuanus.  (Trims.) 

The  golden  censers,  in  which  they  carried  the  in- 
cense to  the  altar,  were  twenty  thousand  :  the  other 
censers,  in  which  they  carried  fire  from  the  great  altar 
to  the  little  altar,  within  the  temple,  were  fifty  thou- 
sand. WTiiston's  Josephtu. 

CENSER,  in  antiquity,  is  chiefly  used  in  speak- 
ing of  the  Jewish  worship.  Among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  it  is  more  frequently  called  thuri- 
bulum,  \t/3ai/wnc,  and  accera.  The  Jewish  cen- 
ser was  a  small  sort  of  chafing-dish,  covered  with 
a  dome,  and  suspended  by  a  chain.  Josephus 
tells  us  that  Solomon  made  20,000  gold  censers 
for  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  to  offer  perfumes  in, 
and  50,000  others  to  carry  fire  in. 

CENSIO,  in  antiquity,  the  act  or  office  of  the 
censor.  See  CENSUS.  Censio  included  both 
the  valuing  a  man's  estate,  and  the  imposing 
penalties. 

CENSIO  HASTARIA,  a  punishment  inflicted  on 
a  Roman  soldier,  for  some  offence,  whereby  hi* 


CEN 


280 


CEN 


liasta  or  spear  was  taken  from  him,  and  con- 
sequently his  wages  and  hopes  of  preferment 
stopped. 

CE'NSOR,  «.       \      Lat.  censor;  'He  who 
CENSO'RIAL.  I  executed    the   census   at 

CENSO'RIAN.        -  y  Rome,  and  was  empower- 
CENSO'RIOUS.          {ed,  as    a  magistrate,  to 
CENSO'RIOUSNESS.  I  censure  and  punish  evil 
CE'NSORSHIP.         ^  generally,  even  to  the  de- 
grading the  senators,  &c.     See  the  extract  from 
Lempriere.     Hence  applied  to  a  critic,  or  any 
severe  judge  of  others  ;  to  the  disposition   to 
judge  harshly ;  and  the  office  of  determining  au- 
thoritatively what  may  or  may  not  be  printed. 
As,  after  a  thirty  years'  struggle  for  liberty,  we 
have  a  modern  censorship  of  the  press  in  France. 
Sometimes  it  has  q/"before  the  object  of  reproach, 
and  sometimes  on  or  upon. 

After  the  office  of  the  censors  had  remained  for  some 
time  unaltered,  the  Romans,  jealous  of  their  power, 
abridged  the  duration  of  their  office,  and  a  law  was 
made  A.  U.  C.  420,  by  Mamercus  ./Emilius,  to  limit 
the  time  of  the  censorship  to  eighteen  months.  Their 
office  was  more  honorable,  though  less  powerful,  than 
that  of  the  consuls ;  the  badges  of  their  office  were 
the  same,  but  the  censors  were  not  allowed  to  have 
lictors  to  walk  before  them  as  the  consuls.  When 
one  of  the  censors  died,  no  one  was  elected  in  his 
room  till  five  years  were  expired,  and  his  colleague 
immediately  resigned.  This  circumstance  originated 
from  the  death  of  a  censor  before  the  sacking  of  Rome 
by  Brennus,  and  was  ever  after  deemed  an  unfortu- 
nate event  to  the  republic.  The  eirperors  abolished 
the  censors,  and  took  upon  themselves  to  execute  their 
office.  Lempriere's  Class.  Diet. 

It  was  brought  to  Rome  in  the  censorship  of  Clau- 
dius. Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 
As  the  chancery  had  the  pretorian  power  for  equity, 
so  the  star-chamber  had  the  censorian  power  for  of- 
fences under  the  degree  of  capital.  Bacon. 
Troublesome,  censorious,  dividing,  spirits  occasioned 
more  thoughts  of  those  unhappy  controversies  about 
forms  and  ceremonies,  church  government,  &c.  and 
I  was  still  more  satisfied,  even  when  most  serious, 
that  the  bitter  extremes  of  dissenters,  as  well  as  of 
rigid  conformists,  were  highly  displeasing  to  God. 

French's  Diary,  1677. 
Ill-natured  censors  of  the  present  age, 
And  fond  of  all  the  follies  of  the  past. 

Roscommon, 

Do  not  too  many  believe  no  religion  to  be  pure, 
but  what  is  intemperately  rigid  ;  no  zeal  to  be  spiritual, 
but  what  is  censorious,  or  vindictive  1  Spratt. 

Sourness  of  disposition,  and  rudeness  of  behaviour, 
censoriousness  and  sinister  interpretation  of  things,  all 
cross  and  distasteful  humours,  render  the  conversa- 
tion of  men  grievous  and  uneasy  to  one  another. 

Tillotson. 

The  most  severe  censor  cannot  but  be  pleased  with 
the  prodigality  of  his  wit,  though  at  the  same  time, 
he  could  have  wished  that  the  master  of  it  had  been 
a  better  manager.  Dry  den. 

He  treated  all  his  inferiors  of  the  clergy  with  a 
most  sanctified  pride ;  was  rigorously  and  universally 
censorious  upon  all  his  brethren  of  the  gown.  Swift. 

My  God,  if  truth  their  censure  guide, 
If  guilt  be  in  my  facts  descried, 
If  e'er  from  my  dissembling  heart 
My  friend  has  found  the  hostile  part 


Now  in  the  dust  my  life  be  laid, 

And  earth's  dark  womb  my  glory  shade. 


Merrick, 


A  statesman,  who  is  possessed  of  real  merit,  should 
look  upon  his  political  censurers  with  the  same  neglect 
that  a  good  writer  regards  his  critics.  Addiion. 

You,  my  disciples,  live  in  a  very  censorious  age, 
and  the  scribes  and  pharisees,  who  are  in  the  highest 
esteem  for  the  strictness  of  their  lives,  place  a  great 
part  of  their  own  religion  in  condemning  others  ;  but 
see  to  it,  that  you  do  not  judge  those  about  you,  io 
this  rigorous  and  severe  manner. 

Doddridge's  Expositor,  Matt.  vii. 

Whatever  references  is  due  to  his  diligence,  or  his 
attainments,  it  can  be  no  criminal  degree  of  censo- 
riousness to  charge  that  etymologist  with  want  of 
judgment,  who  can  seriously  derive  dream  from 
drama,  because  life  is  a  drama,  and  drama  is  dream. 

Johnson. 
Those  who  raise  envy  will  easily  incur  censure. 

Id.     Idler. 

It  commonly  happens  to  him  who  endeavours  to 
obtain  distinction  by  ridicule  or  censure,  that  he 
teaches  others  to  practise  his  own  arts  against  himself. 

Id. 

I  therefore  dismiss  it  with  frigid  tranquillity,  having 
little  to  fear  or  hope  from  censure  or  from  praise. 

Id. 

I  am  sorry  to  find  the  censure  I  have  passed  upon 
Occiduus  is  even  better  founded  than  I  supposed. 

Courper. 

In  youth,  the  seed-time  of  our  days, 
Full  many  a  crop  is  spoiled  by  praise  ; 
And  all  the  spring-tide  fields  of  Hope 
Smiles  that  should  ripen,  wither  up. 
While  censure,  rigid  and  unkind, 
Nips  the  young  buds  and  starves  the  mind. 

Smith's  Album. 

CENSORS,  from  censere,  to  see ;  two  prime 
magistrates  in  ancient  Rome.  Their  business 
was  to  register  the  effects  of  the  Roman  citizens, 
to  impose  taxes,  and  to  take  cognisance  of  the 
manners  of  the  citizens.  They  had  a  power  to 
censure  immorality,  by  inflicting  some  mark  of 
ignominy  on  the  offender.  They  had  even  a 
power  to  create  the  princeps  senatus,  and  to 
expel  from  the  senate  such  as  they  deemed  un- 
worthy of  that  office.  This  power  they  sometimes 
exercised  arbitrarily,  and  therefore  a  law  was 
passed,  that  no  senator  should  be  degraded, 
until  he  had  been  formally  accused  and  found 
guilty  by  both  the  censors.  They  also  filled  up 
the  vacancies  in  the  senate,  upon  any  remarkable 
deficiency  in  their  numbers ;  they  let  out  to  farm 
all  the  lands  and  revenues  of  the  republic ;  and 
contracted  with  artificers,  for  building  and  re- 
pairing all  the  public  works,  both  in  Rome  and 
the  colonies  of  Italy.  In  all  parts  of  their  office, 
however,  an  appeal  always  lay  from  the  sentence 
of  the  censors,  to  that  of  an  assembly  of  the 
people.  The  first  two  censors  were  created 
A.  U.C.  311,  upon  the  senate  observing  that  the 
consuls  were  so  much  taken  up  with  war,  as  not 
to  have  time  to  look  into  other  matters.  The  of- 
fice continued  till  the  time  of  the  emperors,  who 
assumed  the  censorial  power,  calling  themselves 
morum  pnefecti ;  though  Vespasian  and  his  sons 
resumed  the  title  of  censors.  Decius  attempted 
to  restore  the  dignity  to  a  particular  magistrate. 
After  this  we  hear  no  more  of  the  censors,  till 
Constantine's  time,  who  made  his  brother  censor, 
and  he  "seems  to  have  been  the  last  that  enjoyed 


CEN 


281 


CEN 


the  office.  The  office  was  so  considerable,  that 
for  a  long  time  none  aspired  to  it  till  they  had 
passed  all  the  rest ;  so  that  it  was  thought  sur- 
prising that  Crassus  should  have  been  admitted 
censor,  without  having  been  either  consul  or 
praetor.  At  first  the  censors  enjoyed  their  dig- 
nity for  five  years,  but  in  A.U.C.  420,  the  dic- 
tator Mamertinus  made  a  law  restraining  it  to  a 
year  and  an  half,  which  was  afterwards  observed 
very  strictly.  At  first  one  of  the  censors  was 
elected  out  of  a  patrician,  and  the  other  out  of  a 
plebeian  family;  and,  upon  the  death  of  either, 
the  other  was  discharged  from  his  office  and  two 
new  ones  elected,  but  not  till  the  next  lustrum. 
In  622  both  censors  were  chosen  from  among  the 
plebeians ;  and  after  that  time  the  office  was 
shared  between  the  senate  and  people.  After 
their  election  in  the  Comitia  Centurialia,  the 
censors  proceeded  to  the  capitol,  where  they 
took  an  oath  to  act  equitably  and  impartially 
throughout  the  whole  course  of  their  administra- 
tion. The  late  aristocratical  government  of  Ve- 
nice had  a  censor  of  the  manners  of  the  people, 
whose  office  lasted  six  months. 

CE'NSURE,  v.  &  n.-\      Lat.  censura,  of  the 

CE'NSURER,  [  same  etymology  as  cen- 

CE'NSURABLE,  I  SOT.    To  give  sentence 

CE'NSURING,  n.  J  judicially,  or  otherwise; 
to  express  an  unfavorable  opinion;  a  judicial 
sentence ;  an  opinion  of  any  kind.  See  the  pas- 
sages from  Shakspeare ;  reprimand ;  blame ;  a 
condemnatory  sentence  or  opinion. 

Power  of  censure  and  ordination  appeareth  even  by 
Scripture  marvellous  probable,  to  have  been  derived 
from  Christ  to  his  church,  without  this  surmised 
equality  in  them  to  whom  he  hath  committed  the  same. 

Hooker. 

Scripture  hath  said,  '  For  this  very  cause  left  I 
thee  in  Crete,  that  thou  shouldst  redress  the  things 
that  remain ;  and  shouldst  ordain  presbyters  in  every 
city;  as  I  appointed  thee.'  In  the  former  place  the 
power  of  censure  is  spoken  of,  and  the  power  of  ordi- 
nation in  the  latter.  Id. 
Most  honored  madam, 

My  lord  of  York — out  of  his  noble  nature, 

Zeal  and  obedience  he  sdll  bore  your  grace  ; 

Forgetting,  like  a  good  man,  your  late  censure, 

Both  of  his  truth  and  him  (which  was  too  far), 

Offers,  as  I  do,  in  a  sign  of  peace, 

His  service  and  his  counsel. 

Shakspeare.     Henry  VIII, 

GLOS.  Madam,  the  king  is  old  enough  himself, 

To  give  his  censure  ;   these  are  no  women's 
matters. 

Q.  MAR.  If  he  be  old    enough,  what  needs   your 

grace 
To  be  protector  of  his  excellence  ? 

Id.  Henry  VI. 

Madam,  and  you,  my  sister,  will  you  go 
To  give  your  censures  in  this  weighty  business  ? 

Id.  Richard  III. 
We  must  not  stint 
Our  necessary  actions  with  the  fear 
To  cope  malicious  censures.        Id.  Hen.  VIII. 

They  that  can  inflict  censures  upon  presbyters,  have 
certainly  superiority  of  jurisdiction  over  presbyters, 
for  asqualis  squalem  coercere  non  potest,  saith  the 
law-  Jer.  Taylor. 

In  St.  Paul's  time,  though  the  censure  of  heresy 
were  not  so  loose  and  forward  as  afterwards  ;  and  all 
that  were  called  heretics  were  clearly  such,  and  highly 


criminal  ;   yet  as  their  crime  was,  so   was   their  cen- 
sure, that  is  spiritual.  Taylor  on  Prophecy. 

But  if  I  have  answered  every  challenge,  vindicated 
every  authority  ;  censured  nothing  unjustly  ;  satisfied 
all  his  malicious  objections,  and  warranted  every 
sentence  of  my  poor  epistle  ;  let  my  apology  live  and 
pass,  and  let  my  refuter  go  as  he  is.  Bishop  Hall. 

What  need  we  care  for  the  censures  of  men,  if  our 
hearts  can  tell  us  that  we  are  in  favour  with  God.  Id. 

There  is  a  deep  corruption  of  mind  and  manners, 
which  engageth  men  in  their  own  defence  to  censure 
others,  diverting  the  blame  from  home,  and  shrouding 
their  own  under  the  covert  of  other  men's  faults. 

Barrow. 

All  mankind  in  a  lump  is  severely  censured,  as 
void  of  any  real  goodness  or  true  virtue ;  so  fatally 
depraved  as  not  to  be  corrigible  by  any  good  discip- 
line ;  not  to  be  recoverable  even  by  the  grace  of  God. 
Yea  God  himself  is  hardly  spared,  his  providence 
coming  under  the  bold  obliquy  of  those,  who,  as  the 
Psalmist  speaketh  of  some  in  his  time,  whose  race 
doth  yet  survive,  speak  loftily,  and  set  their  mouth 
against  the  heavens.  Id. 

The  like  censurings  and  despisings  have  embittered 
the  spirits,  and  whetted  both  the  tongues  and  pens  of 
learned  men  one  against  another.  Sanderson. 

It  cannot  reasonably  be  thought  that  Christ  doth 
here  forbid  church  governors  to  judge,  condemn,  and 
pass  the  censures  of  the  church  upon  notorious  and 
scandalous  offenders,  because  he  hath  himself  enjoined 
the  execution  of  her  censures  upon  those  who  will  not 
hear  the  church  when  she  requires  them  to  repent  of, 
and  satisfy  their  Christian  brothers  for,  any  trespass 
done  against  him.  Whitby  on  Matt.  vii.  1. 

CENSUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  an  authentic 
declaration  made  before  the  censors,  by  the 
people,  of  their  respective  names  and  places  of 
abode.  This  was  registered  by  the  censors ;  and 
contained  an  enumeration,  in  writing,  of  all  the 
estates,  lands,  and  inheritances  they  possessed ; 
their  quantity,  quality,  place,  wives,  children, 
domestics,  tenants,  and  slaves.  In  the  provinces 
the  census  served  not  only  to  discover  the  sub- 
stance of  each  person,  but  where,  and  in  what 
marmer  and  proportion,  taxes  might  be  best  im- 
posed. The  census  at  Rome  is  commonly  thought 
to  have  been  held  every  five  years :  but  Middle- 
ton  has  snovvn,  that  both  census  and  lustrum  were 
held  at  various  irregular  and  uncertain  intervals. 
The  census  was  an  excellent  expedient  for  disco- 
vering the  strength  of  the  state ;  the  number  of 
the  citizens,  how  many  were  fit  for  war,  and 
how  many  for  offices  of  other  kinds,  how  much 
each  was  able  to  pay  of  taxes,  &c.  It  went 
through  all  ranks  of  people,  though  under  dif- 
ferent names :  that  of  the  common  people  was 
called  census ;  that  of  the  knights,  census,  recen- 
sio,  recognitio ;  that  of  the  senators,  lectio,  relec- 
tio. — Hence  it  came  to  be  used  personally. 

CENSUS  was  also  used  for  a  person  worth 
100,000  sesterces,  or  who  was  entered  as  such 
in  the  censual  tables,  on  his  own  declaration. 
In  this  sense,  it  amounts  to  the  same  with  clas- 
sicus,  or  a  man  of  the  first  class  ;  though  Gellius 
limits  the  estate  of  such  to  125,000  asses.  By 
the  Voconian  law,  no  census  was  allowed  to  give 
by  his  will  above  a  fourth  part  of  what  he  was 
worth  to  a  woman.  Census  was  likewise  used 
in  other  senses:  as,  1.  For  the  book  or  register 


CEN 

wherein  the  professions  of  the  people  were 
entered ;  and  which  was  frequently  cited  and 
appealed  to,  as  evidence  in  the  courts  of  justice. 
2.  A  man's  whole  substance  or  estate.  3.  A 
tax  on  persons,  or  a  capitation  tax.  See  CAPITE. 

CENSUS  DUPLICATUS,  a  double  rent,  paid  by 
vassals  to  their  lords  on  extraordinary  occasions ; 
as  expeditions  to  the  Holy  Land,  &c. 

CENSUS  ECCLESI*  ROMANS,  an  annual  con- 
tribution voluntarily  paid  to  the  see  of  Rome  by 
the  several  princes  of  Europe. 

CENSUS  EQUESTER,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the 
estate  of  a  knight,  rated  at  400,000  sesterces, 
which  was  required  to  qualify  a  person  for  that 
order,  and  without  which  no  virtue  or  merit  was 
available. 

CENSUS  SENATORIUS,  the  patrimony  of  a  sena- 
tor, was  limited  to  a  certain  value;  being  at  first 
rated  at  800,000  sesterces,  but  afterwards,  under 
Augustus,  enlarged  to  1,200,000. 

CENT.  Lat.  centum,  a  hundred.  Five  per 
cent;  that  is  so  much  by,  or  for,  the  hundred. 

CE'NTAUR,  n.         ^     A  poetical  being,  sup- 

CE'NTAUR-LIKE,  adj.  >  posed  to  be  compound- 

CE'NTAURY,  n.  j  ed  of  the  upper  part  of 

a  man,  and  the  lower  part  of  a  horse ;  the  sign 
Sagittarius  in  the  zodiac.  For  the  plant  centaury, 
see  CENTAUREA. 

Down  from  the  waist  they  are  centaurs,  though 
women  all  above.  Shakspeare. 

He,  as  if,  centaur-like,  he  had  been  one  piece  with 
his  horse.  Sidney. 

The  idea  of  a  centaur  has  no  more  falsehood  in  it 
than  the  name  centaur.  Locke. 

Add  pounded  galls,  and  roses  dry, 
And  with  Cecropian  thyme  strong  scented  centaury. 

Dryden. 

The  chearless  empire  of  the  sky 
To  Capricorn  the  Centaur  archer  yields. 

Thomson. 

CENTAUR,  in  astronomy,  a  part  of  a  southern 
constellation,  usually  joined  with  the  wolf.  See 
ASTRONOMV. 

CENTAURS,  in  mythology,  from  KEVTW,  to  gall, 
and  ravpoc,  a  bull ;  fabulous  monsters,  half  men 
and  half  horses.  The  poets  pretend  that  the  cen- 
taurs were  the  sons  of  Ixion  and  a  cloud :  the 
reason  of  which  fency  is,  that  the  people  so 
named  retired  to  a  castle,  called  v£<j>t\ri,  which 
signifies  a  cloud.  Some  will  have  the  centaurs 
to  have  been  a  body  of  shepherds  and  herdsmen, 
rich  in  cattle,  who  inhabited  the  mountains  of 
Arcadia,  and  to  whom  is  attributed  the  invention 
of  bucolic  poetry.  Palaephaetus,  in  his  book  of 
Incredibles,  relates  that,  in  the  reign  of  Ixion, 
king  of  Thessaly,  a  herd  of  bulls  on  mount  Thes- 
salus  ran  mad,  and  ravaged  the  whole  country, 
rendering  the  mountains  inaccessible ;  that  some 
young  men  who  had  found  out  the  art  of  taming 
and  mounting  horses,  undertook  to  clear  the 
mountains  of  these  animals,  which  they  pursued 
on  horseback,  and  thence  obtained  the  appella- 
tion of  centaurs.  This  success  rendering  them 
insolent,  they  insulted  the  Lapithae,  a  people  of 
Thessaly :  and  because  when  attacked  they  fled 
with  great  rapidity,  it  was'  supposed  they  were 
half  horses  and  half  men.  The  centaurs  in 
reality  were  a  tribe  of  Lapithae,  who  inhabited 


CEN 

the  city  Pelethronium,  adjoining  to  mount  Pelion, 
and  first  invented  the  art  of  breaking  horses,  as 
is  intimated  by  Virgil. 

CENTAUREA,  greater  centaury :  a  genus  of 
the  polygamia  frustanea  order,  and  syngenesia 
class  of  plants ;  natural  order,  forty-ninth ;  com- 
positae.  The  receptacle  is  bristly,  the  pappus 
simple,  the  COR.  of  the  radius  funnel-shaped,  longer 
than  those  of  the  disk,  and  irregular.  There  are 
upwards  of  131  species;  of  which  we  shall  only 
mention  two :  viz.  1.  C.  cyanus,  the  blue  bottle, 
grows  commonly  among  corn.  The  expressed 
juice  of  this  flower  stains  linen  of  a  beautiful  blue 
color,  but  is  not  permanent.  Boyle  says,  that 
the  juice  of  the  inner  petals,  with  a  little  alum, 
makes  a  beautiful  permanent  color,  equal  to 
ultramarine.  2.  C.  glastifolia.  The  root  of  this 
species  is  an  article  in  the  materia  medica.  It 
has  a  rough,  somewhat  acrid  taste,  and  abounds 
with  a  red  viscid  juice.  Its  rough  taste  has 
gained  it  some  esteem  as  an  astringent ;  its  acri- 
mony as  an  aperient;  and  its  glutinous  quality 
as  a  vulnerary :  but  the  present  practice  takes 
very  little  notice  of  it. 

CENTENARIO,  or  CENTENARIUS,  in  the 
middle  age;  1.  an  officer  who  had  the  command, 
with  the  administration  of  justice,  in  a  village. 
The  centenarii  were  under  the  jurisdiction  and 
command  of  the  court.  We  find  them  among 
the  Franks,  Germans,  Lombards,  Goths,  &c. 
2.  An  officer  who  had  the  command  of  100  men; 
more  frequently  called  a  centurion.  3.  An  of- 
ficer, in  monasteries,  who  had  the  command  of 
100  monks. 

CE'NTENARY,  n.~)     Lat.  centenarius.   The 

CENTEN'NIAL,  adj.   > number  of  a  hundred. 

CENTI'LOQUY,  n.  3  Mason  uses  the  word 
centennial  to  denote  the  hundredth  anniversary. 
Centiloquy  is  a  collection  of  a  hundred  sayings. 
See  CENTILOQUIUM. 

In  every  centenary  of  years  from  the  creation,  some 
small  abatement  should  have  been  made.  Hakewill. 

CENTININUM  OVUM,  i.  e.  the  lOOdth  egg, 
among  naturalists,  a  sort  of  hen's  egg  much 
smaller  than  ordinary,  vulgarly  called  a  cock's 
egg;  from  which  it  has  been  fabulously  held 
that  the  cockatrice  is  produced.  The  name  is 
taken  from  an  opinion,  that  these  are  the  last 
eggs  which  hens  lay,  having  laid  100  before. 
They  have  no  yolks,  but  in  other  respects  differ 
not  from  common  ones;  having  the  albumen, 
chalazes,  membranes,  &c.  in  common  with  others. 
In  the  place  |of  the  yolk  is  found  a  little  body 
like  a  serpent  coiled  up,  which  doubtless  gave 
rise  to  the  fable  of  the  basilisk's  origin  from 
thence.  Their  origin  is  with  probability  ascribed 
by  Hervey  to  this,  that  the  yolks  in  the  vitellary 
of  the  hen  are  exhausted  before  the  albumina. 

CENTE'SIMAL,  n.  Lat.  centesimus.  Hun- 
dredth; the  next  step  of  progression  after  deci- 
mal in  the  arithmetic  of  fractions. 

The  neglect  of  a  few  ccntcsimals  in  the  side  of  the 
cube,  would  bring  it  to  an  equality  with  the  cube  of  a 
foot.  Arbuthnot  on  Coins. 

CENTESIMATION,  a  milder  kind  of  mili- 
tary punishment,  in  cases  of  desertion,  mutiny, 
and  the  like,  when  only  every  lOOdth  man  is 
executed. 


CEN 


283 


CRN 


CENTESIMA  USURA,  that  wherein  the  inte- 
rest in  100  months  became  equal  to  the  princi- 
pal :  i.  e.  where  the  money  is  laid  out  at  one  per 
cent,  per  month ;  answering  to  what  in  our  style 
would  be  called  twelve  per  cent.;  for  the  Ro- 
mans reckoned  their  interest  not  by  the  year,  but 
by  $ie  month. 

CENTIFO'LIOUS,  adj.  from  Lat.  centum 
and  folium.  Having  an  hundred  leaves. 

CENTILOQUIUM,  a  collection  of  100  sen- 
tences, opinions,  or  sayings.  The  Centiloquium 
of  Hermes,  contains  100  aphorisms,  or  astrolo- 
gical sentences,  supposed  to  have  been  written 
by  some  Arab,  and  falsely  fathered  on  Hermes 
Trismegistus.  It  is  only  extant  in  Latin,  in 
which  it  has  several  times  been  printed.  The 
Centiloquium  of  Ptolemy  is  a  famous  astrological 
piece,  frequently  confounded  with  the  former, 
consisting  likewise  of  100  sentences,  divided  into 
short  aphorisms. 

CE'NTINEL.     See  SENTINEL. 

CE'NTIPEDE,  n.  Lat.  from  centum  and^es. 
A  poisonous  insect  in  the  West  Indies,  com- 
monly called  by  the  English  forty  legs. 

CENTIPEDE  WORMS,  such  as  have  a  great 
many  feet,  though  the  number  does  not  amount 
to  100,  as  the  term  imports. 

CENTIPES.     See  SCOLOPENDRA. 

CEN'TO,  n.  Lat.  cento.  A  composition 
formed  by  joining  scraps  from  other  authors. 

It  is  quilted,  as  it  were,  out  of  shreds  of  divers 
poets,  such  as  scholars  call  a  cento.  Camden's  Rem. 

This  hath  made  it  to  be  suspected  of  too  much  com- 
pliance with  that  church,  and  her  offices  of  devotion, 
and  that  it  is  a  very  cento  composed  out  of  the  Mass 
book,  Pontifical,  Breviaries,  Manuals,  and  Portuises 
of  the  Roman  church.  Jer.  Taylor. 

If  any  man  think  the  poem  a  cento,  our  poet  will 
but  have  done  the  same  in  jest  which  Boileau  did  in 
earnest.  Advertisement  to  Pope's  Dunciad. 

CENTONARII,  in  antiquity,  certain  of  the 
Roman  army,  who  provided  different  sorts  of 
«tuff  called  centones,  used  to  quench  the  fire 
which  the  enemies'  engines  threw  into  the  camp. 


CE'NTRE,  v.  &.  n. 
CE'NTRAL,  adj. 
CENTRA'LITY,  n. 
CE'NTRALLY,  adv. 
CE'NTRICAL,  or 
CE'NTRICLE,  adj. 
CE'NTRICALLY,  adv. 
CE'NTRICALNESS,  n. 
CENTRI'FUGAL,  adj. 


Lat.  centrum ;  Ktvrpov. 
That  point  which  is  equi- 
distant from  every  part 
of  the  circumference. 
The  verb,  and  all  its 
[kindred  words,  partake 
of,  or  have  reference  to, 
this  meaning.  To  centre 
is  to  fix  on  a  centre ;  to 


CENTRI'PETAL,  adj.  J  collect,  and  be  collect- 
ed, to  a  point;  to  rest  on;  to  be  placed  in  the 
midst.  Centrifugal  signifies  flying  from  a  centre ; 
centripetal,  having  a  tendency  towards  it. 

The  heavens  themselves,  the  planets,  and  this  centre, 
Observe  degree,  priority,  and  place.  Shakspeare, 

He  that  has  light  within  his  own  clear  breast, 
May  sit  i'  the  centre,  and  enjoy  bright  day. 
But  he  that  hides  a  dark  soul  and  foul  thoughts, 
15enighted  walks  under  the  mid-day  sun ; 
Himself  is  his  own  dungeon.  Milton. 

As  God  in  heaven 

Is  centre,  yet  extends  to  all ;  so  thou 
Centring  reccivest  from  all  those  orbs.          Id. 
One  foot  he  centred,  and  the  other  turned 
Round  through  the  vast  profundity  obscure.        Id. 


Some  that  have  deeper  digged  Love's  mine  than  I, 
Say  where  his  centrick  happiness  doth  lie.  Donne. 

Do  not  sigh,  fair  nymph,  for  fire 
Hath  no  wings,  yet  doth  as  hire 
Till  it  hit  against  the  pole ; 
Heaven's  the  centre  of  the  soul.  MarveU. 

O  impudent  and  regardful  of  thy  own, 

Whose  thoughts  are  centred  on  thyself  alone. 

Dryden. 
What  hopes  you  had  in  Diomed,  lay  down  j 

Our  hopes  must  center  in  ourselves  alone.  Id. 

Though  one  of  the  feet  most  commonly  bears  the 
•weight,  yet  the  whole  weight  rests  centrally  upon  it. 

Id. 

He  may  take  a  range  all  the  world  over,  and  draw 
in  all  that  wide  air  and  circumference  of  sin  and 
vice,  and  centre  it  in  his  own  breast.  South. 

Where  there  is  no  visible  truth  wherein  to  centre, 
errour  is  as  wide  as  men's  fancies,  and  may  wander 
to  eternity.  Decay  of  Piety. 

There  is  now,  and  was  then,  a  space  or  cavity  iu 
the  central  parts  of  it ;  so  large  as  to  give  reception  to 
that  mighty  mass  of  water. 

Woodward's  Natural  History. 

It  was  attested  by  the  visible  centring  of  all  the  old 
prophecies  in  the  person  of  Christ,  and  by  the  com- 
pletion of  these  prophecies  since,  which  he  himself 
uttered.  Atterliw-y. 

Umbriel,  a  dusky  melancholy  sprite, 

Down  to  the  central  earth,  his  proper  scene, 

Repairs.  Pope's  Rape  of  the  Loch. 

They  described  an  hyperbola,  by  changing  the  cen- 
tripetal into  a  centrifugal  force.  Ckeyne. 

Might  not,  in  ancient  times,  the  near  passing  of  some 
large  comet  of  greater  magnetic  power  than  this  globo 
of  ours,  have  been  a  means  of  changing  its  poles,  and 
thereby  wracking  and  deranging  its  surface,  placing 
in  different  regions  the-effect  of  centrifugal  force,  so  as 
to  raise  the  waters  of  the  sea  in  some,  while  they  were 
depressed  in  others  ?  Id.. 

His  wealth,  fame,  honors,  all  that  I  intend, 
Subsist  and  centre  in  one  point — a  friend.         Cowper, 

Through  constant  dread  of  giving  truth  offence, 
He  ties  up  all  his  hearers  in  suspense  ; 
Knows  what  he  knows,  as  if  he  knew  it  not, 
What  he  remembers  seems  to  have  forgot : 
His  sole  opinion,  whatsoe'er  befall, 
Centring  at  last  in  having  none  at  a.  .  Id. 

Thou  chief  star ! 

Centre  of  many  stars  !  which  makest  our  earth 

Endurable,  and  tempcrest  the  hues 

And  hearts  of  all  who  walk  within  thy  rays  ! 

By  ran. 

CENTRE  OF  A  SPHERE,  a  point  in  the  middle, 
from  which  all  lines  drawn  to  the  surface  are 
equal. 

CENTRE  OF  GRAVITY,  in  mechanics,  that  point 
about  which  all  the  parts  of  a  body  do  in  any 
situation  exactly  balance  each  other. 

CENTRE  OF  MOTION,  that  point  which  remains 
at  rest,  while  all  the  other  parts  of  a  body  move 
about  it. 

CENTRIFUGAL  FORCE.     See  MECHANICS. 

CENTRIPETAL  FORCE.     See  MECHANICS. 

CENTRISCUS,  in  ichthyology,  a  genus  of 
fishes  belonging  to  the  order  of  amphibia  iiantes. 
The  head  gradually  ends  in  a  narrow  snout,  the 
aperture  is  broad  and  flat ;  the  belly  is  carinated ; 
and  the  belly  (ins  united.  There  are  three  spe- 
cies, viz.  1.  C.  scolopax,  with  a  rough  scabrous 
body,  and  a  straight  extended  tail.  It  has  two 
ventral  fins,  with  four  rays  in  each,  but  no  teeth. 


CEN 


284 


CEN 


It  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean.  2.  C.  scuta- 
tatus  has  its  back  covered  with  a  smooth  bony 
shell,  which  ends  in  a  sharp  spine,  under  which  is 
the  tail ;  but  the  back  fins  are  between  the  tail 
and  the  spine.  It  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies. 
3.  C.  valitarus,  body  oblong,  lanceolate  and 
rough,  with  small  recumbent  bristles  at  the  nos- 
trils. A  native  of  Amboyna. 

GENTRY.     See  SENTINEL. 

CENTUMCELLJE,  in  ancient  geography, 
Trajan's  villa  in  Tuscany,  on  the  coast,  three 
miles  from  Algae  ;  with  an  excellent  port,  called 
Trajanus  Portus ;  and  a  factitious  island  at  the 
mouth  of  the  port,  made  with  a  huge  block  of 
stone,  on  which  two  turrets  rose,  with  two  en- 
trances into  the  basin  or  harbor.  It  is  now  cal- 
led Civita  Vecchia.  Long.  11°  51'  E.,  lat.  42° 
5'N. 

CENTUMVTRI,  in  Roman  antiquity,  judges 
appointed  to  decide  common  causes  among  the 
people :  they  were  chosen,  three  out  of  each 
tribe ;  and,  though  105  in  number,  were  called 
centumviri,  from  the  round  number  centum,  an 
hundred. 

CENTUNCULUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  and  tetrandria  class  of  plants; 
natural  order  twentieth,  rotacea :  CAL.  quadri- 
fid :  COR.  quadrifid,  and  patent ;  the  stamina 
are  short :  CAPS,  is  unilocular,  cut  round  or 
parting  horizontally. 

CE'NTUPLE,t>.&o<#.  1      Lat.  centuplex.    A 

CENTU'PLICATE,  v.  )  hundredfold;  to  mul- 
tiply a  hundred  fold. 

Then  would  he  centuple  thy  former  store, 

And  make  thee  far  more  happy  than  before. 

Sandys. 

CENTU'RIATE,  v.  Lat.  centurio.  To  di- 
vide into  hundreds. 

CENTURIATOR,  n.  From  century.  A 
name  given  to  historians  who  distinguish  times 
by  centuries ;  which  is  generally  the  method  of 
ecclesiastical  history. 

The  centuriators  of  Magdeburg  were  the  first  that  dis- 
covered this  grand  imposture.  Ayliffe's  Parergon. 

CENTU'RION,  7i.  Lat.  centurio.  A  Roman 
military  officer,  who  had  the  command  of  a 
hundred  men. 

And  the  centurion  and  thei  that  weren  with  him 
kepynge  Jhesus  whann  thei  sighen  the  erthe 
ochalyng,  and  the  thinges  that  weren  do  so,  thei 
dredden  gretly  and  seiden,  verily  this  was  Goddis 
sone.  Widif's  New  Testament.  Matt,  xxvii. 

And  he  commanded  a  centurion  to  keep  Paul,  and 
to  let  him  have  liberty,  and  that  he  should  forbid  none 
of  his  acquaintance  to  minister  or  come  unto  him. 

Acts  xxiv.  23. 

Have  an  army  ready,  say  you  ? — A  most  royal  one. 
The  centurions  and  their  charges  distinctly  billetted  in 
the  entertainment,  and  to  be  on  foot  at  an  hour's 
warning.  Shakspeare. 

CENTURIONS,  in  Roman  antiquity.  See  MA- 
NIPULUS.  Every  one  of  the  thirty  manipuli  in 
a  legion  was  divided  into  two  ordines,  or  cen- 
turies. Every  manipulus  was  allowed  two  cen- 
turions, one  to  each  century  •  and,  to  determine 
the  point  of  priority  between  them,  they  were 
created  at  two  different  elections.  The  thirty 
who  were  made  first  always  took  the  precedency 
of  their  fellows;  and  therefore  commanded  the 


right  hand,  as  the  others  did  the  left.  The  triarii 
had  their  centurions  elected  first,  next  to  them 
the  principes,  and  afterwards  the  hastati.  Primi 
ordines  is  sometimes  used  in  historians  for  the 
centurions  of  these  orders ;  and  the  centurions 
are  sometimes  styled  principes  ordinum,  and 
principes  centurionem.  These  distinctions  af- 
forded a  wide  field  for  promotion  :  first  through 
all  the  orders  of  the  hastati ;  then  through 
the  principes  ;  and  afterwards  from  the  last  order 
of  the  triarii  to  the  primipilus,  the  most  hono- 
rable of  the  centurions. 

CENTURIPA,  CENTURIPE,  or  CENTORIPA, 
in  ancient  geography,  a  town  on  the  south-west 
of  the  territory  of  JEtna,  on  the  river  Cyamoso- 
rus :  now  call  Centurippi.  It  was  a  democra- 
tical  city,  which,  like  Syracuse,  received  its 
liberty  from  Timoleon.  Its  inhabitants  culti- 
vated the  fine  arts,  particularly  sculpture  and  en- 
graving. It  was  taken  by  the  Romans,  plun- 
dered and  oppressed  by  Verres,  destroyed  by 
Pompey,  and  restored  by  Octavius,  who  made  it 
the  residence  of  a  Roman  colony.  In  digging 
for  the  remains  of  antiquities,  cameos  are  no 
where  found  in  such  abundance  as  at  Centurippi 
and  its  environs.  The  situation  of  the  place  is 
romantic :  it  is  built  on  the  summit  of  a  vast 
group  of  rocks,  which  was  probably  chosen  as 
the  most  difficult  of  access,  and  consequently 
the  safest  in  times  of  civil  commotion.  The  re- 
mains still  existing  of  its  'ancient  bridge  are  a 
proof  of  its  having  been  once  a  considerable 
city. 

CE'NTURY.  Lat.  centwria.  A  hundred. 
The  word  is  most  frequently  applied  to  specify 
time;  but  is  also  used  to  signify  number  merely; 
as  in  a  '  century  of  inventions.' 

When  with   wood  leaves  and  weeds  I've  strewed 

his  grave, 

And  on  it  said  a  century  of  prayers, 
Such  as  I  can,  twice  o'er,  I'll  weep  and  sigh. 

S/iakspeare. 

The  nature  of  eternity  is  such,  that  though  our  joys 
after  some  centuries  of  years  may  seem  to  have  grown 
older  by  having  been  enjoyed  so  many  ages,  yet  will 
they  really  still  continue  new.  Boyle. 

And  now  time's  whiter  series  is  begun, 
Which  in  soft  centuries  shall  smoothly  run. 

Dry  den. 

Romulus,  as  you  may  read ,  did  divide  the  Romans 
into  tribes,  and  the  tribes  into  centuries  or  hundreds. 

Sjiencer. 

The  lists  of  bishops  are  filled  with  greater  numbers 
than  one  would  expect ;  but  the  succession  was  quick 
in  the  three  first  centuries,  because  the  bishop  often 
ended  in  the  martyr.  Addison* 

When  we  see  men  grow  old,  and  die  at  a  certain 
time  from  one  another,  from  century  to  century,  we 
laugh  at  the  elixir  that  promises  to  prolong  life  a 
thousand  years.  Johnson* 

CENTURY,  in  antiquity.  The  Roman  people, 
when  assembled  for  electing  magistrates,  en- 
acting laws,  or  deliberating  upon  any  public  af- 
fair, were  always  divided  into  centuries,  and 
voted  by  centuries,  that  their  votes  might  be  the 
more  easily  collected,  whence  these  assemblies 
were  called  comitiacenturiata.  The  Roman  co- 
horts were  also  divided  into  centuries.  See 
CENTURION,  and  COHORT. 


CEO 


285 


CEP 


CEODES,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  dioecia 
order,  belonging  to  the  polygamia  class  of  plants : 
CAL.  none:  COR.  monopetalous,  with  a  short  ter- 
minated tube  ;  the  stamina  are  ten  subulated  fila- 
ments ;  the  antherae  roundish. 

CEOL,  an  initial  in  the  names  of  men,  which 
signifies  a  ship  or  vessel,  such  as  those  that  the 
Saxons  landed  in. 

CEORLES,  one  of  the  classes  into  which  the 
people  were  distinguished  among  the  Ang.lo- 
Saxons.  The  ceorles,  who  were  persons  com- 
pletely free,  and  descended  from  a  long  race  of 
freemen,  constituted  a  middle  class  between  the 
laborers  and  mechanics  (who  were  generally 
slaves,  or  descended  frorrj  slaves),  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  nobility  on  the  other.  They 
might  go  where  they  pleased,  and  pursue  any 
way  of  life  that  was  most  agreeable  to  their 
humor ;  but  so  many  of  them  applied  to  agricul- 
ure,  and  farming  the  lands  of  the  nobility,  that  a 
(eorl  was  the  most  common  name  for  a  husband- 
man or  farmer  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  times.  They 
seem  in  general  to  have  been  a  kind  of  gen- 
tleman farmers ;  and  if  any  one  of  them  acquired 
the  property  of  five  hides  of  land,  upon  which 
he  had  a  church,  a  kitchen,  a  bell-house,  and  a 
great  gate,  and  obtained  a  seat  and  office  in  the 
king's  court,  he  was  esteemed  a  nobleman  or 
thane.  If  a  ceorl  applied  to  learning,  and  at- 
tained to  priest's  orders,  he  was  also  considered 
as  a  thane  ;  his  weregild,  or  price  of  his  life,  was 
the  same,  and  his  testimony  had  the  same  weight 
in  a  court  of  justice.  When  he  applied  to  trade, 
and  made  three  voyages  beyond  sea,  in  a  ship  of 
his  own,  and  with  a  cargo  belonging  to  himself, 
he  was  also  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  a  thane. 
But  if  a  ceorl  inclined  to  arms,  he  became  the 
sithcundman,  or  military  retainer,  to  some  potent 
and  warlike  earl,  and  was  called  the  huscarle  of 
such  an  earl.  If  one  of  these  huscarles  acquitted 
himself  so  well  as  to  obtain  from  his  patron  either 
five  hides  of  land,  or  a  gilt  sword,  helmet,  and 
breastplate,  as  a  reward  of  his  valor,  he  was 
likewise  considered  as  a  thane.  Thus  the  temple 
of  honor  stood  open  to  these  ceorles,  whether 
they  applied  to  agriculture,  commerce,  letters,  or 
arms,  which  were  then  the  only  professions  es- 
teemed worthy  of  a  freeman. 

CEOS,  CEA,  CIA,  or  Cos,  in  ancient  geogra- 
phy, one  of  the  Cyclades,  opposite  to  Sunium, 
in  Achaia.  It  is  fifty  miles  in  compass,  and  is 
commended  by  the  ancients  for  its  fertility  and 
richness  of  its  pasture.  The  first  silk  stuffs,  ac- 
cording to  Pliny  and  Solinus,  were  wrought  here. 
Ceos  was  particularly  famous  for  excellent  figs.  It 
was  first  peopled  by  Aristaeus,  the  son  of  Apollo 
and  Cyrene,  who,  being  grieved  for  the  death  of 
his  son,  Actseon,  retired  from  Thebes,  at  the  per- 
suasion of  his  mother,  and  went  over  with  some 
Thebans  to  Ceos,  at  that  time  uninhabited.  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus  tells  us,  that  he  retired  to  the  island 
of  Cos;  b:;  the  ancients,  as  Servitus  observes, 
called  both  .hese  islands  by  the  name  of  Cos. 
Ceos  became  so  populous,  that  a  law  was  made, 
commanding  all  persons  upwards  of  sixty  to  be 
poisoned,  that  others  might  be  able  to  subsist : 
so  that  none  above  sixty  were  seen  to  be  in  the 
island,  being  obliged,  after  they  arrived  at  that 
ago,  either  to  submit  to  the  law,  or  abandon  thf 


country,  together  with  their  effects.  Ceos  had, 
in  former  times,  four  famous  cities,  viz.  Julia, 
Carthaea,  Coressus,  and  Prseessa.  The  two  latter 
were,  according  to  Pliny,  swallowed  up  by  an 
earthquake.  The  other  two  flourished  in  Strabo's 
time.  Carthaea  stood  on  a  rising  ground,  at  the 
end  of  a  valley,  abcut  three  miles  from  the  sea. 
The  situation  of  it  agrees  with  that  of  the  pre- 
sent town  of  Zia,  which  gives  name  to  the  whole 
island.  The  ruins  both  of  Carthaea  and  Julis  are 
still  remaining ;  those  of  the  latter  take  up  the 
whole  mountain,  and  are  called  by  the  modern 
inhabitants  Polis,  that  is,  the  city.  See  POLIS. 
Ceos  was,  with  the  other  Greek  islands,  subdued 
by  the  Romans,  and.  bestowed  upon  the  Athe- 
nians by  Marc  Antony  the  triumvir,  together  with 
^Egina,  Tinos,  and  some  other  adjoining  islands, 
which  were  all  reduced  to  one  Roman  province 
by  Vespasian.  The  island  is  now  called  Zia. 

CE'PHALALGY,  n.  Ke<pa\a\yia.  The  head- 
ache. 

CEPHALANTHUS,  button-wood,  a  genus  of 
the  monogynia  order,  and  tetrandria  class  of 
plants;  natural  order  forty-eighth,  aggregatae. 
No  common  calyx ;  the  proper  one  is  superior, 
and  funnel-shaped ;  the  receptacle  globose  and 
naked,  with  one  downy  seed.  There  are  five 
species,  natives  of  the  East  Indies,  the  princi- 
pal is  C.  occidentalis,  a  deciduous  shrub, 
native  of  North  America.  It  grows  to  about 
five  or  six  feet  high ;  and  is  not  a  very  bushy 
plant,  as  the  branches  are  always  placed  thinly 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  leaves,  which 
will  grow  more  than  three  inches  long,  and  one 
and  a  half  broad,  if  the  trees  are  planted  in  a 
proper  soil.  The  leaves  stand  opposite  by  pairs 
on  the  twigs,  and  sometimes  by  threes,  and  are 
of  a  light-green  color  :  their  upper  surface  is 
smooth ;  they  have  a  strong  nerve  running  from 
that  on  each  side  to  the  borders.  These,  as  well 
as  the  foot-stalk  in  autumn,  dye  a  reddish  color. 
The  flowers,  which  are  aggregate,  are  produced 
at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  in  globular  heads,  in 
July.  The  florets  which  compose  these  heads 
are  funnel-shaped,  of  a  yellow  color,  and  fas« 
tened  to  an  axis  on  the  middle. 

CEPHALENIA,  or  CEPHALLENIA,  an  island 
of  the  Ionian  sea,  between  Ithaca  and  Zacyn- 
thus,  known  in  Homer's  time  by  the  names  of 
Samos  and  Epirus  Melaena.  It  is  about  eighty 
miles  long,  forty  broad,  and  130  in  compass.  It 
had  anciently  four  cities.  Strabo  tells  us,  that 
in  his  time  there  were  only  two  cities  remaining; 
but  Pliny  speaks  of  three,  adding,  that  the  ruins 
of  Same,  the  metropolis,  which  had  been  des- 
troyed by  the  Romans,  were  still  in  being.  The 
names  of  the  four  cities  were,  according  to  Thu- 
cydides,  Same,  Prone,  Cranii,  and  Palae.  This 
island  was  subdued  by  the  Thebans,  under  Am- 
phitryo,  who  is  said  to  have  killed  Pterelas,  who 
then  reigned  in  it.  While  Amphitryo  was  car- 
rying on  the  war  in  Cephalenia,  then  called 
Samos,  Cephalus,  having  accidentally  killed  his 
wife  Procris,  fled  to  Amphitryo,  who  received 
him,  and  made  him  governor  of  the  island,  which 
thenceforth  was  called  Cephalenia.  After  it  had 
been  long  subject  to  the  Thebans,  it  fell  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Macedonians,  and  was  taken 
from  them  by  the  /Ktolians,  who  held  it  till  it 


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was  reduced  by  M.  Fulvius  Nobilior ;  who, 
having  gained  the  metropolis  after  a  siege  of  four 
months,  sold  all  the  citizens  for  slaves,  adding 
Jhe  whole  island  to  the  dominions  of  Rome.  It 
Js  now  called  Cephalonia. 

CEPHA'LICK,  adj.  Kt0oX»/.  That  which 
is  medicinal  to  the  head. 

Cephalick  are  all  such  as  attenuate  the  blood,  so  as 
S>  make  it  circulate  easily  through  the  capillary  ves- 
sels of  the  brain.  Arbuthnot  on  Aliment. 

I  dressed  him  up  with  soft  folded  linen,  dipped  in 
a  cephatick  balsam.  Wiseman. 

CEPHALIC  MEDICINES  comprehend  cordials, 
with  whatever  promotes  a  free  circulation  of  the 
blood  through  the  brain.  Except  when  the  dis- 
order arises  from  excess  of  heat,  of  an  in- 
flammatory disposition  in  the  head,  moist  topicals 
should  never  be  used  ;  but  always  dry  ones.  To 
rub  the  head  after  it  is  shaved  proves  an  in- 
stantaneous cure  for  a  cephalalgia,  a  stuffing  of 
the  head,  and  a  weakness  of  the  eyes,  arising 
from  a  weak  and  relaxed  state  of  the  fibres. 

CEPHALIC  VEIN,  in  anatomy,  creeps  along  the 
arm  between  the  skin  and  the  muscles,  and  di- 
vides it  into  two  branches ;  the  external  goes 
down  to  the  wrist,  where  it  joins  the  basilica, 
and  turns  up  to  the  back  of  the  hand  ;  the  in- 
ternal branch,  together  with  a  small  one  of  the 
basilica,  makes  the  mediana.  See  ANATOMY. 
The  ancients  used  to  open  this  vein  for  disorders 
of  the  head,  for  which  reason  it  bears  this  name  ; 
but  a  better  acquaintance  with  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  informs  us,  that  there  is  no  foundation 
for  such  a  notion. 

CEPHALONOMANTIA,  from  MfoXc,  ovoc, 
an  ass,  and  fiavraa.  A  method  of  divination,  by 
an  ass's  head  broiled  on  the  coals.  After  mut- 
tering a  few  prayers,  the  names  of  several  per- 
sons suspected  of  a  theft,  or  the  like,  were  re- 
peated over ;  he  at  whose  name  the  ass's  jaws 
made  any  motion,  was  held  convicted. 

CEPHALUS,  in  fabulous  history,  an  Athenian 
hero,  who  married  Procris,  the  daughter  of  Pan- 
dion,  king  of  Athens.  Ovid  represents  him  as 
having  been  so  beautiful,  that  Aurora  fell  in  love 
with  him ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  as  so  constant 
to  his  wife,  that  even  the  charms  of  the  rosy  god- 
dess could  not  prevail  on  him  to  break  his  nup- 
tial vow  :  whereupon  Aurora  changed  his  form 
to  that  of  another  man.  His  wife  gave  him  a 
javelin,  which  had  the  peculiar  property  of  never 
missing  its  aim  ; — a  property  which  proved  fatal 
to  herself ; — for,  one  day  being  out  in  a  wood, 
where  he  was  hunting,  he,  mistaking  her  among 
the  rustling  leaves,  for  a  wild  beast,  killed  her 
with  it.  Ovid  narrates  his  adventures  at  large, 
with  the  metamorphosis  of  his  dog  into  a  stone, 
&c.  Metam.  Lib.  vii.  Tab.  25 — 28. 

CEPHEUS,  in  fabulous  history,  a  king  of 
Arcadia,  on  whose  head  Minerva  fastening  one 
of  Medusa's  hairs,  he  was  rendered  invincible. 

CER  AM,  an  island  of  the  eastern  seas,  between 
160  and  180  miles  in  length,  and  about  forty  in 
breadth.  A  chain  of  mountains,  from  6500  to 
7000  feet  high,  intersects  it  longitudinally.  The 
sago  tree  is  found  here  in  large  forests.  Wild 
hogs  and  deer  are  also  numerous,  and  birds  of 
paradise,  together  with  a  bird  called  the  salangan. 
The  natives,  who  are  said  to  be  a  cruel  and  fe- 


rocious race,  confine  themselves  to  the  interior  ; 
but  the  island  is  under  the  dominion  of  chiefs 
acknowledging  the  rule  of  the  Dutch,  who  have 
destroyed  most  of  the  clove  trees.  Many  sin- 
gular stories  are  told  of  the  natives.  They  are 
a  stout  and  strong  race,  it  is  said,  and  so  active, 
that  they  run  down  the  wild  hogs.  Their  clothing 
is  only  a  bandage  of  cloth  of  the  bark  of  a  tree 
round  the  loins ;  their  arms,  a  bamboo  sword, 
and  bow  and  arrows.  The  qualification  for  mar 
riage  in  the  men  is  the  production  of  the  head  of 
a  person  whom  they  have  treacherously  murdered  ; 
nor  can  they  build  a  new  house  until  they  have 
destroyed  an  enemy.  The  heads  thus  collected, 
after  being  triumphantly  exposed  in  the  villages, 
are  conveyed  to  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  woods, 
where  their  idolatrous  rites  are  performed,  and 
where,  says  Rumphius,  '  the  devil  answers  their 
questions,  and  often  carries  away  some  of  them, 
especially  children,  for  three  or  four  months, 
when  he  brings  them  back,  after  having  presented 
them  with  certain  presents.'  Valentyn  informs  as 
that  parents  deliver  their  children  to  the  priests, 
to  be  instructed  in  the  religion  of  the  demon 
they  worship;  and  the  priests  receiving  the  chil- 
dren in  the  darkest  recess  of  their  leafy  temples, 
the  parents  are  made  to  believe  that  they  are 
sacrificed  by  the  dismal  screams  they  hear,  and 
by  the  bloody  spears  being  thrust  through  the 
roof  of  the  temple.  In  three  or  four  months, 
however,  they  are  returned  to  them  with  presents 
of  some  Chinese  copper  coins  on  strings.  The 
principal  food  of  these  tribes  is  the  wild  animals 
of  the  woods,  rats  and  snakes.  They  take  but 
one  wife,  to  whom  they  are  constant.  The  island 
has  several  good  ports,  particularly  Lahoo,  near 
the  south-west  end,  where  the  Dutch  had  for- 
merly a  resident;  Sawa,  on  the  north,  and  Wakoo 
on  the  north-east. 

CERAMBYX,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  insects 
of  the  beetle  kind,  belonging  to  the  order  of  in- 
secta  coleoptera.  The  antennae  are  long  and 
small ;  the  breast  is  spinous  or  gibbous ;  and 
the  elytra  are  linear.  Linnaeus  enumerates 
eighty-three  species,  chiefly  distinguished  by  the 
figure  of  the  breast. 

CERA'STES,  n.  Ktpa-r^c-  A  serpent  hav- 
ing horns,  or  supposed  to  have  them. 

Scorpion,  and  asp,  and  amphisbena  dire, 
Cerastes  horned,  hydras,  and  elops  drear.  Milton. 

CERASTES,  in  zoology,  the  trivial  name  of  a 
species  of  anguis  and  coluber. 

CERAST1UM,  mouse-ear:  a  genus  of  the 
pentagynia  order  and  decandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  twenty-second,  carophylleae  :  CAL. 
pentaphyllous ;  the  petals  are  bifid  :  CAPS,  is 
unilocular,  and  opening  at  the  top.  There  are 
twenty-two  known  species,  but  none  of  them 
possessed  of  any  remarkable  property,  growing 
wild  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

CE'RATE,  n.  s.  Lat.  cera,  wax.  A  medicine 
made  of  wax,  which,  with  oil,  or  some  softer 
substance,  makes  a  consistence  softer  than  a 
plaster.  Quincy.  See  PHARMACY. 

CE'RATED,  adj.  Lat. ceratus.  Waxed;  covered 
with  wax. 

CERATION,  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  to 
the  small  seeds  of  ceratonia  used  by  the  Arabian 
physicians  as  a  weight  to  adjust  the  doses  of 


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medicines ;  as  tne  grain  weight  with  us  took  its 
rise  from  a  grain  of  barley. 

CERATOCARPUS,  in  botany  :  a  genus  of 
die  monandria  order,  and  moncecia  class  of 
plants  ;  natural  order  twelfth,  holoracese :  male 
CAL.  biparite  :  COR.  none ;  the  filament  are  long : 
female  CAL.  diphyllous,  and  grown  to  the  ger- 
men ;  the  styles  are  two ;  the  seed  is  two-horned 
and  compressed.  Species  1 .  C.  arenaria,  a  native 
of  sandy  deserts  in  Tartary. 

CERATONIA,  the  carob  tree,  or  St.  John's 
bread  :  a  genus  of  the  polycecia  order,  and  po- 
lygamia  class  of  plants ;  natural  order  thirty- 
third,  lomentaceae  :  CAL.  hermaphrodite  and 
quinquepartite  :  COR.  none;  the  STAM.  are  five  ; 
the  style  is  filiform  ;  the  legumen  coriaceous  and 
polyspermous.  It  is  also  dioecious,  or  male  and 
female  distinct  on  different  plants.  There  is  but 
one  species,  viz.  C.  siliqua,  a  native  of  Spain,  of 
some  parts  of  Italy,  and  the  Levant.  It  is  an 
ever-green ;  and,  in  the  countries  where  it  is 
native,  grows  in  the  hedges.  It  produces  a 
quantity  of  long,  flat,  brown  colored  pods,  which 
are  thick,  meally,  and  of  a  sweetish  taste.  These 
pods  are  eaten  by  the  poorer  sort  of  inhabitants 
when  there  is  a  scarcity  of  other  food.  They 
are  called  St.  John's  bread,  from  an  assertion  of 
some,  that  those  were  the  locusts  St.  John  eat 
with  his  honey  in  the  wilderness.  The  tree  may 
be  propagated  in  this  country  from  seeds  which 
must  be  sown  in  a  moderate  hot-bed,  and  the 
plants  inured  to  the  open  air  by  degrees. 

CERATOPHYLLUM,  in  botany  :  a  genus 
of  the  polyandria  order,  and  moncecia  class  of 
plants:  natural  order  fifteenth,  inundatae  :  male 
CAL.  multipartite  :  COR.  none  :  STAM.  from  six- 
teen to  twenty  :  female  CAL.  multipartite  ;  one 
pistil;  no  style;  one  naked  seed.  Species  1. 
C.  demersum,  common  in  all  parts  of  Europe 
and  Great  Britain. 

CERAUNIA,  CERAUNIAS,  or  CERAUNIUS 
LAPIS,  in  natural  history,  from  i«pauj/oc,  a  thun- 
derbolt, a  sort  of  flinty  stone,  of  no  certain 
color,  but  of  a  pyramidal  or  wedge-like  figure  ; 
popularly  supposed  to  fall  from  the  clouds  in  the 
time  of  thunder-storms,  and  to  be  possessed  of 
divers  notable  virtues,  as  promoting  sleep,  pre- 
serving from  lightning,  &c.  The  ceraunia  is  the 
same  with  the  thunder-stone,  or  arrow's  head. 
These  are  frequently  confounded  with  the  ombrice 
and  brontiae,  as  being  all  supposed  to  have  the 
same  origin.  Most  naturalists  take  the  ceraunia 
for  a  native  stone,  formed  among  the  pyrites,  of 
a  saline,  concrete,  mineral  juice.  Mercatus  and 
Dr.  Woodward  assert  it  to  be  artificial,  and  to 
have  been  thus  fashioned  by  tools.  The  ceraunia, 
according  to  these  authors,  are  the  heads  of  the 
ancient  weapons  of  war,  in  use  before  the  inven- 
tion of  iron  :  which,  upon  the  introduction  of 
that  metal,  growing  into  disuse,  were  dispersed 
in  the  fields  through  different  countries.  Some 
of  them  had  possibly  served  in  the  early  ages 
for  axes,  others  for  wedges,  others  for  chissels  ; 
but  the  greater  part  for  arrow-heads,  darts,  and 
lances.  The  ceraunia  is  also  held  by  Pliny  for 
a  white  or  crystal-colored  gem,  that  attracted 
lightning  to  itself.  What  this  was,  is  hard  to 
say.  Prudentius  also  speaks  of  a  yellow  ce- 
raunia ;  by  which  he  is  supposed  to  mean  the 
carbuncle  or  pyropus. 


CERBERA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants; 
natural  order  thirtieth,  contortae  :  COR.  contorted. 
The  fruit  a  monospermous  plum.  The  most 
remarkable  species  is  C.  atrouai,  a  native  of  the 
warm  parts  of  America,  It  rises  with  an  irre- 
gular stem  to  eight  or  ten  feet,  sending  out  many 
crooked  diffused  branches,  which  towards  their 
tops  are  garnished  with  thick  succulent  leaves  of 
a  lucid  green,  smooth  and  very  full  of  a  milky 
juice.  The  flowers  come  out  in  loose  bunches 
at  the  end  of  the  branches  :  they  are  of  a  cream 
color,  having  long  narrow  tubes,  and  at  the  top 
are  cut  into  five  obtuse  segments,  which  seem 
twisted,  so  as  to  stand  oblique  to  the  tube.  The 
wood  of  this  tree  smells  very  foully,  and  the  ker- 
nels of  the  nuts  are  deadly  poison,  to  which  there 
is  no  antidote  ;  so  that  the  Indians  will  not  even 
use  the  wood  for  fuel. 

CERBERUS,  in  mythology,  a  three-headed 
mastiff,  the  son  of  Typhon  and  Echidna, 
and  placed  to  guard  the  gates  of  hell.  He 
fawned  upon  those  who  entered,  but  devoured 
all  who  attempted  to  get  back  He  was,  how- 
ever, mastered  by  Hercules,  who  dragged  him 
up  to  the  earth,  when,  in  struggling,  a  foam 
dropped  from  his  mouth,  which  produced  the 
poisonous  herb  called  aconite,  or  wolf's-bane. 
Some  have  supposed  that  Cerberus  is  the  symbol 
of  the  earth,  or  of  all-devouring  time  :  and  that 
its  three  mouths  represent  the  present,  past,  and 
future.  The  victory  obtained  by  Hercules  over 
this  monster,  denotes  the  conquest  which  this 
hero  acquired  over  his  passions.  Mr.  Bryant 
supposes  that  Cerberus  was  the  name  of  a  place, 
and  that  it  signified  the  temple  of  the  sun ;  deriv- 
ing it  from  kir  abor,  the  place  of  light.  This 
temple  was  also  called  Tor  Caph-El,  which  was 
changed  to  rpue»j0aX.of ;  and  hence  Cerberus  was 
supposed  to  have  had  three  heads.  It  was  like- 
wise called  tor  keren,  turris  regia;  whence 
rpt  icapjjvoc,  from  rpac,  three,  and  Kapi\vov, 
head. 

CERCIS,  the  Judas  tree,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  and  decandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  thirty-third,  lomentaceae :  CAL.  is 
quinquedentated,  and  gibbous  below  :  COR.  pa- 
pilionaceous, with  a  short  vexillum  or  flag  petal 
under  the  wings  or  side  petals ;  a  leguminous 
plant.  There  are  only  two  species,  both  decidu- 
ous. 1.  C.  Canadensis,  or  Canadian  cercis,  will 
grow  to  the  size  of  the  first  sort  in  some  places. 
The  branches  are  also  irregular.  The  leaves  are 
cordated.  downy,  and  alternate.  The  flowers 
are  usually  of  a  palish  red,  and  show  themselves 
in  spring,  before  the  leaves  are  grown  to  their 
size.  These  too  are  often  eaten  in  sallads,  and 
afford  an  excellent  pickle.  There  is  a  variety  of 
this  with  deep  red,  and  another  with  purpl 
flowers.  These  trees  not  only  exhibit  their 
flowers  in  clusters,  in  different  colors,  early  in 
spring,  before  the  leaves  are  grown  to  such  a 
size  as  to  hide  them  ;  but  also  afford  a  pleasing 
variety,  from  the  difference  of  the  upper  and  lower 
surface  of  the  leaves,  the  one  being  of  a  fine 
green,  the  other  of  a  hoary  cast,  which  the  waving 
winds  present  alternately  to  view.  2.  C.  sili- 
quastrum,  common  Judas  tree,  or  Italian  cercis, 
a  native  of  Italy  and  other  parts  of  the  soutn 
of  Europe. 


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288 


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CERDON,  a  Syrian,  who,  being  accused  of 
Manicheism,  came  to  Rome  in  the  time  of  pope 
Hyginus,  and  abjured  his  errors  about  A.  D.56  ; 
but  was  afterwards  convicted  of  persisting  in 
them,  and  cast  out  of  the  church.  Cerdon  as- 
serted two  principles,  the  one  good  and  the 
other  evil.  This  last,  according  to  him,  was  the 
creator  of  the  world,  and  the  god  that  appeared 
under  the  old  law.  The  first,  whom  he  called 
unknown,  was  the  father  of  Jesus  Christ;  who, 
he  taught,  was  incarnate  only  in  appearance, 
and  was  not  born  of  a  virgin  ;  nor  did  he  suffer 
death  but  in  appearance.  He  denied  the  resur- 
rection; and  rejected  all  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  as  coming  from  an  evil  principle. 
Marcion  was  his  disciple. 

CERDONIANS,  ancient  heretics,  who  main- 
tained most  of  the  errors  of  Simon  Magus,  Satur- 
ninus,  and  the  Manichees,  so  named  from  their 
leader  Cerdon. 

CERE,  v.        ~\      AT.    kir  ;    Chald.    kera  ; 

CE'REOUS,         f  Kijpdf  ;  Lat.  cera,  wax.    To 


CE'RECLOTH,TZ.  £wax;  waxy;  a  cloth  smeared 

CE'REMENT,  n.  J  with  waxy  or  gummy  sub- 
stances, to  be  applied  to  wounds;  cloths  dipped 
in  melted  wax,  in  which  dead  bodies  were  wrap- 
ped, after  having  been  embalmed. 

The  ancient  Egyptian  mummies  were  shrouded  in 
a  number  of  folds  of  linen,  besmeared  with  gums,  in 
manner  of  cerecloth.  Bacon. 

Let  me  not  burst  in  ignorance,  but  tell 
Why  canonized  bones,  hearsed  in  earth, 
Have  burst  their  cerements  ?  Shahspeare. 

You  ought  to  pierce  the  skin  with  a  needle,  and 
strong  brown  thread  cered,  about  half  an  inch  from 
the  edges  of  the  lips.  Wiseman. 

The  tyranny  of  silence  is  not  lasting, 

And  though  events  be  hidden,  just  men's  groans 

Will  burst  all  cerement,  even  a  living  grave  ! 

Byron.     The  Two  Foscari. 

CERE,  the  naked  skin  with  which  the  base  of 
the  bill  is  covered  in  the  hawk  kind. 

CEREALIA,  in  antiquity,  feasts  of  Ceres,  in- 
stituted by  Triptomelus,  son  of  Celeus  king  of 
Eleusis,  in  gratitude  for  his  having  been  in- 
structed by  Ceres,  who  was  supposed  to  have 
been  his  nurse,  in  the  art  of  cultivating  corn  and 
making  bread.  There  were  two  feasts  of  this 
kind  at  Athens  ;  the  one  called  Eleusinia,  the 
other  Thesmophoria.  On  these  occasions  Bac- 
chus, as  well  as  Ceres,  was  honored.  The  vic- 
tims offered  were  hogs,  on  account  of  the  waste 
they  make  in  the  products  of  the  earth.  Whether 
wine  was  offered  is  much  disputed  among  the 
critics.  Plautus  and  Macrobius  countenance  the 
negative  side;  Cato  and  Virgil  the  positive. 
Macrobius  says,  indeed,  they  did  not  offer  wine 
to  Ceres,  but  mulsum,  which  was  a  composition 
of  wine  and  honey  boiled  up  together;  that  the 
sacrifice  made  on  the  21st  of  December  to  that 
goddess  and  Hercules,  was  a  pregnant  sow,  to- 
gether with  cakes  and  mulsum.  The  cereal  ia 
passed  from  the  Greeks  to  the  Romans,  who 
held  them  for  eight  days  successively  ;  commen- 
cing on  the  5th  of  the  ides  of  April.  The  women 
alone  were  concerned  in  the  celebration,  all 
dressed  in  white;  the  men,  likewise  in  white, 
were  only  spectators.  They  ate  nothing  till  after 
sunset  ;  because  Ceres,  in  her  search  after  her 


daughter,  took  no  repast  but  in  the  evening. 
This  festival  was  omitted  by  the  Romans  after 
the  defeat  at  Cannae,  the  mourning  being  so  uni- 
versal, that  there  were  no  women  to  celebrate  it, 
out  of  mourning. 

CEREALIA,  in  botany,  the  name  used  by  Lin- 
naeus for  the  larger  esculent  seeds  of  the  grasses  : 
viz.  rice,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  millet,  panic 
grass,  Indian  millet,  holcus,  zizania,  and  maize. 
To  these  may  be  added  darnel,  which,  by  pr»- 
paration,  is  rendered  esculent. 

CERE'ALIOUS,  adj.  Lat.  cerealis.  Pertaining 
to  corn. 

CE'REBEL.  Lat.  cerebellum ;  the  little  brain  ; 
a  roundish  viscus  forming  part  of  the  brain. 

In  the  head  of  man,  the  base  of  the  brain  and  cere- 
bel,  yea,  of  the  whole  skull,  is  yet  parallel  to  the 
hor.zon.  Derham. 

CEREBELLUM.     See  ANATOMY.     Index. 
CEREBRUM,  the    brain.     See  ANATOMY. 
Index,  and  BRAIN. 

Surprise  my  readers,  while  I  tell  'em 
Of  cerebrum  and  cerebellum.  Prior. 

CE'REMONY,  n.  ~]  fr.ceremonle;li. 
CEREMO'NIAL,  n.  &  adj.  and  Span,  teremo- 
CEREMO'NIALLY,  adv.  [nia;  Lat.  caremo- 
CEREMO'N  lous,  j  n  ia ;  It  popnvia.  Cle- 

CEREMO'NIOUSLY,  adv.  land  contends  that 
CEREMO'NIOUSNESS,  n.  J  it  is  derived  from 
cir-y-won,  '  meaning  a  custom  saered,  or  passed 
into  a  law  by  the  shire  or  gemot.'  Ceremony  is 
a  religious  rite  or  form  ;  a  form  of  civility,  and 
of  state.  Ceremonial,  as  a  noun,  signifies  accus- 
tomed external  form  or  rite ;  the  order  for  the 
rites  and  forms  of  the  Romish  church;  as  an 
adjective,  relating  to  forms;  formal;  adhering 
to  old  forms.  Ceremonious  means,  consisting  of 
outward  rites ;  awful ;  attentive  to  old  rites  and 
formalities ;  observant  of  the  rules  of  civility ; 
civil  and  formal  to  a  troublesome  extent. 

The  name  of  ceremonies  we  do  not  use  in  so  large  a 
meaning,  as  to  bring  sacraments  within  the  compass 
and  reach  thereof;  although  things  belonging  to  the 
outward  form  and  seemly  administration  of  them  are 
contained  in  that  name,  even  as  we  use  it.  For  the 
name  of  ceremonies  we  use  as  they  themselves  do. 

Hooker. 

Bring  her  up  to  the  high  altar  that  she  may 
The  sacred  ceremonies  partake.  Spenser. 

Disrobe  the  images 
If  you  find  them  decked  with  ceremony. 

Shahspwc. 

He  is  superstitious  grown  of  late, 
Quite  from  the  main  opinion  he  held  once, 
Of  fantasy,  of  dreams,  and  ceremonies.  Id. 

The  sauce  to  meat  is  ceremony  ; 
Meeting  were  bare  without  it.  Id. 

What  art  thou,  thou  idle  ceremony  ? 
What  kind  of  god  art  thou,  that  sufierest  more 
Of  mortal  grief  than  do  thy  worshippers  ? 
Art  thou  augbt  else  but  place,  degree,  and  form? 

Id, 

What  mockery  will  it  be, 

To  want  the  bridegroom  when  the  priest  attends 
To  speak  the  ceremonial  rites  of  marriage.  /</. 

Then  let  us  take  a  ceremonious  leave, 
And  loving  farewell,  of  our  several  friends.  U. 

O,  the  sacrifice, 

How  ceremonious,  solemn,  and  unearthly  : 
It  was  i'  th'  offering.  Id. 


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289 


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You  are  too  senseless  obstinate,  my  lord ; 
Too  ceremonious  and  traditional.  Sltakspeare. 

Ceremoniously  let  us  prepare 
Some  welcome  for  the  mistress  of  the  house.  Id. 

The  old  caitiff  was  grown  so  ceremonious,  as  he 
would  needs  accompany  me  some  miles  in  my  way. 

Sidney. 

Not  to  use  ceremonies  at  all,  is  to  teach  others  not 
to  use  them  again,  and  so  diminish  respect  to  him- 
self. Bacon. 

Oh  monstrous,  superstitious  puritan, 
Of  refined  manners,  yet  ceremonial  man  ; 
That  when  thou  meetest  one  with  enquiring  eyes 
Dost  search,  and,  like  a  needy  broker,  prize 
The  silk  and  gold  he  wears.  Donne. 

Christ  did  take  away  that  external  ceremonial  wor- 
ship among  the  Jews.  Stulingfleet. 

We  are  to  carry  it  from  the  hand  to  the  heart,  <, 
improve  a  ceremonial  nicety  into  a  substantial  deity, 
and  the  modes  of  civility  into  the  realities  of  religion. 

South. 

Under  a  different  economy  of  religion,  God  was 
more  tender  of  the  shell  and  ceremonious  part  of  his 
worship.  Id. 

With  dumb  pride,  and  a  set  formal  face, 
He  moves  in  the  dull  ceremonial  track, 
With  Jove's  embroidered  coat  upon  his  back.  Dryden. 

A  coarser  place, 

Where  pomp  and  ceremonies  entered  not, 
Where   greatness   was    shut  out,  and   highness  well 
forgot.  Id. 

They  have  a  set  of  ceremonious  phrases,  that  run 
through  all  ranks  and  degrees  among  them.  Addison. 

The  only  condition  that  could  make  it  prudent  for 
the  clergy  to  alter  the  ceremonial  or  any  indifferent 
part,  would  be  a  resolution  in  the  legislature  to  pre- 
vent new  sects.  Swift. 

CEREMONIAL,  CEREMONIALS,  the  order  of  the 
rules  and  forms  of  the  Romish  church.  This 
book  was  published  in  1516  by  the  bishop  of 
Corcyra ;  at  which  the  college  of  cardinals  were 
so  scandalised,  that  some  of  them  voted  to  have 
the  author  as  well  as  the  book  burnt,  for  exposing 
the  sacred  ceremonies  to  the  eyes  of  profane 
people. 

CEREMONIAL  LAW,  the  regulations  given  by 
Moses  relating  to  the  worship  of  God  among  the 
ancient  Jews.  In  this  sense  it  is  the  same  with 
the  Levitical  law,  and  stands  distinguished  from 
the  moral,  as  well  as  judicial  law.  See  LAW. 

CEREMONIES,  MASTER  OF  THE,  an  officer  in- 
stituted by  King  James  I.  for  the  reception  of 
ambassadors  and  strangers  of  quality.  He  wears 
about  his  neck  a  chain  of  gold,  with  a  medal, 
having  on  one  side  an  emblem  of  peace,  with 
this  motto,  Beati  pacifici,  and  on  the  other  an 
emblem  of  war,  with  Dieu  et  mon  droit. 

CEREMONIES,  MARSHAL  OF  THE,  is  an  officer, 
subordinate  to  the  above. 

CERES,  in  heathen  mythology,  the  goddess 
of  corn.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Saturn  and 
Ops,  and  the  mother  of  Proserpine,  by  Jupiter. 
Pluto  having  stolen  away  Proserpine,  Ceres  tra- 
velled all  over  the  world  in  quest  of  her,  by  the 
help  of  a  torch,  which  she  had  lighted  in  Mount 
jEtna.  In  this  search,  she  came  to  Celeus,  king 
of  Eleusis,  and  undertook  to  bring  up  his  infant 
son  Triptolemus.  To  render  her  charge  immor- 
tal, she  fed  him  with  divine  milk,  and  in  the  night 
covered  him  with  f.re.  Celeus  observing  an  un- 
usual improvement  in  his  son.  resolved  to  watch 
VOL.  V. 


his  nurse,  to  which  end  he  hid  himself  in  that  y/art 
of  the  house  where  she  used  to  cover  the  child  with 
fire ;.  but  when  ho  saw  her  put  the  infant  under 
the  embers,  he  cried  out  and  discovered  himself. 
Ceres  punished  his  curiosity  with  death.  After- 
wards she  taught  the  youth  agriculture,  and 
mounted  him  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  winged 
dragons,  that  he  might  traverse  the  world,  and 
teach  mankind  the  use  of  corn  and  fruits.  Hav- 
ing at  last  discovered,  by  the  nymph  Arethusa, 
that  Proserpine  was  in  the  infernal  regions,  she 
applied  to  Jupiter,  and  obtained  of  him  that  her 
daughter  should  be  restored,  provided  she  had 
tasted  nothing  during  her  stay;  but  Ascalaphus 
declaring  that  while  walking  in  Pluto's  orchard, 
^he  had  pulled  an  apple,  and  had  tasted  of  the 
seeds,  she  was  for  ever  forbidden  to  return. 
Ceres,  out  of  revenge,  turned  Ascalaphus  into 
an  owl.  At  length,  Jupiter,  to  mitigate  her  grief, 
permitted  Proserpine  to  pass  one  half  the  year 
in  the  infernal  regions  with  Pluto,  and  the  other 
half  with  her  mother  on  earth.  Cicero  mentions 
a  temple  of  Ceres  at  Catanea  in  Sicily,  where 
was  a  very  ancient  statue  of  that  goddess,  but 
entirely  concealed  from  the  sight  of  men,  every 
thing  being  performed  by  matrons  and  virgins. 

CERES,  and  PALLAS,  two  minor  planets,  the 
former  of  which  was  discovered  on  the  1st  of 
January,  1801,  by  M.  Piazza,  astronomer-royal 
at  Palermo,  and  the  latter  by  Dr.  Olbers  of 
Hamburgh.  Ceres,  more  distant  from  the  Sun 
than  Mars,  and  nearer  than  Jupiter,  its  mean 
distance  being  above  250,000,000  English  miles, 
is  so  small  that  glasses  of  a  very  high  magnifying 
power  will  not  show  it  with  a  distinctly  defined 
diameter,  which  is  only  160  English  miles;  and 
revolves  round  the  sun  in  four  years  222  days. 
Pallas,  nearer  than  Jupiter,  is  nearly  270,000,000 
English  miles  distant  from  the  sun,  and  its  dia- 
meter only  110  miles,  so  that  it  is  more  imper- 
ceptible than  Ceres,  both  owing  to  its  inferior 
size,  and  superior  distance  from  the  earth,  when 
both  are  in  opposition  to  the  sun. 

CERET,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Eastern  Pyrenees,  and  ci-devant 
province  of  Roussillon,  with  a  magnificent  bridge 
of  a  single  arch,  over  the  river  Tet.  In  1660  the 
commissioners  of  France  and  Spain  met  in  this 
town  to  settle  the  limits  of  the  two  kingdoms.  It 
is  twelve  miles  from  Perpignan. 

CERIGNOLA,  a  town  of  the  Capitanata,  Na- 
ples, on  the  borders  of  the  province  of  Bari.  In 
the  neighbourhood  are  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Salapia.  It  contains  about  12,000  inhabitants, 
and  is  twenty-eight  miles  south-east  of  Manfre- 
donia. 

CERIGO,  or  CHERIGO,  the  ancient  Cythera, 
one  of  the  seven  islands  of  the  Ionian  republic.  It 
is  situated  at  the  entrance  of  the  Grecian  Archi- 
pelago, in  the  gulf  of  Maritonisi,  or  Kolokythia, 
and  to  the  south  of  the  Morea.  It  is  seventeen 
miles  long,  ten  broad,  and  about  forty-fiye  in 
circumference  ;  and  consists  for  the  most  part  of 
barren  rocky  mountains.  Some  corn,  wine,  oil, 
flax,  and  cotton  are  raised  here ;  and  there  are 
also  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  on  the  hills,  as  well 
as  cattle.  The  inhabitants,  who  are  about  10,000, 
are  poor,  and  profess  the  Greek  religion.  Thu 
island  formerly  belonced  to  the  Venetinn.J,  ane 

u 


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290 


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was  taken  from  tnem  by  the  French  in  1797;  but 
it  was  retaken  two  years  after,  and  incorporated 
into  the  Ionian  republic.  The  French  again  had 
possession  of  it  in  1807,  but  were  expelled  by 
the  English  in  1809.  Cerigo  sends  one  deputy 
to  the  legislative  assembly  of  the  Ionian  republic. 

CERIGO,  or  KUPSULI,  the  ancient  Cythera,  the 
chief  town  of  the  island,  is  a  small  place,  pro- 
tected by  a  castle,  on  the  declivity  of  a  moun- 
tain, not  far  from  the  south  coast,  where  it  has 
a  convenient  harbour,  called  Porto  Delphino. 
Population  1200. 

CERINTHE,  honeywort,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order  and  pentandria  class  of  plants  ; 
natural  order  forty-first,  asperifoliae.  The  limb 
of  the  corolla  is  a  ventricose  tube  with  the  throat 
pervious;  and  there  are  two  bilocular  seeds. 
There  are  three  species,  natives  of  Germany, 
Italy,  and  the  Alps.  They  are  low  annual  plants 
with  purple,  yellow,  and  red  flowers,  which  may 
be  propagated  by  seed  sown  in  autumn,  in  a 
warm  situation. 

CERINTHIANS,  ancient  heretics,  who  denied 
the  deity  of  Jesus  Christ :  so  named  from  Cerin- 
thus.  They  believed  that  he  was  a  mere  man, 
the  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary ;  but  that,  in  his 
baptism,  a  celestial  virtue  descended  on  him  in 
form  of  a  dove ;  by  means  of  which  he  was  con- 
secrated by  the  holy  spirit ;  made  Christ,  and 
wrought  so  many  miracles  :  that,  as  he  received 
it  from  heaven,  it  quitted  him  after  his  passion, 
and  returned  to  the  place  whence  it  came,  ?o  that 
Jesus,  whom  they  called  a  pure  man,  really  died 
and  rose  again;  but  that  Christ,  who  was  dis- 
tinguished from  Jesus,  did  not  suffer  at  all.  It 
was  partly  to  refute  this  sect  that  St.  John  wrote 
his  gospel.  They  received  the  gospel  of  St. 
Matthew,  to  countenance  their  doctrine  of  cir- 
cumcision, from  Christ's  being  circumcised,  but 
they  omitted  the  genealogy;  and  discarded  the 
epistles  of  St.  Paul,  because  that  apostle  held  cir- 
cumcision abolished. 

CERINTHUS,  one  of  the  first  heresiarchs, 
being  contemporary  with  the  apostles.  Besides 
the  above  tenets,  he  ascribed  the  creation,  not  to 
God,  but  to  angels ;  and  taught  that  circumcision 
ought  to  be  retained  under  the  gospel.  He  is 
looked  upon  as  the  head  of  the  converted  Jews, 
who  raised,  in  the  church  of  Antioch,  the  dis- 
sension mentioned  in  Acts  xv.  He  published  a 
work  under  the  title  of  Apocalypse,  whence  some 
have  pretended  that  he  was  the  author  of  St. 
John's  Re'-elation.  See  APOCALYPSE. 

CERNE-ABBAS,  a  market  town  of  Dorset, 
seven  miles  north  of  Dorchester,  and  127  from 
London.  It  is  situate  on  the  river  Cerne,  and 
had  formerly  a  stately  abbey  of  Benedictines, 
founded  in  the  tenth  century,  by  Ailmcr,  earl  of 
Cornwall.  Part  of  its  remains  are  still  visible  at 
the  north  end  of  the  town.  Cerne  consists  of  four 
or  five  streets,  pleasantly  situate  in  a  valley  sur- 
rounded by  hills.  At  the  east  end  of  the  town, 
on  the  side  of  a  steep  hill,  called  Trendle  Hill, 
is  a  gigantic  human  figure,  cut  in  chalk,  180 
feet  high  ;  his  left  hand  is  extended,  and  his  right, 
which  is  erect,  holds  a  club ;  between  his  legs 
are  three  rude  letteisj  scarcely  legible,  and  over 
them,  in  modern  figures,  748.  It  is  said  to  be 


the  representation  of  Cenric,  son  of  Cuthred, 
king  of  Wessex,  who  was  slain  in  battle.  Others 
suppose  it  be  the  figure  of  some  deity,  and  say 
the  letters  are  JAO.  It  covers  nearly  an  acre  of 
ground,  yet  seems  to  have  been  cut  with  some 
idea  of  the  rules  of  proportion.  It  is  repaired 
about  once  in  seven  years,  by  clearing  the  fur- 
rows and  filling  them  with  fresh  chalk.  Various 
have  been  the  opinions  of  the  origin  of  this  fi- 
gure. Dr.  Stukely  thinks  it  is  the  figure  of  Her- 
cules, called  Heil  by  the  Saxons,  and  cut  as  a 
memorial  of  their  arrival,  in  compliment  to  Eli, 
who  expelled  the  Belgic. 

CEROCHYTOS  ;  from  jci;poc,  wax,  and  -^vta, 
to  melt ;  in  antiquity,  a  method  of  painting  in 
wax,  melted  and  colored  with  pigments  for  the 
purpose,  and  applied  with  pencils. 

CEROMA,  in  antiquity  ;  1.  A  mixture  of  oil 
and  wax  with  which  the  ancient  wrestlers  rubbed 
themselves :  not  only  to  make  their  limbs  more 
sleek,  and  less  capable  of  being  laid  hold  of,  but 
more  pliable  and  fit  for  exercise.  2.  A  cerate,  or 
cerecloth. 

CEROMANTIA,an  ancient  method  of  divina- 
tion, by  means  of  wax  melted  over  a  vessel  of 
water,  and  let  drop  in  three  distinct  spaces ;  ob- 
serving the  figure,  situation,  distance,  and  con- 
cretion of  the  drops. 

CEROPEGIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order  and  pentandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  thirtieth,  contortae.  There  are  two 
erect  follicles  ;  the  seeds  plumose  or  covered  with 
a  feathered  pappus ;  the  limb  of  the  corolla  con- 
nivent  or  closing  at  top.  There  are  six  species, 
natives  of  the  East  Indies  and  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

CE'ROTE,  n.  s.  The  same  with  CERATE, 
which  see.  ,  • 

In  those  which  are  critical,  a  cerate  of  oil  of  olives, 
with  white  wax,  hath  hitherto  served  my  purpose. 

Wiseman. 

CERTAIN,  adj.  -\      Certtis,  Lat. ;    certain, 

CE'RTAINLY.          I  Fr.  from  cerno,  Lat. :  To 

CE'RTAINTY.          \  perceive,which  Ainsworth 

CE'RTES,  adj.         i  derives  from  »cpivco,  Gr.  to 

CE'RTITUDE.  J  judge,  or  try.  Fixed, 
sure,  immutable,  exact,  particular ;  without 
question  or  doubt.  Certes  was  commonly  the 
word  used  for  certainly,  from  Chaucer  to  Butler. 

Of  which  man  I  have  not  certayn  what  thing  I 
schul  write  to  the  lord,  for  which  thing  I  broughte 
him  to  ghou,  and  moost  to  thee,  thou  kyng  Agrippa, 
that  whanne  axing  is  maad,  I  have  what  I  gchal 
write.  Wicklif's  New  Test.  Dedis  of  Apostles,  25. 

The  kynde  or  beawtye  of  the  whyche  vestures,  a 
certayne  darkness  or  rather  ignorance  of  oldcnes  for- 
gotten, had  obscuryd  and  darkened,  as  the  smoke  is 
wont  to  darken  images  that  stand  nyghe  the  smoke. 

Colville's  Boetnu. 

Certet  the  soverainst  thinge  of  desire  and  most  ore- 
ture  resonable,  have,  or  els  shuld  have,  full  appetite 
to  thir  perfeccyon ;  unresonable  bestes  mowen  not 
sithe  reson  hath  in  Tiem,  no  workinge  than  resona- 
ble that  wol  not,  is  comparisoned  to  unresonable,  and 
made  lyke  'hem.  Chaucer. 

No  certainly,  he  was  a  fayre  prelat, 
He  was  not  pale  as  a  forpined  gost  ; 
A  fat  swan  loved  he  best  of  any  rost, 
His  palfrey  was  as  broune  as  is  a  bcry.  In. 


C  E  R  T  H  1  A. 


291 


The  hydden  traynes  I  know,  and  secret  snares  of 

love, 
How  soone  a  loke  will  prynte  a  thoughte  that  never 

may  remove  ; 
The  slypper  state  I  know,  the  sodein  twines  from 

welthe, 

The  doubtfull  hope,  the  ceriaine  wooe,  and  sure  de- 
spaired helthe.  Skelton. 

But  notwithstandyng  certes  in  my  mind, 
I  durst  well  swere,  as  true  ye  shall  them  find 
In  every  poynt  eche  answere  by  and  by, 
As  are  the  iudgementes  of  astronomye. 

Sir  Thomas  More. 

But  of  al  this  poynte,  is  there  no  certaintie,  and ' 
whoso  diuineth  vpon  coniectures,  may  as  wel  shote  to 
farre  as  to  short.  Id. 

In  these  things,  whereof  the  Scripture  appointed! 
no  certainty,  the  use  of  the  people  of  God,  or  the  or- 
dinances of  our  fathers,  must  serve  for  a  law. 

Hooker. 

TIT.  We  wait  for  certain  money  here,  Sir. 
FLAV.  Ay, 

If  money  were  as  certain  as  your  waiting, 
Twere  sure  enough. 

Shakspeare.      Tim.  of  Athens. 
For,  certes,  these  are  people  of  the  island.  Id. 

Some  certain  of  your  brethren  roared,  and  ran 
From  noise  of  our  own  drums.  Id. 

Doubting  things  go  ill,  often  hurts  more 
Than  to  be  sure  they  do  ;  for  certainties 
Or  are  past  remedies,  or  timely  knowing, 
The  remedy  then  born.  Id. 

Certes,  Sir  knight,  you  'vebeen  too  much  to  blame, 
Thus  for  to  blot  the  honour  of  the  dead, 
And  with  foul  cowardice  his  carcase  shame, 
Whose  living  hands  immortalized  his  name.     Spenser. 
It  is  certainly  an  argument  of  a  great  love,  and  a 
great  confidence,  and  a  great  sincerity,  and  a  great 
hope,  when  a  man  lays  down  his  life  in  attestation  of 
a  proposition.  Taylor  on  Prophecying . 

You  shall  gather  a  certain  rate.  Exodus. 

How  should  mens*  favour  be  but  like  themselves, 
variable  and  inconsistent?  There  is  no  certainty  but 
in  the  favour  of  God,  in  whom  can  be  no  change  j 
whose  love  is  entailed  upon  a  thousand  generations. 

Bishop  Hall. 

Distrust  makes  our  danger  greater,  and  our  helps 
less  than  they  are,  and  forecasts  ever  worse  than  shall 
be  ;  and  if  evils  be  possible,  it  makes  them  certain. 

Id. 

Can  the  wisdom  of  the  heart  remedy  the  craft  of 
the  heart  ?  Certainly  it  may.  Id. 

However,  I  with  thee  have  fixed  my  lot, 
Certain  to  undergo  like  doom  :  if  death, 
Consort  with  thee.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

Certes,  our  authors  are  to  blame. 

Sutler's  Hudibras. 

Let  there  be  certain  leather  bass  made  of  several 

bignesses,  which,  for  the  matter  of  them,  should  be 

tractable.  Wilkins. 

Those  things  are  certain  among  men,  which  cannot 

be  denied  without  obstinacy  and  folly.  TMotson. 

This  form  before  Alcyone  present, 
To  make  her  certain  of  the  sad  event,     Dryden. 

Virtue  that  directs  our  ways, 
Thro'  certain  dangers  to  uncertain  praise.         Id. 

They  thought  at  first  they  dreamed ;  for  'twas  of- 
fence 
With  them  to  question  certitude  of  sense.  Id. 

Certainty  is  two-fold  ;  certainty  of  truth  and  cer- 
tainty of  knowledge.  Certainty  of  truth  is,  when 
words  are  so  put  together  in  propositions,  as  exactly 
to  express  the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  the  ideas 


they  stand  for,  as  really  it  is.  Certainty  of  knowledge 
is  to  perceive  the  agreement  and  disagreement  of 
ideas,  as  expressed  in  any  proposition.  This  w« 
usually  call  knowing,  or  being  certain  of  the  truth  of 
any  proposition.  Locke. 

Who  calls  the  council,  states  a  certain  day, 
Who  forms  the  phalanx,  and  who  points  the  way. 

Pope. 

Certain  it  is  that  a  man  may,  if  he  will,  let  his 
heart  close  to  the  having  no  regard  to  any  thing  but 
his  dear  self,  even  with  exclusion  of  his  very  chil- 
dren. Spectator,  No.  490. 
Revelation,  in  plain  and  express  language,  declares 
some  doctrines  which  our  reason  at  present  knows  not 
with  evidence  and  certainty,  how  or  in  what  sense  to 
reconcile  to  some  of  its  own  principles  ;  as,  that  the 
child  Jesus  is  the  mighty  God,  &c.  Watts. 
He  that  has  a  coast  has  likewise  the  sea  to  a  cer- 
tain distance  ;  he  that  possesses  a  fortress  has  the 
right  of  prohibiting  another  fortress  to  be  built  within 
the  command  of  its  cannon.  Dr.  Johnson. 
But  how  frequent  soever  may  be  the  examples  of 
existence  without  thought,  it  is  certainly  a  state  not 
much  to  be  desired.  Idler. 
The  Scriptures  commonly  presuppose  in  the  persons 
to  whom  they  speak,  a  knowledge  of  the  subjects  of 
natural  justice,  and  are  employed,  not  so  much  to 
teach  new  rules  of  morality,  as  to  enforce  the  prac- 
tice of  it  by  new  sanctions,  and  by  a  greater  certainty  • 
which  last  seemed  to  be  the  proper  business  of  a  re- 
velation from  God.  Poky. 

Then  faith  and  hope  no  more  the  mind  employ, 
One  lost  in  certainty,  and  one  in  joy.  Anonymous. 

On  a  certain  occasion  when  her  niece  was  sitting 
at  her  side,  she  asked  his  opinion  concerning  the  law- 
fulness of  such  amusements  as  are  found  at  Vauxhall 
or  Ranelagh.  Cowper's  Private  Correspondence. 

Would  you  have  me  praise  her  hair? 
Let  her  place  my  garland  there  j 
Is  her  hand  so  white  and  pure  ? 
I  must  press  it  to  he  sure; 
Nor  can  I  be  certain  then, 

Till  it  grateful  press  again.  Sheridan. 

CERTHIA,  in  ornithology,  the  creeper  or 
ox-eye,  a  genus  belonging  to  the  order  of  picae. 
The  beak  is  arched,  slender,  sharp,  and  triangu- 
lar ;  the  tongue  is  sharp  at  the  point,  and  the 
feet  are  of  the  walking  kind,  i.  e.  having  the  toes 
open  and  unconnected.  Of  this  genus  near  fifty 
species  have  been  enumerated  by  ornithologists. 
The  following  are  a  few  of  the  most  remarkable  : 
1.  C.  cardinalis,  the  cardinal  creeper,  has  the 
head,  neck,  and  breast,  of  a  crimson  color ;  down 
the  middle  of  the  back  is  a  stripe  of  the  same 
color  to  the  rump:  the  rest  of  the  body  is  black, 
and  the  wings  and  tail  are  black.  It  inhabits 
the  cultivated  parts  of  the  island  of  Tanna ;  is 
there  called  kuyameta,  and  lives  by  sucking  the 
nectar  of  flowers.  2.  C.  coerulea,  the  blue 
creeper,  has  the  head  of  a  most  elegant  blue  ; 
but  on  each  side  there  is  a  stripe  of  black  like 
velvet,  in  which  the  eye  is  placed  ;  the  chin  and 
throat  are  marked  with  black  in  the  same  man- 
ner, the  rest  of  the  body  violet  blue.  It  inhabits 
Cayenne.  Seba  says  that  it  makes  its  nest  with 
great  art.  The  outside  is  composed  of  dry  stalks 
of  grass,  or  such  like,  but  within  of  very  downy 
soft  materials,  in  the  shape  of  a  retort,  which  it 
suspends  from  some  weak  twig,  at  the  end  of  a 
branch  of  the  tree  ;  the  opening  or  mouth  down- 
wards, facing  the  ground :  the  neck  is  a  foot  in 
length,  but  the  real  nest  is  quite  at  the  top,  so 

U  2 


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292 


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that  the  bird  has   to  climb  up  this  funnel-like 
opening  to  get  at  the  nest.  Thus  it  is  secure  from 
every  barm,   neither  monkey,  snake,  nor  lizard, 
daring  to  venture  at  the  end  of  the  branch,  as  it 
•would  not  support  them.     3.  C.  familiaris,  the 
common  ox-eye  is  grey  above,  and  white  under- 
neath, with  brown  wings  and  ten  white  spots  on 
the  ten  prime  feathers.      This  bird  is  found  in 
most  parts  of  Europe,  though  it  is  believed  no- 
where so  common  as  in   Britain.     The  facility 
with  which  it  runs  on  the  bark  of  a  tree,  in  all 
directions,  is  wonderful :  this   it   does  with  as 
much  ease  as  a  fly  on  a  glass  window.     It  lives 
principally,  if  not  wholly,  on  insects,  which  it 
finds  in  the  chinks  and  among  the  moss  of  trees. 
It  builds   its  nest  in  some  hole  of  a  tree,  and 
lays  generally  four  eggs,   very  rarely  more  than 
seven:  these  are  ash-colored,  marked  at  the  end 
with  spots  and  streaks  of  a  deeper  color,  and  the 
shell  is  pretty  hard.     It  remains  in  the  places 
which  it  frequents  during  the  winter,  and  builds 
its  nest  early  in  the  spring.   4.  C.Loteni,  Loten's 
creeper,  has  the  head,  neck,  back,  rump,  scapu- 
lars, and  upper  tail  coverts,  of  green  gold  ;  be- 
neath, from  the   breast   to   the   vent,  of  velvet 
black,  which  is  separated  from  the  green  on  the 
neck  by  a  transverse  bright  violet  band,  a  line 
and  a  half  in  breadth :  the  lesser  wing  coverts 
are   of  this  last  color;  the  middle   coverts  are 
green  gold ;  and  the  greater  coverts  are  very  fine 
black,  edged  with  green  gold  on  the  outer  edge  ; 
the  quills  are  of  the  same  color,  as  are  also  the 
tail  feathers.    The  female  differs  in  having  the 
breast,  belly,  sides,  thighs,  under  wing  and  tail 
coverts  of  a  dirty  white,  spotted  with  black;  and 
the  wings  and  tail  not  of  so  fine  a  black.     It  in- 
habits  Ceylon  and  Madagascar,  and  is  called 
angaladian.      Buffon    says  it  makes  its  nest  of 
the  down  of  plants,  in  form  of  a  cup,  like  that  of 
a  chaffinch,  the   female  laying  generally  five  or 
six  eggs ;  and  that  it  is  sometimes  chased  by  the 
tarantula  spider,  which  seizes  on  the  whole  brood, 
and  sucks  the  blood  of  the  young  birds.     5.  C. 
pusilla,  or  the  brown  and  white  creeper,  accord- 
ing to  Edwards,  is  not  above  half  the  size  of  our 
European  creeper.     The  upper  part  of  the  body 
is  brown,  with  a  changeable  gloss  of  copper  ;  the 
under  parts  are  white;  the  quills  brown,  edged  with 
glossy  copper ;  the  tail  blackish,  the  outer  feather 
tipped  with  white.  Those  who  keep  these  birds  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  having  many  sorts  in  large 
cages,  supply  them  with  only  honey  and  water. 
They   also   catch   flies  which   come  within  the 
reach  of  their  confinement;  and  these  make  up 
their  whole  subsistence.     It  has  been  attempted 
to  transport  them  further,  but  the  want  of  flies 
on  board  a  ship  prevented  them  living  more  than 
three  weeks,  so  necessary  are  insects  to  their  sub- 
sistence.    6.  C.  simulans,  the  mocking  bird,  or 
cassique,  is  of  the  size  of  the  lesser  thrush.     On 
the   cheeks  is  a  narrow  white  spot;    the  head, 
especially  on  the  crown,  is  inclined  to  violet :  the 
plumage  in  general  is  olive  green,  inclining  to 
yellow  on  the  und^r  parts ;  the  quills  are  brown, 
the  secondaries  edged  with  .olive;  the  color  of 
the  tail  is  like  that  of  the  secondaries,  and  some- 
what forked ;  the  legs  are  dusky  blue,  and  the 
claws  black.     They  are  found  in  great  numbers 
in  South  America,  and  are  thus  described  by  Mr. 
Waterloo  in  his  Wanderings : — '  The  cassique, 


in  size,  is  larger  than  the  starling  ;  he  courts,  the 
society  of  man,  but  disdains  to  live  by  his  labors. 
When  nature  calls  for  suppoit,  he  repairs  to  the 
neighbouring  forest,  and  there  partakes  of  the 
store  of  fruits  and  seeds,  which  she  has  produced 
in  abundance  for  her  aerial  tribes.  When  his 
repast  is  over,  he  returns  to  man,  and  pays  the 
little  tribute  which  he  owes  him  for  his  protec- 
tion ;  he  takes  his  station  on  a  tree  close  to  his 
house,  and  there,  for  hours  together,  pours  forth 
a  succession  of  imitative  notes.  His  own  song 
is  sweet,  but  very  short.  If  a  toucan  be  yelping 
in  the  neighbourhood,  he  drops  it,  and  imitates 
him.  Then  he  will  amuse  his  protector  with  the 
cries  of  the  different  species  of  the  wood-pecker ; 
and,  when  the  sheep  bleat,  he  will  distinctly 
answer  them.  Then  comes  his  own  song  again, 
and  if  a  dog  or  a  guinea  fowl  interrupt  him  he 
takes  them  off  admirably,  and  by  his  different 
gestures  during  the  time,  you  would  conclude 
that  he  enjoys  the  sport.'  7.  C.  viridis,  the 
hook-billed  green  creeper  has  a  bill  of  an  inch  and 
three  quarters  long,  and  bent  in  a  semicircle.  The 
plumage  in  general  is  olive  green,  palest  beneath, 
and  somewhat  inclined  to  yellow  ;  the  quills  and 
tail  are  dusky,  the  legs  dusky  brown,  and  the 
feathers  just  above  the  knee  or  garter,  white.  It 
inhabits  the  Sandwich  islands  in  general,  and  is 
one  of  the  birds  whose  plumage  the  natives  make 
use  of  in  constructing  their  feathered  garments 
which,  having  these  olive-green  feathers  inter- 
mixed with  the  beautiful  scarlet  and  yellow  ones 
belonging  to  the  next  species,  and  yellow-tufted 
bee-eater,  make  some  of  the  most  beautiful  cover- 
ings of  these  islanders. 

CERTIFICATE,  TRIAL  BY,  in  the  English  law, 
a  species  of  trial  allowed  in  such  cases,  where 
the  evidence  of  the  person  certifying  is  the  only 
proper  criterion  of  the  point  in  dispute.  See 
TRIAL. 

CE'RTIFY,  v.  a.  >      Fr.  certifier,  from  Lat. 

CERTIFICATE.  J  certus  and  Jio.  To  be 
made  sure.  It  has  of,  says  Dr.  Johnson,  before 
the  thing  told,  and  after  the  person  told. 

But  I  certify  you,  brethren,  that  the  gospel  which 
was  preached  of  me  is  not  after  man.  Gal.  i.  2. 

The  English  ambassadores  returned  out  of  Flan- 
ders from  Maximilian,  and  certified  the  king,  that  he 
was  not  to  hope  for  any  aid  from  him.  Bacon. 

This  is  designed  to  certify  those  things  that  are 
confirmed  of  God's  favour.  Hammond's  Fundamentals. 

A  certificate  of  poverty  is  as  good  as  a  protection. 

L'Estrange. 

I  can  bring  certificates  that  I  behave  myself  soberly 
before  company.  Addison. 

If  a  question  of  mere  law  arises  in  Chancery, 
it  is  the  practice  to  refer  it  to  the  opinion  of  the 
judges  of  King's  Bench  or  Common  Pleas,  upon  a 
case  stated  for  that  purpose,  wherein  all  the  material 
facts  are  admitted,  and  the  point  of  law  is  submitted 
to  their  decision,  who  thereupon  hear  it  solemnly 
argued  by  counsel  on  both  sides,  and  certify  their 
opinion  to  the  chancellor.  And  upon  such  certificatf 
the  decree  is  usually  founded. 

Blackftone's  Commentaries. 
CERTIORARI,  a  writ  issuing  out  of  the 
chancery  or  king's  bench,  to  call  up  the  records 
of  a  cause  therein  depending,  that  justice  may 
be  done ;  upon  complaint  made  by  bill,  that  the 
party  who  seeks  the  said  writ,  hath  received  hard 
dealing  in  the  said  court.  A  certiorari  is  made  i  e 


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turnable  either  in  common  pleas,  or  in  chancery, 
or  the  king's  bench,  in  which  last  mentioned  court 
it  lies  where  the  king  would  be  certified  of  a  re- 
cord. Indictments  from  inferior  courts,  and  pro- 
ceedings of  the  quarter  sessions  of  the  peace,  may 
also  be  removed  into  the  king's  bench  by  a  certi- 
orari;  here  the  very  record  must  be  returned,  and 
not  a  transcript  of  it;  though  usually  in  chan- 
cery, if  acertiorari  be  returnable  there,  it  removes 
only  the  tenor  of  the  record. 

CERTITUDE,  considered  in  the  things  or  ideas 
which  are  the  objects  of  our  understanding,  is  a 
necessary  agreement  or  disagreement  of  one  part 
of  our  knowledge  with  another ;  as  applied  to 
the  mind,  it  is  the  perception  of  such  agreement 
or  disagreement,  or  such  a  firm  well-grounded 
assent,  as  excludes  not  only  all  manner  of  doubt, 
but  all  conceivable  possibility  of  a  mistake. 
There  are  three  sorts  of  certitude  or  assurance, 
according  to  the  different  natures  and  circum- 
stances of  things,  viz.  :  Certitude,  mathematical, 
is  that  arising  irom  mathematical  evidence  ;  such 
as  that  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle  are  equal  to 
two  right  angles.  Certitude,  moral,  is  that 
founded  on  moral  evidence,  and  is  frequently 
equivalent  to  a  mathematical  one ;  as  that  there 
was  formerly  such  an  emperor  as  Julius  Caesar, 
and  that  he  wrote  the  commentaries  which  pass 
under  his  name,  because  the  historians  of  those 
times  have  recorded  it,  and  no  man  has  ever  dis- 
proved it  since;  this  affords  a  moral  certitude,  in 
common  sense  so  great,  that  one  would  be  thought 
a  madman  who  should  deny  it.  Natural  or 
physical  certitude  is  that  which  depends  upon 
the  evidence  of  sense,  as  that  I  see  such  or  such 
a  color,  or  hear  such  or  such  a  sound  ;  no  body 
questions  the  truth  of  this,  where  the  organs,  the 
medium,  and  the  object  are  rightly  disposed. 

CERTOSA,  a  village  of  the  late  Italian  re- 
public, in  the  department  of  the  Ticino,  and 
ci-devant  principality  of  Pavia,  famous  for  its 
Carthusian  convent,  in  the  middle  of  a  great  park, 
the  square  wall  of  which  is  twenty  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  reaches  nearly  to  Pavia.  Here 
Francis  I.  king  of  France,  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Austrians,  on  the  20th  February,  1525. 

CERVANTES  SAAVEDRA  (Michael  de),  the 
inimitable  author  of  Don  Quixote,  was  born  at 
Madrid  in  1549.  From  his  infancy  he  was  fond 
of  books  ;  but  he  applied  himself  wholly  to  novels 
and  poetry,  especially  those  of  Spanish  and 
Italian  authors.  He  went  to  Italy  to  serve  car- 
dinal Aquaviva,  to  whom  he  was  chamberlain  at 
Rome,  and  afterwards  followed  the  profession  of 
a  soldier  for  some  years,  under  the  victorious  Co- 
lonna.  He  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto 
in  1571,  in  which  he  lost  his  left  hand  by  a  shot. 
After  this  he  was  takes  by  the  Moors  and  carried 
to  Algiers,  where  he  continued  a  captive  five 
years  and  a  half.  Then  he  returned  to  Spain, 
and  wrote  several  comedies  and  tragedies,  which 
were  well  received,  and  acted  with  great  ap- 
plause. In  1584  he  published  his  Galatea,  a 
novel,  in  six  books.  But  the  work  which  has 
immortalised  his  name,  is  the  History  of  Don 
Quixote;  the  first  part  of  which  was  printed  at 
Madrid  in  1605.  This  is  a  satire  upon  books  of 
knight-errantry ;  and  the  chief  end  of  it  was  to 
destroy  the  reputation  of  these  books.  It  was 


universally  read;  and  the  most  eminent  painters, 
tapestry-workers,  engravers,  and  sculptors,  were 
soon  employed  in  representing  the  history  of 
Don  Quixote.  Cervantes's  work,  even  in  his 
lifetime,  had  the  honor  of  receiving  royal  appro- 
bation. As  Philip  III.  was  standing  in  a  bal- 
cony of  his  palace  at  Madrid,  he  observed  a  stu- 
dent on  the  banks  of  the  Manzanares  reading  a 
book,  and  from  time  to  time  breaking  off  and 
beating  his  forehead,  with  extraordinary  marks 
of  delight ;  upon  which  the  king  said,  '  That 
scholar  is  either  mad,  or  reading  Don  Quixote  :' 
the  latter  of  which  proved  to  be  tne  case.  But, 
notwithstanding  the  vast  applause  his  book  every 
where  met  with,  Cervantes  had  much  ado  to  keep 
himself  from  starving.  In  1615  he  published  a 
second  part.  He  wrote  also  The  Force  of  Blood, 
in  two  volumes,  and  The  Troubles  of  Persiles  and 
Sigismunda.  He  had  employed  many  years  in 
writing  this  novel,  and  finished  it  but  just  before 
his  death ;  for  he  did  not  live  to  see  it  published. 
His  sickness  was  of  such  a  nature,  that  he  was 
able  to  be  his  own  historian.  At  the  end  of  the 
preface  to  this  work,  he  represents  himself  on 
horseback  upon  the  road,  and  a  student,  who  had 
overtaken  him,  engaged  in  conversation  with 
him  :  '  And  happening  to  talk  of  my  illness,'  says 
he,  '  the  student  soon  let  me  know  my  doom,  by 
saying  it  was  a  dropsy  I  had  got ;  the  thirst  at- 
tending which,  all  the  water  of  the  ocean,  though 
it  were  not  salt,  would  not  suffice  to  quench. 
Therefore  Senor  Cervantes,  says  he,  you  must 
drink  nothing  at  all,  but  do  not  forget  to  eat ; 
for  this  alone  will  recover  you  without  any  other 
physic.  I  have  been  told  the  same  by  others, 
answered  I ;  but  I  can  no  more  forbear  tippling, 
than  if  I  were  born  to  do  nothing  else.  My  life 
is  drawing  to  an  end  ;  and  from  the  daily  journal 
of  my  pulse,  I  shall  have  finished  my  course  by 
next  Sunday  at  the  farthest. — But  adieu,  my 
friends  all,  for  I  am  going  to  die ;  and  I  hope  to 
see  you  ere  long  in  the  other  world,  as  happy  as 
heart  can  wish.'  His  dropsy  increased,  and  at  last 
proved  fatal  to  him ;  yet  he  continued  to  speak 
and  to  write  bon  mots.  He  received  the  last 
sacrament  on  the  18th  of  April,  1616;  yet  the 
day  after  wrote  a  Dedication  of  his  book  to  the 
Count  de  Lemos. 

CERVICAL  ARTERIES.     See  ANATOMY. 

CERVICAL  NERVES,  seven  pairs  of  nerves,  so 
called,  as  having  their  origin  in  the  cervix.  See 
ANATOMY. 

CERVICAL  SINUSES,  or  CERVICAL  VEINS.  See 
ANATOMY. 

CERVIX,  in  anatomy,  properly  denotes  the 
hind  part  of  the  neck ;  as  distinguished  from  the 
fore  part,  called  jugulum,  or  the  throat.  See 
ANATOMY. 

CERVIX  SCAPULAE,  the  head  of  the  shoulder- 
blade,  or  that  upper  process  whose  sinus  receives 
the  head  of  the  humerus. 

CERVIX  UTERI,  the  neck  of  the  uterus;  called 
also  vagina.  See  ANATOMY. 

CE'RULE,     -\       Lat.  caruleus,   from  caiu- 

CERU'LEAN,      \  leus,      caluni,     sky-colored ; 

CERU'LEOUS,     {blue;      Sir    Thomas     More 

CERULI'FIC.  J  speaks  of  the  ceruleous  or 
blue-colored  sea. 

It  afforded  a  solution  with  now    and  then  a  iigh: 


294 


C  E  R  V  U  S. 


touch  of  sky-colour,  but  nothing  near  so  high  as  the 
ceruleovs  tincture  of  silver.  Boyle, 

From  thee  the  sapphire  solid  ether  takes 
Its  hue  cerulean.  Thomson's  Summer. 

On  spring's  fair  lap,  cerulean  sisters!  pour 
From  airy  urns  the  sun-illumined  shower, 
Feed  with  the  dulcet  drops  my  tender  broods, 
Mellifluous  flowers,  and  aromatic  buds.        Darwin. 

No  meretricious  graces  to  beguile, 
No  clustering  ornaments  to  clog  the  pile  ; 
From  ostentation  as  from  weakness  free, 
It  stands  like  the  cerulean  arch  we  see, 
Majestic  in  its  own  simplicity.  Courper. ' 

CERUMEN.     See  ANATOMY. 
CE'RUSE,  n.  s.     Cerussa,  Lat. ;  white  lead. 
See  WHITE  LEAD. 

A  preparation  of  lead  with  vinegar,  which  is  of  a 
white  colour  ;  whence  many  other  things,  resembling 
it  in  that  particular,  are  by  chymists  called  ceruse  ;  as 
the  ceruse  of  antimony,  and  the  like.  Quincy. 

Of  his  visage,  children  were  sore  aferd, 
Ther  n'as  quicksilver,  litharge,  ne  brimston, 
Boras,  ceruse,  ne  oile  of  tartre  non, 
Ne  oinement  that  wolde  dense  or  bite.        Chaucer. 
Fair  virgins  blushed  upon  him  ;  wedded  dames 

Bloomed  also  in  less  transitory  hues  ; 
For  both  commodities  dwell  by  the  Thames, 

The  painting  and  the  painted  ;  youth,  ceruse, 
Against  his  heart  preferred  their  usual  claims, 

Such  as  no  gentleman  can  quite  refuse  ; 
Daughters  admired  his  dress,  and  pious  mothers 
Enquired  his  income  ;  and  if  be  had  brothers. 

Byron.     Don  Juan. 

CERUSE  or  CEBUSS,  white  lead.  See  LEAD 
WHITE. 

CERUSE,  as  a  medicine,  is  used  externally, 
cither  mixed  in  ointments,  or  by  sprinkling  it  on 
old  gleeting  and  watery  ulcers,  and  in  many  di- 
seases of  the  skin.  If,  when  it  is  reduced  into  a 
fine  powder,  it  is  received  in  with  the  breath  in 
inspiration,  and  carried  down  into  the  lungs,  it 
causes  an  incurable  asthma.  Instances  of  the  very 
pernicious  effects  of  this  metal  are  too  often  seen 
among  those  persons  who  work  lead  in  any  form, 
hut  particularly  among  the  workers  of  white  lead. 
CERVUS,  the  deer,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of 
quadrupeds,  belonging  to  the  order  of  pecora. 
The  horns  are  solid,  branched,  and  brittle,  covered 
with  a  hairy,  or  rather  velvet  skin  (which  falls  off 
at  full  growth),  and  growing  from  the  top  ;  they 
likewise  fall  off  and  are  renewed  annually.  -There 
are  eight  fore  teeth  in  the  under  jaw,  but  no  dog- 
teeth. The  principal  species  are  the  following  : 
1.  C.  alces,  the  elk,  or  moose  deer,  the  alee  or 
machlis  of  Pliny,  has  broad  palmated  horns,  very 
short  beams  or  none,  and  a  fleshy  protuberance 
on  the  throat.  The  neck  is  much  shorter  than 
the  head,  with  a  short,  thick,  upright  mane,  of  a 
light  brown  color.  The  eyes  are  small,  the  ears 
a  foot  long,  very  broad  and  slouching ;  nostrils 
very  large  ;  the  upper  lip  square,  hangs  greatly 
over  the  lower,  and  has  a  deep  sulcus  in  the  mid- 
dle, so  as  to  appear  almost  bifid.  This  is  the 
bulkiest  animal  of  the  deer  kind,  being  sometimes 
seventeen  hands  high,  and  weighing  about  1200 
pounds.  The  female  is  less  than  the  male,  and 
wants  horns.  The  elks  inhabit  Europe,  America, 
and  Asia,  as  far  as  Japan ;  chiefly  frequenting  the 
''old  and  woody  regions.  They  are  found  in  all 
the  woody  tracts  of  the  temperate  parts  of  Russia, 
but  not  on  the  Arctic  flats,  nor  in  Kamtschatka. 


In  Siberia  they  grow  to  an  enormous  size,  parti- 
cularly among  the  mountains.     The  elk  and  the 
moose,  according  to  Mr.  Pennant,  are  the  same 
species ;  the  last  derived  from  musa,  the  Algonkin 
name   for  that  animal.     These  animals  reside 
amidst  forests,  for  the  conveniency  of  browsing 
the  boughs  of  trees,  being  prevented  from  grazing 
with  ease,  by  the  shortness  of  their  necks  and 
length  of  their  legs.     They  often  have  recourse 
to  water  plants,  which  they  can  readily  get  at  by 
wading.     They  are  very  fond  of  the  anagyris 
foetida,  or  stinking  bean  trefoil,  and  will  uncover 
the  snow  with  their  feet  to  get  at  it.     In  passing 
through  the  woods,  they  carry  their  heads  in  a 
horizontal  position,  to  prevent  their  horns  from 
being  entangled  in  the  branches.     They  have  a 
singular  gait :  their  pace  is  a  shambling  trot,  but 
they  go  with  great  swiftness.      In  their  common 
walk  they  lift  their  feet  very  high,  and  will  with- 
out any  difficulty  clear  a  gate  five  feet  high.  They 
feed  principally  in  the  night.     They  ruminate 
like  the  ox.     They  go  to  rut  in  autumn ;  are  at 
that  time  very  furious,  seeking  the   female  by 
swimming  from  isle  to  isle.     These  bring  two 
young  at  a  birth,  in  April,  which  follow  the  dam 
a  whole  year.     During  the  summer  they  keep  in 
families.   In  deep  snows  they  collect  in  numbers 
in  the  forests  of  pines,  for  protection  from  the 
inclemency  of  the  weather,  under  the  shelter  of 
those   ever-greens.     They  are  very   inoffensive, 
except  in  the  rutting  season ;  but  when  wounded 
they  will  turn  on  the  assailant,  and  attack  him 
with  their  horns,  or  trample  him  to  death  beneath 
their  great  hoofs.     Their  flesh  is  extremely  sweet 
and  nourishing.     The  tongues  are  excellent ;  but 
the  nose  is  perfect  marrow,  and  esteemed  the 
greatest  delicacy  in  Canada.     The  skin  makes 
excellent  buff;  being  strong,  soft,  and  light ;  yet 
so  thick,  that  it  is  said  to  resist  a  musket  bullet. 
The  Indians  dress  the  hide,  and,  after  soaking  it 
for  some  time,  stretch  and  render  it  supple  by  a 
lather  of  the  brains  in  hot  water.     They  not  only 
make  their  snow  shoes  of  the  skin,  but,  after  a 
chase,  form  canoes  with  it ;  they  sew  the  skins 
neatly  together,  cover  the  seams  with  an  unctuous 
earth,  and  embark  in  them  with  their  spoils  to 
return  home.   The  hair  on  the  neck,  withers,  and 
hams  of  a  full-grown  elk,  is  of  much  use  in  ma- 
king mattresses  and  saddles ;  being  by  its  great 
length  well  adapted  for  these  purposes,  and  the 
palmated  parts  of  the  horns  are  farther  excavated 
by  the  savages,  and  converted  into  ladles,  which 
will  hold  a  pint.     On  all  these  accounts  they  are 
a  principal  object  of  chase. 

2.  C.  axis,  the  axis,  has  erect  rounded  horns,  with 
three  snags  pointing  upwards,  and  no  brow  ant- 
lers. The  animals  of  this  genus  are  very  tame, 
and  have  the  sense  of  smelling  in  an  exquisite 
degree.  This  species  is  about  the  size  of  the 
fallow-deer;  of  a  light  red  color;  the  bodj 
beautifully  marked  with  white  spots ;  along  the 
lower  part  of  the  sides,  next  the  belly,  is  a  line 
of  white ;  the  tail  is  long,  red  above,  and  white  be- 
neath. They  are  common  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ganges,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Ceylon.  This  species 
bears  the  climate  of  Europe,  having  been  bred  in 
the  Prince  of  Orange's  Menagerie  at  the  Hague 
The  larger  axis  of  Pennant  is  of  a  reddish  brown 
color,  and  has  very  thick,  large,  strong,  and  rug 


C  E  R  V  U  S. 


295 


get!  three-forked  whitish  horns.  It  is  as  large  as 
a  horse,  and  inhabits  the  marshes  of  Borneo  and 
Ceylon. 

3.  C.  capreolus,  the  roe-buck,  has  erect,  cylin- 
drical branched  horns,  and  forked  at  the  top. 
His  size  is  only  three  feet  nine  inches  long,  two 
feet  three  inches  high  before,  and  two  feet  seven 
inches  high  behind ;  weight  from  fifty  to  sixty 
pounds.  Though  the  least  of  the  deer  kind,  his 
figure  is  most  elegant  and  handsome.  His  eyes 
are  more  brilliant  and  animated  than  those  of  the 
stag.  His  limbs  are  more  nimble,  his  movements 
quicker,  and  he  bounds  seemingly  without  effort, 
with  equal  vigor  and  agility.  His  coat  or  hair 
is  always  clean,  smooth,  and  glossy.  He  never 
wallows  in  the  mire  like  the  stag,  but  delights  in 
dry  and  elevated  situations,  where  the  air  is  pu- 
rest. He  is  likewise  more  crafty,  conceals  him- 
self with  greater  address,  and  derives  superior 
resources  from  instinct :  for  though  he  leaves  a 
stronger  scent  than  the  stag,  which  redoubles  the 
ardor  and  appetite  of  the  dogs,  he  knows  how  to 
withdraw  himself  from  their  pursuit,  by  the  rapi- 
dity with  "which  he  begins  his  flight,  and  by  his 
numerous  doublings.  As  soon  as  he  finds  that 
the  first  efforts  of  a  rapid  flight  have  been  unsuc- 
cessful, he  repeatedly  returns  on  his  former  steps, 
and,  after  confounding  by  these  opposite  move- 
ments, he  rises  from  the  earth  by  one  long  bound, 
and,  retiring  to  one  side,  lies  down  flat  on  his 
belly  ;  and  in  this  immoveable  situation  he  allows 
the  whole  troop  of  his  deceived  enemies  to  pass 
very  near  him.  The  roe-deer  differs  from  the  stag 
and  fallow  deer  in  disposition,  temperament, 
manners,  and  almost  every  natural  habit.  In- 
stead of  associating  in  herds  they  live  in  separate 
families.  They  are  constant  in  their  amours,  and 
never  unfaithful  like  the  stag.  They  rut  but  once 
a-year,  and  only  for  fifteen  days,  commencing  at 
the  end  of  October,  and  ending  before  the  fif- 
teenth day  of  November.  During  this  period, 
they  suffer  not  their  fawns  to  remain  with  them. 
The  sire  drives  them  off,  but  after  the  rutting 
season  is  past,  they  return  to  their  mother,  and 
remain  with  her  some  time ;  after  which  they  se- 
parate entirely,  and  remove  to  a  distance  from 
the  place  which  gave  them  birth.  The  female 
goes  with  young  five  months  and  a  half,  and 
brings  forth  about  the  end  of  April  or  beginning 
of  May.  She  produces  two  at  a  time,  which  she 
is  obliged  to  conceal  from  the  buck  while  very 
young.  In  ten  or  twelve  days,  they  acquire 
strength  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  follow  her. 
When  threatened  with  danger,  she  hides  them  in 
a  close  thicket,  and  to  preserve  them,  presents 
herself  to  bo  chased.  Roe-bucks  prefer  a  moun- 
tainous woody  country  to  a  plain  one.  They 
were  formerly  very  common  in  Wales,  in  the 
North  of  England,  and  in  Scotland ;  but  at  pre- 
sent the  species  nowhere  exists  in  Great  Britain, 
except  in  the  Scottish  Highlands.  In  France  they 
are  more  frequent ;  they  are  also  found  in  Italy, 
Sweden,  and  Norway;  and  are  also  met  witli 
in  Siberia.  Wild  roes,  during  summer,  feed  on 
grass ;  and  are  very  fond  of  the  rubus  saxatilis, 
called  in  the  Highlands  the  roe-buck-berry ;  but 
in  winter,  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow, 
they  browse  on  the  tender  branches  of  the  fir 
and  birch. 


4.  C.  dama,  or  the  fallow-deer,  buck  and  doe  ; 
with  horns  branched,  recurved,  compressed,  and 
palmated  at  the  top.     The  color  is  various;  red- 
dish, deep  brown,  white  or  spotted.  This  species 
is  very  numerous  in  England ;  but,  except  on  a 
few  chases,  confined  in  parks.      They  are  easily 
tamed,    and    their   venison   is    in  high    esteem 
among  the  luxurious.     During  rutting-time  they 
will  contend  with  each  other  for  their  mistress, 
but  are  less  fierce  than  the  stag,  though  equally 
inconstant.     In  order  to  drink,  deer  plunge  their 
noses  very  deep  under  water,  and  continue  them 
in  that  situation  for  a  considerable  time ;  but,  to_ 
obviate  any  inconveniency,  they  can  open  two 
vents,  one  at  the  inner  corner  of  each  eye,  having 
a  communication  with  the  nose.     This  extraor- 
dinary provision  of  nature  may  be  of  singular 
service  to  beasts  of  chase,  by  affording  them  free 
respiration ;  these  additional  nostrils  being  thrown 
open  when  they  are  hard  run.     Mr.  Pennant  has 
observed  the  same  curious  organisation  in  the  an- 
telope.   See  CAPRA.   This  species  is  the  jachmur 
of  the  Scriptures. 

5.  C.  elaphus,  the  stag,  has  long  cylindrical  rami- 
fied horns,  bent  backwards,  and  slender  sharp 
brow  antlers.     The  color  is  generally  a  reddish 
brown  with  some  black  about  the  face,  and  a 
black  line  down  the  hind  part  of  the  neck,  and 
between  the   shoulders.     Stags  are  common  in 
Europe,  Barbary,  the  north  of  Asia,  and  America. 
In  spring  they  shed  their  horns,  which  fall  off 
spontaneously,  or  on  rubbing  them  gently  against 
the  branches  of  trees.     The  old  stags  cast  their 
horns  first,  which  happens  about  the  end  of  Fe- 
bruary or  beginning  of  March  ;  but  the  shedding 
of  the  horns  is  advanced  by  a  mild,  and  retarded 
by  a  severe  and  long  winter.     As  soon  as  the 
stags  cast  their  horns,  they  separate,  the  young 
ones  only  keeping  together.     They  advance  into 
the  cultivated  country,  and  remain  among  brush- 
wood during  summer,  till  their  horns  are  renewed. 
In  this  season,  they  walk  with  their  heads  low 
to  prevent  their  horns  from  being  rubbed  against 
the  branches  ;  for  they  continue  to  have  sensibi- 
lity  till   they  acquire  their  full  growth.     The 
horns  of  the  oldest  stags  are  not  half  completed 
in  the  middle  of  May ;    nor  acquire  their  full 
length  and   hardness   before   the   end   of  July. 
Those  of  the  younger  stags  are  proportionally 
later,  both  in  shedding  and  being  renewed.    But 
as  soon  as  they  have  acquired  their  full  dimen- 
sions and  solidity,  the  stags  rub  them  against  the 
trees,  to  clear  them  of  a  skin  with  which  they 
are  covered.     Soon  after  the  stags  have  polished 
their  horns,  they  begin  to  feel  the  rut.     Towards 
the  end  of  August,  or  beginning  of  September, 
they  leave  the  coppice,  return  to  the  forests,  and 
search  for  the  hinds.  They  cry  with  a  loud  voice; 
their  neck  and  throat  swell ;  they  become  per- 
fectly  restless ;  they   strike  their  horns  against 
trees  and  hedges;  and  seem  to  be  transported 
with  fury,  chasing  from  country  to  country  till 
they  find  the  hinds  whom  they  compel  into  com- 
pliance ;    for  the  female  at  first  avoids  and  flies 
from  the  male,  and  never  submits  till  she  be  fa- 
tigued with  the  pursuit.     When  two  stags  ap- 
proach the  same  hind,  they  furiously  fight.     If 
nearly  equal,  in  strength,  they  threaten,  paw  the 
ground,  set  up  texrible  cries,  and  attack  each  other 


C  E  R  V  U  S. 


with  such  fury,  that  they  often  inflict  mortal 
wounds  with  the  strokes  of  their  horns.  The 
combat  never  terminates  but  in  the  defeat  or 
flight  of  one  of  the  rivals.  The  stag  is  very  in- 
constant, having  often  several  females  at  a  time; 
and  when  he  has  but  one  hind,  his  attachment  to 
her  does  not  continue  above  a  few  days.  He  then 
leaves  her,  goes  in  quest  of  another,  with  whom 
he  remains  a  still  shorter  time  ;  and  in  this  man- 
ner passes  from  one  to  another  till  he  is  perfectly 
exhausted.  This  ardor  lasts  only  three  weeks, 
during  which  the  stags  take  very  little  food,  and 
neither  sleep  nor  rest.  Hence,  at  the  end  of  the 
rutting  season,  they  are  so  meagre  and  exhausted 
that  they  recover  not  their  strength  for  a  conside- 
rable time.  They  generally  retire  to  the  borders 
of  the  forests,  feed  upon  the  cultivated  fields,  and 
remain  there  till  their  strength  is  re-established. 
In  seasons  when  acorns  and  nuts  are  plentiful, 
the  stags  soon  recover  their  strength,  and  a 
second  rutting  frequently  happens  at  the  end  of 
October ;  but  it  is  of  much  shorter  duration  than 
the  first.  The  hinds  go  with  young  eight  months 
and  some  days,  and  seldom  produce  more  than 
one  fawn.  They  bring  forth  in  May  or  the  begin- 
ning of  June,  and  anxiously  conceal  their  fawns. 
The  young  are  not  called  fawns  or  calves  after 
the  sixth  month.  The  knobs  of  their  horns  then 
begin  to  appear,  and  they  get  the  name  of  knob- 
bers  till  their  horns  lengthen  into  spears,  and  then 
they  are  called  brocks  or  staggards.  During  the 
first  season  they  never  leave  their  mothers.  In 
winter,  the  stags  and  hinds  of  all  ages  keep  toge- 
ther in  flocks,  which  are  always  more  numerous 
iii  proportion  to  the  rigor  of  the  season.  They 
separate  in  spring :  the  hinds  retire  to  bring 
forth ;  and,  during  this  period,  the  flocks  con- 
sist only  of  knobbers  and  young  stags.  In  gene- 
ral, thf  stags  are  inclined  to  associate,  and  nothing 
but  fear  or  necessity  obliges  them  to  disperse. 
The  life  of  the  stag  is  spent  in  alternate  plenty 
and  want,  vigor  and  debility,  without  having  any 
change  introduced  into  his  constitution  by  these 
opposite  extremes.  He  grows  five  or  six  years, 
and  lives  to  thirty-five  or  forty  years.  What 
has  been  reported  concerning  the  longevity  of  the 
stag,  is  only  a  popular  prejudice,  which  has  pre- 
vailed ever  since  the  days  of  Aristotle ;  an  ac- 
count is  given  of  a  stag  taken  by  Charles  VI.  in 
the  forest  of  Senlis,  with  a  collar,  upon  which 
was  written,  Caesar  hoc  mihi  donavit ;  people 
rather  choosing  to  believe  that  this  animal  had 
lived  1000  years,  and  had  his  collar  from  a  Ro- 
man emperor,  instead  of  supposing  that  he  came 
from  Germany,  where  all  the  emperors  take  the 
name  of  Csesar. 

The  stag  has  a  fine  eye,  an  acute  smell,  and  an 
excellent  ear.  When  listening  he  raises  his  head, 
erects  his  ears,  and  hears  from  a  great  distance. 
He  is  a  simple,  and  yet  a  curious  and  crafty  animal. 
When  hissed  or  called  to  from  a  distance,  he 
stops  short,  and  looks  stedfastly,  and  with  a  kind 
of  admiration,  at  carriages,  cattle,  or  men  ;  and 
if  they  have  neither  arms  nor  dogs,  he  moves  on 
unconcernedly,  and  without  flying.  He  appears 
to  listen,  with  great  delight,  to  the  shepherd's  pipe, 
and  the  hunters  sometirnes  employ  this  artifice  to 
deceive  him.  In  general,  he  is  less  afraid  of  men 
than  of  dogs,  and  is  never  suspicious,  or  uses  any 


arts  of  concealment,  but  in  proportion  to  the  dis 
turbance  he  has  received.  He  eats  slow,  and 
has  a  choice  in  the  aliment;  and  after  his  stomach 
is  full,  he  lies  down  and  ruminates  at  leisure.  He 
seems  to  ruminate  with  less  facility  than  the  ox. 
It  is  only  by  violent  efforts  that  the  stag  can  make 
the  food  rise  from  the  first  stomach.  His  voice 
is  stronger  and  more  quivering,  in  proportion  as 
he  advances  in  years.  The  voice  of  the  hind  is 
shorter  and  more  feeble.  She  never  bellows 
from  love,  but  from  fear.  The  stag,  during  the 
rutting  season,  bellows  dreadfully,  and  is  then  so 
transported,  that  nothing  terrifies  him;  he  is 
therefore  easily  surprised;  as  he  is  loaded  with 
fat,  he  cannot  keep  long  before  the  dogs.  But 
he  is  dangerous  when  at  bay,  and  attacks  the  dogs 
with  fury.  He  drinks  no  water  in  winter  nor  in 
spring,  the  dews  and  tender  herbage  being  then 
sufficient  to  extinguish  his  thirst ;  but  during  the 
parching  heats  of  summer,  to  obtain  drink,  he 
frequents  the  brooks,  the  marshes,  and  the  foun- 
tains ;  and,  in  the  season  of  love,  he  is  so  over- 
heated, that  he  searches  everywhere  for  water, 
not  only  to  satisfy  his  immoderate  thirst;  but  to 
bathe  and  refresh  his  body.  He  then  swims 
easier  than  at  any  other  time,  and  has  been  obser- 
ved crossing  very  large  rivers.  It  has  even  been 
alleged,  that  attracted  by  the  odor  of  the  hinds, 
the  stags  in  the  rutting  season,  throw  themselves 
into  the  sea,  and  pass  from  one  island  to  another 
at  the  distance  of  several  leagues.  They  leap  still 
more  nimbly  than  they  swim  ;  for,  when  pursued, 
they  easily  clear  a  hedge,  pale,  or  fence  of  six 
feet  high.  Their  food  varies  in  different  seasons. 
In  autumn,  after  rutting,  they  search  for  the  buds 
of  green  shrubs,  the  flowers  of  broom  or  heath, 
the  leaves  of  brambles,  &c.  During  the  snows  of 
winter  they  feed  upon  the  bark,  moss,  &c.  of 
trees,  and  in  mild  weather  they  browse  in  the 
wheat  fields.  In  the  beginning  of  spring,  they  go 
in  quest  of  the  catkins  of  the  poplar,  willow,  and 
hazel  trees,  the  flowers  and  buds  of  the  cornel 
tree,  &c.  In  summer  when  they  have  great 
choice  they  prefer  rye  to  all  other  grain,  and  the 
black  berry-bearing  alder  to  all  other  wood.  The 
flesh  of  the  fawn  is  very  good  :  that  of  the  hind 
and  knobber  not  bad ;  but  that  of  the  stag  has  al- 
ways a  strong  and  disagreeable  taste.  The  skin 
and  the  horn?  are  the  most  useful  parts  of  this  ani- 
mal. The  skin  makes  a  pliable  and  very  durable 
leather.  The  horns  are  used  by  cutlers,  sword 
slippers,  &c.  and  a  volatile  spirit,  much  employed 
in  medicine,  is  extracted  from  them  by  chemists. 
In  America,  stags  feed  eagerly  on  the  broad-leaved 
kalmia ;  although  that  plant  is  poison  to  all  other 
horned  animals.  The  American  stags  grow  very 
fat:  their  tallow  is  much  esteemed  for  candles. 
In  Britain  the  stag  is  become  less  common  than 
formerly ;  its  excessive  viciousness  during  the 
rutting  season,  and  the  badness  of  its  flesh,  induce 
most  people  to  part  with  the  species.  Stags  are 
still  found  wild  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  in 
herds  of  400  or  500  ranging  at  full  liberty  over 
the  hills  of  the  north.  Formerly  the  great  High- 
land chieftains  used  to  hunt  with  the  magnificence 
of  eastern  monarchs,  assembling  4000  or  5000  of 
their  clan,  who  drove  the  deer  into  the  toils  or  to 
the  stations  the  lairds  had  placed  themselves  in  : 
but,  as  this  pretence  was  frequently  used  to  col- 


C  E  R  V  U  S. 


297 


iect  their  vassals  for  rebellious  purposes,  an  act 
was  passed  prohibiting  any  assemblies  of  this  na- 
ture. Stags  are  likewise  met  with  on  the  moors 
that  border  Corn  wall  and  Devonshire ;  and  in  Ire- 
land on  the  mountains  of  Kerry,  where  they  add 
greatly  to  the  magnificence  of  the  romantic  sce- 
nery. The  stags  of  Ireland  during  its  uncultiva- 
ted state,  and  while  it  remained  an  almost  bound- 
less tract  of  forest,  had  an  exact  agreement  in 
habit  with  those  that  range  at  present  through  the 
wilds  of  America.  They  were  less  in  body,  but 
very  fat ;  and  their  horns  of  a  size  far  superior  to 
those  of  Europe,  but  in  form  they  agreed  in  all 
points. 

6.  C.  Guineensis,  the  Guinea  deer  of  Gmelin, 
and  gray  deer  of  Pennant,  is  about  the  size  of  a 
cat,  of  a  grayish  color,  and  black  underneath. 
It  is  a  native  of  Guinea,  and  the  size  and  figure 
3f  its  horns  have  not  been  hitherto  described  with 
any  precision.     It  is  doubtful  whether  it  belongs 
to  the  genus  of  deer,  musk,  or  antelope. 

7.  C.  Mexicanus,  the  Mexican  deer  of  Pen- 
nant, and  the  Biche  de  Bois  of  Barrere,  has  strong 
thick  rugged  horns,  bending  forwards,  three  fork- 
ed at  their  extremities,  with  one  erect  snag  about 
two  inches  above  the  base.     It  is  of  a  reddish 
color,  spotted  with  white  when  young,  and  is 
about  the  size  of  a  roe.      The  head  is  large,  the 
eyes  bright,   and  the  neck  thick.      It  inhabits 
New  Spain,  Guiana  and  Brasil.     The  flesh  is  in- 
ferior to  venison. 

8.  C.  muntjac,  themuntjac  of  Schreber,  or  the 
rib-faced  deer  of  Pennant,  has  three  longitudinal 
ribs  extending  from  the  horns  to  the  eyes,  and  a 
projecting  tusk   on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw. 
It  inhabits  Java  and  Ceylon ;  is  less  than  the  roe, 
and  resembles  the  Porcine  deer  in  shape.     The 
horns  are  placed  on  a  bony  process  which  rises 
three  inches  above  the  skull  and  is  covered  with 
hair.      They   are   three-forked,   the   uppermost 
branch  being  hooked.     The  flesh   is  much  es- 
teemed. 

9.  C.  porcinus,  the  porcine,   or  hog-deer  of 
Pennant,  has  slender  trifurcated  horns,  the  body 
is   thick  and  clumsy  ;  the  legs  fine  and  slender  : 
the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  body,  and  sides, 
brown;  belly  and  rump  of  a  lighter  color.  They 
are  found  in  Bengal,  and  Borneo.     They  are  ta- 
ken in  square  pit-falls,  about   four   feet   deep, 
covered  with  some  slight  materials. 

10.  C.  pygargus,  the  Aha  of  Gmelin,  and  the 
tailless  roe  of  Pennant  has  three  forked  horns,  but 
no  tail.     It  inhabits  the  woody  mountains  of  Rus- 
sia and  Siberia,  beyond  the  Volga,  and  in  Hirca- 
nia.     It  resembles  the  roe,  but  it  is  much  larger ; 
is  of  the  same  deep  red,  with  a  large  bed  of 
white  on  the  buttocks  extending  up  the  back. 
The  fur  is  very   thick;  and  on   the  belly  and 
limbs  yellowish.     The  horns  are  very  rugged  at 
the  bases  and  full  of  knobs.     At  the  approach  of 
winter  it  becomes  hoary  and  descends  into  the 
plains. 

11.  C.  tarandus,  the  rein-deer,  is  a  native  of 
Lapland,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  America.      The  horns  are  large,  cylindrical, 
branched,  bent  forwards,  and  palmated  at  the 
ends.     Two  of  the  branches  hang  over  the  face. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  buck,  of  a  dirty  whitish 
color;  the  hairs  of  his  skin  are  thick  and  strong. 


To  the  Laplanders  this  animal  is  a  substitute  for 
the  horse,  the  cow,  the  goat,  and  the  sheep ;  and 
is  their  only  wealth :  the  milk  affords  them  cheese  ; 
the  flesh  food ;  the  skin  cloathing ;  the  tendons 
bow-strings ;  and  when  split,  thread ;  the  horns 
glue  ;  the  bones,  spoons.  During  winter  it  sup- 
plies the  want  of  a  horse,  and  draws  their  sledges 
with  amazing  swiftness  over  the  frozen  lakes  and 
rivers,  or  over  the  snow  which  at  that  time  covers 
the  whole  country.  A  Laplander  is  rich  who  is 
possessed  of  a  herd  of  1000  rein  deer.  In  au- 
tumn they  seek  the  highest  hills,  to  avoid  the 
Lapland  gad-fly,  which  at  that  time  deposits  its 
eggs  in  their  skin ;  it  is  the  pest  of  these  animals, 
and  numbers  die  that  are  thus  visited.  The  mo- 
ment a  single  fly  appears,  the  whole  herd  instantly 
perceive  it;  they  fling  up  their  heads,  toss  about 
their  horns,  and  at  once  attempt  to  fly  for  shelter 
amidst  the  snows  of  the  loftiest  mountains.  In 
summer  they  feed  on  several  plants ;  but  during 
winter  on  the  rein  liverwort  (a  species  of  lichen), 
which  lies  far  beneath  the  snow,  which  they  re- 
move with  their  feet  and  palmated  brow  antlers. 
The  Samoieds,  less  intelligent  than  the  Laplan- 
ders, consider  them  in  no  other  view  than  as  ani- 
mals of  draught,  to  convey  them  to  the  chase  of 
the  wild  reins  ;  which  they  kill  for  the  sake  of 
the  skins,  either  to  clothe  themselves,  or  to  cover 
their  tents.  They  know  not  the  delicacy  of  the 
milk  or  cheese;  but  prefer  for  their  repast  the 
intestines  of  beasts,  or  the  half-putrid  flesh  of  a 
horse,  ox,  or  sheep,  which  they  find  dead  on  the 
high  road. — Thejioreki,  a  nation  of  Kamtschatka, 
may  be  placed  on  a  level  with  the  Samoieds. 
They  keep  immense  herds  of  reins  ;  some  of  the 
richest  of  them  to  the  amount  of  1 0,000  or  20,000 ; 
yet  eat  none  except  such  as  they  kill  for  the  sake 
of  the  skins ;  an  article  of  commerce  with  their 
neighbours  the  Kamtschatkans ;  otherwise  they 
content  themselves  with  the  flesh  of  those  which 
die  by  disease  or  chase.  They  train  them  in  the 
sledge,  but  neglect  them  for  every  domestic  pur- 
pose. They  couple  two  to  each  carriage ;  and 
the  deer  will  travel  150  versts  in  a  day,  that 
is,  112  English  miles.  They  castrate  the  males 
by  piercing  the  spermatic  arteries,  and  tying  the 
scrotum  tight  with  a  thong.  The  savage  and 
uninformed  Esquimaux  and  Greenlanders,  who 
possess,  amidst  their  snows,  these  beautiful  ani- 
mals, neglect  not  only  the  domestic  uses,  but 
even  are  ignorant  of  their  advantage  in  the  sledge. 
The  flesh  of  the  rein  is  the  most  coveted  part  of 
their  food  ;  they  eat  it  raw,  dressed,  and  dried 
and  smoked  with  the  snow  lichen.  The  wearied 
hunters  will  drink  the  raw  blood ;  but  it  is  usually 
dressed  with  the  berries  of  the  heath ;  they  eagerly 
devour  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  but  use  the 
intestines  boiled.  The  skin,  sometimes  a  part  of 
their  clothing,  dressed  with  the  hair  on,  is  soft 
and  pliant ;  it  forms  also  the  inner  lining  of  their 
tents,  and  most  excellent  blankets.  The  tendons 
are  their  bow-strings,  and  when  split  are  the 
threads  with  which  they  sew  their  jackets.  The 
rein-deers  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood  oi 
Hudson's  Bay,  in  most  amazing  numbers,  co- 
lumns of  8000  or  10,000  are  seen  annually  pas- 
sing from  north  to  south  in  March  and  April, 
driven  out  of  the  woods  by  the  musquitoes,  seek- 
ing refreshment  on  the  shore,  and  a  quiet  place  to 


CER 


298 


CES 


drop  their  young.  They  go  to  rut  in  September, 
and  the  males  soon  after  shed  their  horns ;  they 
are  at  that  season  very  fat,  but  so  rank  and  mus- 
ky as  not  to  be  eatable.  The  females  drop  their 
young  in  June,  in  the  most  sequestered  spots  they 
can  find ;  and  then  they  likewise  lose  their  horns. 
Beasts  of  prey  follow  the  herds  :  first,  the  wolves, 
who  single  out  the  stragglers  (for  they  fear  to  at- 
tack the  drove),  detach  and  hunt  them  down;  the 
foxes  attend  at  a  distance,  to  pick  up  the  offals 
left  by  the  former.  In  autumn  the  deer  with  the 
fawns  re-migrate  northward.  The  Indians  are 
very  attentive  to  their  motions ;  for  the  rein  forms 
tho  chief  part  not  only  of  their  dress  but  of  their 
food.  They  often  kill  multitudes  for  the  sake  of 
their  tongues  only  ;  but  generally  they  separate 
the  flesh  from  the  bones,  and  preserve  it  by  dry- 
ing it  in  the  smoke  ;  they  also  save  the  fat,  and 
sell  it  to  the  English  in  bladders,  who  use  it  in 
frying  instead  of  butter.  The  skins  are  also  an 
article  of  commerce.  Several  attempts  have  been 
made  to  introduce  this  useful  animal  to  other 
countries,  but  they  have  hitherto  proved  unsuc- 
cessful. Sir.  H.  Liddell  brought  over  a  flock  in 
1786,  but  they  all  died  of  the  rot  on  account  of 
the  unaccustomed  richness  of  their  pasture.  Mr. 
Bullock,  in  1821,  prevailed  on  a  Lapland  shepherd 
to  accompany  some  of  them  to  England,  where 
they  were  exhibited  in  Piccadilly  ;  and  after  the 
novelty  was  over,  they  were  sent  to  Abberley 
Hall,  the  seat  of  Sir  C.  Smith,  where  two  were 
living  in  1824. 

12.  C.  Virginianus,  the  Virginian  deer  of  Pen- 
nant, has  slender  horns  bending  much  forwards, 
very  slightly  palmated  at  the  extremities,  with 
numerous  branches  on  the  interior  edges,  but  no 
brow  antlers.  .  It  inhabits  Virginia  and  Carolina, 
greatly  resembles  the  fallow  deer,  but  is  higher  at 
the  shoulders,  and  has  a  longer  tail  and  longer 
legs.  The  color  is  a  cinereous  brown  or  ash  co- 
lor. These  animals  are  gregarious,  very  active, 
restless,  and  easily  domesticated.  They  are  ex- 
tremely numerous  in  all  the  territory  south  of 
Canada ;  but  especially  in  the  vast  savannahs 
contiguous  to  the  Mississippi, and  the  great  rivers 
which  flow  into  it,  They  graze  in  herds  innu- 
merable, along  with  the  stags  and  buffaloes. 
They  are  capable  of  being  tamed,  and  when  pro- 
perly trained,  are  used  by  the  Indians  to  decoy 
the  wild  deer  (especially  in  the  rutting  season), 
within  shot.  Both  bucks  and  does  herd  from 
September  to  March;  after  that  they  separate, 
and  the  does  secrete  themselves  to  bring  forth, 
and  are  found  with  difficulty.  The  bucks  from 
this  time  keep  separate  till  the  amorous  season  of 
September  revolves.  The  deer  begin  to  feed  as 
soon  as  night  begins;  and  sometimes,  in  the  rainy 
season,  in  the  day;  otherwise  they  seldom  or 
never  quit  their  haunts.  Those  which  live  near 
the  shores  are  lean,  subject  to  worms  in  their 
head  and  throats,  generated  from  the  eggs  depo- 
sited in  those  parts.  Those  that  frequent  the  hills 
and  savannahs  are  in  better  case.  ID  hard  win- 
ters they  will  feed  on  the  long  moss  which  hangs 
from  the  trees  on  the  northern  parts.  These 
and  other  cloven  footed  quadrupeds  of  America 
are  very  fond  of  salt,  and  resort  eagerly  to  the 
places  impregnated  with  it.  They  are  always 
seen  in  great  numbers  in  the  spots  where  the 


ground  has  been  torn  by  torrents  or  other  acci- 
dents, where  they  are  seen  licking  the  earth. 
Such  spots  are  called  licking  places.  The  hunts- 
men are  sure  of  finding  the  game  there  ;  for  not- 
withstanding they  are  often  disturbed,  the  buffa- 
loes and  deer  are  so  passionately  fond  of  the 
savory  regale,  as  to  bid  defiance  to  all  danger, 
and  return  in  droves  to  their  favorite  haunts. 
See  DEER. 

CERVUS  VOLANS,  in  entomology,  a  name 
given  by  authors  to  the  stag-fly,  or  horned 
beetle,  a  very  large  species  of  beetles  with  horns 
sloped,  and  something  like  those  of  the  stag.  It 
is  found  in  Essex 

CERYX,  in  antiquity,  a  sort  of  public  crier, 
appointed  to  proclaim  or  publish  things  aloud  in 
assemblies.  The  ceryx  among  the  Greeks  an- 
swered to  the  praeco  among  the  Romans.  Our 
criers  have  only  a  small  part  of  their  office  and 
authority.  There  were  two  kinds  of  ceryces, 
civil  and  sacred.  The  former  were  those  ap- 
pointed to  call  assemblies  ond  make  silence 
therein ;  also  to  go  on  messages,  and  do  'the 
office  of  our  heralds,  &c.  The  sacred  ceryces 
were  a  sort  of  priests,  whose  office  was  to  pro- 
claim silence  in  the  public  games  and  sacrifices, 
publish  the  names  of  the  conquerors,  proclaim 
feasts,  and  the  like.  The  priesthood  of  the 
ceryces  was  annexed  to  a  particular  family,  the 
descendents  of  Ceryx,  son  of  Eumolpus.  To 
them  it  also  belonged  to  lead  solemn  victims  to 
slaughter.  Before  the  ceremonies  began,  they 
called  silence  in  the  assembly,  by  the  formula, 
Evd>r)p,tiTt  ffiyr)  irag  £<rw  Xawc,  ;  answering  to  the 
favete  linguis  of  the  Romans.  When  the  ser- 
vice was  over,  they  dismissed  the  people  with 
this  formula,  Aawv  a0t<ric,  Ite,  missa  est. 

CESARE,  among  logicians,  one  of  the  modes 
of  the  second  figure  of  syllogisms;  the  minor 
proposition  of  which  is  a  universal  affirmative, 
and  the  other  two  universal  negatives  ;  thus, 

CE  No  immoral  books  ought  to  be  printed  ; 

sA  But  every  obscene  book  is  immoral ; 

RE  Therefore  no  obscene  books  ought  to  be  printed. 

CESA'RIAN,  adj.  >       From  Caesar  (see  the 

CESA'REAN  J  quotation  from   Quincy), 

or  rather  from  Lat.  cado,  casum,  and  a  circum- 
stance in  his  birth  which  seems  to  have  given  the 
name  to  his  family. 

The  Cesarian  section  is  cutting  a  child  out  of  the 
womb,  either  dead  or  alive,  when  it  cannot  otherwise 
be  delivered.  Which  circumstance,  it  is  said,  first 
gave  the  name  of  Caesar  to  the  Roman  family  so 
called.  Quinty. 

Rooted  where  once  the  Adrian  wave  flowed  o'er, 
To  where  the  last  Cesarian  fortress  stood.  Byron. 

CESENATICO,  a  town  of  the  late  Italian  re 
public,  in  the  department  of  the  Rubicon,  near 
the  sea ;  and  now  belonging  to  the  states  of  the 
church.  It  has  a  good  harbour,  and  a  well  con- 
structed canal,  on  the  bridge  over  which  are  two 
marble  Corinthian  pillars.  The  inhabitants  ot 
this  town  having  arrested  a  messenger  with  des- 
patches, the  English,  in  1800,  set  fire  to  the  moles 
of  the  harbour, and  burnt  or  sunk  sixteen  vessels. 
It  is  sixteen  miles  south-east  of  Ravenna. 

CESPITOSJE,  PLANT*,  (from  cespes,  turf  or 
sod),  plants  which  produce  many  stems  from  one 
root,  and  thence  form  a  :lose  thick  carpet  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth. 


CES 


299 


CES 


CESS,  v.  &  n.  I       Junius    says    from    Lat. 

CE'SSMENT.  }  saisire,  to  levy.  Dr.  John- 
son thinks  it  is  a  corruption  of  census,  a  tax ;  but 
the  more  probable  etymology  seems  to  be  assesso, 
to  levy  a  tax.  To  make  a  rate  or  levy  ;  a  tax 
levied.  It  seems  to  have  been  used  by  Shaks- 
peare  for  bounds  or  limits ;  the  phrase,  say  the 
commentators,  being  taken  from  a  cess,  tax,  or 
subsidy. 

We  are  to  consider  how  much  land  there  is  in  all 
Ulster,  that,  according  to  the  quantity  thereof  we  may 
cess  the  said  rent,  and  allowance  issuing  thereout. 

Spenser  on  Ireland. 

The  like  cess  is  also  charged  upon  the  country  some- 
times for  victualling  the  soldiers,  when  they  lie  in 
garrison.  Id. 

I  pr'ythee,  Tom,  beat  Cult's  saddle,  put  a  few 
flocks  in  the  point ;  the  poor  jade  is  wrung  in  the 
withers  out  of  all  cess.  Shakxpeare.  Henry  IV. 

CESS,  v.  n.     ~\      From  Lat.  cccdo.     To  give 

CES'SIBLE  adj.f  place;  to  yield;  often  syno- 

CESSIBI'LITY,  Vnymous   with    CEDE,   which 

CE'SSION,  n.     I  see.     But   meaning   also   to 

CE'SSIONARY.  J  omit  a  legal  duty. 

In  law,  he  that  ceaseth  or  neglecteth  so  long  to 
perform  a  duty  belonging  to  him,  as  that  by  his  cess, 
or  cess>ny,  he  incurreth  the  danger  of  law,  and  hath, 
or  may  have,  the  writ  cessavit  brought  against  him. 
Where  it  is  said  the  tenant  cesseth,  such  phrase  is 
to  be  understood  as  if  it  were  said,  the  tenant  cesseth 
to  do  that  which  he  ought,  or  is  bound,  to  do  by  his 
land  or  tenement.  Cowell. 

Sound   is   not  produced   without   some  resistance, 

either  in  the  air  or  the  body  percussed  ;  for  if  there 

be  a  mere  yielding,  or  cession,  it  produceth  no  sound. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

A  parity  in  their  council  would  make  and  secure 
the  best  peace  they  can  with  France,  by  a  cession  of 
Flanders  to  that  crown,  in  exchange  for  other  pro- 
vinces. Temple. 

A  cessionary  bankrupt  is  one  -who  has  delivered  up 
all  his  effects.  Martin. 

If  the  parts  of  the  strucken  body  be  so  easily  cessible, 
as  without  difficulty  the  stroke  can  divide  then,  then 
it  enters  into  such  a  body,  till  it  hath  spent  its  force. 

Digby  on  the  Soul. 

If  the  subject  strucken  be  of  a  proportionate  cessi- 
bility,  it  seems  to  dull  and  deaden  the  stroke  ;  whereas, 
if  the  thing  strucken  be  hard,  the  stroke  seems  to  lose 
no  force,  but  to  work  a  greater  effect.  Id. 

That  none  of  the  princes  or  states  to  whom  these 
cessions  were  made,  should  call  their  subjects  to  ac- 
count for  any  part  of  their  conduct  while  under  the 
dominion  of  their  enemies,  but  should  bury  all  past 
transactions  in  oblivion.  Robertton'i  Charles  V. 

France  had  positively  declared  that  she  would  not 
evacuate  the  six  towns  before  the  requisite  cession  was 
made  to  Sweden  ;  and  her  honour  seemed  now  en- 
gaged to  support  that  declaration.  Hume. 

CESSATION.  Lat.  cessatio ;  Fr.  cessation. 
Intermission,  stoppage,  from  whatever  cause; 
rest. 

The  day  was  yearly  observed  for  a  festival,  by  ces- 
tation  from  labour,  and  by  resorting  to  church. 

Hayward. 

True  piety,  without  cessation  tost 
By  theories,  the  practick  part  is  lost.       Denham. 
When  the  surcours  of  the  poor  pi-otestants  in  Ire- 
land were  diverted,  I  was  intreated  to  get  them  some 
respite,  by  a  ccfsaHmi.  j(ing  Charles. 


The  rising  of  a  parliament  is  a  kind  of  cessation 
from  politicks.  Addison's  Freeholder. 

The  serum,  which  is  mixed  with  an  alkali,  being 
poured  out  to  that  which  is  mixed  with  an  acid, 
raiseth  an  effervescence  ;  at  the  cessation  of  which,  the 
salts,  of  which  the  acid  was  composed,  will  be  regene- 
rated. Arbuthnot  on  Aliments. 

To  this  those  were  invited  whom  the  cessation  of 
war  deprived  of  employment,  and  made  burthensome 
to  their  country.  Dr.  Johnson. 

He  who  trusts  one  whom  he  designs  to  sue,  is  crimi- 
nal by  the  act  of  trust ;  the  cessation  of  such  insidious 
traffick  is  to  be  desired,  ant.  no  reason  can  be  given 
why  a  change  of  the  law  should  impair  any  other. 

Idler. 

CESSATION  OF  ARMS.  When  the  commander 
of  a  place  finds  things  reduced  to  an  extremity, 
so  that  he  must  eitner  surrender,  or  sacrifice  the 
garrison  and  inhabitants  to  the  mercy  of  the  enemy, 
he  plants  a  white  flag  on  the  breach,  or  beats  the 
chamade  ;  on  which  a  cessation  of  hostilities  com- 
mences, to  give  time  for  a  capitulation. 

CESSION,  in  law,  an  act  by  which  a  person 
surrenders  and  transmits  to  another  person  a 
right  which  belonged  to  himself.  Cession  is  more 
particularly  used  in  the  civil  law  for  a  voluntary 
surrender  of  a  person's  effects  to  his  creditors,  to 
avoid  imprisonment.  See  BANKRUPT.  In  se 
veral  places  the  cession  carried  with  it  a  mark 
of  infamy,  and  obliged  the  person .  to  wear  a 
green  cap  or  bonnet;  at  Lucca  an  orange  one: 
to  neglect  this  was  to  forfeit  the  privileges  of  the 
cession.  This  was  originally  intended  to  signify 
that  the  cessionary  was  become  poor,  through 
his  own  folly.  The  Italian  lawyers  describe  the 
ceremony  of  the  cession  to  consist  in  striking 
the  bare  breech  three  times  against  a  stone, 
called  lapis  vituperii,  in  presence  of  the  judge. 
Formerly  it  consisted  in  giving  up  the  girdles 
and  keys  in  court :  the  ancients  using  to  carry 
at  their  girdles  the  chief  utensils  wherewith  they 
got  their  living ;  as  the  scrivener  his  escritoire, 
the  merchant  his  bag,  &c.  The  form  of  cession 
among  the  ancient  Gauls  and  Romans  was  as 
follows  :  the  cessionary  gathered  up  dust  in  his 
left  hand  from  the  four  corners  of  the  house,  and 
standing  on  the  threshold,  holding  the  door- 
post in  his  right  hand,  threw  the  dust  back  over 
his  shoulder ;  then  stripping  to  the  shirt,  and 
quitting  his  girdle  and  bags,  he  jumped  with  a 
pole  over  a  hedge;  hereby  letting  the  world 
know,  that  he  had  nothing  left,  and  that  when 
he  jumped  all  he  was  worth  was  in  the  air  with 
him. 

CESSION,  in  the  ecclesiastical  law,  is  when  an 
ecclesiastical  person  is  created  a  bishop  without 
dispensation,  or  being  otherwise  qualified.  In 
both  these  cases,  their  first  benefices  become 
void  by  cession,  without  any  resignation.  To 
those  livings  that  the  person  had,  who  was  created 
bishop,  the  king  may  present  for  that  time,  who- 
soever be  patron ;  and  in  the  other  case  the  pa- 
tron may  present :  but  by  dispensation  of  re- 
tainder,  a  bishop  may  retain  some  or  all  the 
preferments  he  had,  before  he  was  made  bishop. 

CESTRUM,  bastard  jasmine,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order  and  pentandria  class  of  plants  : 
natural  order  twenty-eighth,  luridae  :  COR.  funnel- 
shaped  ;  the  stamina  each  sending  out  a  little 


300 


CEYLON. 


tooth  about  the  middle  of  the  inside :  FRUIT, 
berry,  one-celled,  many  seeded.  There  are  six- 
teen species,  natives  of  the  warmest  parts  of 
America ;  and  cannot  be  preserved  in  this  coun- 
try without  artificial  heat.  They  are  flowering 
shrubs,  rising  in  height  from  five  to  twelve  feet, 
with  flowers  of  a  white  or  pale  yellow  color. 
The  flowers  of  one  species,  called  Badmington 
jasmine,  emit  a  strong  scent  after  sun-set.  They 
may  be  propagated  either  by  seed  or  cuttings. 

CESTUI,  a  French  word,  signifying  he  or  him, 
frequently  used  in  the  old  English  law  writings. 
Thus,  Cestui  qui  trust,  a  person  who  has  lands,  &c. 
committed  to  him  for  the  benefit  of  another ;  and 
if  such  person  does  not  perform  his  trust,  he  is 
compellable  to  it  in  Chancery.  Cestui  qui  vie, 
one  for  whose  life  any  lands,  &c.  are  granted. 
Cestui  qui  use,  a  person  to  whose  use  any  one  is 
imfeoffed  of  lands  or  tenements.  Formerly  the 
feoffees  to  uses  were  deemed  owners  of  land,  but 
now  the  possession  is  adjudged  in  cestui  qui 
use. 

CE'STUS,  n.  s.  Lat.  cestus ;  French  ceste. 
The  girdle  of  Venus.  Collins,  in  his  Ode  on  the 
Poetical  Character,  speaks  of  Fancy's  '  cest  of 
implest  power,'  and  it  is  well  known  the  £atin 
word  was  applied  to  any  girdle. 

Venus,  without  any  ornament  but  her  own  beauties, 
not  so  much  as  her  own  cestus.  Addison's  Spectator. 

CESTUS,  CESTUM,  or  CESTON,  among  the  an- 
cient poets,  was  a  fine  embroidered  girdle,  said 
to  be  worn  by  Venus,  to  which  Homer  ascribes 
the  power  of  charming  and  conciliating  love. 
Also  a  kind  of  glove  used  by  the  ancient  pugi- 
Jists.  The  Greeks  had  four  different  sorts  of 
cestus.  The  first,  which  was  called  imantes,  was 
made  of  the  hide  of  an  ox,  dried  but  not  dressed. 
The  second,  called  myrmecas,  was  covered  with 
a  metal.  The  third,  named  meliques,  was  made 
of  thin  leathern  thongs ;  and  did  not  cover  either 
the  wrist  or  fingers,  but  only  the  back  of  the  hand. 
The  fourth,  which  was  called  sphoeroe,  the  thick 
glove,  was  covered  with  lead  to  render  the  blow 
more  destructive. 

CETA'CEOUS,  adj.  Lat.  cete,  whales.  Of 
the  whale  kind. 

Such  fishes  as  have  lungs  or  respiration  are  not 

without  the  wezzon,  as  whales  and  cetaceout  animals. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

He  hath  created  variety  of  these  cetaceous  fishes, 
•which  converse  chiefly  in  the  northern  seas,  whose 
who'e  body  being  encompassed  round  with  a  copious 
fat  or  blubber,  it  is  enabled  to  abide  the  greatest  cold 
of  the  sea  water.  Ray  on  the  Creation. 

CETE,  the  name  of  Linnaeus's  seventh  order 
of  mammalia,  comprehending  the  monodon,  ba- 
loeua,  physeter,  and  delphinus. 

CETIC  ACID,  a  name  given  by  Chevreul  to 
a  supposed  peculiar  principle  of  spermaceti, 
which  he  has  lately  found  to  be  the  substance  he 
has  called  margarine,  combined  with  a  fatty  mat- 
ter. It  is  a  white  solid  substance  fusible  at 
nearly  the  same  point  as  spermaceti,  but  which 
does  not,  on  cooling,  crystallise  in  plates.  It  is 
insoluble  in  water,  but  much  more  soluble  in  al- 
cohol than  spermaceti,  and  is  susceptible  of  union 
with  various  bases,  with  which  it  forms  salts  or 
soaps. 


CETINE,  the  name  given  by  Chevreul  to  sper- 
maceti. See  CHEMISTRY,  FAT  and  SPERMACETI. 

CETTE,  or  SETTE,  a  populous  and  well-built 
sea-port  of  France,  in  Languedoc,  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  a  canal  on  a  sand-bank  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  lake  of  Thau.  The  har- 
bour is  convenient  and  protected  by  several  forts. 
It  has  a  large  sugar  refinery ;  a  good  export 
trade  in  wine ;  a  soap  work,  and  a  tobacco  ma- 
nufactory ;  a  neighbouring  salt  lake  abounds 
also  in  that  mineral.  Population  8000.  It  is 
eighteen  miles  south-west  of  Montpelier. 

CETUS,  in  astronomy,  a  large  constellation 
of  the  southern  hemisphere,  under  Pisces,  and 
next  the  water  of  Aquarius.  In  the  mandible 
of  cetus  is  a  variable  star  which  appears  and  dis- 
appears periodically,  passing  through  the  several 
degrees  of  magnitude,  in  about  333  days.  See 
ASTRONOMY. 

CETUS,  in  mythology,  the  sea  monster  which 
Neptune,  at  the  suit  of  the  nymphs,  sent  to  de- 
vour Andromeda  for  the  pride  of  her  mother,  and 
which,  being  killed  by  Perseus,  was  translated  to 
the  stars. 

CEVADIC  ACID,  this  is  produced  by  the 
action  of  potass  on  the  fat  matter  of  tht  cevadilla, 
a  plant  from  Senegal,  of  the  delphinium  and  aco- 
nite class.  Cevadic  acid  was  discovered  by  Pel- 
letier  and  Caventou.  It  is  in  the  form  of  needles, 
or  fine  white  crystalline  concretions.  Its  odor 
is  analogous  to  that  of  butyric  acid.  It  is  solu- 
ble in  water,  and,  like  other  acids,  xmites  with 
bases. 

CEVENNES,  or  SEVENNES,  a  chain  of  moun- 
tains in  the  south  of  France,  and  ci-devant  province 
of  Languedoc,  remarkable  for  the  frequent  meetings 
of  the  Protestants  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  as 
a  place  of  security  for  them  against  the  tyranny 
of  their  popish  rulers.  It  extends  through  the 
departments  of  the  Upper  Loire,  Ardeche,  and 
Card,  and  is  connected  with  the  mountains  of 
the  Vivarais  and  Gevaudan.  Though  not  so 
lofty  as  the  mountains  of  Auvergne,  they  are  as 
rugged  and  almost  as  cold.  In  Queen  Anne's 
reign  an  attempt  was  made  to  assist  the  Protes- 
tants secluded  here,  by  an  English  fleet  in  the 
Mediterranean ;  but  the  French  had  occupied  all 
the  passes.  Fortunately  the  age  of  bigotry  is 
now,  if  revived,  less  powerful,  in  France. 

CEUTA,  a  sea-port  town  of  Morocco,  imme- 
diately opposite  to  Gibraltar.  It  is  near  the  Apes 
mountain,  the  ancient  Abyla,  one  of  the  pillars  of 
Hercules,  and  the  only  settlement  which  Spain 
retains  of  her  former  possessions  in  Morocco. 
John,  king  of  Portugal,  took  it  in  1409;  and,  after 
the  death  of  Sebastian,  Spain  again  received  it, 
with  other  dominions  of  Portugal.  It  was  finally 
ceded  to  the  Spanish  crown  by  the  treaty  of  Lis- 
bon in  1688.  In  1694,  and  for  six  years  follow- 
ing, it  was  kept  in  blockade  by  the  Moors ;  but 
it  is  nearly  impregnable,  and  they  were  obliged 
to  raise  the  siege.  It  has  a  good  but  small  har- 
bour. 

CEYLON,  a  large  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
separated  from  the  south-eastern  extremity  of 
the  Coromandel  coast  by  a  strait  called  Manaar 
or  Manar,  which  is  crossed  by  a  narrow  ridge  of 
rocks  and  sand,  called  Adam's  Bridge  ;  the  great- 
est depth  over  which  at  high  water  is  from  three 


CEYLON. 


301 


to  four  feet.  It  is  situated  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Bay  of  Bengal  westward,  and  distant  from  Cape 
Comorin  in  Hindostan  about  140  miles,  but  the 
nearest  approach  it  makes  to  that  continent  is  at 
Point  Calymere  to  the  north,  hardly  more  than 
one-fourth  of  that  distance.  It  lies  between  the 
parallels  of  5°  50'  and  9°  50'  N.  latitude,  and 
between  79°  50'  and  32°  10'  E.  longitude.  It 
is  nearly  oval,  resembling  in  general  outline  the 
shape  of  a  pear,  its  extreme  length  being  about 
280  miles,  and  its  breadth  about  170.  The  most 
elevated  ground  is  in  the  south,  the  mountains 
gradually  sinking  into  an  extensive  table  land, 
which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  island.  On  the 
cast  the  shore  is  bold  and  rocky  and  the  water 
deep :  the  north  and  north-west  coasts,  from 
Point  Pedro  to  Columbo  or  Colom,  are  flat  and 
indented  with  bays  and  inlets  from  the  sea,  the 
.argest  of  which  extends  almost  across  the  island 
from  Mullipati  to  Jafnapatam.  The  peninsula 
>>f  that  name  is  formed  by  this  indentation,  round 
*hich  lie  a  cluster  of  islands,  separated  by  nar- 
;  ow  channels  from  the  body  of  the  island.  The 
north-west  coast  is  so  full  of  sand-banks  and 
shallows  that  vessels  of  a  large  size  cannot  ap- 
proach the  harbours.  Trincomale  and  Point  de 
Galle  afford  anchorage  for  the  largest  ships,  and 
Uolumbo  at  certain  seasons.  This  island  is 
Bounded  on  the  west,  south,  and  east  by  the  In- 
dian Ocean,  on  the  north-west  by  the  southern 
part  of  Hindostan,  and  on  the  north-east  by  the 
Bay  of  Bengal. 

In  the  interior  there  are  many  steep  and  lofty 
mountains,  covered  with  forests  and  abounding 
in  almost  impenetrable  jungles,  which  completely 
surround  the  king  of  Candy's  dominions.  The 
mo«t  lofty  range  divides  the  island  nearly  into 
two  parts,  the  southern  point  of  which,  Adam's 
Peak,  in  latitude  nearly  7°  N.,  and  longitude 
about  80°  40'  E.,  rises  upwards  of  6000  feet  in 
height  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  another  ridge, 
called  Namam  Kuli  Kandi,  is  about  5500  feet 
high;  another,  Neuvera  Cliya,  rises  5000  feet 
with  a  circumference  of  not  quite  twenty  miles ; 
and  another  is  about  4000  feet  high ;  in  general, 
however,  the  mountainous  region  does  not  ex- 
ceed from  one  to  two  thousand  feet  in  perpendi- 
cular height.  The  elevation  of  the  hilly  region, 
between  the  mountains  and  the  shore  may  be  es- 
timated on  the  average  at  500  feet ;  and  that  of 
the  shore  near  the  sea  at  fifty.  Adam's  Peak  is 
visible  more  than  forty  miles  out  at  sea. 

Ceylon  was  known  to  the  ancients  by  the  name 
of  Taprobane  ;  the  Sanscrit  name  is  Tapobon,  or 
the  hallowed  groves  or  wilderness  of  prayer ;  the 
natives  call  it  Lanca,  the  Holy  Land ;  its  name 
Zeilan,  or  Ceylon,  is  probably  derived  from 
Sinhal,  the  lions;  the  native  name  of  the  inha- 
bitants, Cingalese,  comes  from  the  Indian  name 
Sing,  a  lion;  which  seems  also  to  be  the  origin 
of  Serlen-dibra  and  Serendib,  by  the  latter  of 
which  names  it  is  known  to  the  Mahommedan 
nations. 

There  are  no  very  considerable  rivers,  except 
the  Malwaganga  or  Mahaville-ganga,  the  Wal- 
lewe  or  Neel-ganga,  and  the  Mullwadda,  all 
rising  from  Adam's  Peak ;  the  first  flowing  north- 
ward into  Trincomale  Bay,  the  second  taking  a 
southerly  course,  and  falling  into  the  sea  about 


thirty  miles  east  of  Cape  Comorin,  and  the  last 
flowing  north-west  and  west  to  its  mouth  at 
Mutwal,  a  little  north  of  Columbo.  These 
rivers  are  rendered  unfit  for  navigation  to  any 
great  extent  from  the  sea,  by  reason  of  the  great 
beds  of  rock  and  the  rapid  descent  from  the  hills. 
There  are  several  lakes,  valuable  as  means  of  na- 
vigable communication,  and  for  the  abundance 
of  their  fish.  Of  these,  the  lagunes  near  Negombo 
and  Colombo  on  the  western  coast,  and  the 
tanks  of  Padiviel  Colom  in  the  interior  north- 
ward, and  Cattu-arro  on  the  north-west,  which 
are  both  several  miles  in  circumference,  are  the 
chief.  The  principal  gulfs  and  bays  are  those  of 
Trincomale  on  the  east,  another  in  the  north  to 
the  south  of  Jaffra  peninsula,  and  another  on  the 
west  running  up  to  Putulang. 

Although  Ceylon  lies  so  near  the  equator,  the 
heat  is  not  so  excessive  as  on  the  neighbouring 
coast  of  Coromandel ;  this  is  especially  the  case 
on  the  coast  from  the  free  circulation  of  the  sea 
breezes.  The  mountains  and  table-land  in  the 
interior  produce  the  same  effect  as  the  ghauts  in 
Hindostan ;  these  form  a  barrier  to  the  periodical 
winds  or  monsoons,  and  a  corresponding  change 
of  season  occurs.  While  the  Malabar  coast  is 
visited  in  the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July 
with  hurricanes,  torrents  of  rain,  and  tremendous 
storms  of  thunder  and  lightning,  the  western 
coast  of  Ceylon  experiences  the  same  visitation, 
while  the  weather  is  calm  and  dry  on  the  north  ;rn 
and  eastern  sides  of  the  island,  and  also  on  the 
coast  of  Coromandel.  On  the  contrary,  when  in 
October  and  November  the  north-east  monsoon 
assails  the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula,  the 
northern  and  eastern  sides  of  the  island  have 
abundance  of  rain,  while  it  is  extremely  dry  on 
the  opposite  shores.  In  the  central  region  there 
is  a  material  difference,  on  account  of  the 
greater  elevation ;  in  March  and  April  the  rains 
fall,  but  accompanied  in  the  highest  parts  with 
severer  storms  than  are  felt  in  the  table  land  of 
India.  On  the  south  the  medium  of  the  ther- 
mometer throughout  the  year  is  82°  with  trifling 
variations ;  on  the  north  it  is  86°,  and  the  maxi- 
mum much  greater.  The  climate  in  the  interior 
is  very  inimical  to  an  European  constitution,  the 
air  confined  between  the  mountains,  the  marshes, 
and  close  vegetation  producing  what  is  called  in 
India  the  jungle  fever.  The  berry-berry,  an  en- 
demial  disease,  a  kind  of  dropsy,  proves  fatal  in 
a  few  days ;  the  leprosy  and  elephantiasis  are 
also  common. 

The  varieties  of  primitive  rock  in  this  island, 
according  to  Dr.  Davy,  are  extremely  numerous, 
yet  the  species  are  few  and  ill  defined.  That 
which  most  prevails  is  granite  or  gneiss,  the 
others  are  quartz  rock,  hornblende  rock,  and  do- 
lomite. The  varieties  of  granite  and  gneiss  (we 
quote  from  this  intelligent  author)  '  are  innume- 
rable, passing  often  from  one  to  another,  and  oc- 
casionally changing  their  character  altogether, 
and  assuming  appearances  for  which,  in  small 
masses,  it  would  be  difficult  to  afford  appropriate 
names.  These  changes,  and  endless  varieties, 
depend  chiefly  on  composition,  on  the  propor- 
tions of  the  elements,  on  the  excess  or  deficiency 
of  one  or  more,  or  on  the  addition  of  new  ingre- 
dients, not  to  mention  mechanical  structure. 


302 


CEYLON. 


variation  of  which,  though  obscure  in  relation  to 
causes,  has  a  manifest  effect  in  modifying  ap- 
pearances. Regular  granite  is  not  of  very  com- 
mon occurrence.  One  of  the  best  instances  I 
know  of  it  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Point  de 
Galle,  where  it  is  of  a  gray  color,  and  fine  grained 
Graphic  granite  is  still  rarer-  The  only  good 
example  of  it  with  which  I  am  acquainted  is  at 
Trincomale,  where  it  occurs  of  a  beautiful 
quality  on  the  sea  shore,  about  half  a  mile  below 
Chapel  Point,  embedded  on  a  granite  rock.  The 
quartz  envelops  the  crystal  in  very  thin  hexago- 
nal or  trigonal  cases,  so  that  nothing  can  be 
more  different  in  appearance  than  the  longitudi- 
nal and  transverse  fracture  of  the  rock.  Neither 
is  sienite  common.  I  have  found  it  in  several 
places  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Atgalle  Meddam- 
ahaneura  and  in  some  other  parts  of  the  Kand- 
yan  province.  It  occurs  rather  forming  a  part 
of  rocks  of  a  different  kind  than  in  great  moun- 
tain masses.  Well  formed  gneiss  is  more  abun- 
dant than  granite.  Its  structure  may  be  seen  in 
many  places,  but  nowhere  more  beautiful  tnan 
at  Amanapoora,  in  the  Kandyan  provinces,  where 
it  consists  of  white  felspar  and  quartz,  in  a  finely 
crystalline  state  with  layers  of  black  mica,  con- 
taining, disseminated  through  it,  numerous 
crystals  of  a  light-colored  garnet.' 

In  the  interior  of  Ceylon  the  native  central  go- 
vernment of  Candy  has  existed  perhaps  for  2000 
years.  At  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  its 
seven  tributary  states  became  six,  and  in  the 
course  of  it  the  native  powers  and  possessions 
were  perpetually  attacked  by  the  Dutch  ;  the 
religion  of  Buddhoo  was  at  an  extremely  low 
ebb,  its  doctrines  almost  forgotten,  and  its  ce- 
remonies in  entire  disuse.  Embassies  were  sent 
more  than  once  to  the  neighbouring  peninsula,  to 
obtain  an  accession  of  priests.  On  the  coast 
the  European  powers  have,  for  nearly  300  years, 
been  obtaining  those  important  settlements,  all  of 
which  are  now  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
British.  The  provinces  of  the  coast  are  twelve 
in  number;  and  have  been  thus  given  :  1.  Batti- 
kalo.  2.  Caltura.  3.  Chelaw.  4.  Colombo.  5. 
Galle.  6.  Jafnapatam.  7.  Manaar.  8.  Ma- 
gampatture.  9.  Matura.  10.  Patelam.  11. 
Trincomale.  12.  Wannia. 

The  late  kingdom  of  Candy,  for  in  point  of 
fact  its  monarch  has  been  recently  dethroned, 
and  the  king  of  Great  Britain  is  the  acknowledged 
sovereign  of  the  whole  island,  was  divided  into 
forty-six  districts,  beside  innumerable  subdi- 
visions, of  hundreds  and  townships,  but  very 
thinly  peopled,  and  containing  not  three  towns  of 
importance. 

The  entire  population  of  the  island  is  divisible 
therefore  into  four  parts.  1.  The  native  Sin- 
ghalese. 2.  Malabar  colonists.  3.  Mahom- 
medan  colonists.  4.  European  settlers.  The 
religion  of  the  first,  or  native  class,  is,  as  we  have 
intimated,  that  of  Buddhoo,  and  their  language  a 
dialect  of  the  Sanscrit.  Like  the  Hindoos,  they 
acknowledge  the  four  principal  castes.  1.  The 
Ekshastria  wanse,  or  royal  caste.  2.  The  Brach- 
mina  wanse,  or  caste  of  Brahmans.  3.  Wiessia 
wanse,  composed  of -three  subdivisions,  viz. 
merchants,  cultivators  of  the  earth,  and  shep- 
herds. 4.  The  Kshoodra  wanse  (mean  or  low 


caste),  subdivided  into  sixty  castes.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  subdivisions  of  the  two  principal 
castes  according  to  Dr.  Davy,  and  will  give  the 
reader  an  impression  of  the  singular  union  of 
secular  and  religious  matters  in  these  distinc- 
tions. 


I.    Wiessia  wans$. 


1.  Goewanse 

2.  Nillemakareya 


Cultivators. 
Shepherds. 


II.  Kshoodra 


1. 

Carawe    .     .     . 

Fishermen. 

2. 

Chandos  .     .     . 

Toddy-drawers. 

3. 

Achari      .     .     . 

Smiths,  &c. 

4. 

Hannawli 

Taylors. 

5. 

Badda  hela  badda 

Potters. 

6. 

Ambattea  peoph 

Barbers. 

7. 

Rada  badda 

Washermen. 

8. 

Halee       .     .     . 

Chalias. 

9. 

Hakooro        .  •  . 

Jaggery-makers. 

10. 

Hunu  badde 

Chunam  or  Lime  burner- 

11. 

Pannayo  .     .     . 

Grass-cutters. 

12. 

Villedurai. 

13. 

Dodda  weddahs 

f 

Paduas. 

14. 

Paduas      .     .  < 

Iron-smelters. 
Executioners. 

15. 

or  Maha  badde  j 

Tom-tom  beaters. 

i. 

16. 

Handee. 

17. 

Pallaroo. 

18. 

Olee. 

19. 

Radayo. 

20. 

Palee. 

21. 

Kinnera  badde. 

Out-castet. 
Gattaroo. 
Rhodees. 

Of  no  caste,  but  attached. 
The  Singalese  Christians  to  the  Goewanse. 
The  Marakkala,  or  Moormen,  to  the  Carawe". 

For  the  distinguishing  tenets  of  Buddhism,  the 
prevailing  religion  of  the  people  of  Ceylon,  see  the 
article  BURMHAN  EMPIRE.  In  their  religious  pro- 
fession they  are  thus  distinct  from  India,  though 
the  population  was  first  derived  from  that  coun- 
try. On  the  taking  of  Candy  by  the  British  na- 
tion, missionary  societies,  and  other  benevolent 
institutions,  directed  their  attention  to  this  coun- 
try ;  they  have  occupied  various  stations,  and  by 
late  accounts  they  appear  to  have  some  prospect 
of  success.  Before  that  time  some  had  professed 
Christianity,  either  according  to  the  tenets  of  the 
church  of  Holland,  introduced  by  the  Dutch,  or 
the  Papal  doctrines,  first  diffused  by  the  Portu- 
guese ;  but  these  are  little  superior  to  the  Pagans, 
and  retain  several  of  their  customs. 

Near  Trincomal4  are  seven  hot  springs,  en- 
closed with  a  wall.  The  place  is  called  Cannea, 
and  the  springs  all  flow  from  the  same  source,  in 
a  low  quartz  soil.  The  waters  are  considered 
highly  efficacious  in  cutaneous  and  rheumatic 
complaints.  There  is  another  spring  at  Kala- 
bowa,  of  water,  so  hot  that  the  hand  cannot 
bear  it. 

The  minerals  of  the  island  are  numerous,  and 
precious  stones,  of  a  middle  quality,  particularly 


CEYLON. 


303 


abundant ;  for  the  ruby,  the  topaz,  and  the 
diamond  of  Ceylon  are  inferior  both  to  those  of 
Golconda  and  of  the  Brasils.  Other  stones  found 
here  are  the  amethyst,  tourmalin,  blue  and  green 
sapphire,  white  and  black  crystal,  the  cat's-eye, 

species  of  opal,  and  cornelians. 

The  only  metals  at  present  found  are  said  to 
be  iron  and  manganese ;  but  the  iron  is  never 
seen  in  veins.  Lead,  tin,  and  quicksilver  are 
also  said  to  have  been  formerly  wrought  in 
the  interior,  but  never  to  any  purpose.  In 
1797  a  mine  of  the  last  was  discovered  at  Cotta, 
six  miles  from  Colombo. 

The  salt  pans  of  the  interior,  arising  from  not 
less  than  twenty-two  caverns,  which  furnish 
nitre  and  nitrate  of  lime,  afford,  with  the  pro- 
duce of  the  salt-lakes,  a  revenue  of  £10,000  a 
year  to  government.  The  latter  are  situated  on 
the  south-east  coast. 

In  the  strait  of  Manaar,  about  fifteen  miles 
from  the  shore,  are  found  the  oyster  banks,  from 
which  pearls  are  procured.  There  are  about 
fourteen  in  a  space  of  about  thirty  miles  in 
length  by  twenty-four  broad ;  in  only  two  of 
these  during  the  season,  that  is  about  two  months 
in  the  year,  the  fishery  is  carried  on.  The  go- 
vernment generally  lets  the  right  of  fishing,  and 
the  time  and  number  of  the  boats  are  fixed,  the 
contractor  sometimes  disposing  of  his  share  to 
the  owners  of  the  boats.  The  bay  of  Condatchy 
is  the  principal  rendezvous ;  the  boat  crews, 
about  6000,  are  roused  at  midnight  by  the  firing 
of  a  gun,  and  all  is  bustle  and  confusion.  The 
boat  being  anchored,  and  all  ready,  the  diver 
ties  a  heavy  stone  to  his  foot  and  descends ;  he 
then  leaves  the  stone,  and  lying  on  his  belly,  col- 
lects everything  he  can  lay  hold  of,  puts  it  into 
a  basket  he  has  with  him,  and  then  rises.  Few 
stay  longer  under  water  than  from  a  minute  to  a 
minute  and  a  half.  More  than  1000  divers 
often  go  down  every  minute  ;  and  their  noise 
and  number  more  effectually  preserve  them  from 
the  sharks,  than  all  the  arts  of  the  two  necro- 
mancers, employed,  according  to  their  super- 
stitious notions,  to  charm  them.  When  the  oysters 
are  brought  up  they  are  piled  in  heaps,  and  left 
till  they  are  sufficiently  decayed  to  be  washed, 
when  the  pearls  are  found  in  the  fleshy  part, 
some  yielding  several,  others  none.  The  fish 
are  like  cockles  in  shape,  about  nine  inches 
round,  but  totally  unfit  for  eating.  The  pearls, 
when  all  collected,  are  passed  through  sieves  of 
different  sized  round  holes,  and  sorted  for  sale, 
or  sometimes  sold  together  at  the  rate  of  about 
£'5  an  ounce.  The  revenue  arising  from  this 
fishery  was  in  the  year  1798  about  £140,000,  but 
on  the  average  from  1804  to  1814  it  did  not  ex-' 
ceed  60,000,  and  it  has  been  less  since  that  time. 
The  largest  pearls,  as  big  as  a  large  pea,  though 
generally  the  least  perfect,  are  most  valued  by 
the  Indians,  and  usually  sold  to  their  princes  ; 
the  finest  of  the  second,  about  the  size  of  a  mid- 
dling pea,  are  strung  in  necklaces  and  sent  to 
Europe  ;  a  handsome  necklace  costs  from  £150 
to  £300,  or  a  guinea  a  pearl ;  but  one  ofHhe  size 
of  peppercorns  may  be  had  for  £15  or  £20. 
Those  of  the  size  of  shot  are  very  cheap.  The 
chank  or  shell  fishery  on  the  northern  shore  is  also 
important,  not  only  as  they  are  sold  in  various 


parts  of  India,  and  cut  into  rings  for  female  or- 
naments, but  as  a  preparation  of  the  divers  for 
the  pearl  fishery. 

The  upper  provinces  of  India  supply  this 
island  with  the  wheat  it  consumes ;  it  grows  a 
small  quantity  of  Indian  corn,  but  the  chief 
article  of  food  is  rice.  The  principal  agricul- 
tural labor  consists  in  the  cultivation  of  that 
grain.  This,  however,  is  not  raised  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  large  im- 
portations. It  is  hoped  that  foreign  supplies 
will  become  less  necessary,  by  the  improvement 
and  extension  of  cultivation,  and  as  the  noxious 
jungles  of  the  interior  give  place  to  the  healthful 
and  productive  corn-field.  The  rice  is  generally 
sown  in  level  lands;  as  the  hills  are  less  favor- 
able for  retaining  sufficient  water  to  keep  the 
soil  continually  moist,  which  is  indispensably 
requisite  in  the  cultivation  of  this  grain.  But 
even  the  sloping  sides  of  the  hills  are  occa- 
sionally brought  to  render  their  tribute  to  the 
Ceylon  harvest;  in  accomplishing  which,  the 
natives  manifest  great  ingenuity. 

Their  mode  of  cultivating  the  rice  is  curious. 
Around  the  fields  intended  for  the  reception  of 
the  seed  small  embankments  are  raised,  to  the 
height  of  three  feet,  to  retain  the  water ;  which 
is  then  let  in  upon  the  grounds,  which  are  le- 
velled for  the  purpose,  and  soon  completely 
inundates  them.  When  the  fields  begin  to  get 
dry,  buffalos  are  introduced  to  tread  them  over, 
according  to  the  scriptural  description,  Isa.  xxxii. 
20,  or  they  are  turned  over  with  a  sort  of  light 
plough.  The  ground  thus  prepared  looks  like 
one  large  tract  of  mud ;  and  in  this  state  it 
receives  the  rice,  which  is  previously  steeped  in 
water,  mixed  with  the  lime  of  burnt  shells.  The 
soil  is  afterwards  levelled,  and  prevented  from 
caking  into  lumps,  by  a  description  of  harrow, 
or  rake,  which  consists  of  a  piece  of  board,  fixed 
to  a  pole,  drawn  along  edgewise.  As  the  rice 
will  not  thrive  except  the  ground  be  completely 
drenched,  the  fields  are  carefully  embanked 
against  the  commencement  of  the  rainy  season. 
They  usually  sow  in  July  and  August,  and  reap 
in  February.  If  proper  advantage  be  taken  of 
the  monsoons,  they  sometimes  have  two  crops  a 
year. 

From  the  tenure  under  which  the  lands  are 
held,  they  are  required  to  clear  the  whole  of  their 
fields  at  the  same  time.  This  obliges  them  to 
arrange  for  the  whole  crop  of  rice  to  be  ripe 
together.  In  this  their  agricultural  labor  princi- 
pally consists.  The  several  kinds  of  rice  which 
ripen  at  different  periods  are,  by  the  manner  of 
sowing,  and  the  quantity  of  water  introduced, 
made  to  advance  equally.  When  ripe,  instead 
of  reaping  it  according  to  the  European  custom, 
they  pull  it  up  by  the  roots,  and  then  lay  it  out 
to  dry.  The  straw  is  trodden  by  oxen,  to  sepa- 
rate the  grain  from  the  ear ;  and  is  afterwards 
beaten  in  a  kind  of  wooden  mortar,  to  remove 
the  husk.  Their  inundated  fields  attract  a  terri- 
ble enemy  in  the  alligator,  who  frequently  enters 
unperceived,  and  conceals  himself  among  the 
embankments.  The  natives  are  obliged  to  exa- 
fnine  them  with  great  care,  before  they  venture 
among  the  mud  and  water. 

Here  are  also  thirty-nine  snecies  of  pine,  and 


304 


CEYLON. 


a  variety  of  ornamental  woods  and  other  timber. 
Ceylon  also  produces  gram,  a  grain  which  is 
used  principally  for  domesticated  animals  ;  cori- 
ander, cardamoms  and  a  few  other  kinds  of  seed. 
The  briogal,  the  sweet  potatoe,  the  yam,  and 
considerable  varieties  of  the  bean,  the  Portuguese 
green,  and  the  Indian  spinach,  are  plentiful ; 
also  small  onions,  garlic,  and  ginger.  The 
pumpkin  is  sometimes  made,  by  cooking,  to  re- 
semble turnips  and  carrots ,  various  species  of 
gourd  are  rendered  by  the  same  means  palatable. 
French  beans,  and  green  peas,  and  some  other 
European  vegetables,  are  raised  in  private  gardens. 
The  soil  of  the  Kondyan  hills,  has  been  con- 
sidered favorable  for  the  cultivation  of  the  pota- 
toe; attempts  are  also  making  to  raise  the 
English  cabbage.  Some  suppose  that  wheat 
will  ultimately  be  grown  successfully  in  the  in- 
terior provinces.  The  sugar-cane  is  but  very 
partially  cultivated :  it  is  sold  at  the  bazaars  to 
children,  as  a  kind  of  luxury,  in  pieces  a  few 
inches  long.  The  most  delicious  pine-apples 
are  produced  in  the  open  fields,  after  the  manner 
of  turnips  in  England. 

But  the  cinnamon  tree  merits  especial  notice 
among  its  vegetable  productions.  In  its  wild 
state  this  tree  grows  to  the  height  of  from  twenty, 
to  thirty  feet,  and  is  about  three  feet  in  circum- 
ference ;  but,  when  cultivated,  is  not  suffered  to 
attain  so  large  a  size.  There  are  several  species 
of  the  cinnamon  tree ;  the  finest  and  most  valued 
is  found  in  the  government  gardens,  and  is  from 
four  to  ten  feet  in  height :  the  trunk  is  slender, 
with  numerous  branches  shooting  out  from  it  on 
every  side.  The  wood  is  soft,  light  and  porous, 
in  appearance  somewhat  resembling  our  osier; 
a  vast  number  of  fibres  issue  forth  from  the  root, 
and,  shooting  out  into  slender  twigs,  form  a  bush 
around  it.  The  leaf  has  the  appearance  of  the 
laurel  in  shape,  but  is  not  of  so  deep  a  green  ; 
when  bruised  it  has  the  scent  and  taste  of  cloves. 
The  blossom  is  white,  but  not  very  fragrant. 
The  fruit  resembles  an  acorn,  but  is  somewhat 
smaller;  from  this  the  Singhalese  extract  an 
oil,  which  is  much  esteemed  by  them.  The 
Dutch  governor,  M.  Falck,  who  was  a  native 
of  the  island,  and  whose  memory  is  still  held 
in  high  esteem,  was  the  first  who  devoted 
any  particular  attention  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  cinnamon-tree.  His  plans  were  followed  up 
by  our  government;  and  considerable  tracts  of 
many  miles  are  at  present  occupied  by  this 
valuable  tree,  which  are  under  the  constant  su- 
perintendence of  the  Chalias,  or  Mahabadde 
Singhalese.  An  English  civilian  is  placed  at  the 
head  of  this  department;  and  intelligent  and  as- 
siduous headmen  attend  to  the  prosecution  of  the 
work.  The  mode  of  obtaining  the  cinnamon, 
which  is  the  inner  bark  of  this  tree,  is  this  :  When 
about  three  years  old,  the  branches  are  taken 
from  the  stock;  the  outer  bark,  or  coating,  is 
then  scraped  off  with  a  knife  of  a  peculiar  form, 
concave  on  the  one  side,  and  curved  on  the 
other.  With  the  point  of  this  knife  the  bark  is 
ripped  up  longwise,  and  the  curved  side  is  then 
employed  in  gradually  loosening  it  f-om  the 
branch,  till  it  can  be  taken  off  entire  In  this 
state  it  appears  in  the  form  of  tubes  open  at  one 
side,  the  smaller  of  which  being  inserted  within 


the  larger,  they  are  thus  spread  out  to  dry,  and 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun  they  contract,  until  they 
attain  the  form  in  which  they  are  seen  in  the 
European  markets.  The  cinnamon  thus  pre- 
pared is  safely  lodged  in  the  government  store- 
houses, where  it  undergoes  a  careful  examination 
and  is  sorted  according  to  its  quality.  It  is 
brought  to  Europe  in  bundles  of  about  eighty 
pounds  weight,  which  are  packed  as  closely  as 
possible  in  the  hold  of  the  vessels,  and  all  the 
interstices  filled  up  with  black  pepper;  which 
prevents  the  flavor  from  evaporating,  or  the 
article  from  being  otherwise  injured.  The  best 
cinnamon  is  rather  pliable,  and  not  much  thicker 
than  strong  writing-paper.  From  the  stout  kind, 
and  the  refuse,  the  oil  of  cinnamon  is  prepared ; 
and  the  water  used  in  the  process  has  also  lately 
become  an  article  of  commercial  speculation. 

A  species  of  bread-fruit,  known  by  the  name 
of  the  jack-tree,  also  grows  in  Ceylon,  and  is 
invaluable  to  the  natives.  Its  manner  of  growth 
resembles  a  chestnut- tree,  shooting  forth  branches 
in  all  directions.  It  often  exceeds  the  bulk 
and  height  of  the  largest  oak ;  the  leaves  are 
much  used  in  feeding  sheep,  and  other  animals. 
The  fruit  grows  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  or 
from  the  principal  branches,  is  of  an  oval  fonT!, 
and  sometimes  a  foot  in  length,  and  often  more 
in  circumference,  and  so  heavy  that  two  native 
men  will  bend  under  the  weight  of  a  single 
apple.  It  is  covered  with  a  thick  green  coat  of 
a  scaly  appearance,  and  contains  a  number  of 
seeds,  each  enclosed  in  a  fleshy  substance,  of  the 
size  and  form  of  the  green  fig ;  this  substance  is 
of  a  yellow  color,  and  of  a  rich  and  delicious 
taste.  The  seeds  resemble  a  chestnut,  and  are 
roasted  and  eaten  in  the  same  manner.  The 
fruit  has  a  strong  unpleasant  smell  and  taste 
when  first  cut  open ;  but  when  well  washed  and 
steeped  in  salt  water,  these  entirely  disappear. 
The  wood  of  this  tree  is  employed  in  all  sub- 
stantial buildings :  it  is  rather  weighty,  of  a 
yellowish  cast,  and  receives  a  polish  nearly  as 
well  as  mahogany.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  household  furniture  and  looks  very  handsome. 

The  cocoa-nut,  palmyra,  and  jack-trees,  are 
highly  esteemed  by  the  natives;  and  furnish  a 
certain  resource  against  the  failure  of  more  pre- 
carious sustenance.  '  The  man  who  plants  any 
one  of  these  useful  trees,  confers  a  lasting  benefit 
on  himself,  and  hands  down  to  posterity  more 
certain  riches,  than  can  be  procured  in  less 
genial  climates  by  a  life  of  the  most  toilsome 
labor.  When  the  seeds,  or  slips,  are  once  put 
into  the  ground  they  require  no  cultivation,  no 
pruning,  no  kind  of  attention  ;  but  spontane- 
ously advance  to  maturity,  and  yield  a  regular 
and  never-failing  produce.' 

The  banyan-tree  is  sufficiently  remarkable 
to  be  noticed.  Branches  from  those  which 
grow  horizontally  from  the  trunk,  strike  into 
the  earth,  where  they  take  root,  and  return 
their  obligations  to  the  parent  tree,  by  giving 
it  support  from  the  newly-formed  root.  The 
Singhalese  pay  divine  honors  to  this  tree,  and 
make  a  pavement  round  it,  which  they  keep 
constantly  swept.  They  place  lighted  lamps 
images,  and  sacred  flowers  under  it,  and  bow 
before  it  with  great  veneration 


CEYLON. 


305 


Animals  in  great  variety  range  in  the  forests, 
and  shelter  in  the  jungles  of  this  island.  The 
elephants  are  renowned  for  their  strength  and 
docility  ;  and  they  are  taken  alive  in  considerable 
numbers.  In  this  proceeding,  which  is  the  source 
of  an  important  revenue  to  government,  the  in- 
habitants display  much  ingenuity.  It  lias  been 
thus  described :  '  When  the  government  has 
fixed  on  the  time  of  hunting  elephants,  the  snare, 
which  consists  of  an  extensive  piece  of  ground, 
is  marked  out  with  large  stakes  of  wood,  in  a 
triangular  shape,  having  an  open  base  towards 
the  forest ;  and  at  the  apex  a  narrow  funnel,  like 
the  cod  of  a  fish-net.  The  people  of  the  dis- 
trict are  then  ordered  to  drive  the  herds  towards 
the  snare  ;  employing  for  this  purpose,  guns,  and 
drums,  and  trumpets,  torches  and  fire-works ; 
or,  in  the  words  of  a  Dutch  author,  which  are 
in  themselves  enough  to  frighten  the  stoutest 
elephant:  schietgeweer,  flambawan,  en  vuur- 
stuckeryen,  pypers,  en  hoorenblaazers,  trommels, 
en  tambolin-heros.  On  the  present  occasion, 
August  1800,  this  tremendous  assemblage  com- 
menced its  operation  at  the  distance  of  thirty 
miles  from  the  trap,  advancing  slowly  in  a  chain 
of  3000  men,  who  were  employed  in  this  service 
two  months.  As  the  circle  narrows,  the  fires 
and  the  noises  approach  each  other :  and  when 
the  elephants  get  within  the  gaping  jaws  of  the 
trap,  the  grand  business  of  the  campaign  is  con- 
sidered as  brought  to  a  termination.  The  go- 
vernor and  other  spectators  then  resort  to  the 
scene  of  action,  and  the  guns,  drums,  trumpets, 
blunderbusses,  and  thunder,  once  more  rend  the 
air ;  as  their  incessant  din  is  judged  necessary  to 
terrify  the  animals,  and  prevent  them  from 
making  a  retrograde  movement.  The  first  com- 
partment of  the  enclosure  is  about  1800  feet  in 
circumference ;  the  fold,  with  which  it  commu- 
nicates by  a  single  gate,  is  not  more  than  100 
feet  long  and  forty  broad ;  and  the  space  is  nar- 
rowed by  a  rivulet  or  canal,  five  feet  deep  : 
beyond  this,  the  funnel  gradually  contracts  into 
a  straight  passage,  five  feet  broad,  and  100  feet 
long. 

'  The  next  process  was,  to  drive  the  entrapped 
elephant  into  the  water-fold.  From  the  water- 
snare,  they  are  next  driven  into  the  long  funnel, 
one  at  a  time;  and  as  they  singly  arrive  at  the  far- 
thest extremity,  a  huge  beam  is  let  down  behind 
each ;  when  thus  hemmed  in,  the  hunters  con- 
trive to  secure  him,  by  binding  his  legs  with 
ropes.  Two  tame  elephants  are  then  brought  to 
the  gate,  and  the  captive  is  passed  between  them. 
They  feel  his  tusks,  if  he  has  any,  and  his  pro- 
boscis ;  sometimes,  seemingly,  to  sooth  his  anger, 
and  to  reconcile  him  to  his  new  condition  ;  and 
sometimes,  if  refractory,  they  batter  him  with  their 
heads,  till  they  have  reduced  him  to  perfect 
submission.  Thus  is  he  marched  to  'the  garden 
of  stalls,'  where  he  is  very  soon  completely 
trained.  'The  marching  oft"  of  this  venerable 
trio,'  says  Cordiner,  'is  a  sight  truly  magnifi- 
cent ;  and  exhibits  a  noble  specimen  of  the  skill 
of  man,  united  with  the  sagacity  of  the  ele- 
phant.' ' — Quarterly  Review. 

A  diminutive  animal  of  the  deer  kind,  not 
larger   than   a   hare,   is   brought  to   Colombo, 
VOL.  V7. 


confined  in  cages  for  sale.  The  royal  tiger  is 
not  to  be  met  with ;  but  the  smaller  kind,  with 
leopards,  tiger  cats,  foxes,  jackalls,  hyenas, 
bears,  and  an  indefinite  number  of  the  monkty 
tribes  are  found.  They  have  every  species  of 
European  poultry,  with  pheasants,  red-legged 
partridges,  storks,  cranes,  herons,  various  sorts 
of  water-fowls  and  pigeons.  Parrots  and  par- 
roquets  abound,  and  the  honey  bird,  which  di- 
rects the  natives  to  the  places  where  the  bees 
have  deposited  their  honey.  Ceylon  also 
abounds  in  reptiles,  and  particularly  in  ser- 
pents. The  Cobra  manillas,  and  the  whip  and 
grass  snakes  are  small ;  but,  with  the  Cobra  de  ca- 
pello,  or  hooded  snakes,  are  poisonous ;  various 
harmless  species  are  found  in  the  woods  and 
waters.  The  rock  snake  is  found  here  full  thirty 
feet  in  length ;  and  alligators  not  far  short  of  that 
size  have  been  killed  in  the  rivers. 

The  island  is  well  supplied  with  both  fresh  and 
salt-water  fish,  many  of  them  very  delicate 
eating.  The  shark  is  frequently  caught  of  a 
prodigious  size.  This  tyrant  of  the  Indian  seas 
not  only  strikes  terror  into  the  finny  tribes,  but 
preys  also  on  the  human  species.  Some  En- 
glish gentlemen,  one  day  amusing  themselves 
with  bathing  in  the  surf,  a  short  distance  from 
Colpetty,  were  alarmed  by  the  appearance  of  a 
shark.  In  the  midst  of  their  uneasiness,  one  of 
the  company,  a  young  gentleman  named  May, 
exclaimed  that  he  was  wounded.  The  water  was 
instantly  discolored  with  blood  ;  and,  as  he  was 
hastening  to  the  shore,  the  monster  inflicted  a 
second  wound.  On  being  taken  out  of  the  sea, 
he  was  unable  to  stand.  .,It  was  found  that  the 
femoral  artery  was  so  completely  divided,  as  to 
cause  almost  instantaneous  death !  The  fisher- 
men, when  angling  among  the  rocks,  sometimes 
stand  for  hours,  with  incredible  patience,  in  ex- 
pectation of  their  uncertain  prey ;  but  are  com- 
pelled to  use  the  utmost  caution,  lest  they  should 
be  surprised  by  the  shark.  The  divers,  we  have 
seen,  have  little  need  to  fear  them.  He  is,  how- 
ever, sometimes  caught  with  the  larger  fishing- 
hooks  ;  and  then  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  and 
sold  to  inexperienced  purchasers  as  king-fish. 
The  real  king-fish  is  a  favorite  at  a  Ceylon  table, 
in  flavor  much  resembling  the  salmon,  but  of  a 
different  color.  Several  kinds  of  flat-fish  are 
brought  to  the  Ceylon  markets ;  among  which 
the  pomfret  is  highly  esteemed :  fine  soals  are 
not  uncommon.  The  coast  also  supplies  mack- 
erel, herrings  in  great  abundance,  lobsters,  crabs 
and  pawns.  Muscles  and  oysters  are  alse 
found. 

So  early  as  the  fourteenth  century,  Sir  John 
Mandeville  appears  to  have  had  a  correct  idea 
of  the  extent  of  this  island.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Portuguese  arrived 
here,  and  continued  to  maintain  their  superio- 
rity until  1556 :  the  Dutch  having  at  that 
period  united  with  the  king  of  Candy  to  expel 
them.  Colombo,  their  last  settlement,  was  be- 
seiged  by  the  united  Dutch  and  native  forces, 
upwards  of  seven  months.  At  this  time  the 
king  of  Candy  was  a  powerful  despotic  sove- 
reign of  the  interior,  and  soon  commenced  a 
series  of  wars  with  his  new  friends.  The  Dutch 

X 


CHA 


306 


CHA 


twice  possessed  themselves  of  his  capital,  but 
so  many  of  their  troops  fell  victims  annually  to 
the  climate,  that  it  was  not  until  1766  that  they 
finally  drove  them  from  the  coast.  After  this  he 
paid  them  a  tribute  in  the  productions  of  the 
country,  while  they  nominally  acknowledged  his 
sovereignty  as  emperor  of  Ceylon. 

The  British,  during  the  war  with  France  in 
1782,  captured  Trincomale;  but  it  was  shortly 
after  retaken  by  the  French  admiral  Suffrein. 
In  1795  it  sustained  a  siege  of  three  weeks 
by  our  forces,  commanded  by  general  Stuart, 
when  the  Diomede  frigate  unfortunately  struck, 
and  was  lost  on  a  rock  in  the  neighbourhood  ;  it 
finally,  however,  capitulated  with  the  rest  of  the 
Dutch  settlements,  and  was  formally  ceded  to 
Great  Britain  by  the  peace  of  Amiens.  The 
following  year  it  was  formed  into  a  royal 
government,  the  crown  appointing  all  its 
officers,  and  regulating  the  whole  internal 
management.  The  council  is  composed  of  the 
governor,  chief  justice,  the  coaimander  of  the 
forces,  and  a  secretary.  The  entire  revenues 
yielded  by  the  island  to  our  government,  have 
been  estimated  at  £250,000. 

C  FAUT.    A  note  in  the  scale  of  music. 

Gamut  I  am,  the  ground  of  all  accord, 
A  re,  to  plead  Hortensio's  passion  ; 

B  mi,  Bianca,  take  him  for  thy  lord, 
C  faut,  that  loves  with  all  affection.        Shakspeare. 

CH  has,  in  words  purely  English,  or  fully  na- 
turalised, the  sound  of  tsh ;  a  peculiar  pronun- 
ciation, which  it  is  hard  to  describe  in  words. 
In  some  words  derived  from  the  French,  it  has 
the  sound  of  sh,  as  chaise;  and,  in  some  derived 
from  the  Greek,  the  sound  of  k,  cholerick. 

CHABLAIS,  a  province  belonging  to  Savoy, 
with  the  title  of  a  duchy.  It  extends  along  the 
south  bank  of  the  lake  of  Geneva,  being  bounded 
by  the  Genevan  territory  to  the  west,  and  the 
Valais  east. 

CHACE.     See  CHASE. 

CHACHAPOIS,  a  province  of  Peru,  South 
America,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  eastern 
ridges  of  the  Andes,  north-west  by  the  provinces 
Luya  and  Chillaos,  and  west  by  Caxamarca.  Its 
length  from  north-west  to  south-east,  is  about 
thirty-eight  leagues,  and  its  breadth  nearly  the 
same.  In  some  of  the  valleys  it  is  exceedingly 
hot,  and  in  the  more  elevated  parts  it  is  as  ex- 
tremely cold .  It  grows  maize,  wheat,  cocoa, 
herbs  and  fruits ;  but  the  staple  productions  are 
tobacco  and  cotton.  The  latter  the  women  spin, 
and  is  chiefly  manufactured  in  sail  cloth.  Here 
are  fine  breeds  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep. 
Only  one  gold  mine  is  worked.  Population 
10,000.  A  river  of  this  name  runs  into  the  Ama- 
zons. 

CHACO,  a  considerable  country  of  South 
America,  situated  between  the  rivers  Paraguay 
and  Pilcamayo,  or  about  from  19°  to  37°  S. 
latitude.  It  was  first  seized  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1536,  and  is  not  naturally  fruitful ;  but  con- 
tains the  celebrated  Potosi  and  other  mines.  Its 
European  masters,  howev,er,  never  extirpated  the 
brave  natives,  nor  drove  them  from  the  centre  of 
the  country,  which  they  still  inhabit.  Its  length 
is  said  to  be  about  750  and  its  breadth  450  miles. 


It  is  well  watered,  yields  most  of  the  produc- 
tions of  other   parts  of  Peru,   and   contains  a 
population  it  is  said  of  above  100,000  souls. 
CHAD,  n.  s.     A  sort  of  fish. 
Of  round  fish,  there  are  brit,  sprat,  •whiting,  chad, 
eels,  conger,  millet.  Carew's  Survey  of  Cornwall. 

CH7ERONEA,  in  ancient  geography,  the  last 
town,  or  rather  village,  of  Boeotia,  towards  Pho- 
cis ;  the  birth-place  of  Plutarch  :  famous  for  the 
fatal  defeat  of  the  confederate  Greeks  by  Philip 
of  Macedon  (see  PHILIP);  as  well  as  for  that 
of  Mithridates  by  the  Romans,  wherein  the  for- 
mer lost  110,000  men. 

CA.EROPHYLLUM,  chervil:  a  genus  of 
the  digynia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  forty-fifth,  umbellatae.  The  involu- 
crum  is  reflexed  concave,  the  petals  inflexed-cor- 
date ;  the  fruit  oblong  and  smooth.  There  are 
eleven  known  species,  two  of  which,  called  cow- 
weed  and  wild-chervil,  are  weeds  common  in 
many  places  of  Britain.  The  roots  of  the  first 
have  been  found  poisonous  when  used  as 
parsnips  ;  the  rundles  afford  an  indifferent  yellow 
dye ;  the  leaves  and  stalks  a  beautiful  green. 
Its  presence  indicates  a  fertile  soil,  but  it  ought 
to  be  rooted  out  from  all  pastures  early  in  the 
spring,  as  no  animal  but  the  ass  will  eat  it.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  early  plants  in  shooting,  so 
that  by  the  beginning  of  April  the  leaves  are 
nearly  two  feet  high. 

CH^TIA,  in  zoology.  See  GORDIUS  AQUA- 
TICUS. 

CH^LTODON,  in  ichthyology,  a  genus  of 
fishes  belonging  to  the  order  of  thoriaci.  The 
head  small ;  mouth  small ;  the  lips  retractile ; 
teeth  (mostly)  setaceous,  flexile,  moveable,  equal, 
closely  set,  and  very  numerous;  eyes  round, 
small,  vertical,  furnished  with  a  nictitant  mem- 
brane :  gill  membrane  irom  three  to  six  rayed ; 
body  broad,  compressed,  scaly,  generally  fas- 
ciated ;  dorsal  and  anal  fins  rigid,  fleshy,  coated 
with  scales.  There  are  sixty-eight  known  species, 
distinguished  from  each  other  principally  by  the 
figure  of  the  tail,  and  the  number  of  spines  in 
the  back-fin.  The  most  remarkable  is  the 
rostratus,  or  shooting  fish,  having  a  hollow 
cylindrical  beak.  It  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  where  it  frequents  the  sides  of  the  sea 
and  rivers  in  search  of  food,  from  its  singular 
manner  of  obtaining  which  it  receives  its  name. 
When  it  observes  a  fly  sitting  on  the  plants  that 
grow  in  shallow  water,  it  swims  on  to  the  distance 
of  four,  five,  or  six  feet ;  and  then,  with  a  sur- 
prising dexterity,  it  ejects  out  of  its  tubular 
mouth  a  single  drop  of  water,  which  never  fails 
striking  the  fly  into  the  water,  where  it  soon 
becomes  its  prey. 

CHAFE,  v.  a.,  v.  n.  &  n.  s. }      Fr.   echauffer, 
CHA'FFEIN,  >  from  Lat.  ca'lefa. 

CHA'FING-DISH.  J  do.      To   warm 

with  rubbing ;  to  heat  by  rage  or  hurry ;  to  make 
angry;  to  rage,  to  pet,  to  fume,  to  rave,  to  boil. 
To  fret  against  any  thing.  Thus  the  noun  sig- 
nifies a  heat,  a  rage,  a  fury,  a  passion,  a  fume, 
a  pet,  a  fret,  a  storm.  Chaffein  is  a  vessel  for 
heating  water;  and  chafing  dish,  a  portable  dish 
for  healing  or  containing  hot  coals. 

When  Sir  Thomas  More  was  speaker  of  the  parlia- 
ment, with  his  wisdom  »nd  eloquence  he  so  crossed  a 


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307 


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purpose  of  cardinal  Wolsey's,  that  the  rardinal,  in  a 
chafe,  sent  for  him  to  Whitehall.     Cainden's  Remains. 

At  last,  recovering  heart,  he  does  begin 
To  rub  her  temples,  and  to  chafe  her  skin. 

Spenser's  Faerie  Queene. 
Therewith  he  'gan  full  terribly  to  roar, 
And  chafed  at  that  indignity  right  sore. 

Id.  Hub.   Tale. 

Make  proof  of  the  incorporation  of  silver  and  tin 
in  equal  quantities,  whether  it  will  endure  the  ordi- 
nary fire  which  belongeth  to  chafingdishes,  posnets, 
and  such  other  silver  vessels. 

Bacon's  Physical  Remains. 

He  will  not  rejoice  so  much  at  the  abuse  of  Fal- 
staff,  as  he  will  chafe  at  the  doctor's  marrying  my 
daughter.  Shakspeare. 

Once  upon  a  raw  and  gusty  day, 
The  troubled  Tyber  chafing  with  his  shores. 

Id.  Julius  Ceesar. 

Have  I  not  heard  the  sea  puffed  up  with  winds, 
Rige  like  an  augry  boar  chafed  with  sweat?  Id. 

At  this  the  knight  grew  high  in  chafe, 
And  staring  furiously  on  Ralph, 
He  trembled.  Hudibrat. 

Soft,  and  more  soft,  at  every  touch  it  grew ; 
Like  pliant  wax,  when  chafing  hands  reduce 
The  former  mass  to  form,  and  frame  to  use. 

Dryden. 

This  chafed  the  boar;  his  nostrils  flames  expire, 
And  his  red  eyeballs  roll  with  living  fire.  Id. 

An  offer  of  pardon  more  chafed  the  rage  of  those, 
who  were  resolved  to  live  or  die  together. 

Sir  John  Hayward. 

How  did  they  fume,  and  stamp,  and  roar,  and  chafe, 
And  swear! — not  Addison  himself  was  safe.  Pope. 

CHA'FER,  s.  Sax.  ceafor ;  Teut.  kiever ; 
literally  the  chewer ;  called  also  cockchafer,  for 
clockchafer.  A  May  bug,  a  kind  of  beetle  that 
feeds  on  the  leaves  of  trees. 

CHA'FERY,  n.  s.  A  forge  in  an  iron  mill, 
where  the  iron  is  wrought  into  complete  bars, 
and  brought  to  perfection. — Phillips. 

CHAFERY,  in  the  iron  works,  is  the  name  of 
one  of  the  two  principal  forges.  The  other  is 
called  the  finery.  When  the  iron  has  been 
wrought  at  the  finery  into  what  is  called  an  an- 
cony,  or  square  mass,  hammered  into  a  bar  in 
its  middle,  but  with  its  two  ends  rough,  the 
business  to  be  done  at  the  chafery  is  the  reducing 
the  whole  to  the  same  shape,  by  hammering 
down  these  rough  ends  to  the  shape  of  the  middle 
part. 

CHAFE- WAX,  n.  s.  An  officer  belonging  to 
the  lord  chancellor,  who  fits  the  wax  for  the  seal- 
ing of  writs. — Harris. 

CHAFF,  n.s.     -\      Pers.  khah ;   Sax.  ceaf; 

CHA'FFY,  adj.       9  Teut.  kaff ;  Arm.  scoff.  The 

CHA'FFLESS,  adj.  £  husks  of  corn   that  are  se- 

CHA'FFING,  n.  J  parated  by  thrashing  and 
winnowing.  It  is  used  for  anything  worthless. 
The  derivatives  explain  themselves.  Chaffinch 
is  a  bird,  so  called  because  it  delights  in  chaff. — 
Johnson  adds,  it  is  by  some  admired  for  its  song. 
But  it  has  but  two  notes,  and  is  no  more  a  bird 
of  song  than  the  house  sparrow. 

The  love  I  bear  him, 

Made  me  to  fail  you  thus  ;  but  the  gods  made  you, 
Unlike  all  others,  chaffless.  Shakspeare. 


Pleasure  vith  instruction  should  be  joined  ; 

So  take  the  corn,  and  leave  the  chaff  behind. 

Dryden. 

The  c'laffinch,  and  other  small  birds,  are  inju- 
rious to  some  fruits.  Mortimer. 

CHAFF-CUTTER,  a  machine  for  making  chaff  to 
feed  horses. — The  advantages  of  an  easy  and 
expeditious  method  of  cutting  straw  into  chaff, 
by  an  engine  which  could  be  used  by  common 
laborers,  have  occasioned  various  attempts  to 
bring  such  an  engine  to  perfection.  One  of  the 
most  common  is  that  of  M'Dougal,  which  regu- 
lates the  pressure  of  the  straw  with  great  exact- 
ness and  facility.  A  curved  knife  is  fixed  on 
the  inside  of  a  wheel  which  passes  in  front  of  a 
long  box  containing  the  straw,  and  by  turning 
this  wheel  the  straw  is  cut,  and  the  same  opera- 
tion brings  forward  the  straw  by  means  of  a 
spiral  groove. 


CHAFFER,  v.  n.  &  v.  a.  f      Heb.   copher  ; 
CHA'FFERER,  re.  s.  S-Got.  kaupr;  Teu. 

CH A'FFERY,  n.  s.  j  kaaffer ;  Lat.  caw- 

po.  To   higgle ;    to   bargain ;    to   buy;  to  ex- 
change. 

He  chaffed  chayres  in  which  churchmen  were  set, 
And  breach  of  lawes  to  privie  farm  did  let. 

Spenser.     Mother  Hubbard's  Tale. 
Approaching  nigh,  he  never  staid  to  greet, 
Ne  chaffer  words,  proud  courage  to  provoke. 

Faerie  Queene. 

The  third  is,  merchandise  and  chaffery;  that  is, 
buying  and  selling.  Spenser's  State  of  Ireland. 

N'or  rode  himself  to  Paul's,  the  publick  fair, 
To  clwffer  for  preferments  with  his  gold, 
Where  bishopricks  and  sinecures  are  sold. 

Dryden's  Fables. 

In  disputes  with  chairmen,  when  your  master  sends 
you  to  chaffer  with  them,  take  pity,  and  tell  your 
master  that  they  will  not  take  a  farthing  less.  Swift. 

CHA'FFWEED,  ».  s.  Lat.  gnaphalium.  An  herb; 
the  same  with  cudweed. 

CHAGAING,  a  considerable  town  of  the  Bir- 
man  empire,  stands  on  the  Irawaddy  river,opposi  te 
to  Ava.  It  was  the  capital  of  this  state,  in  1764, 
and  the  numerous  spires  and  gilded  roofs  it  pre- 
sents to  the  eye,  from  the  various  hills  on  which 
it  is  built,  render  the  landscape  most  splendid. 
The  houses  are  of  timber,  and  the  town  carries 
on  an  extensive  traffic,  it  being  the  emporium  of 
all  cotton  intended  for  the  China  market.  Here 
also  is  a  considerable  manufacture  of  marble 
images  of  Gaudama,  whence  the  whole  Birmaii 
empire  is  supplied.  The  quarries  where  the 
materials  are  obtained  are  only  a  few  miles 
distant. 

X2 


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308 


CHA 


CHAG  RE,  a  navigable  river  of  South  America, 
in  the  province  of  Panama,  which  has  it's  source 
in  the  mountains  of  the  interior,  and  falls  into 
the  ocean,  thirty  milesW.  S.  W.  of  Portobello,  in 
lat.  9°  18'  N.,  long.  80°  16'  W.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  large  barks  as  far  as  Cruses,  where 
there  is  a  wharf  for  unloading,  and  a  custom- 
house. The  greater  part  of  the  commerce  be- 
tween Portobello  and  Panama,  is  conducted  on 
this  stream,  on  the  banks  of  which,  great  num- 
bers of  alligators  appear.  It  traverses  a  fertile 
country. 

CHAGRI'N,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  Fr.  chagrin,  cka- 
grlner ;  to  vex ;  to  put  out  of  temper ;  to  teaze; 
to  make  uneasy.  Perhaps,  says  Thomson,  from 
Ital.  sgradire,  the  contrary  of  gratiare,  to  please: 
from  Lat.  grutus. 

Hear  me,  and  touch  Belinda  with  chagrin, 

That  single  act  gives  half  the  world  the  spleen. 

Pope. 

I  grieve  with  the  old,  for  so  many  additional  incon- 
veniences and  chagrint,  more  than  their  small  remain 
of  life  seemed  destined  to  undergo.  Id.  Letters. 

CHAIN,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.~\     Fr.chaine ;  Lat.  cate- 

CHAIN-PUMP,  n.  s.      tna;  abond;  a  manacle; 

CHAIN-SHOT,  n.  s.        {a  series  of  links  fasten- 

CHAI.N-WOKK,  n.  s.  J  ed  one  within  another, 
applied  to  various  uses,  namely :  to  confine, 
to  fasten,  to  unite  ;  to  keep  in  a  state  of  slavery. 
The  noun  is  likewise  figuratively  used  to  signify 
a  series  linked  together,  as  of  causes  or  thoughts ; 
a  succession  ;  a  subordination. 

And  Pharaoh  took  off  his  ring,  anil  put  it  upon  Jo- 
seph's hand,  and  put  a  gold  chain  about  his  neck. 

Genesis,  xli.  42. 

Nets  of  chequerwork,  and  wreaths  of  chainwork,  for 
the  chapiters  which  were  upon  the  tops  of  the  pillars. 

1  Kings. 

It  is  not  long  since  the  striking  of  the  top-mast,  a 
wonderful  great  ease  to  great  ships,  both  at  sea  and 
in  harbour,  hath  been  devised ;  together  with  the 
chain-pump,  which  takes  up  twice  as  much  water  as 
the  ordinary  did  ;  and  we  have  lately  added  the  bon- 
net and  the  drabble.  Raleigh's  Essays. 
O  Warwick,  I  .do  bend  my  knee  with  thine, 

And  in  this  vow  do  chain  my  soul  with  thine. 

Shakspeare. 

They  repeal  daily  any  wholesome  act  established 
against  the  rich,  and  provide  more  piercing  statutes 
daily  to  chain  up  and  restrain  the  poor. 

Id.      Coriolamu. 

Reign  thou  ia  Hell,  thy  kingdom  ;  let  me  serve 
In  Heaven  God,  ever  blest,  and  his  divine 
Behests  obey,  worthiest  to  be  obeyed  ; 
Yet  chains  in  Hell,  not  realms  expect.  Milton. 

Those  so  mistake  the  Christian  religion,  as  to  think 
it  is  only  a  chain  of  fatal  decrees,  to  deny  all  liberty 
of  man's  choice  toward  good  or  evil.  Hammond. 

A  surveyor  may  as  soon,  with  his  chain,  measure 
out  infinite  space,  as  a  philosopher  by  the  quickest 
flight  ol  mind,  reach  it;  or  by  thinking,  comprehend 
".  Locke. 

In  sea  fights,  oftentimes,  the  buttock,  the  brawn  of 
the  thigh,  and  the  calf  of  the  leg,  are  torn  off  by  the 
chaimhot,  and  splinters.  Wiseman's  Surgery. 

This  world,  'tis  true, 
Was  made  for  Ctesar ,'  but  for  Titus  too  : 
And  which  more  b'.est?  who  chained  his  country,  say, 
Or  he  whose  virtue  sighed  tc   ose  a  day  ?  Pope. 


.  Still  in  constraint  your  suffering  sex  remains, 
Or  bound  in  formal,  or  in  real  chains.  Id, 

Silent,  but  quick,  they  stoop,  his  chains  unbind  ; 
Once  more  his  limbs  are  free  as  mountain  wind. 

Byron's  CWRUM, 

CHAIN  also  denotes  a  kind  of  string,  of  twist 
ed  wire ;  serving  to  hang  watches,  tweezer-'j;.ises, 
and  other  valuable  toys  upon.  The  invention  of 
this  is  ascribed  to  the  English ;  whence,  in  fo- 
reign countries,  it  is  denominated  the  English 
chain.  These  chains  are  usually  either  of  gold, 
silver,  or  gilt  copper ;  the  thread  or  wire  of  each 
kind  is  very  fine.  In  making  these  chains,  a 
part  of  the  wire  is  folded  into  little  links  of  an 
oval  form;  the  longest  diameter  about  three 
lines ;  the  shortest,  one.  These,  after  they  have 
been  exactly  soldered,  are  again  folded  in  two ; 
and  then  interwoven,  by  several  other  threads  of 
the  same  thickness ;  some  whereof,  which  pass 
from  one  end  to  the  other,  imitate  the  warp  of 
a  stuff;  and  the  others,  which  pass  transverse, 
the  woof.  There  are  at  least  4000  little  links  in 
a  chain  of  four  pendants  ;  which  are  bound  so 
equally,  and  firmly  together,  that  the  whole  seems 
to  consist  of  one  entire  piece.  Of  late  years, 
however,  the  manufacture  of  this  kind  of  chains, 
has  been  almost  entirely  superseded  by  that  of 
the  polished  steel  ones ;  which  are  much  supe- 
rior in  beauty,  and  are  manufactured  in  great 
variety  of  patterns  and  at  all  prices,  at  Birming- 
ham, Sheffield,  &c. 

CHAIN,  in  surveying,  a  measure,  consisting  of 
a  certain  number  of  links  of  iron  wire,  usually 
100,  serving  to  take  the  dimensions  of  fields,  &c. 
This  is  what  Mersenne  takes  to  be  the  arvipen- 
dium  of  the  ancients.  The  chain  is  of  various 
dimensions,  as  the  length  or  number  of  links 
varies:  that  commonly  used  in  measuring  land, 
called  Gunter's  chain,  is  in  length  four  poles  or 
perches;  or  twenty-two  yards;  or  sixty-six  feet, 
or  100  links;  each  link  being  seven  inches  §3. 
This  chain  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  land  measur- 
ing in  England,  as  ten  square  chains  make  exactly 
an  English  acre.  Its  chief  convenience  is  in 
finding  readily  the  numbers  contained  in  a  given 
field.  Some  instead  of  chains  use  ropes  ;  but 
these  are  liable  to  several  irregularities ;  from  the 
different  degrees  of  moisture,  and  of  the  force 
which  stretches  them.  Schwenterus,  in  his 
Practical  Geometry,  tells  us,  he  has  observed  a 
rope  sixteen  feet  long,  reduced  to  fifteen  in  an 
hour's  time,  by  the  mere  falling  of  a  hoar  frost. 
To  obviate  these  inconveniences,  Wolfius  directs, 
that  the  little  strands  whereof  the  rope  consists 
be  twisted  contrary  ways,  and  the  rope  dipped  in 
boiling  hot  oil ;  and  when  dry,  drawn  through 
melted  wax.  A  rope  thus  prepared,  will  neither 
gain  nor  lose  anything,  even  though  kept  under 
water  all  day. 

CHAINS,  in  ship-building,  are  strong  links  or 
plates  of  iron,  the  lower  ends  of  which  are 
bolted  through  the  ship's  side  to  the  timber. 

CHAINS,  GOLD,  are  among  the  badges  of  dig- 
nity of  the  chief  magistrates  of  a  city,  as  the 
lord  mayor  of  London,  the  lord  provost  and 
bailies  of  Edinburgh,  &c. — Something  like  this 
obtained  among  the  ancient  Gauls :  the  principal 
ornament  of  those  in  power  and  authority  was  a 
gold  chain,  which  they  wore  on  all  occasions ; 


CHA 

and  even  in  batt  e  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
common  soldiers. 

CHAINS,  HANGING  IN,  a  kind  of  punishment 
inflicted  on  murderers.  By  statute  25  Geo.  II. 
*..  37,  the  judge  shall  direct  such  to  be  executed 
on  the  next  day  but  one,  unless  Sunday  intervene ; 
and  their  bodies  to  be  delivered  to  the  surgeons 
to  be  dissected  and  anatomised :  and  he  may 
direct  them  to  be  hung  in  chains.  This  punish- 
ment has  not  been  used  for  many  years  past  in 
Scotland. 

CHAIN-SHOT;  two  bullets  or  half  bullets, 
fastened  together  by  a  chain,  which,  when  they 
fly  open,  cut  away  whatever  is  before  them. 
Chain-shot  is  used  at  sea,  to  tear  down  yards 
or  masts,  and  to  cut  the  shrouds  or  rigging  of  a 
ship. 

CHAIN,  TOP,  on  board  a  ship,  a  chain  to  sling 
the  sail  yards  in  time  of  battle,  to  prevent  them 
from  falling  down,  when  the  ropes  by  which  they 
are  hung,  happen  to  be  shot  away,  or  rendered 
incapable  of  service. 

CHAIN-WALES,  or  CHANNELS,  of  a  ship,  porte- 
boissoirs,  are  broad  and  thick  planks  projecting 
horizontally  from  the  ship's  outside,  abreast  of 
and  somewhat  behind  the  masts.  They  are 
formed  to  extend  the  shrouds  from  each  other, 
and  from  the  middle  line  of  the  ship,  so  as  to 
give  a  greater  support  to  the  masts,  as  well  as  to 
prevent  the  shrouds  from  damaging  the  gun- 
wale, or  being  hurt  by  rubbing  against  it. 
Every  mast  has  its  chain-wales,  which  are  either 
built  above  or  below  the  second  deck  ports  in  a 
ship  of  the  line  :  they  are  strongly  connected  to 
the  side  by  knees,  bolts,  and  standards,  besides, 
being  confined  thereto  by  the  chains  whose  upper 
ends  pass  through  notches  on  the  outer  edge  of 
the  chain-wales,  so  as  to  unite  with  the  shrouds 
above. 

CHAIN-WORK,  is  a  term  sometimes  used 
in  the  arts  for  different  species  of  cloth  and  other 
manufacture,  in  which  the  threads  are  linked  or 
united  together  in  the  manner  of  a  chain ;  thus 
hosiery,  tambouring,  and  various  kinds  of  fancy 
silk  and  cotton  weaving  have  been  described 
under  this  name;  as  well  as  the  formation  of 
nets  for  fishing  and  other  purposes.  We  object 
to  grouping  so  many  unconnected  pursuits  under 
this  one  metaphorical  term,  and  refer  the  reader 
to  the  distinct  articles  HOSIERY,  NET-WORK, 
WEAVING,  &c. 

CHAJOTLI,  or  CHAYOTI,  a  Mexican  fruit  of 
a  round  shape,  and  similar  in  the  husk  with 
which  it  is  covered  to  the  chestnut,  but  four  or 
five  times  larger,  and  of  a  much  deeper  green 
color.  Its  kernel  is  of  a  greenish  white,  and  has 
a  large  white  stone  in  the  middle,  like  it  in 
substance.  It  is  boiled,  and  the  stone  eaten  with 
it.  This  fruit  is  produced  by  a  twining  perennial 
plant,  the  root  of  which  is  also  good  to  eat. 

CHAIR,  n.  s.  &  v.  1      Chald. go/far;  icoO^pa; 

CHAIRMAN.  $  Fr.  chuire.    A  moveable 

seat;  either  stationed  in  a  room,  and  move- 
able  by  hand  at  pleasure;  or  borne  by  men, 
and  carried  from  place  to  place ;  or  drawn  on 
wheels  by  other  animals.  It  is  also  applied  to  a 
seat  of  authority,  dignity,  and  power ;  thrones, 
and  other  seats  of  honor  and  precedency  are 
termed  chairs. 


309 


CHA 


And  sodenly,  or  he  wos  of  it  ware, 
God  daunted  all  his  pride  and  all  his  host  j 
For  he  so  sore  fell  out  of  his  chare, 
That  it  his  liir.mes  and  his  skin  to-tare. 
So  that  he  neither  mighte  go  ne  ride  j 
But  in  a  chaire  men  about  him  hare, 
Alle  forbrused  bothe  bak  and  side. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales, 

He  makes  for  England,  here  to  claim  the  crown. — 
Is  the  chair  empty  ?     Is  the  sword  unswayed  ? 
Is  the  king  dead  ?  Shakspeare.     K.  Richard  III. 

If  thou  be  that  princely  eagle's  bird, 
Show  thy  descent  by  gazing  'gainst  the  sun  ; 
For  chair  and  dukedom,  throne  and  kingdom,  say  ; 
Either  that's  thine,  or  else  thou  wert  not  his.  Id, 

Her  grace  sat  down  to  rest  awhile, 
In  a  rich  chair  of  state.  Id.     Henry  VII  f 

The  committee  of  the  Commons  appointed  Mr.Pyn 
to  take  the  chair.  Clarendon 

One  elbows  him,  one  justles  in  the  shole  ; 
A  rafter  breaks  his  head,  or  clmirman's  pole. 

Dryden, 

Troy  chairmen  bore  the  wooden  steed, 
Pregnant  with  Greeks,  impatient  to  be  freed  ; 
Those  bully  Greeks,  who,  as  the  moderns  do, 
Instead  of  paying  chairmen,  run  them  through. 

Stviji. 

Think  what  an  equipage  thou  hast  in  air, 
And  view  with  scorn  two  pages  and  a  chair.  Pope. 

Whether  thou  choose  Cervantes'  serious  air, 
Or  laugh  and  shake  in  Rabelais'  easy  chair, 
Or  praise  the  court,  or  magnify  mankind, 
Or  thy  grieved  country's  copper  chains  unbind.  Id. 
If  a  chair  be   defined   a  seat  for  a  single  person, 
with  a  back  belonging  to  it,  then  a  stool  is  a  seat  for 
a  single  person,  without  a  back.  Watts's  Logic. 

In  assemblies  generally  one  person  is  chosen  chair- 
man or  moderator,  to  keep  the  several  speakers  to 
the  rules  of  order.  Id, 

CHAIR,  CATHEDRA,  was  anciently  used  for  the 
pulpit.  It  is  still  applied  to  the  place  whence 
professors  and  regents  in  universities  deliver 
their  lectures,  and  teach  the  sciences  to  their 
pupils. 

CHAIR,  CURTJLE,  was  an  ivory  seat,  placed  on 
a  car,  wherein  were  seated  the  prime  magistrates 
of  Rome,  and  those  to  whom  the  honor  of  a 
triumph  had  been  granted.  See  CURULE. 

CHAIR,  SEDAN,  a  covered  vehicle  for  carrying 
a  single  person,  being  supported  by  poles,  car- 
ried by  two  men.  The  number  of  Sedan  chairs 
for  hire  in  London,  was  limited  by  act  12  Geo.  I. 
c.  12,  to  400 ;  and  no  person  is  obliged  to  pay 
for  a  hackney  chair  more  than  the  rate  allowed 
by  the  act  for  a  hackney  coach  driven  two-third 
parts  of  the  said  distance.  But  the  use  of 
hackney  coaches  and  other  horse  carriages  has 
so  completely  superseded  the  sedan,  that  they 
are  now  scarcely  ever  to  be  met  with  except  in 
the  establishments  of  aged  persons,  who,  from  a 
love  to  the  fashions  of  their  youth,  have  refused 
lo  adopt  the  present  more  convenient  custom. 

CHAISE,  n.  s.  Fr.  chaise.  A  carriage  of 
pleasure  drawn  by  one  horse. 

Instead  of  the  chariot  he  might  have  said  the  chaise 
of  government ;  for  a  chaise  is  driven  by  the  person 
that  sits  in  it.  Addison. 

CHALAZA,  a  white  knotty  string  at  each  end 
of  an  egg,*formed  of  a  plexus  of  the  fibres  of  the 


CHA 


310 


CHA 


membranes, -by  which  the  yolk  and  white  are 
connected  together.  See  EGG. 

CHALCEDON,  or  CALCEDON,  anciently  called 
Procerastis  and  Coleusa,  a  city  of  Bithynia,  situ- 
ated at  the  mouth  of  the  Euxine,  on  the  north 
extremity  of  theThracian  Bosphorus,  over  against 
Byzantium.  Chalcedon  became  famous  on  ac- 
count of  the  council  which  was  held  there  A.  D. 
451,  against  Eutyches.  The  emperor  Valens 
caused  the  walls  of  this  city  to  be  levelled  with 
the  ground  lor  siding  with  Procopius,  and  the 
materials  to  be  conveyed  to  Constantinople, 
where  they  were  employed  in  building  the 
famous  Valentinian  aqueduct.  Chalcedon  is  at 
present  a  poor  place,  known  to  the  Greeks  by 
its  ancient  name,  and  to  the  Turks  by  that  of 
Cadiaci,  i.  e.  the  judge's  town. 

CHALCEDONY,  in  natural  history,  a  genus 
of  the  semipellucid  gems.  They  are  of  a  regular 
structure,  not  tabulated ;  of  a  semi-opaque  crys- 
talline basis ;  and  variegated  with  different  co- 
lors, disposed  in  form  of  mists  or  clouds,  and, 
if  nicely  examined,  found  to  be  owing  to  an 
admixture  of  various  colored  earths,  but  im- 
perfectly blended  in  the  mass,  and  often  visible 
in  distinct  moleculae.  It  has  been  doubted 
whether  the  ancients  were  acquainted  with  the 
stone  we  call  chalcedony  ;  they  having  described 
a  Chalcedonian  carbuncle  and  emerald,  neither 
of  which  can  at  all  agree  with  the  characters  of 
our  stone ;  but  they  have  also  described  a  Chal- 
cedonian jasper,  which  seems  to  have  been  the 
stone  they  describe  by  the  word  turbida,  which 
extremely  well  agrees  with  our  chalcedony. 
There  are  four  known  species  of  the  chalcedony. 
1 .  A  bluish  white  one.  This  is  the  most  common 
of  all,  and  is  found  in  the  shape  of  our  flints  and 
pebbles,  in  masses  of  two  or  three  inches  or 
more  in  diameter.  It  is  of  a  whitish  color, 
with  a  faint  cloud  of  blue  diffused  all  over  it,  but 
always  in  the  greatest  degree  near  the  surface. 
This  is  less  hard  than  the  oriental  onyx.  The 
oriental  chalcedonies  are  the  only  ones  of  any 
value ;  they  are  found  in  vast  abundance  on  the 
shores  of  rivers  in  all  parts  of  the  East  Indies, 
and  frequently  come  over  among  the  ballast  of 
the  East  India  ships.  They  are  common  in  Si- 
lesia, Bohemia,  and  other  parts  of  Europe ;  but 
with  us  are  less  hard,  more  opaque,  and  of  very 
little  value.  2.  The  dull  milky  veined  chalcedony. 
This  is  a  stone  of  little  value  ;  and  is  sometimes 
met  with  among  our  lapidaries,  who  mistake  it 
for  a  kind  of  nephritic  stone.  It  is  of  a  yellow- 
ish white  or  cream  color,  with  a  few  milk-white 
veins.  This  is  principally  found  in  New  Spain. 
3.  The  brownish,  black,  dull,  and  cloudy  chal- 
cedony, known  to  the  ancients  by  the  name  of 
smoky  jasper,  or  jaspis  capnitis.  This  is  the 
least  beautiful  stone  of  all  the  class :  it  is  of  a  pale 
brownish  white,  clouded  all  over  with  a  blackish 
mist,  as  the  common  chalcedony  is  with  a  blue. 
1 1  is  common  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and 
.n  Germany ;  but  is  very  little  valued,  and  is 
seldom  worked  into  anything  better  than  the 
handles  of  knives.  4.  The  yellow  and  red  chal- 
cedony is  greatly  superior  to  all  the  rest  in  beau- 
ty ;  and  is  in  great  repute  in  Italy,  though  very 
little  known  among  us.  It  is  naturally  composed 
of  an  admixture  of  red  and  yellow  only,  on  a 


clouded  crystalline  basis ;  but  is  sometimes  found 
blended  with  the  matter  of  common  chalcedony, 
and  then  is  mixed  with  blue.  It  is  all  over  of  the 
misty  hue  of  the  common  chalcedony.  This  is 
found  only  in  the  East  Indies,  and  there  not 
plentifully.  The  Italians  make  it  into  beads,  and 
call  these  cassidonies;  but  they  are  not  deter- 
minate in  the  use  cf  the  word,  but  call  beads  of 
several  of  the  agates  by  the  same  name.  All  the 
chalcedonies  readily  give  fire  with  steel,  and  make 
no  effervescence  with  aqua-fortis. 

CHALCEDONIUS  is  also  the  name  of  a  ge- 
nus of  earth,  in  the  modern  divisions  of  oryctology, 
comprising  several  species  of  stones  which  will 
be  described  under  their  specific  names.  They 
are  described  as  consisting  of  silica,  a  small 
quantity  of  alumine,  with  sometimes  about  a  tenth 
of  lime,  and  a  slight  trace  of  oxide  of  iron  ;  hard, 
lightish,  shining  within,  breaking  into  indeter- 
minate fragments  with  sharp  edges ;  compact, 
not  mouldering  in  the  air,  of  a  more  or  less  per- 
fectly conchoidal  texture  ;  never  opake ;  tough, 
admitting  a  high  polish,  and  generally  of  a  com- 
mon form ;  not  melting  before  the  blow-pipe. 
See  CORNELIAN,  CHALCEDONY,  ONYX,  &c. 

CHALCIS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  city  of 
Eubcea  in  that  part  which  is  nearest  to  Bceotia, 
first  founded  by  an  Athenian  colony.  There  were 
three  other  towns  of  this  name  in  Thrace,  Acar- 
nania,  and  Sicily,  all  subject  to  the  Corinthians. 

CHALCIDIC,  CHALCIDICUM,  orCuALCEDo- 
NIUM,  in  ancient  architecture,  a  large  magnificent 
hall  belonging  to  a  court  of  jnstice.  Festus  says, 
it  took  its  name  from  the  city  Chalcis.  Philan- 
der will  have  it  to  be  the  court  where  affairs  of 
money  and  coinage  were  regulated ;  so  called 
from  xaXfcoc,  brass,  and  Sucrj,  justice.  Others  say, 
the  money  was  struck  in  it ;  and  derive  the  word 
from  xa\Koe,  brass,  and  OIKOC,  house.  In  Vitru- 
vius,  it  is  used  for  the  auditory  of  a  basilica;  in 
other  ancient  writers  for  a  hall  where  the  heathens 
imagined  their  gods  dined. 

CHALCIDICE,  in  ancient  geography,  an  eas- 
tern district  of  Macedonia,  stretching  north- 
wards between  the  Sinus  Toronaeus  and  Singi- 
ticus ;  formerly  a  part  of  Thrace,  but  taken  by 
Philip. 

CHALCO'GRAPHER,  n.  s.  Xa^orpa^oc,  of 
X«\KOC  brass,  and  ypa^w  to  write  or  engrave. 
An  engraver  in  brass. 

CHALCO'GRAPHY,  n.  s.  XaXicorpa0ia.  En- 
graving in  brass. 

CHALCONDYLAS  (Demetrius),  a  learned 
Greek,  born  at  Constantinople,  who  left  that  city 
after  its  being  taken  by  the  Turks,  and  afterwards 
taught  Greek  in  several  cities  of  Italy.  He  com- 
posed a  Greek  grammar ;  and  died  at  Milan  in 
1513. 

CHALCONDYLAS  (Laonicus),  a  famous  Greek 
historian  of  the  fifteenth  century,  born  at  Athens. 
He  wrote  an  excellent  history  of  the  Turks,  from 
Ottoman,  who  reigned  about  A.  D.  1300,  to 
Mahomet  II.  in  1543. 

CHALDEA,  in  ancient  geography,  1.  in  a 
large  sense,  included  Babylonia  ;  as  in  the  pro- 
phecies of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel.  2.  In  a  re- 
stricted sense,  it  denoted  a  province  of  Babylonia, 
towards  Arabia  Deserta;  called  in  Scripture  the 
Land  of  the  Chaldeans.  It  is  said  to  have  been 


CHALK. 


311 


named  from  Chaled  the  IV.  son  of  Nahor.  See 
BABYLOMA. 

CHALDEE,  or  CHALDAIC,  LANGUAGE,  that 
spoken  by  the  Chaldeans.  It  is  a  dialect  of  the 
HEBREW,  which  see. 

CHALDEE  PARAPHRASE.  There  are  three 
Chaldee  paraphrases  in  Walton's  Polyglot ;  viz. 
1.  of  Onkelos ;  2.  of  Jonathan  son  of  Uziel ;  and 
3.  of  Jerusalem.  See  BIBLE. 

CHA'LDER,  n.  s.  ^     A  dry  English  measure 

CHA'LDRON,  n.  s.     >for    coals,    consisting  of 

CHA'UDRON,  n.  s.  j  thirty-six  bushels  heaped 
up,  according  to  the  sealed  bushel  kept  at  Guild- 
hall, London.  The  chaldron  should  weigh  two 
thousand  pounds. 

CHALDRON,  an  English  measure  of  dry 
goods,  consisting  of  thirty-six  bushels,  heaped  up 
in  the  form  of  a  cone.  See  BUSHEL. 

CHA'LICE  n.      )       Sax.  calic  ;    Fr.  calif e  ; 

CHA'LICED,  adj.  $  Lat.  calix  ;  a  cup,  a  bowl. 
It  is  generally  used  for  a  cup  employed  in  acts 
of  worship ;  the  sacramental  chalice  is  the  cup 
used  at  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  adjective  is  obsolete;  it  is  applied  by 
Shakspeare  to  the  cell  or  cup  of  a  flower. 

Hark  '.  hark  '.  the  lark  at  heaven's  gate  sings, 
And  Photbus  'gins  arise, 

His  steeds  to  water  at  these  springs, 

On  chaliced  flowers  that  lies.  Shakspeare. 

When  in  your  motion  you  are  hot, 
And,  that  he  calls  for  drink,  I'll  have  prepared  him 
A  chalice  for  the  nonce.  Id. 

All  the  church  at  that  time  did  not  think  emblema- 
tical figures  unlawful  ornaments  of  cups  or  chalices. 

Stillingfleet. 

CHALICE. is  peculiarly  applied  to  the  cup 
used  to  administer  the  wine  in  the  sacrament, 
and  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in  the  mass.  The 
use  of  the  chalice,  or  communicating  in  both 
kinds,  is  by  the  church  of  Rome  denied  to  the 
laity,  who  communicate  only  in  one  kind ;  the 
clergy  alone  being  allowed  the  privilege  of  com- 
municating in  both  kinds. 

CHALIZA,  in  the  Jewish  customs,  the  cere- 
mony whereby  a  widow  pulls  off  her  brother-in- 
law's  shoes,  who  should  espouse  her,  and  thus  is 
at  liberty  to  marry  whom  she  pleases. 

CHA'LK,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  ~)       Calck,     Welsh ; 
CHA'LKY,  adj.  fcealc,       cealcj-ran, 

CHA'LK-CUTTER.  f Saxon.    To  chalk  is 

CIIA'LK-PIT.  3  to  use  this  substance 

as  a  marking  or  writing  instrument ;  to  apply 
chalk  to  any  of  the  purposes  to  which  it  may  be 
adapted,  or  for  which  it  is  useful.  It  is  used 
metaphorically  for  any  act  of  marking,  describ- 
ing, or  tracing  out. 

Chalk  is  a  white  fossile,  usually  reckoned  a  stone, 
but  by  some  reckoned  among  the  boles.  It  is  used  in 
medicine  as  an  absorbent,  and  is  celebrated  for  curing 
the  heartburn.  Chambers. 

He  maketh  all  the  stones  of  the  altar  as  chalk  stones, 
that  are  beaten  in  sunder.  Isaiah. 

Chalk  is  of  two  sorts  ;  the  hard,  dry,  strong  chalk, 
•which  is  best  for  lime  ;  and  a  soft,  unctuous  clialk, 
which  is  best  for  lands,  because  it  easily  dissolves 
with  rain  or  frost.  Mortimer. 

Land  that  is  chalked,  if  it  is  not  well  dunged,  will 
receive  but  little  benefit  from  the  second  chalking.  Id. 


And  this  chanon  into  the  crosselet  cast 
A  powder,  n'ot  I  never  whereof  it  wos 
Ymade — other  of  chalk,  other  of  glos, 
Or  somwhat  elles.  Chaucer's  Cant.  Tales. 

Being  not  propt  by  ancestry,  whose  grace 
Chalks  successours  their  way.  Shakspeare. 

As  far  as  I  could  ken  the  chalky  cliffs, 
When  from  thy  shore  the  tempest  beat  us  back, 
I  stood  upon  the  hatches  in  the  storm.  Id. 

Chalky  water  towards  the  top  of  earth  is  too  fretting. 

Baatn. 

The  beastly  rabble  then  came  down 
From  all  the  garrets  in  the  town, 
And  stalls  and  shopboards  in  vast  swarms, 
With  new  cftalked  bills  and  rusty  arms.     Hudlbrat. 

With  chalk  I  first  describe  a  circle  here, 
Where  these  ethereal  spirits  must  appear.  Dryden. 
With  these  helps  I  might  at  least  have  chalked  out 
a  way  for  others,   to  amend  my  errours  in  a  like  de- 
sign. Id. 
The  time  falls  within  the  compass  here  chalked  out 
by  nature,  very  punctually. 

Woodward's  Natural  History. 

Shells,  by  the  seamen  called  chalk  eggs,  are  dug  up 
commonly  in  the  chalk-pits,  where  the  chalk-cutters 
drive  a  great  trade  with  them.  Id. 

CHALK.  The  name  of  this  mineral  is  generally 
derived  from  Kreta,  and  probably  the  ancients 
may  have  used,  in  place  of  chalk,  the  marl  found 
in  Creta,  the  modern  Candia ;  but  true  chalk 
occurs  no  where  in  that  island  ;  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  imported  for  economical  purposes  in  barrels, 
from  Brusa  and  Magnesia. 

Chalk  may  be  considered  as  a  peculiar  for- 
mation, and  abounds  particularly  on  the  south 
of  England,  and  north  of  France.  Color  yellow- 
ish white,  sometimes  snow  and  grayish  white. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  from  2-315  to  2'657. 

Chalk  is  of  two  kinds  :  hard,  dry  and  firm,  or 
soft  and  unctuous.  The  former  sort  is  the  best 
calculated  for  burning  into  lime  ;  but  the  latter 
furnishes  the  best  manure  for  lands.  Both  these 
species,  however,  are  an  excellent  manure  for 
sandy  soils,  as  they  fill  up  the  interstices,  or 
pores,  and  give  the  land  a  degree  of  consistence, 
which  adapts  it  for  the  purposes  of  vegetation, 
and  totally  exterminates  that  pernicious  weed, 
the  corn  marygold,  or  yellow  ox-eye,  chrysanthe- 
mum segetum,  L.  which  abounds  particularly  in 
sandy  soils.  It  has  a  very  different  effect  on 
clayey  ground ;  for  so  far  from  rendering  it  more 
compact  which  is  too  much  so  already,  it  in- 
sinuates itself  into  the  small  pores  ;  and,  by 
raising  a  fermentation,  exposes  the  clay  more  to 
the  operations  of  the  frost,  rain,  sun,  and  air ; 
by  which  means  its  too  coherent  particles  are 
loosened,  and  it  is  reduced  to  a  state  of  pulve- 
risation. 

It  is,  however,  a  circumstance  worthy  of  re- 
mark, that,  although  the  Kentish  chalk  agrees 
extremely  well  with  other  clayey  soils,  yet  when 
laid  on  those  lands  in  Kent,  situated  near  the 
pits,  it  by  no  means  answers  the  expectations  of 
the  farmer.  This  is  probably  owing  to  the  Ken- 
tish clays  partaking  in  some  degree  of  the  nature 
of  chalk,  which,  therefore,  has  not  so  good  an 
effect  in  Kent,  as  in  other  parts  of  England  ;  the 
quality  of  the  manure  being  nearly  congenial 
with  the  soil.  It  also  de^rves  to  be  noticed, 


312 


CHALK. 


that  chalk,  however  excellent  it  may  be  in  itself, 
when  mixed  with  dung  or  any  other  manure,  is 
so  far  from  ameliorating  the  soil,  that  crops  to  be 
raised  from  it  receive  no  benefit  whatever,  and 
it  totally  loses  its  invigorating  qualities. 

There  are  two  processes  by  which  chalk  is 
obtained  for  the  purpose  of  manuring  land  ;  the 
first  is  by  uncallowing  a  piece  of  ground,  and 
making  it  convenient  for  a  pit,  where  the  carts 
may  be  drawn  into  it,  and  filled :  this  is  on  a 
presumption  that  the  chalk  lies  near  the  surface, 
and  that  the  pit  is  within  a  small  distance  of  the 
field  on  which  the  manure  is  to  be  laid.  The 
other  method  is  to  sink  pits  in  the  field  where 
the  chalk  is  intended  to  be  laid  as  a  manure,  and 
which  is  far  preferable  to  that  of  drawing  it  in 
carts  as  before  mentioned.  In  this  case,  a 
number  of  pits  are  to  be  sunk  according  to  the 
extent  of  the  field.  These  pits  are  to  be  made 
in  the  form  and  circumference  of  a  well,  with 
an  apparatus  at  the  top,  and  a  bucket  to  draw  up 
the  chalk.  The  people  who  undertake  this  bu- 
siness, having  been  brought  up  to  it  from  their 
infancy,  perform  it  with  great  facility,  and 
without  any  timidity,  though  attended  with  much 
danger.  A  person  is  employed  at  the  top  to 
draw  up  the  contents  of  the  pit,  shoot  the  chalk 
into  a  barrow,  and  wheel  the  same  on  the  land. 
When  the  laborer  has  arrived  at  the  chalk, 
jphich  takes  up  a  longer  or  less  interval  of  time 
according  to  the  depth  at  which  it  lies,  and  has 
dug  some  little  time  therein  in  the  perpendicular 
form  wherein  he  began  the  pit,  he  proceeds  to 
form  apertures  in  different  horizontal  directions ; 
so  that  where  the  chalk  is  good,  and  the  pit 
stands  firm,  large  tracts  of  ground  are  under- 
mined for  this  purpose. 

Chalk  lime  may  be  easily  prepared,  so  as  to 
be  fully  equal  if  not  superior  to  stone  lime.  The 
reason  why  this  is  not  generally  thought  to  be 
the  case,  probably  is,  that  not  being  of  so  close  a 
texture,  it  is  sooner  spoiled  by  the  absorption  of 
carbonic  acid,  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere 
after  it  is  made.  A  cask  of  chalk  lime  should 
never  therefore  be  opened  till  the  moment  it  is 
to  be  slaked  and  the  greatest  expedition  should 
be  used  in  the  slaking,  and  in  the  making  and 
applying  the  mortar  to  use.  In  the  quiescent 
air  of  a  room,  a  pound,  avoirdupois,  of  chalk 
lime,  becomes  two  ounces  and  a  half  heavier  in 
two  days ;  and  nearly  the  whole  of  this  increase 
of  weight  consists  of  the  carbonic  acid  which  it 
has  imbibed  from  the  atmosphere.  See  LIME. 

The  vast  ridges  of  chalk,  in  England,  are 
always  bordered  by  parallel  range*  of  sand  or 
sand-stone,  beneath  and  alternating  with.which  are 
situated  the  beds  of  fullers-earth.  Chalk-hills  are 
also  singularly  characterised  by  their  dryness  and 
their  verdure :  the  most  porous  sand-stone  is 
scarcely  so  deficient  in  springs  of  water,  and  yet, 
except  upon  almost  perpendicular  descents,  the 
white  surface  of  the  chalk  is  uniformly  covered 
with  fine  turf  or  wood.  The  chalk-hills  in 
England  occupy  a  greater  extent  than  in  any 
other  country,  they  run  in  a  direction  nearly  from 
east  to  west  parallel  to  eaqh  other,  and  separated 
by  ranges  of  sand-stone,  and  low  tracts  of  gravel 
and  clay.  The  most  northern  and  loftiest  range 
•>f  chalk  commences  at  the  promontory  of  Flam- 


borough  head  in  Yorkshire,  and  proceeds  west- 
ward for  nearly  twenty  miles.  In  the  county  01 
Lincoln  are  some  fragments  of  a  ridge  near 
Grantham.  Two  ridges  traverse  the  midland 
counties,  and  reach  as  far  west  as  the  borders  of 
Oxfordshire :  these  ridges  are  no  where  so  con- 
spicuous as  in  the  county  of  Bedford,  where  they 
approach  near  to  each  other,  being  only  separated 
by  the  Woburn  and  Ampthill  range  of  sand-stone. 
The  country  south  of  the  Thames  also  con- 
tains two  ridges,  the  one  commencing  at  the 
north  and  south  Forelands,  passing  through  the 
north  of  Kent,  the  middle  of  Surrey,  and  the  north 
of  Hampshire,  and  including  the  North  Downs 
of  Banstead,  Epsom,  &c. ;  the  other  commen- 
cing near  Hastings  and  at  the  lofty  promontory 
of  Beachy-head,  passes  through  Sussex,  and  the 
south  of  Hampshire,  into  Dorsetshire. 

In  medicine  chalk  is  reputed  to  be  one  of  the 
most  useful  absorbents,  and  in  this  light  mainly 
deserves  notice  ;  as  the  astringent  virtues,  which 
some  have  attributed  to  it,  are  utterly  unfounded, 
unless  so  far  as  the  earth  is  saturated  with  acid, 
in  which  combination  it  forms  a  saline  concrete, 
that  is  manifestly  astringent. 

CHALK,  BLACK,  a  name  given  by  painters  to 
a  species  of  earth  with  which  they  draw  on  blue 
paper,  &c.  It  is  found  in  pieces  from  two  to 
ten  feet  long,  and  from  four  inches  to  twenty 
broad,  generally  flat,  but  somewhat  rising  in  the 
middle,  and  thinner  towards  the  edges,  commonly 
lying  in  large  quantities  together.  While  in  the 
earth  it  is  moist  and  flaky :  but  being  dried,  it 
becomes  considerably  hard  and  very  light ;  but 
always  breaks  in  some  particular  direction  ;  and 
if  attentively  examined,  when  fresh  broken,  ap- 
pears of  a  striated  texture.  To  the  touch  it  is 
soft  and  smooth,  stains  very  freely,  and  by  virtue 
of  the  smoothness  makes  very  neat  marks.  It 
is  easily  reduced  into  an  impalpable  soft  powder, 
without  any  diminution  of  its  blackness.  In 
this  state  it  mixes  easily  with  oil  into  a  smooth 
paste;  and,  being  diffused  through  water,  it 
slowly  settles  in  a  black  slimy  or  muddy  form ; 
properties  which  make  its  use  very  convenient  to 
the  painters,  both  in  oil  and  water  colors.  It 
appears  to  be  an  earth  quite  different  from  com- 
mon chalk,  and  rather  of  the  slaty  bituminous 
kind.  In  the  fire  it  becomes  white,  with  a  reddish 
cast,  and  very  friable,  retaining  its  flaky  structure, 
and  looking  much  like  the  white  flaky  masses 
which  some  sorts  of  pit-coal  leave  in  burning. 
Neither  the  chalk  nor  these  ashes  are  at  all 
affected  by  acids.  The  color  shops  are  supplied 
with  this  earth  from  Italy  or  Germany ;  though 
some  parts  of  England  afford  substances,  nearly, 
if  not  entirely,  of  the  same  quality,  and  which 
are  found  to  be  equally  serviceable  for  marking, 
and  as  black  paints. 

CHALK,  RED,  an  earth  much  used  by  painters 
and  artificers,  and  common  in  the  color  shops. 
It  is  properly  an  indurated  clayey  ochre ;  and  is 
dug  in  Germany,  Italy,  Spain,  and  France,  but 
in  greatest  quantity  in  Flanders.  It  is  of  a  fiue, 
even,  and  firm  texture ;  very  heavy  and  very 
hard ;  of  a  pale  red  on  the  outside,  but  of  a 
deep  dusky  chocolate  color  within.  It  adheres 
firmly  to  the  tongue,  is  perfectly  insipid  to  the 
taste,  and  makes  no  effervescence  with  acids. 


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CHALK,  SILVER.     See  ARGENTARIA. 

CHALK,  YELLOW.     See  TRIPOLI. 

CHALK-STONES,  in  medicine,  signify  the  con- 
cretions of  calcareous  matter  in  the  hands  and 
feet  of  people  violently  afflicted  with  the  gout. 
Leuwenhoek  examined  these  by  the  microscope ; 
but  his  observations  and  distinctions  have  led  to 
nothing  useful,  with  regard  to  the  nature  or  cure 
of  the  disease.  Dr.  Wollaston  was  the  first  who 
demonstrated  their  true  composition  to  be  uric 
acid  combined  with  ammonia,  and  thus  explained 
the  mysterious  pathological  relation  between  gout 
and  gravel.  Gouty  concretions  are  soft  and 
friable.  They  are  insoluble  in  cold,  and  but  slightly 
in  boiling  water.  An  acid  being  added  to  this 
solution  seizes  the  soda,  and  the  uric  acid  is  de- 
posited in  small  crystals. 

CHA'LLENGE,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.  }     Bar.  Lat.  cal- 

CHA'LLENGER,  n.  s.  j  lagium,  calan- 

gium ;  French,  chalenger.  A  demand,  an  ap- 
peal, a  call  to  fight.  The  verb  is  rather 
more  extensive  in  its  signification.  To  call 
either  to  answer  for  an  offence,  or  to  contest  for 
superiority.  It  also  means  to  accuse,  to  claim, 
to  object,  to  demand  the  fulfilment  of  a  promise 
or  engagement.  In  the  sense  of  objecting  to,  it 
is  a  term  of  law.  See  below. 

The  people,  anon,  had  suspect  in  this  thing, 
By  maner  of  the  cherles  chalenging, 
That  it  wos  by  the  assent  of  Appius  ; 
They  wisten  well  that  he  was  lecherous. 

Chaucer's  Cant.  Tales. 

You  are  mine  enemy,  I  make  my  challenge, 
You  shall  not  be  my  judge.  Shakspeare. 

And  so  much  duty  as  my  mother  shewed 
To  you,  preferring  you  before  her  father  ; 
So  much  I  challenge,  that  I  may  profess 
Due  to  the  Moor,  my  lord.  Id. 

Had  you  not  been  their  father,  these  white  flakes 
Did  challenge  pity  of  them.  Id. 

The  prince  of  Wales  stepped  forth  before  the  king, 
And,  nephew,  challenged  you  to  single  fight.  Id. 

Whose  worth 

Stood  challenger  on  mount  of  all  the  age, 
For  her  perfections.  Id. 

Earnest  challengers  there  are  of  trial,  by  some  pub- 
lic disputation.  Hooker. 
That  divine  order,  whereby  the  pre-eminence  of 
chiefest  acceptation   is  by  the  best  things    worthily 
challenged.  Id. 
Many  of  them  be  such  losels  and  scatterlings,  as 
that  they  cannot  easily  by  any  sheriff  be  gotten,  when 
they  are  challenged  for  any  such  fact. 

Spenser  on  Ireland. 
For't  has  been  held  by  many  that 
As  Montaigne  playing  with  his  cat, 
Complains  she  thought  him  but  an  ass 
Much  more  she  would  Sir  Hudibras ; 
For  that's  the  name  our  valiant  kuight 
To  all  his  challengers  did  write. 

Butler's  Hudibras. 

Thus  formed  for  speed,  he  challenges  the  wind, 
And  leaves  the  Scythian  arrow  far  behind. 

Dryden. 

Death  was  denounced  ; 
He  took  the  summons,  void  of  fear, 
And  unconcernedly  cast  his  eyes  around, 
As  if  to  find  and  dare  the  griesly  challenger.       Id. 

So  when  a  tyger  sucks  the  bullock's  blood, 
A  famish'd  lion,  issuing  from  the  wood, 
Roars  loudly  fierce,  and  challenges  the  food.        Id. 


I  will  now  challenge  you  of  your  promise,  to  give 
me  certain  rules  as  to  the  principles  of  blazonry. 

Peacham  on  Drawing. 

I  challenge  any  man  to  make  any  pretence  to  power 
by  right  of  fatherhood,  either  intelligible  or  possible. 

Locke 

CHALLENGE,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  an 
exception  made  to  jurors,  either  in  civil  or  cri- 
minal cases. 

CHALLENGES,  in  civil  cases,  are  of  two  sorts : 
challenges  to  the  array,  and  challenges  to  the 
poll.  Challenges  to  the  array  is  when  the  whole 
number  is  objected  to,  as  being  unfairly  empan- 
nelled,  and  may  be  made  upon  account  of  par- 
tiality, or  some  default  of  the  sheriff,  or  his  under 
officer,  who  arrayed  the  panel.  Also,  though 
there  be  no  personal  objection  against  the  sheriff, 
yet  if  he  arrays  the  panel  at  the  nomination,  or 
under  the  direction  of  either  party  this  is  good 
cause  of  challenge  to  the  array.  Formerly  the 
jury  was  to  come  de  vicineto,  i.  e.  from  the  im- 
mediate neighbourhood ;  but  by  statute  4  and  5 
Ann.  c.  16,  this  was  abolished  upon  all  civil 
actions,  except  upon  penal  statutes ;  and  upon 
those  also  by  the  24th  Geo.  II.  c.  18,  the  jury 
being  now  only  to  come  de  corpore  comitatus, 
i.  e.  from  the  body  of  the  county  at  large.  The 
array  by  the  ancient  law  may  also  be  challenged, 
if  an  alien  be  party  to  the  suit,  and,  upon  a  rule 
obtained  by  his  motion  to  the  court  for  a  jury 
de  medietate  linguae,  such  a  one  be  not  returned 
by  the  sheriff  pursuant  to  the  statute  28  Edward 
III.  c.  13,  enforced  by  8  Henry  VI.  c.  29,  which 
enacts,  that  where  either  party  is  an  alien  born, 
the  jury  shall  be  one-half  denizens,  and  the  other 
aliens,  if  so  many  be  forthcoming  in  the  place, 
for  the  more  impartial  trial :  a  privilege  as  ancient 
in  England  as  the  time  of  king  Ethelred,  in 
whose  statute  de  monticolis  Walliae  (then  aliens 
to  the  crown  of  England),  c.  3,  it  is  ordained, 
'  duodeni  legates  homines,  quorum  sex  Walli,  et 
sex  Angli  erunt,  Anglis  et  Wallis  jus  dicunto.' 
Challenges  to  the  polls,  in  capita,  are  exceptions 
to  particular  jurors ;  and  seem  to  answer  the  re- 
cusatio  judicis  in  the  civil  and  canon  laws ;  by 
the  constitution  of  which,  a  judge  might  be  re- 
fused upon  any  suspicion  of  partiality.  But  it 
is  now  held  that  judges  or  justices  cannot  be 
challenged.  But  challenges  to  the  polls  of  the 
jury  are  reduced  to  four  heads  by  Sir  Edward 
Coke:  1.  Propter  honoris  respectum;  as,  if  a 
lord  of  parliament  be  impannelled  on  a  jury,  he 
may  be  challenged  by  either  party,  or  he  may 
challenge  himself.  2.  Propter  defectum ;  as,  if 
a  juryman  be  an  alien  born,  this  defect  is  of 
birth  :  if  he  be  a  slave  or  bondman,  this  is  defect 
of  liberty,  and  he  cannot  be  a  liber  et  legalis 
homo.  Females  are  also  excluded,  propter  de- 
fectum sexus ;  except  when  a  widow  feigns  her- 
self with  child,  in  order  to  exclude  the  next  heir, 
and  a  supposititious  birth  is  suspected  to  be  in- 
tended ;  then,  upon  the  writ  de  ventre  inspiciendo, 
a  jury  of  women  is  to  be  impannelled  to  try  the 
question  whether  she  be  with  child  or  not.  But 
the  principal  deficiency  is  defect  of  estate  suffi- 
cient to  qualify  a  man  to  be  a  juror,  which  de- 
pends upon  a  variety  of  statutes.  3.  Propter 
affectum  for  suspicion  of  bias  or  partiality.  This 


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may  be  either  a  principal  challenge,  or  to  the 
favor.  A  principal  challenge  is  such,  where  the 
cause  assigned  carries  with  it,  prima  facie,  evident 
marks  of  suspicion,  either  of  malice  or  favor:  as, 
that  a  juror  is  of  kin  to  either  party  within  the 
ninth  degree;  that  he  has  an  interest  in  the 
cause  ;  that  he  has  taken  money  for  his  verdict, 
&c.  which,  if  true,  cannot  be  overruled,  for 
jurors  must  be  omni  exceptione  majores.  Chal- 
lenges to  the  favor,  are  where  the  party  objects 
only  some  probable  circumstances  of  suspicion, 
the  validity  of  which  must  be  left  to  the  determi- 
nation of  triers.  4.  Challenges  propterdelictum, 
are  for  some  crime  or  misdemeanor  that  affects 
the  juror's  credit,  and  renders  him  infamous  :  as 
for  a  conviction  of  treason,  felony,  perjury,  or 
conspiracy ;  or  if,  for  some  infamous  offence,  he 
hath  received  judgment  of  the  pillory  or  the 
like. 

CHALLENGES,  h.  criminal  cases,  may  be  made 
either  on  the  part  of  the  king,  or  on  that  of  the 
prisoner ;  to  the  whole  array,  or  to  the  separate 
polls,  for  the  same  reasons  that  they  may  be  in 
civil  causes.  For  it  is  here  at  least  as  necessary 
as  there,  that  the  sheriff  or  returning  officer  be 
totally  indifferent;  that,  where  an  alien  is  in- 
dicted, the  jury  should  be  de  medietate,  or  half 
foreigners,  if  so  many  are  found  in  the  place, 
which  does  not  indeed  hold  in  treasons,  aliens 
being  very  improper  judges  of  the  breach  of  al- 
legiance ;  nor  yet  in  the  case  of  gipseys,  under 
the  statute  22  Henry  VIII.  c.  10 ;  that  on  every 
panel  there  should  be  a  competent  number  of 
hundreders  ;  and  that  the  particular  jurors  should 
be  omni  exceptione  majores,  not  liable  to  any 
objections  whatever.  Challenges  on  any  of  the 
foregoing  accounts  are  styled  challenges  for 
cause  ;  which  may  be  without  stint  in  both  civil 
and  criminal  trials.  But  in  criminal  cases,  or  at 
least  in  capital  ones,  there  is,  in  favorem  vita?, 
allowed  to  the  prisoner  an  arbitrary  and  capri- 
cious species  of  challenge  to  a  certain  number 
of  jurors,  without  showing  any  cause  at  all : 
which  is  called  a  peremptory  challenge :  a  pro- 
vision full  of  that  tenderness  and  humanity  to 
prisoners  for  which  our  laws  are  justly  famous. 
This  is  grounded  on  two  reasons :  1 .  As  every 
one  must  be  sensible  what  sudden  impressions 
and  unaccountable  prejudices  we  are  apt  to 
conceive  upon  the  bare  looks  and  gestures  of 
another ;  and  how  necessary  it  is,  that  a  prisoner, 
when  put  to  defend  his  life,  should  have  a  good 
opinion  of  his  jury,  the  want  of  which  might 
totally  disconcert  him ;  the  law  wills  not  that  he 
should  be  tried  by  any  one  man,  against  whom 
he  has  conceived  a  prejudice,  even  without  being 
able  to  assign  a  reason  for  such  his  dislike.  2. 
Because  upon  challenges  for  cause  shown,  if  the 
reason  assigned  prove  insufficient  to  set  aside 
the  juror,  perhaps  the  bare  questioning  his  in- 
difference may  sometimes  provoke  a  resentment ; 
to  prevent  all  ill  consequences  from  which,  the 
prisoner  is  still  at  liberty,  if  he  pleases,  peremp- 
torily to  set  him  aside.  This  privilege  of  pe- 
remptory challenges,  granted  to  the  prisoner,  is 
denied  to  the  king  by  the  statute  33  Edw.  I. 
stat.  4,  which  enacts,  that  the  king  shall  challenge 
no  jurors  without  assigning  a  ?ause  certain,  to  be 
tried  and  approved  by  the  court  However,  it 


is  held  that  the  king  need  not  assign  his  cause  of 
challenge  till  all  the  panel  is  gone  through,  and 
unless  there  cannot  be  a  full  jury  without  the 
persons  so  challenged.  And  then,  and  not 
sooner,  the  king's  counsel  must  show  the  cause : 
othewise  the  juror  shall  be  sworn.  The  peremp- 
tory challenges  of  the  prisoner  must,  however, 
have  some  reasonable  boundary;  otherwise  he 
might  never  be  tried.  This  reasonable  boundary 
is  settled  by  the  common  law  to  the  number  of 
thirty-five ;  or,  one  under  the  number  of  three 
full  juries.  For  the  law  judges,  that  thirty-five 
are  fully  sufficient  to  allow  the  most  timorous 
man  to  challenge  through  mere  caprice ;  and 
that  he  who  peremptorily  challenges  a  greater 
number,  or  three  full  juries,  has  no  intention  to 
be  tried  at  all.  And  therefore  it  deals  with  one 
who  peremptorily  challenges  above  thirty-five, 
and  will  not  retract  his  challenge,  as  with  one 
who  stands  mute,  or  refuses  his  trial ;  by  sen- 
tencing him  to  the  peine  forte  et  dure  in  felony, 
and  by  attainting  him  in  treason.  And  so  the 
law  stands  at  this  day  with  regard  to  treason  ot 
any  kind.  But  by  statute  22  Hen.  VIII.  c.  14, 
which,  with  regard  to  felonies,  stands  unrepealed, 
no  person  arraigned  for  felony  can  be  admitted 
to  make  more  than  twenty  peremptory  chal- 
lenges. 

CHALLONER  (Richard),  a  Roman  Ca- 
tholic bishop,  and  eminent  divine,  was  the  son 
of  a  dissenter,  a  wine-cooper,  at  Lewes,  in  Sus- 
sex. He  was  born  in  1691,  and  his  father  dying 
early  in  his  life,  his  mother  met  with  that  pro- 
tection from  two  respectable  Catholic  families  in 
the  neighbourhood,  which  induced  her  to  edu- 
cate her  son  in  that  faith.  He  was  sent  to  the 
English  college  of  Douay,  where  he  took  orders, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  divinity.  Being, 
in  1730,  appointed  to  the  English  mission,  he 
became  bishop  of  Debra,  and  apostolic  vicar  of 
the  southern  district.  He  died  in  1781,  at  the 
age  of  ninety.  His  principal  works  are,  1 .  The 
Catholic  Christian  instructed  in  the  Sacraments, 
Sacrifices,  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Church.  This 
was  in  reply  to  the  celebrated  work  on  the  Con- 
formity between  Popery  and  Paganism,  by  Dr. 
Conyers  Middleton.  2.  Memoirs  of  Missionary 
Priests,  and  others,  of  both  sexes,  who  suffered 
on  account  of  their  Religion,  from  1577  to  1688. 
3.  Spirit  of  Dissenting  Teachers.  4.  Grounds 
of  the  old  Religion.  5.  Unerring  Authority  of 
the  Catholic  Church.  6.  The  City  of  God.  7. 
A  Caveat  against  Methodism.  8.  The  Devotion 
of  the  Catholics  to  the  Virgin  truly  represented. 
9.  The  Papist  Misrepresented  and  Represented, 
abridged  from  Gother. 

CHALMERS  (George,)  F.  R.  S.  and  F.  S.  A., 
a  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Scotland,  went 
in  early  life  to  America,  but  on  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  of  independence  returned  to  London, 
and  obtained  a  situation  in  the  office  of  the  board 
of  trade.  This  he  retained  to  his  death  in  1825. 
His  works  are,  Political  Annals  of  the  United 
Colonies,  4to. ;  Estimate  of  the  Strength  of 
Great  Britain,  during  the  present  and  four  pre- 
ceding ReigL's,  8vo. ;  Opinions  on  Subjects  of 
Public  Lawai'd  Commercial  Policy,  connected 
with  Americai  Independence,  8vo, ;  Life  of 
Daniel  De  Foe,  $vo. ;  Life  of  Thomas  Ruddi- 


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man,  8vo. ;  Apology  for  the  Believers  in  the 
Shakspeare  Papers,  8vo. ;  Caledonia,  or  an  Ac- 
count, Historical  and  Geographical,  of  North 
Britain,  4to. ;  Chronological  Account  of  Com- 
merce and  Coinage  in  Great  Britain,  8vo. ;  Life 
of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  4to.  He  also  edited 
the  works  of  Sir  David  Lyndesay,  and  some 
other  old  writers. 

CHALONER  (Sir  Thomas),  a  statesman, 
soldier,  and  poet,  descended  from  an  ancient 
family  in  Denbigh,  in  Wales,  was  born  at  London 
about  A.  D.  1515.  Having  been  educated  in 
both  universities,  he  was  introduced  to  Henry 
VIII.  who  sent  him  abroad  in  the  retinue  of  Sir 
Henry  Knevet,  ambassador  to  Charles  V.  whom 
he  attended  on  his  fatal  expedition  in  1541  to 
Algiers.  Chaloner  returned  soon  after  to  England, 
and  was  appointed  first  clerk  of  the  council, 
which  office  he  held  during  the  rest  of  that  reign. 
On  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  he  became  a 
favorite  of  the  duke  of  Somerset,  whom  he  at- 
tended to  Scotland,  and  was  knighted  by  him, 
after  the  battle  of  Musselburgh,  in  1547.  The 
duke's  fall  put  a  stop  to  Sir  Thomas's  ex- 
pectations, and  involved  him  in  difficulties. 
During  the  reign  of  Mary,  being  a  protestant, 
he  was  in  great  danger ;  but,  having  many  power- 
ful friends,  he  escaped.  On  the  accession  of 
queen  Elizabeth,  he  appeared  again  at  court ; 
and  was  appointed  ambassador  to  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  I.  being  the  first  ambassador  she  no- 
minated. His  commission  was  of  great  im- 
portance ;  and  the  queen  was  so  well  satisfied 
with  his  conduct,  that,  soon  after  his  return,  she 
sent  him  in  the  same  capacity  to  Spain.  He 
embarked  for  Spain  in  1561,  and  returned  to 
London  in  1564,  in  consequence  of  his  own  re- 
quest, expressed  in  an  elegy  written  in  imitation 
of  Ovid.  He  died  in  1565.  His  poetical  works 
were  published  in  1579.  His  chief  work  was 
that  Of  Restoring  the  English  Republic,  in  ten 
bo'oks,  which  he  wrote  while  in  Spain.  This 
great  man,  who  knew  how  to  transact  as  well 
as  write  upon,  the  most  important  affairs  of 
states  and  kingdoms,  could  also  descend  to 
compose  a  Dictionary  for  Children,  and  to  trans- 
late from  the  Latin  a  book  Of  the  Offices  of 
Servants. 

CHALONER  (Sir  Thomas),  the  only  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1559.  He  merits  parti- 
cular notice,  not  only  as  a  skilful  naturalist  in 
an  age  wherein  natural  history  was  very  little 
understood,  but  as  the  founder  of  the  alum  works 
in  Yorkshire,  which  have  since  proved  so  ad- 
vantageous to  the  commerce  of  this  kingdom. 
Being  very  young  when  his  father  died,  lord 
Burleigh  sent  him  to  St.  Paul's  School,  and  af- 
terwards to  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
discovered  extraordinary  talents  for  Latin  and 
English  poetry.  About  1580  he  made  the  tour 
of  Europe,  and  returned  to  England  before 
1584.  About  this  time  he  married  the  daughter 
of  Sir  William  Fleetwood.  In  1591  he  was 
knighted ;  and,  some  time  after,  discovered  the 
alum  mines  on  his  estate  at  Gisborough,  in  York- 
shire. Towards  the  end  of  the  queen's  reign, 
Sir  Thomas  visited  Scotland  ;  and  returning  to 
England  in  the  retinue  of  king  James  I.  was  im- 
mediately appointed  governor  to  prince  Henry. 


He  died  in  1615.  He  wrote,  1.  Dedication  to 
Lord  Burleigh,  of  his  father's  poetical  works, 
dated  1579."  2.  The  Virtue  of  Nitre,  London, 
1584,  4to.  Sir  Thomas,  during  his  residence  in 
Italy,  being  particularly  fond  of  natural  history, 
had  spent  some  time  at  Puzzoli,  where  he  was 
very  attentive  to  the  art  of  producing  alum. 
This  attention  proved  infinitely  serviceable  to  his 
country,  though  of  no  great  benefit  to  himself  or 
his  family,  his  attempt  being  attended  with  much 
difficulty  and  expense.  It  was  begun  about 
A.  D.  1600,  but  was  not  brought  to  any  per- 
fection till  some  time  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
by  the  assistance  of  one  Russel  a  Walloon,  and 
two  other  workmen,  from  the  alum  works  at 
Rochelle.  By  one  of  the  arbitrary  acts  of  Charles, 
it  was  then  deemed  a  mine  royal,  and  granted  to 
Sir  Paul  Pindar.  The  long  parliament  adjudged 
it  a  monopoly,  and  justly  restored  it  to  the  original 
proprietors. 

CHALONS  SUR  MARNE,  the  Roman  Ca- 
talaunum,  a  large  town  of  Champagne,  France, 
situated  on  the  Marne,  of  the  department  of 
which  it  is  the  capital.  The  river,  which  is 
crossed  by  several  bridges,  divides  it  into  three 
parts,  viz.  the  town,  properly  so  called,  the 
island,  and  the  suburb.  Here  is  a  fine  Gothic 
cathedral,  of  the  thirteenth  century,  eleven  parish 
churches,  three  secularised  abbeys,  several  con- 
vents, and  a  handsome  town-house,  together  with 
an  academy  of  sciences  and  belles-lettres,  founded 
in  1750.  Woollen  manufactures,  tanneries,  and 
yarn-spinning,  occupy  the  attention  of  the 
greater  part  of  its  inhabitants,  who  amount  to 
about  12,000.  But  it  has  a  good  trade  in  corn 
and  wine.  Twenty-five  miles  south-east  of 
Rheims,  forty  south-west  of  Verdun,  and  103 
east  of  Paris. 

CHALONS  SUR  SAONE,  the  ancient  Cabillonum, 
a  well-built  town  of  France,  in  Burgundy,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Saone.  The  number  of 
inhabitants  is  about  9000,  exclusive  of  the  small 
town  of  St.  Lawrence,  on  an  island,  near  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  river,  which  communicates 
with  the  town  by  a  stone  bridge.  Chalons  is 
the  see  of  a  bishop,  has  six  parish  churches, 
two  abbeys,  and  eight  other  religious  foundations. 
The  quay  runs  along  the  banks  of  the  Saone  ;  it 
is  a  solid  and  beautiful  piece  of  workmanship. 
The  manufactures  are  inconsiderable.  It  is 
170  miles  north  of  Lyons,  and  214  south-east  of 
Paris. 

CHALY'BEATE,  a^.from  Lat.chalybs,  steel. 
Impregnated  with  iron  or  steel ;  having  the  qua- 
lities of  steel. 

The  diet  ought  to  strengthen  the  solids,  allowing 
spices  and  wine,  and  the  use  of  chalybeate  waters. 

Arlruthnot  on  Diet. 

CHALYBEATE,  a  term  applied  to  any  mineral 
water  which  abounds  with  iron ;  such  are  the 
Tunbridge,  Spa,  Cheltenham,  &c. 

CHALYBES,  in  ancient  geography,  a  people 
of  the  Hither  Asia.  Their  situation  is  differently 
assigned ;  Strabo  placing  them  in  Paphla- 
gonia,  east  of  Synope ;  Apollodius  Rhodius 
and  Stephanus,  on  the  east  of  the  Thermodon, 
in  Pontus ;  called  Halizones  by  Homer.  They 
eivher  gave  their  name  to,  or  took  it  from  the  iron 
manufactures,  their  only  support. 


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316 


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CHAM,  or  KHAN.    See  KHAN. 

CHAMA,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  shell-fish, 
belonging  to  the  order  of  vermes  testacas.  The 
shell  is  thick,  and  has  two  valves ;  it  is  an  animal 
of  the  oyster  kind.  Linnaeus  enumerates  fourteen 
species,  principally  distinguished  by  the  figure  of 
their  shells. 

CHA'MADE,  n.  s.  French.  The  beat  of  the 
drum  which  declares  a  surrender. 

Several  French  battalions  made  a  show  of  resist- 
ance, but  upon  our  preparing  to  fill  up  a  little  fosse, 
in  order  to  attack  them,  they  beat  the  chamade,  and 
sent  us  charts  blanche.  Additon. 

CHAMADE,  a  signal  to  inform  the  enemy  that 
some  proposition  is  to  be  made  to  capitulate,  to 
have  leave  to  bury  the  dead,  make  a  truce,  or 
the  like. 

CHAM7ELEON,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants, 
of  the  syngenesia  class,  and  polygamia  order; 
natural  order  segregata :  CAL.  six  or  eight  flowered, 
imbricated,  and  many-leaved  :  FLORETS  tubular, 
hermaphrodite ;  receptaculum  naked :  SEEDS  co- 
vered with  the  calycle  growing  to  them.  Species 
one;  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  with 
simple  white  stem,  and  short  white  flowers.  The 
root  of  this  plant  is  a  bitter  diaphoretic  me- 
dicine. 

CHAM^EROPS,  in  botany,  the  dwarf  palm, 
or  little  palmetto,  a  genus  of  the  class  polygamia, 
and  order  trioecia ;  natural  order  palmae  :  CAL. 
tripartite :  COR.  tripetalous ;  STAM.  six,  pistils 
three,  and  three  monospermous  plums.  The 
male  is  a  distinct  plant,  the  same  as  the  her- 
maphrodite. There  are  three  species,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  is  the  C.  glabra,  a  native  of 
the  West  Indies,  and  warm  parts  of  America, 
also  of  the  corresponding  latitudes  of  Asia  and 
Africa.  It  never  rises  with  a  tall  stem;  but, 
when  the  plants  are  old,  their  leaves  are  five  or 
six  feet  long,  and  upwards  of  two  broad ;  these 
spread  open  like  a  fan,  having  many  foldings,  and 
at  the  top  are  deeply  divided  like  the  fingers  of 
a  hand.  This  plant  the  Americans  call  thatch, 
from  the  use  to  which  the  leaves  are  applied. 
It  may  be  easily  raised  in  this  country  from 
seeds  brought  from  America ;  but  as  the  plants 
are  tender,  they  must  be  constantly  kept  in  a 
bark-stove. 

CHA'MBER,  n.  s.  &  v. «."»     Ka/iapa ;  Lat.  ca- 
CHA'MBERER,  v.  s.  mera;  It.  camera; 

CHA'MBERING,  Fr.  chambre  ;  Sw. 

CHA'MBER-FELLOW,  \kammar;    Welsh, 

CHA'MBERLAIN,  siambr.    A  cavity, 

CHA'MBERLAINSHIP,  a  room,  an  apart- 

CHA'MBERMAID.  J  ment.    It  has  va- 

rious technical  significations,  which  are  all, 
however,  easily  traced  to  the  original  etymon. 
Chamberlain  describes  an  officer  of  state,  and 
an  officer  of  the  royal  household.  It  is,  indeed, 
sometimes  used  in  its  primitive  sense  for  a  mere 
servant,  who  has  the  care  of  the  chambers.  As 
chambers  are  sleeping  apartments,  and  as  the 
term  was  formerly  almost  exclusively  applied  to 
such,  the  verb  takes  a  peculiar  meaning  from  the 
application,  and  signifies  to  be  wanton ;  to  in- 
trigue, as  well  as  to  reside  in  a  chamber.  And  the 
substantive,  chamberer,  is  understood  in  the  same 
sense,  a  man  of  intrigue,  a  debauchee. 


Hire  herte  is  veray  chambre  of  holinesse  ; 
Hire  hond  ministre  of  freedom  for  almessc. 

Chaucer.     Cant.  Tulet 

'  My  Lord,'  quod  she,  '  I  wote  and  wist  alway, 
How  that  betwixen  your  magnificence 
And  my  poverte,  no  wight  ne  can  ne  may 
Maken  comparison  ;  it  is  no  nay  : 
I  ne  held  ne  never  digne  in  no  manere 
To  be  your  wif,  ne  yet  your  cliamberere.  Id. 

Let  us  walk  honestly  as  in  the  day,  not  in  rioting 
and  drunkenness,  not  in  chambering  and  wantonness. 

Romans, 

I  have  not  those  soft  parts  of  conversation 
That  chamberers  have.  ShaJapeare. 

Bid  them  come  forth,  and  hear  me 
Or  at  their  chamber  door  I'll  beat  the  drum, 
Till  it  cry,  sleep  to  death.  Id. 

When  we  have  marked  with  blood  those  sleepy  two, 
Of  his  own  chamber.  Id, 

Humbly  complaining  to  her  deity, 
Got  my  lord  chamberlain  his  liberty.  Id. 

Thinkst  thou 

That  the  bleak  air,  thy  boisterous  chamberlain, 
Will  put  thy  shirt  on  warm  ?  Id. 

Men  will  not  hiss, 

The  chambermaid  was  named  Ciss.     Ben  Jonson. 
He  was  made  lord  steward,  that  the  staff  of  chamber- 
lain might  be  put  into  the  hands  of  his  brother. 

Clarendon, 
He  served  at  first  ^Emilia's  cJiamberluin. 

Dryden's  Fables. 

In  the  imperial  chamber  this  vulgar  answer  is  not 

admitted,   viz.  I  do  not  believe  it,  as  the  matter  is 

propounded  and  alleged.  Ayliffe's  Parergon. 

The  dark  caves  of  death,  and  chambers  of  the  grave. 

Prior, 

Petit  has,  from  an  examination  of  the  figure  of  the 
eye,  argued  against  the  possibility  of  a  film's  existence 
in  the  posteriour  chamber.  Sharp, 

A  patriot  is  a  fool  in  every  age, 

Whom  all  lord  chamberlains  allow  the  stage.     Pope. 
It   is  my  fortune   to  have  a  chamberfellow ,   with 
whom  I  agree  very  well  in  many  sentiments. 

Spectator. 

Some  coarse  country  wench,  almost  decayed, 
Trudges  to  town,  and  first  turns  chambermaid.     Pope. 

CHAMBER,  in  military  affairs,  is  variously  ap- 
plied :  thus,  chamber,  bomb,  or  powder  chamber, 
a  place  sunk  under  ground  for  holding  the  pow- 
der, or  bombs,  where  they  may  be  out  of  danger, 
and  secured  from  the  rain.  Chamber  of  a  mor- 
tar, is  that  part  of  the  chase  much  narrower  than 
the  rest  of  the  cylinder,  where  the  powder  lies. 
It  is  of  different  forms;  sometimes  like  a  re- 
versed cone ;  sometimes  globular,  with  a  neck  for 
its  communication  with  the  cylinder,  whence  it 
is  called  a  bottled  chamber ;  but  most  commonly 
cylindrical,  that  being  the  form  which  is  found 
by  experience  to  carry  the  ball  to  the  greatest 
distance. 

CHAMBER,  APOSTOLICAL,  of  Rome,  that 
wherein  affairs  relating  to  the  revenues  of  the 
church  and  the  pope  are  transacted.  This  council 
consists  of  the  cardinal  camerlingo,  the  governor 
of  the  rota,  a  treasurer,  an  auditor,  a  president, 
one  advocate-general,  a  solicitor-general,  a  com- 
missary, and  twelve  clerks. 

CHAMBER,  IMPERIAL,  of  Spires,  now  of 
Wetzlar,  the  supreme  court  of  judicatory  in  the 
empire,  erected  by  Maximilian  I.  This  chamber 
lias  a  right  of  judging  by  appeal ;  and  is  the 


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last  resort  of  all  civil  affairs  of  the  states  and 
subjects  of  the  empire;  except  matrimonial 
causes,  these  being  left  to  the  pope,  and  cri- 
minal causes,  which  either  belong  to  particular 
princes  or  towns,  or  are  cognizable  by  all  the 
states  of  the  empire  in  a  diet.  By  the  treaty 
of  Osnaburgh,  in  1648,  fifty  assessors  were  ap- 
pointed for  this  chamber,  whereof  twenty-four 
were  to  be  Protestants,  and  twenty-six  Catholics ; 
besides  five  presidents,  two  Protestants  and  three 
Catholics. 

CHAMBER,  PRIVY.  Gentlemen  of  the  privy 
chamber  are  servants  of  the  king,  who  wait  on 
him  and  the  queen  at  court,  in  their  diversions, 
&c.  Their  number  is  forty-eight,  under  the 
lord  chamberlain  ;  of  whom  twelve  are  in  quar- 
terly waiting,  and  two  of  these  lie  in  the  privy 
chamber.  In  the  absence  of  the  lord  cham- 
berlain, or  vice-chamberlain,  they  execute  the 
king's  orders.  The  gentlemen  of  the  privy  chamber 
were  instituted  by  Henry  VII. 

CH-VMBER,  STAR.     See  STAR-CHAMBER. 

CHAMBERLAIN  OF  ENGLAND,  LORD  GREAT, 
to  whose  office  belongs  the  government  of  the 
palace  at  Westminster ;  and  upon  all  solemn 
occasions  the  keys  of  Westminster-hall  and  the 
court  of  requests  are  delivered  to  him;  he  disposes 
of  the  sword  of  state  to  be  carried  before  the 
king  when  he  comes  to  the  parliament,  and  goes 
on  the  right  hand  of  the  sword  next  to  the  king's 
person :  he  has  the  care  of  providing  all  things 
in  the  House  of  Lords  in  the  time  of  parlia- 
ment ;  to  him  belongs  livery  and  lodgings  in  the 
king's  court,  &c.  The  gentleman  usher  of  the 
black  rod,  yeoman  usher,  &c.  are  under  his 
authority.  He  has  livery  and  lodging  in  the 
king's  court ;  and  receives  fees  from  each  arch- 
bishop or  bishop  when  they  perform  their  ho- 
mage to  the  king,  and  from  all  peers  at  their 
creation,  or  doing  their  homage.  At  the  corona- 
tion of  every  king  he  has  forty  ells  of  crimson 
velvet  for  his  own  robes.  On  the  coronation 
day,  he  brings  the  king  his  shirt,  coif,  and  wear- 
ing clothes ;  and,  after  the  king  is  dressed,  he 
claims  his  bed,  and  all  the  furniture  of  his  cham- 
ber, for  his  fees  ;  he  also  carries  the  coif,  gloves 
and  linen,  to  be  used  by  the  king  on  that  occa- 
sion ;  the  sword  and  scabbard ;  the  gold  to  be 
offered  by  the  king,  and  the  robes  royal  and 
crown :  he  dresses  and  undresses  the  king  on 
that  day,  waits  on  him  before  and  after  dinner, 
&c.  The  office  of  Lord  Great  Chamberlain  of 
England  is  hereditary;  and  where  a  person  dies 
seized  in  fee  of  his  office,  leaving  two  sisters,  the 
office  belongs  to  both  sisters,  and  they  may 
execute  it  by  deputy  :  but  such  deputy  must  be 
approved  of  by  the  king,  and  must  not  be  of  a 
degree  inferior  to  a  knight. 

CHAMBERLAIN,  LORD,  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD, 
has  the  oversight  of  the  removing  wardrobes,  or 
of  beds,  tents,  revels,  music,  comedians,  hunt- 
ing, messengers,  &.c.  retained  in  the  king's  ser- 
vice. He  has  also  the  oversight  and  direction 
of  the  Serjeants  at  arms,  of  all  physicians, 
apothecaries,  surgeons,  barbers,  the  king's  chap- 
lains, 8cc.  and  administers  the  oath  to  all  officers 
above  stairs. 

CHAMBERLAIN  OF  LONDON, is  the  receiverof  the 
city  money,  he  also  presides  over  the  affairs  of 


masters  and  apprentices,  and  creates  freemen  of 
the  city,  &c.  His  office  lasts  only  a  year,  but  it 
is  customary  to  re-elect  him,  unless  he  is  charged 
with  a  misdemeanor  in  his  office. 

CHAMBERLAINS  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER.  In  this 
court  there  are  two  chamberlains,  who  keep  a 
controlment  of  the  pells  of  receipts  and  exitus, 
and  have  keys  of  the  treasury,  records,  &c. 

CHAMBERLAYNE  (Edward),  descended 
from  an  ancient  family,  was  born  in  Gloucester- 
shire, 1616,  and  made  the  tour  of  Europe  during 
the  civil  war.  After  the  Restoration,  he  went  as 
secretary  with  the  earl  of  Carlisle,  to  Sweden ; 
•was  appointed  tutor  to  the  young  duke  of  Graf- 
ton,  and  was  afterwards  chosen  to  instruct  prince 
George  of  Denmark  in  the  English  tongue.  He 
died  in  1703,  and  was  buried  in  a  vault  in 
Chelsea  church-yard.  His  monumental  inscrip- 
tion mentions  six  books  of  his  writing ;  and  he 
was  so  desirous  of  doing  service  to  posterity, 
that  he  ordered  some  copies  of  his  books  to  be 
covered  with  wax  and  buried  with  him.  That 
work  by  which  he  is  best  known,  is  his  Anglise 
Notitiae,  or  the  Present  State  of  England,  which 
has  been  often  re-printed. 

CHAMBERLAYNE  (John),  F.R.S.  continuator 
of  his  father's  useful  work,  was  admitted  into 
Trinity  College,  Oxford,  in  1685.  He  wrote 
Dissertations  Historical,  Critical,  Theological, 
and  Moral,  on  the  most  memorable  events  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  Chronological 
Tables,  in  one  volume  folio  ;  and  translated 
various  works  from  the  French,  Dutch,  and 
other  languages.  He  likewise  communicated 
some  pieces  to  the  Royal  Society,  inserted  in 
Philosophical  Transactions.  After  a  useful  and 
well-spent  life,  he  died  in  1724. 

CHAMBERRY,  a  populous  town  of  Savoy, 
and  the  former  capital  of  the  duchy  of  that 
name.  It  has  a  castle,  and  is  well  built,  but  has 
no  fortifications.  It  is  watered  by  several  streams, 
which  have  their  sources  in  St.  Martin's-hill,  and 
run  through  several  of  the  streets.  There  are 
piazzas  under  most  of  the  houses,  where  people 
may  walk  dry  in  the  worst  weather.  It  has 
large  and  handsome  suburbs  ;  and  in  the  centre 
of  the  town  is  the  palace.  The  parliament  of 
Savoy  formerly  met  in  it,  and  a  royal  council  is 
still  held  here.  The  inhabitants  are  about  12,000 
in  number,and  in  the  neighbourhood  are  some 
excellent  baths.  It  is  thirty-seven  miles  north- 
east of  Grenoble,  and  fifty-five  east  of  Lyons. 

CHA'MBERS.  Short  pieces  of  ordnance,  or 
cannon,  which  stood  on  their  breeching  without 
any  carriage,  used  chiefly  for  rejoicings,  and 
theatrical  cannonades,  being  little  more  than 
chambers  for  powder.  They  are  however  enu- 
merated by  authors  among  other  pieces  of  artil- 
lery, and  by  the  following  passage  seem  not  to 
have  been  excluded  from  real  service. 

To  serve  bravely  is  to  come  halting  off  you  know  : 
To  venture  upon  the  charged  chambers  bravely. 

Shakspeare.  Nares. 

Names  given  them,  as  cannons,  demi-cannons, 
chambers,  arquebuse,  musket,  &c.  Camden's  Remains. 

CHAMBERS  (Ephraim),  compiler  of  a  Cy- 
clopaedia or  Scientific  Dictionary  that  was  the 
foundation  of  Dr.  Rees's  celebrated  work,  was 


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318 


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born  at  Milton  in  Westmoreland.  His  parents 
were  Presbyterians  ;  and  his  education  such  as 
is  commonly  given  to  qualify  a  youth  for  trade. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  Mr.  Senex,  the  globe- 
maker,  a  business  connected  with  literature, 
especially  with  astronomyand  geography.  During 
his  residence  with  this  skilful  mechanic,  he  con- 
tracted that  taste  for  science  which  accompanied 
him  through  life.  Even  at  this  period,  he  formed 
the  design  of  his  grand  work,  the  Cyclopaedia ; 
and  some  of  the  first  articles  of  it  were  written 
behind  the  counter.  Having  conceived  the  idea 
of  so  great  an  undertaking,  he  justly  concluded 
that  the  execution  of  it  would  not  consist  with 
the  avocations  of  trade  ;  and  therefore  he  quitted 
Mr.  Senex,  and  took  chambers  at  Gray's  Inn, 
where  he  chiefly  resided  during  the  rest  of  his 
life.  The  first  edition,  which  was  the  result  of 
many  years  intense  application,  appeared  in  1728 
in  two  vols.  folio.  It  was  published  by  sub- 
scription at  four  guineas,  and  the  list  of  sub- 
scribers was  very  respectable.  The  dedication 
to  the  king  is  dated  October  15th,  1727.  The  re- 
putation that  Mr.  Chambers  acquired  by  this 
undertaking,  procured  him  the  honor  of  being 
elected  F.R.S.  November  6th,  1729.  In  less  than 
ten  years  a  second  edition  became  necessary ; 
which  accordingly  was  printed,  with  corrections 
and  additions,  in  1738  ;  and  was  followed  by  a 
third  in  1739.  Although  the  Cyclopaedia  was 
the  grand  business  of  Mr.  Chambers'  life,  and 
almost  the  sole  foundation  of  his  fame,  his  at- 
tention was  not  wholly  confined  to  this  under- 
taking. He  was  concerned  in  a  periodical  pub- 
lication, entitled,  The  Literary  Magazine,  which 
was  begun  in  1735.  In  this  work  he  wrote  a 
variety  of  articles,  and  particularly  a  review  of 
Morgan's  Moral  Philosophy.  He  was  engaged 
likewise,  in  conjunction  with  professor  John 
Martyn,  F.  R.  S.,  in  preparing  for  the  press  a 
translation  and  abridgment  of  the  Philosophical 
history  and  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Paris.  This  undertaking  was  com- 
prised in  five  volumes  octavo,  which  did  not  ap- 
pear till  1742,  some  time  after  our  author's  de- 
cease, when  they  were  published  in  the  joint 
names  of  Messrs  Martyn  and  Chambers.  Mr. 
Chambers  also  published  a  translation  of  the 
Jesuit's  Perspective,  from  the  French ;  which 
was  printed  in  quarto,  and  went  through  several 
editions.  His  close  and  unremitting  attention 
to  study  at  length  impaired  his  health,  and 
obliged  him  to  make  an  excursion  to  the  south 
of  France,  but  without  that  benefit  which  had 
been  expected.  Returning  to  England,  he  died 
at  Canonbury  House,  Islington,  May  15th,  1740, 
and  was  buried  at  Westminster,  where  an  in- 
scription, written  by  himself,  is  placed  on  the 
north  side  of  the  cloisters  of  the  Abbey.  After 
his  death,  other  two  editions  of  his  Cyclopaedia 
were  published.  The  proprietors  afterwards 
procured  a  supplement  to  be  compiled,  which 
extended  to  two  volumes  more:  and  in  1778 
began  to  be  published  in  weekly  numbers,  an 
edition  of  both,  improved  and  incorporated  into 
one  alphabet,  by  Dr.  Rees,  which  was  completed 
in  four  volumes  folio.  The  doctor,  it  is  well 
known,  afterwards  published  forty  volumes  quarto 
on  the  same  plan.  See  CYCLOPEDIA. 


CHAMBERS  (Sir  Robert),  an  eminent  lawyer, 
born  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  in  1737,  where 
he  received  his  education  under  Moyses,  along 
with  lord  Eldon  and  Sir  Willam  Scott ;  and  the 
friendship  they  there  contracted  continued  till 
death.  He  was  chosen  exhibitioner  of  Lin- 
coln College,  Oxford,  in  1754,  and  afterwards 
became  fellow  of  University  College,  where  he 
was  again  associated  with  the  Scotts  and  other 
eminent  characters,  particularly  Sir  William 
Jones.  In  1766  he  was  appointed  Vinerian 
professor  of  law  in  the  room  of  Sir  William 
Blackstone ;  and  about  the  same  time  he  was 
made  principal  of  New  Inn  Hall.  In  1768  an 
offer  was  made  him  to  go  out  as  attorney-general 
of  Jamaica,  which  he  declined ;  but  in  1773  he 
accepted  the  place  of  second  judge  in  the  supreme 
court  of  judicature  at  Bengal;  and  such  was 
the  regard  which  the  university  entertained  for 
him,  that,  in  case  he  should  think  proper  to  re- 
turn, they  continued  to  him  the  professorship 
three  years.  In  1778  the  honor  of  knighthood 
was  conferred  on  him,  as  a  testimony  of  the 
royal  approbation  of  his  upright  conduct.  In 
1791  Sir  Robert  succeeded  to  the  office  of  chief 
justice  on  the  resignation  of  Sir  Elijah  Impey  ; 
and  in  1797  he  was  chosen  president  of  the 
Asiatic  Society.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1799,  but  being  of  a  delicate  constitution  the 
change  to  a  northern  climate  soon  affected  his 
health ;  to  preserve  which  he  went  to  France  in 
autumn,  1802,  but  died  at  Paris  on  the  9th  of 
May  following.  His  remains  were  brought  to 
England  and  interred  in  the  Temple.  He  wrote 
an  elegant  epitaph  in  Latin,  inscribed  on  the 
monument  of  his  friend,  Sir  William  Jones,  at 
Oxford. 

CHAMBERS  (Sir  William),  an  eminent  archi- 
tect, was  born  at  Stockholm,  of  an  ancient  Scotch 
family  which  had  resided  some  years  there. 
When  about  eighteen  years  of  age  he  was  ap- 
pointed supercargo  to  the  Swedish  East  India 
company,  and  brought  from  China  the  Asiatic 
style  of  ornament,  which  became  so  fashionable 
in  England  at  one  time,  under  the  royal  patron- 
age. Mr.  Chambers  settled  in  England,  where 
he  gained  considerable  business  as  an  architect, 
and  became  surveyor-general  of  the  Board  of 
Works,  fellow  of  the  Royal  and  Antiquarian  So- 
cieties, treasurer  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and 
knight  of  the  polar  star  in  Sweden.  The  build- 
ing of  Somerset-house  will  prove  a  lasting  mo- 
nument of  his  skill  and  taste ;  but  his  principal 
works  are  his  stair-cases,  and  his  designs  for 
interior  arrangements.  He  died  in  March,  1796. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  on  civil  architecture,  which 
is  considered  a  valuable  work. 

CHA'MBLET,  v.  n.  From  camelot.  To  va-ry; 
to  variegate.  See  CAMELOT. 

Some  have  the  veins  more  varied  ami  chambleted  ; 
as  oak,  whereof  wainscot  is  made. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

CHAMBRE  (Martin  Cureau  de  la,)  phy- 
sician to  Louis  XIV.  was  distinguished  by  his 
knowledge  of  medicine  and  philosophy.  He 
was  born  at  Mans ;  and  was  received  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1625,  and  afterwards  into 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  principal  works 


CHA 


319 


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are  Les  Caracteres  dcs  Passions,  4  vols.  4to. 
2.  L'art  de  connoitre  les  Hommes.  3.  De  la 
Conrioissance  des  Betes.  4.  Conjectures  sur  la 
Digestion.  5.  De  1'Iris.  6.  De  la  Lumiere. 
7.  Le  Systeme  de  1'Ame.  8.  Le  Debordement 
du  Nil,4to. 

CHA'MBREL  of  a  horse.  The  joint  or  bend- 
ing of  the  upper  part  of  the  hinder  leg. — Far- 
•vVr's  Diet. 

CHAME'LEON,  n.  s.    Xa^lXfMV- 

I  can  add  colours  even  to  the  chameleon  ; 
Change  shapes  with  Proteus,  for  advantage. 

Shakspeare. 

One  part  devours  the  other,  and  leaves  not  so 
much  as  a  mouthful  of  that  popular  air,  which  the 
cliameleoiis  gasp  after.  Decay  of  Piety. 

The  thin  chameleon,  fed  with  air,  receives 
The  colour  of  the  thing  to  which  he  cleaves. 

Dryden. 

As  the  chamelion,  which  is  known 
To  have  no  colours  of  his  own, 
But  borrows  from  his  neighbour's  hue 
His  white  or  black,  his  green  or  blue.      Prior. 

The  CHAMELEON  has  four  feet,  and  on  each  foot 
three  claws.  Its  tail  is  long ;  with  this,  as  well 
as  with  its  feet,  it  fastens  itself  to  the  branches 
of  trees.  Its  tail  is  flat,  its  nose  long,  ending  in 
an  obtuse  point;  its  back  is  sharp,  its  skin 
plaited,  and  jagged  like  a  saw  from  the  neck  to 
the  last  joint  of  the  tail,  and  upon  its  head  it  has 
something  like  a  comb ;  like  a  fish,  it  has  no 
neck.  Some  have  asserted,  that  it  lives  only 
upon  air ;  but  it  has  been  observed  to  feed  on 
flies,  caught  with  its  tongue,  which  is  about  ten 
inches  long,  and  three  thick;  made  of  white 
flesh,  round,  but  flat  at  the  end ;  or  hollow  and 
open,  resembling  an  elephant's  trunk.  It  also 
shrinks,  and  grows  longer.  This  animal  is  said 
to  assume  the  color  of  those  things  to  which  it  is 
applied  ;  but  our  modern  observers  assure  us, 
that  its  natural  color,  when  at  rest  and  in  the 
shade,  is  a  bluish  gray;  though  some  are  yellow, 
and  others  green,  but  both  of  a  smaller  kind. 
When  it  is  exposed  to  the  sun,  the  gray  changes 
into  a  darker  gray,  inclining  to  a  dun  color;  and 
its  parts,  which  have  least  of  the  light  upon  them, 
are  changed  into  spots  of  different  colors.  The 
grain  of  its  skin,  when  the  light  does  not  shine 
upon  it,  is  like  cloth  mixed  with  many  colors. 
Sometimes,  when  it  is  handled,  it  seems  speckled 
with  dark  spots,  inclining  to  green.  If  it  be  put 
upon  a  black  hat,  it  appears  to  be  of  a  violet 
color :  and  sometimes,  if  it  be  wrapped  up  in 
linen,  it  is  white ;  but  it  changes  color  only  in 
some  parts  of  the  body. — Culmet. 

CHAMELEON,  in  astronomy,  a  constella- 
tion of  the  southern  hemisphere,  near  the  south 
pole,  invisible  in  our  latitude.  See  ASTRONOMY. 

CHAMELEON,  in  zoology.     See  LACERTA. 

To  CHA'MFER,  v.  a.  Fr.  chambrer.  To 
channel ;  to  make  furrows  or  gutters  upon  a 
column. 

CHA'MFER,  n.  s.   i       From   to  chamfer.      A 

CHA'MFRET,  n.  s.  \  small  furrow  or  gutter  on 
a  column. 

CHAMFERING,  in  architecture,  a  phrase 
used  for  cutting  anything  aslope  on  the  under 
side. 

CHAMIER  (Daniel),  an  eminent  protestant 
divine,  born  in  Dauphine.  He  was  many  years 


preacher  at  Montelimart;  from  whence  he  went 
in  1612  to  Montauban,  to  be  professor  of  di- 
vinity, and  was  killed  by  a  cannon  ball  during 
the  siege  in  1621.  The  most  considerable  of  his 
works  is  his  Panstratia  Catholica,  or  Wars  of  the 
Lord,  in  four  volumes  folio ;  in  which  he  treats 
very  learnedly  of  the  controversies  between  the 
Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics. 

CHA'MLET,  n.  s.  See  CAMELOT.  Stuff 
made  originally  of  camel's  hair. 

To  make  a  cltamlet,  draw  five  lines,  waved  over- 
thwart,  if  your  diapering  consists  of  a  double  line. 

Peaeham  on  Drawing. 

CIIA'MOIS  n.  s.  Fr.  chamois.  An  animal 
of  the  goat  kind,  whose  skin  is  made  into  soft 
leather,  called  among  us  shammy. 

These  are  the  beasts  which  you  shall  eat ;  the  ox, 
the  sheep,  and  wild  ox,  and  the  chamois. 

Deuteronomy. 

CHAMOIS,  in  zoology.     See  CAPRA. 

CHA'MOMILE,  n.  s.  xa/tat/*»jXoi>.  An  odo- 
riferous plant. 

Cool  violets,  and  orpine  growing  still, 
Embathed  balm,  and  cheerful  galingale, 

Fresh  costmary,  and  breathful  chamomile, 
Dull  poppy,  and  drink  quickening  setuale. 

Spenser. 

For  though  the  chamomile,  the  more  it  is  trodden, 
on  the  faster  it  grows  ;  yet  youth,  the  more  it  is  wasted, 
the  sooner  it  wears.  Shakspeare. 

Posset  drink  with  chamomile  flowers. 

Flayer  on  the  Humours. 

CHAMOS,  or  CHEMOSH,  the  idol  of  the 
Moabites.  The  name  comes  from  a  root  which, 
in  Arabic,  signifies  to  make  haste  ;  for  which 
reason  many  believe  Chamos  to  be  the  sun, 
whose  precipitate  course  might  well  procure  it 
the  name  of  swift  or  speedy.  Others  have  con- 
founded chamos  with  the  god  Hammon,  adored 
not  only  in  Libya  and  Egypt,  but  also  in  Arabia, 
Ethiopia,  and  the  Indies.  Macrobius  shows 
that  Hammon  was  the  sun ;  and  the  horns,  with 
which  he  was  represented,  denoted  his  rays. 
Calmet  is  of  opinion,  that  the  god  Hamonus, 
and  Apollo  Chomeus,  mentioned  by  Strabo  and 
Ammianus  Marcellinus,  was  the  very  same  as 
Chamos  or  the  sun.  These  deities  were  wor- 
shipped in  many  of  the  eastern  provinces. 
Some  who  go  upon  the  resemblance  of  the 
Hebrew  term  chamos,  to  that  of  the  Greek  KWJUOC, 
have  believed  chamos  to  signify  Bacchus  the  god 
of  drunkenness.  St.  Jerome,  and  with  him 
most  other  interpreters,  take  Chamos  and  Peor 
for  the  same  deity.  But  if  Baal-Peor  were  the 
same  as  Tammuz  or  Adonis,  Chamos  must  be 
the  god  of  the  sun. 

CHAMOUNI,  an  elevated  valley  of  the  Alp?, 
situated  at  the  foot  of  Mont  Blanc.  See  ALPS 
and  BLANC. 

CHAMP, v. a.  >      Fr.    champayer.      To   bite 

CHOMP,  v.  n.  5  with  the  frequent  action  of 
the  teeth ;  to  devour  violently  and  voraciously. 
To  perform  frequently  the  action  of  biting,  as  a 
horse  bites  the  bit ;  mashing  with  the  teeth. 

They  began  to  repent  of  that  they  had  done,  and 
irefully  to  champ  upon  the  bit  they  had  taken  into 
their  mouths.  Hooker. 


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320 


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Coffee  and  opium  are  taken  down,  tobacco  but  in 
smoke,  and  betel  is  but  champed  in  the  mouth  with  a 
little  lime.  Bacon. 

Muttering  and  champing,  as  though  his  cud  had 
troubled  him,  he  gave  occasion  to  Musidoris,  to  come 
near  him.  Sidney, 

The  fiend  reply'd  not,  overcome  with  rage  j 
But,  like  a  proud  steed  reined,  went  haughty  on, 
Champing  his  iron  curb.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

CHAMPAGNE,a  ci-devant  province  of  France, 
about  162  miles  long,  and  112  broad.  It  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Hainault  and  Luxem- 
burg, on  the  east  by  Lorraine  and  Franche 
Comte,  on  the  south  by  Burgundy,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Isle  of  France  and  Soissonnois.  Its 
principal  rivers  are  the  Meuse,  Seine,  Marne, 
Aube,  and  Aine.  Its  chief  trade  consists  in  ex- 
cellent wine,  all  sorts  of  corn,  linen  clotfi,  wool- 
len stuffs,  cattle,  and  sheep.  It  was  divided 
into  the  higher  and  lower,  and  Troyes  was  the 
capital.  Its  sub-divisions  were  Champagne 
Proper,  Rhemois,  Rethelois,  Pertois,  Vallage, 
Bassigni,  Senonois,  and  Brie  Champenoise.  It 
now  forms  the  departments  of  Ardennes,  Aube, 
Marne,  and  Upper  Marne. 

CHAMPAGNE  PROPER,  one  of  the  eight  ci- 
devant  sub-divisions  of  Champagne,  compre- 
hended the  towns  of  Troyes,  Chalons,  St.  Mene- 
hould,  Epernay,  and  Vertus. 

CHA'MPAIGN,  n.  s.  Fr.  champaigne ;  Ital. 
campagna,  from  Latin,  campus.  A  flat  open 
country. 

In  the  abuses  of  the  customs,  meseems,  you  have  a 
fair  champaign  laid  open  to  you,  in  which  you  may  at 
large  stretch  out  your  discourse. 

Spenser's  State  of  Ireland. 
Of  all  these  bounds, 

With  shadowy  forests  and  with  champaigns'  rich'd, 
We  make  thee  lady.  Shahipeare. 

From  his  side  two  rivers  flowed, 

The  one  winding,  the  other  straight,  and  left  between 
Fair  champaign,  with  less  rivers  intervened.      Milton. 

CHAMPAIN,  or  POINT  CHAMPIAN,  in  he- 
raldry, a  mark  of  dishonor  in  the  coat  of  arms 
of  him  who  kills  a  prisoner  of  war,  after  he  has 
cried  quarter. 

CHAMP  DE  MARS,  French,  i.  e.  the  field  of 
Mars,  an  extensive  field  in  Paris,  which,  in  1790, 
was  fitted  up  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre, 
capable  of  holding  nearly  a  million  of  people, 
for  the  purpose  of  celebrating  the  anniversary  of 
the  revolution,  July  14th,  1789. 

CHAMPANEER,  a  town  and  district  of 
the  province  of  Gujerat,  Hindostan,  situated 
between  the  twenty-second  and  twenty-third 
degrees  of  northern  latitude.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Godra,  on  the  east  by  the  Mahratta 
territories  of  Holkar,  on  the  south  by  the  Ner- 
budda  river,  and  on  the  west  by  Baroach ;  it  is 
subject  to  the  Mahrattas,  part  of  it  belonging  to 
Scindeah,  the  remainder  to  the  Guicowar.  This 
territory  in  1803  was  conquered  by  the  British, 
but  at  the  peace  the  forts  once  belonging  to 
Scindeah  were  restored ;  and  the  Guicowar  be- 
came one  of  our  allies. 

CHAMPANEER,  the  town,  was  formerly  the 
capital  of  Gujerat,  and  Has  a  citadel  on  the  top 
of  a  lofty  mountain.  The  great  natural  and 
artificial  strength  of  the  place,  the  ruins  of 


Hindoo  temples,  &c.  indicate  its  past  importance, 
but  the  present  houses  are  mean  huts. 

CHA'MPERTORS,  n.s.  From  champerty; 
in  law.  Such  as  move  suits,  or  cause  them  to  be 
moved,  either  by  their  own  or  others  procure- 
ment, and  pursue,  at  their  proper  costs,  to  have 
part  of  the  land  in  contest,  or  part  of  the  gains. 
— Cowell. 

CHA'MPERTY,  n.  s.  Fr.  champart ;  in  law. 
A  maintenance  of  any  man  in  his  suit,  while  de- 
pending, upon  condition  to  have  part  of  the 
thing  when  it  is  recovered.  It  is  used  in  Chaucer 
to  signify  share  of  land ;  partnership  in  power. 
— Id. 

Thus  may  ye  seen,  that  wisdom  ne  richesse, 
Beaute  ne  sleighte,  strengthe  ne  hardinesse, 
Ne  may  with  Venus  holden  champarte, 
For  as  hire  liste  the  world  may  she  gie, 

C/uiucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

CHAMPERTY,  is  a  bargain  with  the  plaintiff 
or  defendant,  campum  partire,  to  divide  the  land, 
or  other  matters  sued  for  between  them,  if  they 
prevail  at  law ;  whereupon  the  champertor  is  to 
carry  on  the  party's  suit  at  his  own  expense. 
Champert,  in  the  ci-devant  French  law,  signified 
a  similar  division  of  profits,  being  a  part  of  the 
crop  annually  due  to  the  landlord.  In  our  sense 
of  the  word,  it  signifies  the  purchasing  of  a  suit, 
or  right  of  suing;  a  practice  so  much  abhorred 
by  our  law,  that  it  is  one  main  reason  why  z 
chose  in  action,  or  thing  of  which  one  hath  the 
right  but  not  the  possession,  is  not  assignable  in 
common  law  ;  because  no  man  should  purchase 
any  pretence  to  sue  in  another's  right.  These 
pests  of  society  were  severely  animadverted  on 
by  the  Roman  law ;  and  were  punished  by  the 
forfeiture  of  a  third  part  of  their  goods  and  per 
petual  infamy.  And  it  is  enacted  by  statute  32 
Henry  VIII.  c.  9,  that  no  one  shall  sell  or  pur- 
chase any  pretended  right  or  title  to  land,  unless 
the  vender  hath  received  the  profits  thereof  for 
one  whole  year  before  such  grant,  or  hath  been 
in  actual  possession  of  the  land,  or  of  the  rever-  • 
sion  or  remainder ;  on  pain  that  both  purchaser 
and  vender  shall  each  forfeit  the  value  of  such 
land  to  the  king  and  the  prosecutor. 

CHAMP I'GNON,  n.  s.  Fr.  champignon;  a 
kind  of  mushroom. 

It  has  the  resemblance  of  a  large  champignon  before 
it  is  opened,  branching  out  into  a  large  round  knob. 

Woodward. 

CHA'MPION,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  Fr.  champion; 
Ital.  campione ;  Goth,  kiampur;  Teut.  kacmpe , 
Sax.  cempa.  A  warrior ;  one  who  undertakes 
a  cause  in  single  combat ;  a  man  bold  in  contest. 
To  champion  is  to  espouse  a  cause  ;  to  undertake 
its  defence ;  to  challenge  to  the  combat,  of 
whatever  nature  the  combat  may  be. 

There  was  ne  none  with  Gamelyn, 
That  wolde  wrestle  more, 
For  he  handled  the  champion 
So  wonderously  sore.      Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

The  champion  stout 

Eftsoones  dismounted  from  his  courser  brave, 
And  to  the  dwarfe  awhile  his  needless  spore  he  gave. 

Spenser. 
A  stouter  champion  never  handled  sword. 

Shahspeare. 


CHANCES. 


321 


The  seed  of  Banquo  kings  ! 

Tlather  than  so,  come,  Fate,  into  the  list, 

And  champion  me  to  the  utterance.          Shakspeare. 

In  many  armies  the  matter  should  be  tried  hy  duel 
between  two  champions.  Bacon. 

O  light  of  Trojans,  and  support  of  Troy, 

Thy  father's  champion,  and  thy  country's  joy  ! 

Dry  den. 

This  makes  you  incapable  of  conviction  ;    and  they 
applaud   themselves    as   zealous   champions  for  truth, 
v  hen  indeed  they  are  contending  for  errour.       Locke. 
Will  not  our  own  and  fellow-nations  sneer, 

To  view  these  champions  cheated  of  their  fame, 

By  foes  in  fight  o'erthrown,  yet  victors  here, 
Where  Scorn  her  finger  points  through  many  a  coming 
year.  Byron.      Childe  Harold. 

CHAMPION,  in  the  ancient  sense  of  the  word, 
was  a  person  who  fought  instead  of  those  that, 
by  custom,  were  obliged  to  accept  the  duel,  but 
had  a  just  excuse  for  dispensing  with  it,  as  be- 
ing too  old  or  infirm,  being  ecclesiastics,  or  the 
like.  See  BATTEL. 

CHAMPION  OF  THE  KING,  campio  regis,  an 
ancient  officer,  who,  at  the  coronation  of  our 
kings,  when  the  king  is  at  dinner,  rides  armed 
cap-a-pee,  into  Westminster  Hall,  and  makes 
proclamation  and  challenge,  in  defence  of  the 
king's  right  to  the  crown.  See  CORONATION. 

CHAMPLAIN,  a  lake  of  the  United  States 
of  North  America,  situated  between  New  York 
and  Vermont,  formerly  part  of  the  dividing  line 
between  these  states. 

CHANCE,  n.  s.,  v.  n.,  &  adj.-\      Fr.  chance  ; 

CHA'NCEFUL,  f  from   Lat.  ca- 

CHA'NCE-MEDLEY,  n.  s.  tsus,     cadentia. 

CHA'NCEABLE,  adj.  J  An  event,  ac- 

cident, hazard ;  anything  fortuitous ;  luck.  For- 
tune or  misfortune ;  whatever  is  accidental  or 
casual ;  applied  to  persons  and  kings.  The  verb 
is  used  in  all  these  senses.  Chance-medley  is  a 
term  in  law. 

Myself  would  offer  you  t'  accompany 

In  this  adventurous  chanceful  jeopardy.         Spenser, 

The  trial  thereof  was  cut  off  by  the  chanceable  com- 
ing thither  of  the  king  of  Iberia.  Sidney. 

Now  we'll  together,  and  the  chance  of  goodness 
Belike  our  warranted  quarrel!  Shakspeare. 

Think  what  a  chance  thou  chancest  on  j  but  think  ; — 
Thou  hast  thy  mistress  still.  Id. 

These  things  are  commonly  not  observed,  but  left 
to  take  their  chance.  Bacon's  Essays. 

\cJtance,  but  chance  may  lead,  where  I  may  meet 
Some  wandering  spirit  of  heaven,  by  fountain  side, 
Or  in  thick  shade  retired.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

If  such  an  one  should  have  the  ill  hap,  at  any 
time,  to  strike  a  man  dead  with  a  -smart  saying,  it 
ought,  in  all  reason  and  conscience,  to  be  judged  but 
a  chance-medley.  South. 

Chance  is  but  a  mere  name,  and  really  nothing  in 
itself  ;  a  conception  of  our  minds,  and  only  a  com- 
pendious way  of  speaking,  whereby  we  would  express, 
that  such  effects  as  are  commonly  attributed  to  chance, 
•were  verily  produced  by  their  true  and  proper  causes, 
but  without  their  design  to  produce  them.  Bentley. 
Now  should  they  part,  malicious  tongues  would  say, 
They  met  like  chance  companions  on  the  way. 

Dryden. 
All  nature  is  but  art,  unknown  to  thee ; 

All  chance  direction,  which  thou  can'st  not  see. 

Pope. 
Of  chance  or  change  0  let  not  man  complain, 

Else  shall  he  never,  never  cease  to  wail.     Beattie. 
VOL.  V. 


Suffering,  I  suffer  not — sincerely  love, 

Yet  feel  no  touch  of  that  enlivening  flame  ; 
As  chance  inclines  me,  unconcerned  I  move, 

All  times,  and  all  events,  to  me  the  same.  Cowper. 

CHANCES,  DOCTRINE  OF,  that  branch  of  ana- 
lysis which  investigates  the  probability  of  given 
events  taking  place,  from  an  examination  of  the 
circumstances  under  which  they  can  happen;  a 
science  totally  unknown  to  the  ancients. 

About  the  year  1654,  M.  Nieu,  a  friend  of 
the  celebrated  Pascal,  though  himself  unac- 
quainted with  mathematics,  proposed  to  the 
philosopher  the  following  questions.  1.  Two 
gamesters  wanting  each  a  certain  number  of 
points  in  a  game,  agree  to  desist  from  playing ; 
how  ought  the  money  to  be  divided  between  them  ? 
2.  In  how  many  throws  may  a  person  undertake 
to  throw  a  certain  number  of  points  with  two 
dice  ?  The  problems  occasioned  a  correspon- 
dence between  Pascal,  Roberval,  Fermat,  and 
other  celebrated  mathematicians  of  that  day. 
Their  ingenuity  was  exerted  in  their  solution, 
and  the  discussion  which  they  occasioned  led 
inevitably  to  the  determination  of  the  principles 
on  which  the  science  rests. 

Pascal  discovered  the  solution  of  both  these 
problems,  but  they  were  not  published  until 
after  his  death,  in  a  work  entitled  Triangle 
Arithmetique.  Huygens  answered  the  second 
of  these  problems  in  the  year  1657,  and  pub- 
lished his  solution  in  a  small  work  entitled  Ra- 
tiocinia  de  Ludo  Aleoe  ;  it  is  given  by  Schooten, 
at  the  end  of  his  work  Exercitationes  Geome- 
tricse.  Huygens  here  proposed  five  problems 
on  chances  for  solution,  as  a  sort  of  challenge 
to  mathematicians  :  the  novelty  of  the  subject 
and  the  celebrity  of  the  proposer  attracted 
great  attention;  and  many  papers  were  now 
published  on  various  branches  of  this  subject, 
in  the  transactions  of  different  learned  societies. 

An  application  of  this  theory,  of  the  greatest 
importance  and  utility,  was  soon  afterwards 
made  by  a  distinguished  philosopher.  Dr.  Hal- 
ley  investigated  the  subject  of  life-annuities 
on  the  theory  of  chances,  and  gave,  in  the 
196th  number  of  the  Philosophical  Transactions, 
a  table  of  the  probabilities  of  life  for  every  five 
years,  from  one  year  to  seventy.  The  same 
application  was  made  by  Hudde  ;  and  the  cele- 
brated Craig,  a  Scotch  mathematician,  applied 
it  to  the  estimation  of  moral  evidence. 

In  1685  James  Bernouilli  proposed,  in  the 
Journal  des  Scavans  de  France,  two  problems 
relating  to  the  doctrine  of  chances :  and,  as  they 
remained  unanswered,  he  himself  gave  their 
solution  five  years  afterwards,  in  the  Leipsic 
Acts.  He  afterwards  undertook  a  work  De  arte 
Conjectandi,  in  which  the  subject  vs  treated  more 
at  length  :  but  Bernouilli  died  before  he  com- 
pleted it.  It  was  published  in  1713,  and  was 
translated  by  the  late  baron  Maseres,  and  re- 
ceived from  him  copious  notes  and  commen- 
taries. 

Subsequently  appeared  Montmort's  Essai 
d'Analyse  sur  le  jeux  de  Hazard,  and  in  1713  a 
second  edition  of  this  work  was  published,  much 
enlarged  and  improved,  and  containing  some 
letters  which  had  passed  between  him  and  John 
and  Nicholas  Bernouilli  on  this  subject.  He 

Y 


322 


CHANCES. 


here  mentioned  two  works,  which  appeared  in 
the  interval  between  the  first  and  second  edition 
of  his  work,  the  one  a  Latin  thesis  of  N.  Ber- 
nouilli,  the  other  the  production  of  De  Moivre, 
and  entitled  De  Mensura  Sortis,  first  published 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1710. 
This  paper  contained  some  reflections  on  the 
analysis  of  Montmort,  which  elicited  a  reply 
from  the  latter  in  his  second  edition;  this  was 
answered  by  De  Moivre  in  the  preface  to  his 
Doctrine  of  Chances,  published  in  1718,  re- 
published  in  1738,  and  again  1750.  The  two 
latter  editions  of  this  work  may  be  considered 
as  containing  a  complete  exposition  of  the  sci- 
ence of  chances.  After  the  publication  of  the 
second  edition  of  De  Moivre's  work,  the  doc- 
trine of  chances  became  extremely  popular,  and 
many  works  have  since  been  published  on  the 
subject.  The  most  esteemed  of  these  are  Simp- 
son On  the  Nature  and  Laws  of  Chance,  in  1740. 
Clark's  Law  of  Chance,  1748.  In  1781  a  work 
was  published  by  the  celebrated  Condorcet,  on 
this  subject,  besides  occasional  essays  in  the 
work?  of  various  other  authors,  as  D'Alembert's 
Opuscula,  Dodson's  Mathematical  Repository, 
vol.  ii.  Price,  Philosophical  Transactions,  1762, 
Waring,  Philosophical  Transactions,  1791.  See 
also  Montucla,  Histoire  des  Mathematiques, 
torn  iii.  p.  380. 

Laws  of  Chances.  The  circumstances  and 
limitations  under  which  events  may  happen,  are 
so  various,  that  it  is  impossible  to  reduce  the 
method  of  proceeding  in  each  case  to  any  general 
method  :  in  this  then,  as  in  some  of  the  higher 
branches  of  analysis,  much  must  be  left  to  the 
judgment  of  the  analyst;  and  no  subject  re- 
quires more  his  care  and  attention. 

Def.  1.  The  probability  of  an  event  is  the 
ratio  of  the  number  of  chances  in  favor  of  its 
happening,  to  the  number  of  all  the  chances 
both  in  favor  of  its  happening  and  against  it. 


Def.  2.  The  expectation  of  an  event  is  the 
present  value  of  any  sum  or  thing  which  de- 
pends, either  on  the  happening  or  failing  of  such 
an  event. 

Def.  3.  Events  are  independent,  when  the 
happening  or  failing  of  any  one  of  them,  neither 
increases  nor  lessens  the  probability  of  the  rest. 

Def.  4.  Two  events  are  contrary,  when  one 
of  them  must,  and  both  together  cannot  happen. 

Prop.  1.  If  an  event  may  take  place  in  n  dif- 
ferent ways,  and  each  of  these  be  equally  likely 
to  happen,  the  probability  that  it  will  take  place 
in  a  specified  way,  is  properly  represented  by  J, 
certainty  being  represented  by  unity ;  or,  which 
is  the  same  thing,  if  the  value  of  certainty  be 
unity,  the  value  of  the  expectation  that  the  event 
will  happen  in  a  specified  way  is  J. 

For  the  sum  of  all  the  probabilities  is  cer- 
tainty or  unity,  because  the  event  must  happen 
in  some  one  of  the  ways,  and  the  probabilities 
are  equal,  therefore,  each  of  them  js  J.  And  if 
the  certainty  be  a,  the  value  of  the  expectation 
will  be  £• 

We  gladly  avail  ourselves  of  the  following 
illustration  of  this  interesting  subject,  from  Mr. 
W.  Upcott's  collection  of  original  letters.  It 
forms  part  of  Mr.  Secretary  Pepys'  correspon- 
dence, and  contains  the  subject  of  a  very  curious 
question  with  its  solution,  by  Sir  Isaac  (then 
Mr.)  Newton. 

A  hath  six  dice  in  a  box,  with  which  he  is 
to  fling  at  least  one  six,  for  a  wager  laid  with  R. 

B  hath  twelve  dice  in  another  box,  with 
which  he  is  to  fling  at  least  two  sixes,  for  a 
wager  laid  with  S. 

C  hath  eighteen  dice  in  another  box,  with 
which  he  is  to  fling  at  least  three  sixes,  for  a 
wager  laid  with  T. 

The  stakes  of  R,  S,  and  T,  are  equal ;  what 
ought  A,  B,  and  C,  to  stake,  that  the  parties 
may  play  upon  equal  advantage  ? 


To  compute  this,  I  set  down  the  following  progressions  of  numbers  : 

6  the  number  of  the  dice. 
15 

46656  the  number  of  all  the  chances  upon  them. 
15625  the  number  of  chances  without  sixes. 

3125 

18750  chances  for  one  six,  and  no  more. 
625 
9375  chances  for  two  sixes,  and  no  more. 


Progr. 

1. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

— 

2. 

0 

1 

3 

6 

10 

— 

3. 

6 

36 

216 

1296 

7776 

— 

4. 

5 

25 

125 

625 

3125 

— 

5. 

1 

5 

25 

125 

625 

— 

6. 

1 

10 

75 

500 

3125 

— 

7. 

1 

5 

25 

125 

— 

8. 

1 

15 

150 

1250 

The  progressions  in  this  table  are  thus  found  : 
the  first  progression,  which  expresses  the  number 
of  the  dice,  is  an  arithmetical  one  :  viz.  1,  2,  3, 
4,  5,  &c.  the  second  is  found,  by  adding  to 
every  term,  the  term  of  the  progression  above 
it,  viz.  0  +  1=1,  1+2=3,  3  +  3  =  6, 
6  +  4  =  10,  10  +  5  =  15,  &c.  the  third  pro- 
gression, which  expresses  the  number  of  all  the 
chances  upon  the  dice,  is  found  by  multiplying 
the  number  6  into  itself  continually;  and  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  seventh,  are  found  by  multi- 
plying the  number  5  into  itself  continually  ;  the 
sixth  is  found  by  multiplying  the  terms  of  the 
first  and  fifth,  viz.  1  X  1  =  1,  2  x  5  =  10, 
3  X  25  =  75,  4  x  125  =  500,  &c.  and  the 
eighth  is  found  by  multiplying  the  terms  of  the 
second  and  seventh,  viz.  1x1  —  1,  3x5  = 


15,  6  X  25  =  150,  10  X  125  =  1250,  &c. 
and  by  these  rules  the  progressions  may  be  con- 
tinued on  to  as  many  dice  as  you  please. 

Now,  since  A  plays  with  six  dice,  to  know 
what  he  and  R  ought  to  stake,  I  consult  the 
numbers  in  the  column  under  six,  and  there, 
from  46,656,  the  number  of  all  the  chances  upon 
those  dice  expressed  in  the  third  progression,  I 
subduct  15,625,  the  number  of  all  the  chances, 
without  a  six  expressed  in  the  fourth  ;  and  the 
remainder,  31,031,  is  the  number  of  all  the 
chances,  with  one  six,  or  above  :  therefore  the 
stake  of  A  must  be  to  the  stake  of  R,  upot 
equal  advantage,  as  31,031  to  15,625,  or  ?i§i  to 
1 ;  for  their  stakes  must  be  as  their  expectations, 
that  is,  as  the  number  of  chances  which  make 
for  them.  In  like  manner,  if  you  would  know 


CHA 


323 


CHA 


what  B  and  S  ought  to  stake  upon  twelve  dice, 
produce  the  progressions  to  the  column  of  twelve 
dice,  and  the  sum  of  the  numbers  in  the  fourth 
and  sixth  progressions,  viz.  244,140,625  -4- 
585,937,500  rz  830,078,125,  will  be  the  number 
of  chances  for  S ;  and  this  number,  subducted 
from  the  number  of  all  the  chances  in  the  third 
progression,  viz.  2,176,782,336,  will  leave 
1,346,704,211,  the  number  of  chances  for  B; 
therefore  the  stake  of  B  would  be  to  the  stake 
of  S,  as  1,346,704,211  to  830,078,125,  or 
"HJu^iU  to  !•  And  so,  by  producing  the  pro- 
gressions to  the  number  of  eighteen  dice,  and 
taking  the  sum  of  the  numbers  in  the  fourth, 
sixth,  and  eight  progressions,  for  the  number  of 
the  chances  for  T,  and  the  difference  between 
this  number,  and  that  in  the  third  column,  for 
the  number  of  the  chances  for  C,  you  will  have 
the  proportion  of  their  stakes  upon  equal  ad- 
vantage. And  thence  it  will  appear,  that  when 
the  stakes  of  R,  S,  and  T,  are  units  (suppose 
one  pound  or  one  guinea),  and  by  consequence 
equal,  the  stake  of  A  must  be  greater  than  that 
of  B,  and  that  of  B  greater  than  that  of  C,  and 
therefore  A  has  the  greatest  expectation.  The 
question  might  have  been  thus  stated,  and  an- 
swered in  fewer  words  :  if  Peter  is  to  have  but 
one  throw  for  a  stake  of  £1000,  and  has  his 
choice  of  throwing  either  one  six  at  least  upon 
six  dice,  or  two  at  least  upon  twelve,  or  three 
at  least  upon  eighteen,  which  throw  ought  he  to 
choose ;  and  of  what  value  is  his  chance  or  expec- 
tation upon  every  throw,  were  he  to  sell  it? 
Answer  :  upon  six  dice  there  are  46,656  chances, 
whereof  31,031  are  for  him;  upon  twelve,  there 
are  2, 176,782, 336  chances,  whereof  1,346,704,2 11 
are  for  him  :  therefore  his  chance,  or  expecta- 
tion, is  worth  the  f^th  part  of  £1000,  in  the 
first  case,  and  the  ^4(^,%th  part  of  £1000,  in 
the  second ;  that  is,  £665  Os.  2rf.  in  the  first 
case,  and  £618  13s.  4d.  in  the  second.  In  the 
third  case,  the  value  will  be  found  still  less. 

CHA'NCEL,  n.  s.  From  Lat.  cancclli,  lat- 
tices, with  which  the  chancel  was  enclosed. 
The  eastern  part  of  the  church,  in  which  the 
altar  is  placed. 

Whether  it  be  allowable  or  no,  that  the  minister 
should  say  service  in  the  chancel.  Hooker. 

The  chancel  of  this  church  is  vaulted  with  a  single 
stone,  of  four  feet  in  thickness,  and  an  hundred  and 
fourteen  in  circumference.  Addison  on  Italy. 

CHANCEL,  is  that  part  of  the  choir  of  a  church, 
between  the  altar  and  the  rail  that  incloses  it, 
tfhere  the  minister  is  placed  at  the  celebration 
rf  the  communion.  The  right  of  a  seat  and  a 
sepulchre  in  the  chancels  is  one  of  the  privileges 
of  founders. 

CHA'NCELLOR,n.s.  Lat.  cancellarius ;  Fr. 
chancelller  ;  from  cancellare  literas,  vel  scriptum 
linea  per  medium  ducta  damnare ;  and  seemeth 
of  itself  likewise  to  be  derived  ti  cancellis,  which 
signify  all  one  with  ictyicXt  Sic.,  a  lattice;  that  is, 
a  thing  made  of  wood  or  iron  bars,  laid  cross- 
ways  one  over  another,  so  that  a  man  may  see 
through  them  in  and  out.  It  may  be  thought 
that  judgment  seats  were  compassed  in  with  bars, 
to  defend  the  judges  and  other  officers  from  the 
press  of  the  multitude,  and  yet  not  to  hinder  any 
man's  view. 


Vice-chancellors  whose  knowledge  is  but  small, 
And  chancellors  who  nothing  know  at  all ; 
Ill-brooked  the  generous  spirit,  in  lLose  days, 
When  learning  was  the  certain  road  to  praise. 
When  nobles,  with  a  love  of  science  blessed, 
Approved  in  others  what  themselves  possessed. 

Churchill. 

Turn  out,  you  rogue  !  how  like  a  beast  you  lie, 
Go,  buckle  to  the  law.     Is  this  an  hour 
To  stretch  your  limbs  ?  you'll  ne'er  be  chancellor, 

Dryden,  jnn. 

Aristides  was  a  person  of  the  strictest  justice,  and 
best  acquainted  with  the  laws,  as  well  as  forms,  of 
their  government  j  so  that  he  was,  in  a  manner,  chan- 
cellor of  Athens.  Sicift. 

CHANCELLOR,  in  the  Roman  law,  was  at  first 
only  a  chief  notary  under  the  emperors  :  and  was 
called  cancellarius,  because  he  sat  behind  a 
lattice,  to  avoid  being  crowded  by  the  people : 
though  some  derive  the  word  from  cancellare,  to 
cancel.  See  CHANCERY.  This  officer  was  af- 
terwards invested  with  a  general  superinten- 
dency  over  the  rest  of  the  officers  of  the  prince. 
From  the  Roman  empire  it  passed  to  the  Ro- 
man church,  ever  emulous  of  imperial  state : 
and  hence  every  bishop  has  to  this  day  his  chan- 
cellor. See  below.  When  the  modern  king- 
doms of  Europe  were  established  upon  the  ruins 
of  the  empire,  almost  every  state  preserved  its 
chancellor,  with  different  jurisdictions  and  dig- 
nities, according  to  their  constitutions.  But  in  all 
of  them  he  seems  to  have  had  the  supervision 
of  charters,  letters,  and  such  other  public  instru- 
ments of  the  crown  as  were  authenticated  in  the 
most  solemn  manner:  and,  therefore,  when  the 
seals  came  in  use,  he  had  always  the  custody  of 
the  king's  great  seal. 

CHANCELLOR,  LORD  HIGH  OF  GREAT  BRI- 
TAIN, OR  LORD  KEEPER  OF  THE  GREAT  SEAL 
is  the  highest  honor  of  the  long  robe,  being  cre- 
ated by  the  mere  delivery  of  the  king's  great  seal 
into  his  custody ;  whereby  he  becomes,  without 
writ  or  patent,  an  officer  of  the  greatest  weight 
and  power  of  any  subsisting  in  the  kingdom. 
He  is  a  privy  counsellor  by  his  office ;  and,  ac- 
cording to  lord  chancellor  Ellesmere,  prolocutor 
of  the  house  of  lords  by  prescription.  To  him 
belongs  the  appointment  of  all  the  justices  of 
peace  throughout  the  kingdom.  Being  in  for- 
mer times  commonly  an  ecclesiastic,  for  none 
else  were  then  capable  of  an  office  so  conversant 
in  writing,  and  presiding  over  the  royal  chapel, 
he  became  keeper  of  the  king's  conscience ;  vi- 
sitor in  right  of  the  king,  of  all  hospitals  and 
colleges  of  the  king's  foundation;  and  patron 
of  all  the  king's  livings  under  £20  per  annum,  in 
the  king's  book.  He  is  the  general  guardian  ol 
all  infants,  ideots,  and  lunatics ;  and  has  the 
superintendence  of  all  charitable  institutions  in 
the  kingdom — over  and  above  the  extensive 
jurisdiction  which  he  exercises  in  his  judicia.. 
capacity  in  the  court  of  chancery.  He  takes 
precedence  of  every  temporal  lord,  except  the 
royal  family,  and  of  all  others  except  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  It  is  declared,  by  stat. 
25,  Edward  III.  treason  to  slay  the  Chancel- 
lor in  his  place,  and  doing  his  office.  In  his 
judicial  capacity,  all  the  other  officers  of  the 
court  of  chancery  are  his  assistants;  viz.  the  vice- 

Y2 


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324 


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chancellor,  the  master  of  the  rolls,  the  masters  in 
chancery,  &c. 

The  Master  of  the  Rolls  in  England  hath 
judicial  power,  and  may  sit  for  the  chancellor; 
but  he  has  certain  causes  assigned  him  to  hear 
and  decree.  By  his  office  he  is  chief  of  the 
masters  in  chancery,  and  chief  clerk  of  the  petty 
bag  office.  The  master  of  the  rolls  in  Ireland 
has  a  similar  authority. 

The  office  of  Vice  Chancellor  was  created  by 
stat.  53,  George  III.  c.  24,  by  which  the  crown 
is  empowered  to  appoint  by  letters  patent,  some 
barrister  of  fifteen  years  standing,  to  be  an  ad- 
ditional judge  and  assistant  to  the  lord  chan- 
cellor, lord  keeper,  or  lords  commissioners  of 
the  great  seal  of  the  united  kingdom,  in  the  dis- 
charge of  their  respective  offices,  to  be  called 
Vice  Chancellor  of  England,  to  hold  such  office 
during  his  good  behaviour.  He  is  empowered 
to  hear  and  determine  all  causes  depending  in 
the  court  of  chancery  in  England,  either  as  a 
court  of  law  or  equity,  or  incident  to  any  mi- 
nisterial office  of  the  said  court,  or  submitted  to 
such  court  or  to  the  lord  chancellor,  &c.  by  any 
act  of  parliament,  as  the  chancellor,  &c.  shall 
direct ;  and  all  decrees,  orders,  &c.  made  by  the 
vice-chancellor  shall  be  valid,  as  acts  of  the 
court,  but  subject  to  be  reversed  or  altered  by 
the  lord  chancellor,  &c.  and  no  such  decree,  &c. 
shall  be  enrolled  till  signed  by  the  chancellor, 
&c.  It  is  expressly  provided  that  the  vice- 
chancellor  shall  not  have  power  to  reverse  or 
alter  any  decree,  &c.  made  by  the  chancellor, 
&c.  unless  authorised  by  the  chancellor,  &c.  so 
to  do ;  nor  to  reverse  any  decree  or  order  of  the 
master  of  the  rolls.  He  shall  sit  for  the  chan- 
cellor, &c.  when  required,  and  while  the  chan- 
cellor is  also  sitting,  and  have  a  separate  court, 
and  shall  rank  next  to  the  master  of  the  rolls, 
and  have  a  secretary,  train-bearer,  usher,  &c. 
He  may  be  removed  by  address  of  both  houses. 
His  salary  is  £5000  per  annum,  to  be  paid  out  of 
the  interest  of  unclaimed  suitors'  money.  This 
office,  although  it  has  been  ably  discharged,  yet, 
in  allowing  an  appeal  to  the  chancellor,  it  has 
but  little  relieved  the  delays  of  the  court. 

The  twelve  Masters  in  Chancery,  the  six 
clerks,  the  cursitors,  register,  master  of  the  sub- 
poena office,  &c.  are  other  officers  of  the  chan- 
cellor's court,  whose  duties  we  need  not  parti- 
cularise. 

There  is  also  a  lord  high  chancellor  of 
Ireland ;  but  the  lord  chancellor  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, holds  the  great  seal  of  the  united  kingdom. 
See  53  George  III.  c.  24.  The  former  office  of 
the  lord  chancellor  of  Scotland  is  now  filled  by 
a  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  with  a  salary  of 
£3000  a-year. 

The  CHANCELLOR  OF  AN  UNIVERSITY  seals 
the  diplomas,  or  letters  of  degrees,  provision, 
&c.  given  in  the  university,  either  personally  or 
by  his  vice-chancellor.  He  also  holds  what  is 
called  the  chancellor's  court.  See  CAMBRIDGE 
and  OXFORD. 

CHANCELLOR  OF  A  DIOCESE;  or,  of  a  bishop, 
a  person  appointed  to  hold  the  bishop's  courts, 
and  to  assist  him  in  matters  of  ecclesiastical  law. 
This  officer,  as  well  "as  all  other  ecclesiastical 


ones,  if  lay  or  married,  must  be  a  doctor  of  the 
civil  law  in  some  university. 

CHANCELLOR  OF  THE  DUCHY  of  LANCASTER, 
is  an  officer  before  whom,  or  his  deputy,  the 
court  of  the  duchy  chamber  of  Lancaster  is 
held  ;  being  a  special  jurisdiction  concerning  all 
manner  of  equity  relating  to  lands  holden  of  the 
king  in  right  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster.  See 
LANCASTER,  DUCHY  OF. 

CHANCELLOR  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER,  is  a  great 
officer  of  the  crown,  who,  it  is  thought,  was 
originally  appointed  for  the  qualifying  extre- 
mities in  the  Exchequer :  he  sometimes  sits  in 
court,  and  in  the  Exchequer  Chamber:  and, 
with  the  judges  of  the  court,  orders  things  to 
the  king's  best  benefit.  He  is  mentioned  in 
statute  25,  H.  8.  c.  16  ;  and  has  by  the  statute 
33  H.  c.  39,  power  with  others,  to  compound  for 
the  forfeitures  upon  penal  statutes,  bonds  and 
recognisances,  entered  into  to  the  king  :  he  has 
also  great  authority  in  the  management  of  the 
royal  revenue,  &c.  which  seems  of  late  to  be  his 
chief  business,  being  commonly  the  first  com- 
missioner of  the  treasury. 

CHANCELLOR  (Richard),  a  brave  English 
navigator,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was 
appointed  commander  of  one  of  the  vessels  sent 
out  under  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby,  to  discover 
a  north-west  passage  to  China,  in  1553.  Sebas- 
tian Cabot,  who  projected  this  voyage,  and  who 
was  then  in  great  favor  with  Edward  VI.  ob- 
tained letters  of  recommendation,  in  Latin, 
Greek,  and  other  languages,  to  the  sovereigns  in 
the  north-east  parts  of  the  world;  but  Sir  Hugh 
Willoughby  was  parted  from  his  company,  and 
perished  on  the  coast  of  Lapland,  where  he  had 
stopped  to  winter.  Captain  Chancellor  vras, 
however,  more  fortunate,  and  having  discovered 
Russia,  was  introduced  to  the  grand  duke,  John 
Basilovitz,  by  whom  he  was  graciously  received, 
and  obtained  permission  for  the  English  to  trade 
in  his  dominions.  When  he  returned  to  En- 
gland king  Edward  was  dead,  but  queen  Mary 
was  not  insensible  of  the  advantages  held  out 
by  the  discovery  of  enlarging  the  national  com- 
merce, and  a  company  of  adventurers  was  in- 
corporated, who  sent  captain  Chancellor  again 
to  Russia.  He  was  returning  to  England,  ac- 
companied by  a  Russian  ambassador  and  suite, 
but  was  unfortunately  wrecked  on  the  coast  of 
Norway,  where  he  perished,  after  exerting  him- 
self in  the  bravest  manner  to  save  the  Russians, 
who  arrived  in  London  in  1557. 

CHANCELLORSHIP,  n.s.  The  office  of  chan- 
cellor. 

The  Sunday  after  More  gave  up  his  chancellorihip 
of  England,  he  came  himself  to  his  wife's  pew,  and 
used  the  usual  words  of  his  gentleman-usher,  Madam, 
my  lord  is  gone.  Camden. 

CHANCE-MEDLEY,  in  law,  is  defined  a  case 
where  one  is  doing  a  lawful  act,  and  a  person  ii 
killed  by  chance  thereby ;  for  if  the  act  be  un 
lawful,  it  is  felony.  If  a  person  cast,  not  in- 
tending harm,  a  stone,  which  happens  to  hit  one 
whereof  he  dies ;  or  shoots  an  arrow  in  an  high- 
way, and  another  that  passeth  by  is  killed  there- 
with; or  if  a  workman,  in  throwing  down  rub- 
bish from  a  house  after  warning  to  take  care, 


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325 


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Kills  a  person  ;  or  a  schoolmaster  in  correcting 
his  scholar,  a  master  his  servant,  or  an  officer  in 
whipping  a  criminal  in  a  reasonable  manner, 
happens  to  occasion  his  death ;  it  is  chance- 
medley  and  misadventure.  If  a  man  whips  his 
horse  in  a  street  to  make  him  gallop,  and  the 
horse  runs  over  a  child  and  kills  it,  it  is  man- 
slaughter ;  but  if  another  whips  the  horse,  it  is 
manslaughter  in  him,  and  chance-medley  in  the 
rider. 

CHA'NCERY,  n.  s.  From  chancellor;  proba- 
bly chancellery,  then  shortened.  The  court  of 
equity  and  conscience,  moderating  the  rigor  of 
other  courts,  that  are  tied  to  the  letter  of  the 
law  ;  whereof  the  lord  chancellor  of  England  is 
the  chief  judge,  or  the  lord  keeper  of  the  great 
seal. 

The  contumacy  and  contempt  of  the  party  must  be 
signified  in  the  court  of  chancery,  by  the  bishop's  let- 
ters under  the  seal  episcopal.  Ayliffe's  Parergon. 

CHANCERY,  as  an  extraordinary  court,  pro- 
ceeds by  the  rules  of  equity  and  conscience ; 
and  moderates  the  rigor  of  the  common  law, 
considering  the  intention  rather  than  the  words 
of  the  law.  It  gives  relief  for  and  against  in- 
fants, notwithstanding  their  minority,  and  for  and 
against  married  women,  notwithstanding  their 
coverture.  All  frauds  and  deceits  for  which  there 
is  no  redress  at  common  law ;  all  breaches  of  trust 
and  confidence  ;  and  accidents,  as  to  relieve  ob- 
ligors, mortgagers,  &c.  against  penalties  and 
forfeitures,  where  the  intent  was  to  pay  the  debt, 
are  here  remedied  :  for  in  chancery,  a  forfeiture 
&c.  shall  not  bind,  where  a  thing  may  be  done 
after  or  compensation  made  for  it.  Also  this 
court  gives  relief  against  the  extremity  of  un- 
reasonable engagements  entered  into  without 
consideration  ;  obliges  creditors  that  are  unrea- 
sonable to  compound  with  an  unfortunate  debtor; 
and  makes  executors,  &c.  give  security  and  pay 
interest  for  money  that  is  to  lie  long  in  their 
hands.  This  court  may  confirm  title  to  lands, 
though  one  hath  through  mistake  lost  his  wri- 
tings ;  and  render  conveyances,  defective  through 
mistake,  &c.  good  and"  perfect.  In  chancery, 
copy  holders  may  be  relieved  against  the  ill- 
usage  of  their  lords ;  enclosures  of  lands  that 
are  common  be  decreed ;  and  this  court  may 
decree  money  or  lands  given  to  charitable  uses, 
oblige  men  to  account  with  each  other.  &c.  But 
in  all  cases  where  the  plaintiff  can  have  his  re- 
medy in  law,  he  ought  not  to  be  relieved  in  chan- 
cery ;  and  a  thing  which  may  be  tried  by  a  jury 
is  not  triable  in  this  court. 

CHANCERY,  as  an  ordinary  legal  court,  holds 
pleas  of  recognizances  acknowledged  in  the 
chancery,  writs  of  scire  facias,  for  repeal  of 
letters  patent,  writs  of  partition,  &c.  and  also  of 
all  personal  actions  by  or  against  any  officer  of 
the  court.  Sometimes  a  supersedeas,  or  writ  of 
privilege,  has  been  granted  to  discharge  a  person 
out  of  prison  ;  hence  may  be  had  a  habeas  cor- 
pus prohibition,  &c.  in  the  vacation ;  and  here 
a  subpoena  may  be  had  to  force  witnesses  to  ap- 
pear in  other  courts,  when  they  have  no  power 
to  call  them.  But,  in  prosecuting  causes,  if  the 
parties  descend  to  issue,  this  court  cannot  try  it 
by  jury  ;  but  the  lord  chancellor  delivers  the  re- 
cord into  the  King's  Bench  to  be  tried  there; 


and  after  trial  it  is  to  be  remanded  into  the  chan- 
cery, and  there  judgment  given  :  though  if  there 
be  a  demurrer  in  law,  it  shall  be  argued  in  this 
court.  In  this  court  is  also  kept  the  officina 
justitiae  ;  out  of  which  all  original  writs  that  pass 
under  the  great  seal,  all  commissions  of  charitable 
uses,  sewers,  bankruptcy,  idiocy,  lunacy,  and 
the  like,  do  issue ;  and  for  which  it  is  always 
open  to  the  subject,  who  may  there  at  any  time 
demand  and  have,  ex  debito  justitise,  any  writ 
that  his  occasions  may  call  for.  These  writs, 
relating  to  the  business  of  the  subject,  and  the 
returns  of  them,  were,  according  to  the  sim- 
plicity of  ancient  times,  originally  kept  in 
hanaperia,  in  a  hamper,  and  the  others  (relating 
to  such  matters  wherein  the  crown  is  mediately  or 
immediately  concerned)  were  preserved  in  a  little 
sack  or  bag,  in  parva  bagga :  and  hence  arose 
the  distinction  of  the  hanaper  office,  and  the 
petty-bag  office,  which  both  belong  to  the  com- 
mon law  court  in  chancery. 

The  proceedings  in  chancery,  are,  first  to 
file  the  bill  of  complaint,  signed  by  some  counsel 
setting  forth  the  fraud  or  injury  done,  or  wrong 
sustained,  and  praying  relief:  after  which  pro- 
cess of  subpoena  issues,  to  compel  the  defendant 
to  appear ;  when  he  puts  in  his  answer  to  the 
bill  of  complaint,  if  there  be  no  cause  for  the 
plea  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  in  dis- 
ability of  the  person,  or  in  bar,  &c.  Then  the 
plaintiff  brings  his  replication,  unless  he  files 
exceptions  against  the  answer  as  insufficient,  re- 
ferring it  to  a  master  to  report  whether  it  be 
sufficient  or  not ;  to  which  report  exceptions 
may  also  be  made.  Suits  being  sometimes  im- 
perfect in  their  frame,  or  becoming  so  by  accident 
before  their  end  has  been  obtained ;  or  the 
interests  in  the  property  in  litigation  being  often 
changed,  pending  the  suit ;  to  supply  the  defects 
arising  from  any  such  circumstances,  new  suits 
may  become  necessary,  to  add  to,  or  continue, 
or  obtain  the  benefit  of,  the  original  suit.  A 
litigation  commenced  by  one  party,  sometimes 
renders  necessary  a  litigation  by  another  party, 
to  operate  as  a  defence,  or  to  obtain  a  full  deci- 
sion on  the  rights  of  all  parties.  Bills  filed  for 
this  purpose  are  termed  cross  bills.  Where  the 
court  has  given  judgment  on  a  suit,  it  will  in 
some  cases  permit  that  judgment  to  be  contro- 
verted, suspended,  or  avoided  by  a  second  suit; 
and  sometimes  a  second  suit  becomes  necessary 
to  carry  into  execution  a  judgment  of  the  court. 
Suits  instituted  for  any  of  these  purposes  are 
also  commenced  by  bill ;  and  hence  arises  a 
variety  of  distinctions  of  the  kinds  of  bills 
necessary  to  answer  the  several  purposes;  as 
bills  of  review  which  among  other  causes  may 
be  brought,  where  new  matter  is  discovered,  in 
time,  after  the  decree  made,  bills  of  revivor,  &c. 
and  on  all  the  different  kinds  of  bills  there  may 
be  the  same  pleadings  as  on  a  bill  used  for  in- 
stituting an  original  suit.  It  frequently  hap- 
pens, that  pending  a  suit,  the  parties  discover 
some  error  or  defect  in  some  of  the  pleadings ; 
and  if  this  can  be  rectified  by  amendment  of 
the  pleadings,  the  court  will  in  many  cases  per- 
mit it.  The  indulgence  is  most  extensive  in  the 
case  of  bills  :  which  being  often  framed  upon 
an  inaccurate  state  of  the  case,  it  was  formerly 


326 


CHANDLERY. 


the  practice  to  supply  their  deficiences,  and 
avoid  the  consequences  of  errors  by  special  re- 
applications  :  but  this  tending  to  long  and  in- 
tricate pleading,  special  replication,  requiring  a 
rejoinder  in  which  the  defendant  might  in  like 
manner  supply  defects  in  his  answer,  and  to 
which  the  plaintiff  might  sur-rejoin,  the  special 
replication  is  now  disused  for  this  purpose  :  and 
the  court  will  in  general  permit  a  plaintiff  to 
rectify  any  error  or  supply  any  defect  in  his  bill, 
either  by  amendment  or  by  a  supplemental  bill, 
and  will  also  permit,  in  some  cases,  a  defendant 
in  like  manner  to  complete  his  answer,  either  by 
amendment  or  by  a  further  answer.  The  answer, 
replication,  rejoinder,  &c.  being  settled,  and  the 
parties  come  to  issue,  witnesses  on  both  sides 
are  examined  upon  interrogatories,  either  in 
court  or  by  commission  in  the  country,  wherein 
the  parties  usually  join.  Publication  is  then 
made  of  the  depositions,  and  the  cause  is  set 
down  for  hearing ;  after  which  follows  the  de- 
cree. But  an  appeal  lies  finally  to  the  house  of 
lords. 

CHA'NCRE,  n.  s.  5     Fr.  chancre  ;  Ital.  can- 

CHA'NCROUS,  adj.  $chero  ;  Lat.  cancer.  A 
malignant  ulcer,  usually  arising  from  venereal 
maladies. 

This  small  bcil  or  pimple  soon  bursts  and  leaves  a 
sore  of  a  corresponding  size,  foul  and  sloughy  at  the 
bottom,  -with  hard  retorted  edges,  and  which,  from  the 
corroding  appearance  which  it  assumes,  has  by  the 
French  been  denominated  chancre,  a  term  which  we 
have  also  adopted.  Bell  on  Lues  Venerea. 

It  is  possible  he  was  not  well  cured,  and  would 
have  relapsed  with  a  chancre.  Wiseman. 

You  may  think  I  am  too  strict  in  giving  so  many 
internals  in  the  cure  of  so  small  an  ulcer  as  a  chancre, 
or  rather  chancrous  callus.  Id, 

CHANDE'LIER,  n.  s.  Fr.  chandelier.  A 
branch  for  candles. 

CHANDELIER,  in  fortification,  a  kind  of 
moveable  parapet,  consisting  of  a  wooden  frame, 
made  of  two  upright  stakes,  about  six  feet  high, 
with  cross  planks  between  them  ;  serving  to  sup- 
port facines  to  cover  the  pioneers. 

CHANDERNAGORE,  a  town  of  Hindostan 
Proper,  in  Bengal,  on  the  Hoogly,  twenty-one 
leagues  above  Calcutta.  It  is  a  league  in  cir- 
cumference, and  is  exposed  on  the  western  side; 
but  its  harbour  is  excellent,  and  the  air  is  as 
pure  as  it  can  be  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges. 
It  was  originally  a  French  settlement,  and  had 
a  very  strong  fort,  which  was  taken  and  de- 
stroyed by  admiral  Watson  in  1757. 

CHA'NDLER,n.  s.  Fr.  chandelier.  An  artisan 
whose  trade  is  to  make  candles,  or  a  person  who 
sells  them.  A  chandler's  shop,  howevef,  is  a 
place  for  almost  every  species  of  pedling  mer- 
chandise. 

The  sack  that  thou  hast  drunken  me,  would  have 
bought  me  lights  as  good  cheap  at  the  dearest  chan. 
Jlert  in  Europe.  Shakspeare. 

But  whether  black  or  lighter  dyes  are  •worn, 

The  chandler'*  basket  on  his  shoulder  borne, 

With  tallow  spots  thy  coat.  Gay. 

CHANDLER  (Edward),  bishop  of  Durham,  was 
educated  at  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge.  In 
1693  he  became  chaplain  to  Dr.  Lloyd,  bishop 
of  Litchfield  and  Coventry ;  and  in  1717  he  was 


made  bishop  of  the  same  diocese.  In  1730  he 
was  translated  to  Durham,  and  died  in  1750,  aged 
about  eighty.  He  was  a  man  of  considerable 
learning,  and,  besides  publishing  various  single 
sermons,  distinguished  himself  by  his  Defence 
of  Christianity,  from  the  prophecies  of  the  Old 
Testament,  wherein  are  considered  all  the  ob- 
jections against  this  kind  of  proof,  advanced  in 
a  late  Discourse  of  the  Grounds  and  Reasons  of 
the  Christian  Religion,  which  has  gone  through 
three  editions.  He  also  wrote  a  Chronological 
Dissertation  prefixed  to  Arnold's  Commentary 
on  Ecclesiasticus ;  and  a  curious  biographical 
Preface  to  Dr.  Cudworth's  Treatise  on  Morality. 

CHANDLER  (Samuel),  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  and 
F.S.A.,  a  respectable  dissenting  minister,  chosen, 
in  171 6,  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  congregation 
at  Peckham,  where  he  continued  some  years. 
Here  he  married,  and  began  to  have  a  consider- 
able family,  when,  by  the  fatal  South-sea  scheme 
of  1720,  he  lost  the  whole  fortune  he  had  re- 
ceived with  his  wife.  He  engaged  in  the  trade 
of  a  bookseller ;  and  officiated  as  joint  preacher 
with  the  learned  Dr.  Lardner,  at  the  meeting- 
house in  Old  Jewry,  London  :  in  which  he  after- 
wards succeeded  as  sole  pastor.  On  the  death 
of  George  II.  in  1760,  Dr.  Chandler  published  a 
sermon  on  that  event,  in  which  he  compared  that 
prince  to  king  David.  This  gave  rise  to  a 
pamphlet,  entitled,  The  History  of  the  Man 
after  God's  own  Heart;  wherein  the  character 
of  David  was  grossly  vilified.  Dr.  Chandler, 
therefore,  published,  in  1762,  A  Review  of  the 
History  of  the  Man  after  God's  own  Heart ;  and 
subsequently  a  A  Critical  History  of  the  Life  of 
David,  2  vols.  8vo.  He  died  May  8th,  1766, 
aged  seventy-three.  In  1768  four  volumes  of  his 
sermons  were  published  by  Dr.  Amory ;  and  in 
1777  was  published  in  4to,  his  Paraphrase  and 
Notes  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Galatians 
and  Ephesians,  with  a  Critical  and  Practical  Com- 
mentary on  the  two  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the 
Thessalonians.  Dr.  Chandler  also  wrote,  A 
Vindication  of  the  Christian  Religion ;  Reflec- 
tions on  the  conduct  of  the  Modern  Deists,  in 
their  late  writings  against  Christianity;  A  Vin- 
dication of  the  Antiquity  and  Authority  of 
Daniel's  Prophecies,  and  their  Application  to 
Jesus  Christ ;  and  The  History  of  Persecution. 

CHANDLERY,  the  art  and  trade  of  making 
and  selling  candles.  Generally,  the  manufacture 
and  selling  of  sealing  wax  and  wafers  are  united 
with  it  in  London  and  other  large  towns ;  and  a 
variety  of  other  trades  in  the  country.  Our 
present  object  is  not  to  attempt  to  enlighten  the 
worthy  tradesman  in  his  various  pursuits,  but 
only  to  exhibit  the  best  modes  of  manufacturing 
the  first  of  these  articles,  candles. 

These  have  been  made  of  various  materials. 
The  Roman  candles  were  first  composed  of 
strings  surrounded  with  wax,  or  dipped  in  pitch, 
then  of  papyrus  covered  with  wax ;  and  some- 
times of  the  pith  of  rushes,  and  wax  or  tallow. 
Wax  candles  were  at  this  early  period  preferred 
on  occasions  of  ceremony  and  for  religious 
offices,  and  tallow  for  common  use.  Lord  Bacon 
(Nat.  Hist.  cent.  iv.  and  viii.)  proposes  various 
improvements  in  the  composition  of  candles,  the 
materials  to  be  used  for  their  wicks  &c. ;  and 


CHANDLERY. 


327 


in  modern  times  different  resins,  gums,  and  sa- 
<ine  substances,  have  been  mixed  with  or  substi- 
tuted for  tallow,  to  produce  a  more  durable 
candle,  and  one  that  should  combine  with  this 
quality  a  steadier  and  brighter  flame.  See  Ni- 
cholson's Journal,  v.  1.  The  Chinese,  at  Can- 
ton, use  a  kind  of  candle,  half  an  inch  in  diameter, 


operation  is  denominated '  pulling  the  cotton,'  by 
which  the  threads  are  laid  smooth,  all  knots  and 
unevennesses  removed,  and,  in  short,  the  cotton  is 
rendered  fit  for  use.  It  is  now  spread,  that  is, 
placed  at  equal  distances,  on  rods  about  half  an 
inch  in  diameter  and  three  feet  long ;  these  are 
called  '  broaches.'  When  this  dressing,  as  it  is 


which  they  call  '  lobchock.'     The  wick  is  made    called,  is  not  sufficient  to  keep  the  wicks  sepa- 
of  cotton,  and  is  wrapped  round  a  small  stick  or    rate  from  each  other  on  the  dipping  sticks,  a 

body 


match  of  the  bamboo  cane :  the  body  of  the 
candle  is  of  white  tallow,  coated  to  about  the 
one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  thick,  with  a  red  waxy 


number  of  them  are  dipped  in  melted  tallow, 
and  being  rubbed  between  the  palms  of  the 
hands,  the  tallow  which  adheres  to  them  cools, 


matter.     This  ingenious  people  obtain   most  of    and  the  wick  assumes  a  consistency. 

their  tallow  from  the  vegetable  fat  of  the  croton        2.  Of  rendering  and  preparing  the  tallow. — The 

sebiferum  or  tallow-tree.     Generally  their  can-    fat  of  the  sheep  and  the  ox  furnished  by  butchers, 


dies  are  firmer  than  those  made  of  animal  tallow, 
and  free  from  all  offensive  odor ;  but  they  are 
not  equal  to  those  of  wax,  or  spermaceti.  In- 
ferior candles  are  also  made  of  grease  of  too 


by  large  and  small  tallow  merchants,  and  waste- 
ful or  dishonest  servants,  is  chiefly  employed  in 
this  manufacture.  For  moulded  candles,  sheep- 
tallow,  is  used  with  a  certain  proportion  of  the 


little  consistence  to  be  used,  and  sometimes  of    best  kind  of   ox-tallow ;  that  which  is  yielded 


animal  fat,  without  the  contrivance  of  being 
coated  with  the  firmer  substance  of  the  tallow- 
tree  or  wax.  Their  wicks  are  of  different  ma- 
terials. Most  commonly  they  use  a  light  inflam- 
mable wood,  in  the  lower  extremity  of  which  is 
pierced  a  small  tube  to  receive  an  iron  pin,  which 
is  fixed  on  the  flat  top  of  the  candlestick,  and 
thus  supports  the  candle  without  the  necessity 
of  a  socket.  The  candle-makers  at  Munich  have 
for  some  years  prepared  tallow  candles  with 
wooden  wicks.  But  in  this  country,  and  as  a 
manufacture  of  some  importance,  a  candle  has 
been  defined,  a  cotton  or  linen  wick,  loosely 
twisted,  and  covered  with  tallow,  wax,  or  sper- 
maceti, in  a  cylindrical  figure;  which,  being 
lighted  at  the  end,  serves  to  illuminate  a  place  in 
the  absence  of  the  sun.  Cotton  is  therefore  to 
be  considered  the  staple  wick,  and  tallow  or  wax 
as  composing  generally  the  body  of  the  candle. 

Tallow  candles  are  again  of  two  sorts;  the 
dipped  and  the  moulded  :  called  technically  dips 
and  moulds ;  the  latter  are  said  to  have  been  first 
invented  by  a  M.  Brez,  of  Paris,  and  are  a 
modern  improvement.  Except  with  regard  to 
melting  the  tallow  and  preparing  the  wick,  the 
manufacture  of  these  two  kinds  is  very  different. 


by  sheep-fat  being  brighter  and  of  firmer  tex- 
ture than  ox-tallow,  which  is  employed  with 
inferior  pieces  of  sheep-tallow  for  dips. 

The  tallow  being  sorted,  is  prepared  by  chop- 
ping the  fat,  arid  then  boiling  it  for  some  time  in 
a  large  copper,  technically  called  rendering  it ; 
and  when  the  tallow  is  extracted  by  the  process 
of  fire,  the  remainder  is  subjected  to  the  opera- 
tion of  a  strong  iron  press,  and  the  cake  that 
is  left  after  the  tallow  is  expressed  from  it  is 
called  greaves,  or  the  crackling :  with  this  dogs 
are  fed,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  ducks  that 
supply  the  London  markets.  The  liquid  tallow 
is  now  drained  through  an  iron  sieve  into  an- 
other vessel,  that  all  its  fibrous  or  solid  parts 
may  be  separated.  A  farther  purification  being 
still  necessary, .  the  tallow  is  put  into  another 
vessel  with  a  portion  of  water,  which  is  found 
to  carry  with  it  to  the  bottom  many  soluble 
impurities  remaining  in  the  tallow.  After  this 
process  the  tallow  is  deposited  or  stowed  away 
in  tubs  for  future  use :  some  superior  makers 
always  preferring  to  mix  tallow  after  a  twelve- 
month's age  with  that  which  is  newly  rendered . 

3.  Of  the  operation  of  Dipping. — The  liquid 
tallow  when  drawn  from  the  tubs  is  conveyed 


1.  Of  the  cotton  and  tlie  preparation  of  the    into  a  vessel  called  the  mould,  sink,  or  abyss,  of 


wick. — The  best  cotton   for   candle-wicks,    and 
that  which  is  said  to  be  generally  used  for  mould 


an  angular  form  like  a  prism,  except  that  it  is 
not  equilateral,  the  side  on  which  it  opens  being 


candles,  comes  from  Turkey,  and  other  parts  of    seldom  above  ten  inches  high,  and  the  others, 


the  Levant,  packed  in  bales,  and  has  often  been 
the  source  of  alarm,  as  likely  to  communicate  the 
plague  or  other  infectious  disorders  :  that  used 
for  common  candles  is  said  to  be  brought  from 


which  make  its  depth,  fifteen.  Ou  the  angle 
formed  by  its  greater  sides,  it  is  supported  by 
two  feet,  and  placed  on  a  kind  of  bench,  in  form 
of  a  trough,  to  catch  the  droppings  of  the  candles 


Smyrna  in  the  wool,  which  grows  on  trees  in  a    as  taken  out.     The  workman  is  seated  so  as  con- 


nut-shape,  the  shell  enclosing  the  cotton. 

The  chandler  employs  women  to  wind  the 
cotton  into  large  balls  ;  he  then  takes  five,  six, 
or  eight  of  these  balls,  and  drawing  out  the 
threads  from  each,  cuts  them  into  proper  lengths, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  candles  wanted. 
The  machine  for  cutting  the  cotton  is  a  smooth 
board,  made  to  be  fixed  on  the  knees ;  on  the 
upper  surface  are  the  blade  of  a  razor  and  a 
round  piece  of  cane,  placed  at  a  certain  distance 
from  one  another,  according  to  the  length  of  the 
cotton  wanted  :  the  cotton  is  carried  round  the 


veniently  to  reach  over  this  vessel :  and  he  takes 
three  sticks,  or  broaches,  at  a  time,  strung  with 
the  proper  number  of  wicks,  viz.  sixteeen,  if  the 
candles  are  to  be  of  eight  in  the  pound  ;  twelve, 
if  of  six  in  the  pound,  &c. ;  and  holding  them 
equidistant,  by  means  of  the  second  and  third 
finger  of  each  hand,  which  he  puts  between 
them,  he  plunges  the  wicks  two  or  three  times 
for  their  first  lay,  and  and  holding  them  some 
time  over  the  vessel,  to  let  them  drain,  hangs 
them  on  a  rack,  or  irame,  where  they  continue 
to  grow  hard  and  cold.  When  cooled,  they  are 


cane,  and,  being  brought  to  the  razor,  is  instantly    dipped  a  second  time,  then  a  third,  as  before  ; 
separated   from   the    several   balls.     The   next    only  for  the  third  lay  they  are  immersed  but 


328 


CHANDLERY. 


twice,  in  all  the  rest  thrice.  The  operation  is 
repeated  more  or  less  times,  according  to  the  in- 
tended thickness  of  the  candles.  With  the  last 
dip  they  neck  them,  as  it  is  called,  i.  e.  plunge 
them  below  that  part  of  the  wick  where  the 
other  lays  ended.  The  vat  is  supplied  from 
time  to  time  during  the  operation  with  fresh 
tallow,  which  is  kept  to  the  proper  heat  by 
means  of  a  gentle  fire.  Such  is  the  old  mode  of 
dipping,  and  that  still  practised  largely  in  the 
country.  A  modern  invention  has  diminished 
much  of  the  labor  of  the  tallow-chandler,  in  the 
mode  of  dipping  candles.  The  wicks  are  pre- 
pared as  has  been  described,  and  spread  on  the 
broaches,  and  when  five  or  six  of  these  broaches 
are  filled  with  cotton,  they  are,  at  both  ends, 
fixed  into  two  small  pieces  of  box-wood,  so  as  to 
nnite,  as  it  were,  the  several  broaches  into  one 
moveable  frame,  full  of  wicks.  This  frame  is 
suspended  on  one  end  of  a  lever  over  the  vat, 
while  the  other  is  balanced  with  weights  in  a 
scale,  which  can  be  increased  or  diminished  at 
pleasure.  The  workman  has,  therefore,  only  to 
guide  this  simple  machine  down  and  up.  This 
apparatus  has  been  further  improved  in  some 
manufactories  by  the  use  of  a  horizontal  wheel 
and  an  upright  shaft,  with  twelve  arms  placed 
horizontally  and  at  equal  distances.  A  frame 
lupporting  six  or  more  rods,  having  each,  say, 
eighteen  wicks,  is  suspended  from  the  extremity 
of  each  arm ;  and  the  frames  as  they  come  suc- 
cessively over  the  dipping  mould,  are  plunged 
downward  in  the  tallow.  One  advantage  thus 
obtained  is,  that,  as  the  wheel  moves  round  the 
drippings  cool  regularly,  and  return  in  a  fixed 
time  to  the  workmen.  In  all  these  methods  it  is 
usual  for  the  maker  to  be  continually  checking 
the  additional  weights  of  his  candles,  by  transfer- 
ring the  broaches  for  a  moment  to  a  pair  of  scales 
within  reach. 

4.  For  making  Mould  Candles — The  mould 
in  which  moulded  candles,  or  moulds,  as  they 
are  termed,  are  cast,  consists  of  a  frame  of  wood, 
furnished  with  hollow  metal  cylinders,  generally 
of  pewter,  of  the  diameter  and  length  of  the 
candle  wanted.  At  the  extremity  of  these  is  the 
neck,  which  is  a  little  cavity  in  the  form  of  a 
dome,  having  a  moulding  withinside,  and  pierced 
in  the  middle  with  a  hole  big  enough  for  the 
totton  to  pass  through.  The  cotton  is  introduced 
into  the  shaft  of  the  mould  by  a  piece  of  wire 
being  thrust  through  the  aperture  of  the  hook  till 
it  comes  out  of  the  neck  ;  the  other  end  of  the 
cotton  is  so  fastened  as  to  keep  it  in  a  perpendi- 
cular situation,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  candle  ; 
the  moulds  are  then  filled  with  warm  tallow, 
and  left  to  be  very  cold  before  they  can  be  drawn 
out  of  the  pipes.  The  following  diagram  will 
need  no  further  explanation : 


Iff] 


Some  chandlers  bleach  their  best  candles  by 
hanging  them  out  on  rods  or  broaches,  to  the 
dew,  and  earliest  rays  of  the  sun,  for  eight  or  ten 
days  :  care  being  taken  to  screen  them  from  the 
too  intense  heat  of  the  sun,  and  from  rain. 

The  humble  rush-light,  so  relieving  to  the  bed 
of  sickness,  must  not  be  forgotten  as  another 
labor  of  the  chandler.  Split  rushes,  and  lately 
small  cotton  wicks,  have  been  introduced  into 
this  manufacture,  as  intended  to  burn  without 
the  necessity  of  snuffing.  The  minuteness  of  the 
cotton  wick  makes  it  very  well  answer  this  purpose. 

5.  Of  Wax  Candles  made  by  the  Ladle.— The 
wicks  being  prepared,  a  dozen  of  them  are  tied 
by  the  neck,  at  equal  distances,  round  an  iron 
circle,  suspended  directly  over  a  large  basin  of 
copper,  tinned  and  full  of  melted  wax :  a  large 
ladleful  of  this  wax  is  gently  poured  on  the  tops 
of  the  wicks  one  after  another,  and  the  operation 
continued  till  the  candle  arrives  at  its  destined 
bigness,  with  this  precaution,  that  the  first  three 
ladles  be  poured  on  at  the  top  of  the  wick,  the 
fourth  at  the  height  of  three-fourths,  the  fifth  at 
one-half,  and  the  sixth  at  one-fourth,  in  order  to 
give  the  candle  its  pyramidal  form.    Then  the 
candles  are  taken  down,  kept  warm,  and  rolled 
and  smoothed  upon  a  walnut-tree  table,  with  a 
long  square  instrument  of  box,  smooth  at  the 
bottom. 

6.  Wax  candles  are  also  made  by  the  hand. 
The  workmen  begin  to  soften  the  wax  by  work- 
ing it  several  times  in  hot  water,  contained  in  a 
narrow  but  deep  caldron.    A  piece  of  the  wax  is 
then  taken  out,  and  disposed  by  little  and  little 
around  the  wick,  which  is  hung  on  a  hook  in  the 
wall,  by  the  extremity  opposite  to  the  neck ;  so 
that  they  begin  with  the  large  end,  diminishing 
still  as  they  descend  towards  the  neck.    In  other 
respects  the  method  is  nearly  the  same  as  in  the 
former  case.    However,  it  must  be  observed,  that 
in  the  former  case  water  is  always  used  to  moisten 
the  several  instruments,  to  prevent  the  wax  from 
sticking ;  and,  in  the  latter,  oil  of  olives,  or  lard, 
for  the  hands,  &c.     The  cylindrical  wax-candles 
are  either  made  as  the  former,  with  a  ladle,  or 
drawn.     Wax-candles,  or  tapers,  drawn,  are  so 
called  because  they  are  actually  drawn  in  the 
manner  of  wire  by  means  of  two  large  rollers  of 
wood  turned  by  a  handle,  which  turning  back- 
wards and  forwards  several  times,  pass  the  wick 
through  melted  wax  contained  in  a  brass  basin, 
and  at  the  same  time  through  the  holes  of  an 
instrument   like   that    used    for   drawing   wire, 
fastened  on  one  side  of  the  basin. 

The  advantage  of  wax  over  tallow  candles  con- 
sists not  entirely,  as  some  articles  of  fashion,  in 
their  comparative  dearness,  but  in  a  mechanical 
superiority  in  the  cup  of  liquid  oil,  afforded  by 
the  inferior  degree  of  fusibility  in  the  wax.  That 
is,  the  oil  rises  within  and  around  each  wick  by 
the  common  capillary  attraction  ;  tallow  melts  at 
the  92nd  degree  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer; 
spermaceti  at  the  133rd  degree ;  and  bleached  wax 
at  155  degraes:  hence  a  smaller  wick  serves  the 
less  fusible  wax  candle,  or  sufficiently  appro- 
priates the  rising  oil.  Though  therefore  the 
flame  of  a  wax  candle  is  not  so  bright  as  that  of 
a  tallow  candle  when  just  snuffed,  its  lesser 
bulk  disposes  it  to  bend  and  drop  off  at  the  top 


CHA 


329 


CHA 


of  the  flame,  and  thus  renders  unnecessary  the 
operation  of  snuffing.  See  CANDLES. 

CHA'NFRIN,  n.s.  Old  Fr.  The  forepart 
of  the  head  of  a  horse,  which  extends  from  under 
the  ears,  along  the  interval  between  the  eye- 
brows, down  to  his  nose. 

CHA'NGE,  v.  a.,  v.n.  &  n.  s.  "|    Bar.Lat.  tam- 


CHANGEABLE,  adj. 
CHA'NGEABLENESS,  n.  s. 
CHA'NGEABLY,  adj. 
CHA'NGEFUL,  adj. 
CHA'NGELING,  n.  s. 
CHA'NGER,  n.  s. 
changer;  Lat.  commuto. 


hire;  perhaps, 
saysThomson, 
Vfrom    ajua/3w, 
XajufijSw;  Ital. 
cambiare,  can- 
glare;  French, 
To  alter ;  to  substitute  ; 

to  commute;  to  barter.  Changeling,  from  change, 
is  a  word  arising  from  an  odd  superstitious  opi- 
nion that  the  fairies  steal  away  children,  and  put 
others  that  are  ugly  and  stupid  in  their  places ; 
it  is,  however,  employed  in  various  senses;  to 
signify  an  idiot,  a  fool,  a  natural ;  one  apt  to 
change ;  a  waverer ;  anything  substituted  and 
put  in  the  place  of  another.  In  ludicrous  speech 

I  will  now  put  forth  a  riddle  unto  you  ;  if  you  can 
find  it  out,  then  I  will  give  you  thirty  sheets,  and  thirty 
change  of  garments.  Judges. 

For  the  elements  were  changed  in  themselves  by  a 
kind  of  harmony  j  like  as  in  a  psaltery  notes  change 
the  name  of  the  tune,  and  yet  are  always  sounds. 

Wisdom. 

As  soon  as  he  saw  the  tomb  where  his  moder  lay, 
His  colour  gan  to  chaunge  into  a  deadly  hew. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

Here  is  the  fountaine  of  the  wordes  good ! 
Now  therefore  if  thou  wilt  enriched  bee, 
Arise  thee  well,  and  chaunge  thy  wilful  mood  ; 
Least  thou  perhaps  hereafter  wish  and  be  withstood. 

Spenser. 

Unsound  plots  and  changeful  orders  are  daily  de- 
vised for  her  good,  yet  never  effectually  prosecuted. 

Id. 

And  her  base  elfin  breed  there  for  thee  left : 
Such  men  do  changelings  call,  so  changed  by  fairies' 

theft.  Id.  Faerie  Quesne. 

At  length  he  betrothed  himself  to  one  worthy  to  be 

liked,  if  any  worthiness  might  excuse  so  unworthy  a 

changeableness.  Sidney. 

One  Julia,  that  his  changing  thought  forgot, 
Would  better  fit  his  chamber.  Sliakspeare. 

Thou  shall  not  see  me  blush, 
Nor  change  my  countenance  for  this  arrest ; 
A  heart  unspotted  is  not  easily  daunted.          Id. 
Now  the  tailor  make  thy  doublet  of  changeable  taf- 
feta; for  thy  mind  is  a  very  opal.  Id. 

I  folded  the  writ  up  in  the  form  of  the  other, 
Subscribed  it,  gave  the  impression,  placed  it  safely, 
The  changeling  never  known.  Id. 

I  am  weary  of  this  moon  ;  would  he  would  change- 
Id. 

Take  seeds  or  roots,  and  set  some  of  them  imme- 
diately after  the  change,  and  others  of  the  same  kind 
immediately  after  the  full.  Bacon't  Nat.  Hist. 

If  how  long  they  are  to  continue  in  force,  be  no 
where  expressed,  then  have  we  no  light  to  direct  our 
ludgment  concerning  the  changeableness  or  immuta- 
bility of  them,  but  considering  the  nature  and  quality 
of  such  laws.  Hooker. 

A  steady  mind  will  admit  steady  methods  and  coun- 
sels ;  there  is  no  measure  to  be  taken  of  a  changeable 
humour.  L'Estrunye. 


Twas  not  long 

Before  from  world  to  world  they  swung  j 
As  they  had  turned  from  side  to  side, 
And  as  they  changelings  lived,  they  died. 

Hudibras. 
The  French  and  we  still  change  ;  but  here's   the 

curse, 
They  change  for  better,  and  we  change  for  worse. 

Dryden. 
Changelings  and  fools  of  heaven,  and  thence  shut 

out, 

Wildly  we  roam  in  discontent  about.  Id. 

A  shopkeeper  might  be  able  to  change  a  guinea  or 

a   moidore,  when  a  customer  comes  for   a   crown's 

worth  of  goods.  Swift. 

Changes  will  befall,  and  friends  may  part, 

But  distance  only  cannot  change  the  heart.       Cowper, 

Where  'midst  the  changeful  scenery  ever  new, 
Fancy  a  thousand  wondrous  forms  descries.     Beattie. 

Upon  a  tone, 

A  touch  of  her's,  his  blood  would  ebb  and  flow, 
And  his  cheek  change  tempestuously — his  heart 
Unknowing  of  his  cause  of  agony.  Byron. 

CHANGES,  in  arithmetic,  the  permutations  or 
variations  of  any  number  of  things,  with  re- 
gard to  their  position,  order,  &c.  as  how  many 
changes  may  be  rung  on  a  number  of  bells ;  how 
many  different  ways  any  number  of  persons 
may  be  placed  ;  how  many  variations  may  be 
made  of  any  number  of  letters,  or  any  other  things 
proposed  to  be  varied.  See  COMBINATION.  To 
find  out  such  number  of  changes,  multiply  con- 
tinually together  all  the  terms  in  a  series  of 
arithmetical  progression,  whose  first  term  and 
common  difference  are  each  unity  or  1,  and  the 
last  term  the  number  of  things  proposed  to  be 
varied,  thus,  1x2x3x4x5,  &c.  till  the 
last  number  be  the  proposed  number  of  things. 
So  that  if  it  be  asked,  how  many  different  ways 
a  company  of  six  persons  may  be  placed,  at  table 
for  instance,  the  answer  will  be  720  ways  :  but  if 
only  one  person  is  added  to  this  small  company, 
the  various  ways  in  which  they  may  be  placed 
will  amount  to  5040 :  and  if  the  company  be  in- 
creased to  thirteen  persons,  the  possible  varia- 
tions in  ranking  them  will  amount  to  the  astonish- 
ing number  of  6,227,020,800  different  ways. 
This  may  give  some  idea  of  the  incredible  (we 
had  almost  said  infinite)  number  of  possible 
combinations  of  the  twenty-four  letters  of  the 
alphabet. 

CHANGER,  an  officer  belonging  to  the  king's 
mint.  See  MINT,  and  MONEY-CHANGER. 

CHANG-HAI,  a  town  of  China,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Kiang-nan.  In  this  town  and  the  vil- 
lages dependent  on  it,  are  more  than  200,000 
weavers  of  cotton  cloth.  It  is  eighteen  miles 
south-east  of  Song  Kiang. 

CHANG-TONG,  an  important  province  of 
the  Chinese  empire,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
province  of  Pe-tche-li  and  part  of  Honan,  on  the 
south  by  that  of  Kiang-nan,  on  the  east  by  the 
Eastern  Sea,  and  on  the  north  by  the  gulf  of 
Pe-tche-li.  Along  the  coast  are  several  forts. 
It  is  crossed  towards  the  south  by  a  chain  of 
mountains,  above  170  miles  in  length,  and  is  in 
this  quarter  composed  of  hills  and  swamps,  in- 
terspersed with  large  tracts  of  country,  resem- 
bling our  own  fenny  districts  in  Cambridgeshire. 
The  province  contains  numerous  lakes,  rivers, 


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330 


CHA 


and  canals:  through  that  whicn  is  called  the 
Grand  Canal,  the  principal  navigation  to  the 
south  of  Pekin  is  carried  on.  The  principal 
productions  are  a  coarse  silk,  wheat,  millet,  and 
indigo :  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  subsist  by 
fishing.  The  province  is  divided  into  six  dis- 
tricts, which  contain  six  towns  of  the  first  class, 
and  114  of  the  second  and  third.  The  capital  is 
Tsi-nan,  on  the  south  banks  of  the  river  Tsi,  or 
Tsing ;  and  among  the  others  of  larger  size,  are 
Yentcheou,  Tong-chang-tsin,  Kin-kieng.  The 
celebrated  Confucius  was  born  at  Kio-feou,  which 
contains  several  monuments  to  his  memory. 
Population  24,000,000. 

CHA'NNEL,  n.  s.  &u.  a.  .Lat.  canalis;  Fri 
canal ;  the  course  of  a  stream  of  water,  a  longi- 
tudinal cavity  either  for  water  or  any  other  sub- 
stance. A  strait  or  narrow  sea  between  two 
countries,  as  the  British  channel,  between  Bri- 
tain and  France  ;  St.  George's  Channel,  between 
England  and  Ireland.  Metaphorically  a  course 
of  procedure.  The  verb  signifies  to  cut  any 
thing  in  channels. 

It  is  not  so  easy,  now  that  things  are  grown  into  an 
habit,  and  have  their  certain  course,  to  change  the 
channel,  and  turn  their  streams  another  way. 

Spenser's  State  of  Ireland. 

Draw  them  to  Tyber's  banks,  and  weep  your  tears 
Into  the  channel,  till  the  lowest  stream 
Do  kiss  the  most  exalted  shores  of  all.      Shakspeare. 

No  more  shall  trenching  war  channel  her  fields, 
Nor  bruise  her  flowerets  with  the  armed  hoofs 
Of  hostile  paces.  Id. 

Those  oaken  giants  of  the  ancient  race, 

That  ruled  all  seas,  and  did  our  channel  grace. 

MarveO. 

Complaint,  and  hot  desires,  the  lover's  hell, 
And  scalding  tears,  that  wore  a  channel  where  they 
fell.  Dryden's  Fables. 

Torrents,  and  loud  impetuous  cataracts, 

Roll  down  the  lofty  mountain's  channeled  sides, 

And  to  the  vale  convey  their  foaming  tides.  . 

Blackmore. 

Oh  !  bear  me  hence,  where  water's  force  displays 
More  useful  energy  ;  where  classic  praise 
Adorned  the  names  of  chiefs  long  dead,  who  brought 
Thro'  channeled  rocks  concentering  streams,  and  taught 
One  aqueduct  divided  lands  to  lave, 
And  hostile  realms  to  drink  one  common  wave. 

Bishop. 

CHAN-SI,  a  province  of  China,  and  one  of 
the  smallest  in  the  empire,  is  bounded  on  the 
east  by  Petcheli,  on  the  south  by  Honan,  on  the 
west  by  Chen-si,  and  on  the  north  by  the  great 
wall.  The  climate  is  salubrious  and  agreeable, 
and  the  soil  generally  fertile,  though  the  country 
is  full  of  mountains.  The  country  abounds  in 
grapes,  musk,  porphyry,  marble,  lapis  lazuli, 
and  jasper  of  various  colors;  and  iron  mines 
as  well  as  salt  pits  and  crystal  are  very  com- 
mon. Here  are  five  cities  of  the  first  class, 
and  eighty-five  of  the  second  and  third :  the 
principal  are  Tai-youen-fou  the  capital,  Ngan-y, 
Fuen-tcheou-fou,  and  Tai-tong-fou.  Carpets  and 
rugs  are  also  manufactured  in  the  province. 
CHA'NT,  v.  a.  &  v.  n.  ~\  Fr.  chanter.  To 
CHA'NTER,  n.  s.  f  sing,  to  celebrate  by 

CHA'NTRESS,  n.  s.  £  song,  to  make  me- 

CHA  NTRY,  n.  *.  J  lody  with  the  voice. 

Chanter  and  chantress  distinguish  the  agent  and 
the  sex  of  those  who  thus  sing  and  make  melody. 


They  chant  to  the  sound  of  the  viol,  and  invent  to 
themselves  instruments  of  musick.  Amos,  vi.  7. 

He  sette  not  his  benefice  to  hire, 
And  let  his  shepe  acombred  in  the  mire 
And  ran  unto  London,  unto  seint  Poules, 
To  seeken  him  a  chanterie  for  soules.       Chaucer. 
Now  go  with  me,  and  with  this  holy  man, 
Into  the  chantry  by.  Shakspeare. 

The  poets  chant  in  the  theatres,  the  shepherds  in 
the  mountains.  BramJtall. 

Sweet  bird,  that  shunn'st  the  noise  of  folly, 
Most  musical,  most  melancholy  ! 
Thee,  chantress  oft,  the  woods  among, 
I  woo  to  hear  thy  even  song.  Milton . 

A  pleasant  grove, 
With  chant  of  tuneful  birds  resounding  loud.  Id. 

Heaven  heard  his  song,  and  hastened  his  relief ; 
And  changed  to  snowy  plumes  his  hoary  hair, 
And  winged  his  flight  to  chant  aloft  in  air.       Dryden 

You  curious  chanters  of  the  wood, 
That  warble  forth  dame  nature's  lays,  Wotton, 

How  carols  now  the  lusty  muleteer, 
Of  love,  romance,  devotion  is  his  lay  ? 
As  whilome  he  was  wont  the  leagues  to  cheer, 
His  quick  bells  wildly  jingling  on  the  way, 
Now  as  he  speeds,  he  chaunts — Viva  el  Rey  ! 

Byron's  Childe  Harold. 

CHANT,  GREGORIAN,  introduced  by  pope 
Gregory  the  Great,  who  established  schools  of 
chanters,  and  corrected  the  church  music.  This 
at  first  was  called  the  Roman  song ;  afterwards 
the  plain  song ;  as  the  choir  and  people  sing  in 
unison. 

CHANTICLEER,  n.  s.  from  chanter  and 
clair,  Fr.  The  name  given  to  the  cock  from  the 
clearness  and  loudness  of  his  crow. 

A  yerd  she  had,  enclosed  all  about, 
And  stickes,  and  a  drie  ditch  without, 
In  which  she  had  a  cok  highte  chanticlere, 
In  all  the  land  of  crowing  n'as  his  pere, 

Chawer's  Cant.  Tales. 

And  cheerful  chanticleer,  with  his  note  shrill, 
Had  warned  once,  that  Phoebus'  fiery  car 
In  haste  was  climbing  up  the  eastern  hill.       Spenser. 

CHANTILLY,  a  small  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Seine  and  Oise,  twenty-five 
miles  north  from  Paris.  It  has  a  forest,  and 
near  it  stood  the  magnificent  hunting  s-eat  of  the 
prince  of  Conde,  which  was  destroyed  in  the 
Revolution. 

CHAOASES,  an  order  of  horse,  in  the  service 
of  the  grand  seignior,  who  always  go  out  with 
the  bashaw. 

CHA'OS,  n.  s.  I      Lat.  chaos.    The   mass  of 

CBAO'TIC,  adj.  J  matter  supposed  to  be  in  con- 
fusion before  it  was  divided  by  the  creation  into 
its  proper  classes  and  elements.  Confusion,  ir- 
regular mixture.  Anything  where  the  parts  arc 
undistinguished. 

The  whole  universe  would  have  been  a  confused 
chaos,  without  beauty  or  order.  Bentley. 

Had  I  followed  the  worst,  I  could  not  have  brought 
church  and  state  to  sueh  a  ehaos  of  confusions  as  some 
have  done.  Gauden  for  King  Charles. 

When  the  terraqueous  globe  was  in  a  chaotick  state, 
and  the  earthly  particles  subsided,  then  those  several 
beds  were,  in  all  probability,  reposited  in  the  earth. 

Derhun. 


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331 


CHA 


Alike  in  ignorance,  his  reason  such, 
Whether  he  thinks  too  little,  or  too  much  : 
Chaos  of  thought  and  passion,  all  confused, 
Still  by  himself  abused  or  disabused.  Pope. 

Here,  waiter,  more  wine,  let  me  sit  while  I'm  able, 
Till  all  my  companions  sink  under  the  table  ; 
Then,  with  chaos  and  blunders  encircling  my  head, 
Let  me  ponder  and  tell  what  I  think  of  the  dead. 

Goldsmith. 

CHAOS.  See  EARTH.  Chaos  is  represented 
by  the  ancients  as  the  first  principle,  ovum,  or 
seed  of  nature  and  the  world.  All  the  sophists, 
sages,  naturalists,  philosophers,  theologues,  and 
poets,  held  that  chaos  was  the  eldest  and  first 
principle,  rt  apxaiov  xa°G-  The  Barbarians, 
Phoenicians,  Egyptians,  Persians,  &c.  refer  the 
origin  of  the  world  to  a  rude,  mixed,  confused 
mass  of  matter.  The  Greeks,  Orpheus,  Hesiod, 
Menander,  Aristophanes,  Euripides,  and  the 
writers  of  the  Cyclic  Poems,  all  speak  of  the 
first  chaos :  the  Ionic  and  Platonic  philosophers 
build  the  world  out  of  it.  Plato  expressly  says, 
'  chaos,  or  first  matter,  was  the  ytvoe,  stock,  out 
of  which  every  thing  was  composed.  The  Stoics 
hold,  that  as  the  world  was  first  made  of  a  chaos, 
it  shall  at  last  be  reduced  to  a  chaos.  Lastly, 
the  Latins,  as  Ennius,  Varro,  Ovid,  Lucretius, 
Statius,  &c.  are  all  of  the  same  opinion.  Nor  is 
there  any  sect  or  nation  whatever,  that  does 
not  derive  the  SiaKOfffttjffte,  the  structure  of  the 
world,  from  a  chaos.  It  does  not  appear  who  first 
broached  the  notion  of  a  chaos.  Moses,  the  earliest 
of  all  writers,  derives  the  origin  of  this  world  from 
a  confusion  of  matter,  dark,  void,  deep,  without 
form  (tohu  bohu) ;  which  is  precisely  the  chaos 
of  the  Greeks  and  Barbarian  philosophers. 
Moses  goes  no  farther  than  the  creation  from  this 
chaos ;  and  where  Moses  stops,  there,  precisely, 
do  all  the  rest.  Dr.  Burnet  endeavours  to  show, 
that  as  the  ancient  philosophers,  &c.  who  wrote 
of  the  cosmogony,  acknowledged  a  chaos  for  the 
principle  of  their  world ;  so  the  divines,  or  writers 
of  the  theogony,  derive  the  origin  or  generation 
of  their  fabled  gods  from  the  same  principle.  • 

CHAOS,  in  entomology,  a  genus  of  insects  be- 
longing to  the  order  of  vermes  zoophyta.  The 
body  has  no  shell  or  covering.  It  is  capable  of 
reviving  after  being  dead  to  appearance  for  a  long 
time,  but  has  no  joints  or  external  organs  of  sen- 
sation. There  are  five  species,  mostly  obtained 
by  infusions  of  different  vegetables  in  water,  and 
only  discoverable  by  the  microscope.  See  ANI- 
MALCULE. 


the  same  with  chop  ;  nor  were  they  probably 
distinguished  at  first,  otherwise  than  by  accident ; 
but  they  have  now  a  meaning  somewhat  different, 
though  referrible  to  the  same  original  sense.  To 
break  into  hiatus,  or  gapings.  The  noun  is  de- 
rived from  the  verb,  and  signifies  a  cleft,  an  aper- 
ture, an  opening,  a  gaping,  a  chink. 

Like  a  table  upon  which  you  may  run  your  finger 
without  rubs,  and  your  nail  cannot  find  a  joint ;  not 
horrid,  rough,  wrinkled,  gaping,  orcJtapt.  BenJonson. 
Cooling  ointment  made, 

Which  on  their  sunburnt  cheeks  and  their  chapt 
skins  they  laid.  Dryden's  Fables, 


It  weakened  more  and  more  the  arch  of  the  earth- 
drying  it  immoderately,  and  chapping  it  in  sundry 
places.  Burnet. 

Then  would  unbalanced  heat  licentious  reign, 
Crack  the  dry  hill,  and  chap  the  russet  plain. 

Rlackmore. 

CHAP,  n.  s.  ~\      This  is  not  often  used, 

CUA'PLESS,  n.  s.  t  except  by  anatomists,  in 
CHA'P-FALLEN,  adj.  £  the  singular.  The  upper 
CHAPS,  n.  s.  J  or  under  part  of  a  beast's 

mouth. 

So  on  the  downs  we  see 
A  hastened  hare  from  greedy  greyhound  go, 
And  past  all  hope,  his  chaps  to  frustrate  so.       Sidney. 
Open  your  mouth ;  you  cannot   tell    who's   your 
friend  ;  open  your  chaps  again.  Shahspeare. 

Now  chapless,  and  knocked  about  the  mazzard  with 
a  sexton's  spade.  Id. 

Froth  fills  his  chaps,  he  sends  a  grunting  sound, 
And  part  he  churns,  and  part  befoams  the  ground. 

Dryden. 

A  chapfatten  beaver  loosely  hanging  by 
The  cloven  helm.  Id. 

The  nether  chap  in  the  male  skeleton  is  half  an 
inch  broader  than  in  the  female.  Grew's  Museum. 

CHAP.  Goth,  skapur,  from  skapa,  to  beget ; 
a  lad,  a  boy  ;  a  vulgar  appellation. 

CHAPE,  n.  s.       )      Fr.  chape  ;  SKCTQ.  Thus 

CHA'PELESS.  J  derived,  it  signifies  a  co- 
ver, or  the  top  of  a  scabbard  made  of  brass  or 
silver ;  but  traced  from  Fr.  echope  ;  Sax.  srftappe  ; 
from  Lat.  capio.  It  is  applied  to  the  catch  of  any 
thing  by  which  it  is  held  in  its  place ;  as  the 
hook  of  a  scabbard  by  which  it  sticks  in  the 
belt ;  the  point  by  which  a  buckle  is  held  to  the 
back  strap. 

This  is  Monsieur  Parolles,  that  had  the  whole  theory 
of  the  war  in  the  knot  of  his  scarf,  and  the  practice 
in  the  chape  of  his  dagger.  Shakspeare. 

An  old  rusty  sword,  with  a  broken  hilt,  and  chape- 
less,  with  two  broken  points.  Id. 

CHAPEAU,  in  heraldry,  an  ancient  cap  of 
dignity  worn  by  dukes,  being  scarlet-colored 
velvet  on  the  outside,  and  lined  with  a  fur.  It 
is  frequently  borne  above  an  helmet  instead  of  a 
wreath,  under  gentlemen's  crests. 

CHA'PEL,  n.  s.       ~)      lleb.kabaeli;   Ara- 

CHA'PELLANY,  n.  s.     >  bic,  kaaba  eli ;  Coptic, 

CHA'PELRY,  n.  s.  jcaphel;  Gr.Kairii  EXt; 
Goth,  kapell ;  Ital.  capeila ;  Fr  chapelle ;  the 
house  of  God ;  a  place  of  worship.  Applied 
generally,  since  the  act  of  toleration,  to  houses  of 
worship  indiscriminately,  with  the  exception  of 
the  parish  churches.  In  the  establishment  of  the 
country,  however,  they  are  particularly  distin- 
guished, as  the  second  illustration  will  manifest. 
:  a  little  wyde 

There  was  an  holy  chappell  edifyede, 
Wherein  the  hermite  dewly  wont  to  say 

His  holy  things,  each  morne  and  eventyde  ; 
Thereby  a  christal  streame  did  gently  play, 

Which  from  a  sacred  fountaine  welled  forth  alway. 

Spenser. 

A  chapel  is  of  two  sorts  ;  either  adjoining  to  a 
church,  as  a  parcel  of  the  same,  which  men  of  worth 
build  ;  or  else  separate  from  the  mother  church,  where 
the  parish  is  wide,  and  is  commonly  called  a  chapel 
of  ease,  because  it  is  built  for  the  ease  of  one  or  more 
parishioners,  that  dwell  too  far  from  the  church,  and 
is  served  by  some  inferiour  curate,  provided  for  at  the 


CHA 


332 


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charge  of  the  rector,  or  of  such  as  have  benefit  by  it, 
as  the  composition  or  custom  is.  Cowett. 

She  went  in  among  those  few  trees,  so  closed  in  the 
tops  together,  as  they  might  seem  a  little  chapel. 

Sidney. 

Will  you  dispatch  us  here  under  this  tree,  or  shall 
we  go  with  you  to  your  chapel  ?  Sliakspeare. 

Where  truth  erecteth  her  church,  he  helps  errour 
to  rear  up  a  chapel  hard  by.  Howel. 

A  chapellany  is  usually,  said  to  be  that  which  does 
not  subsist  of  itself,  but  is  built  and  founded  within 
some  other  church,  and  is  dependent  thereon.  Id. 

CHAPELS,  FREE,  such  as  were  founded  by 
kings  of  England.  They  are  free  from  all  epis- 
copal jurisdiction,  and  only  to  be  visited  by  the 
founder  and  his  successors;  which  is  done  by 
the  lord  chancellor :  yet  the  king  may  license 
any  subject  to  build  and  endow  a  chapel,  and  by 
letters  patent  exempt  it  from  the  visitation  of  the 
ordinary. 

Parochial  CHAPELS,  differ  from  parish 
churches  only  in  name. 

CHAPELAIN  (James),  an  eminent  French 
poet  born  at  Paris  in  1 595,  and  often  mentioned 
in  the  works  of  Balzac,  Menage,  and  others. 
He  wrote  several  works,  particularly,  an  heroic 
poem,  called  La  Pucelle,  ou  France  Delivre'e, 
which  employed  him  several  years.  He  was  one 
of  the  king's  counsellors,  and  very  covetous;  and 
died  in  1674,  very  rich. 

CHAPEL-HILL,  a  post  town  of  the  United 
States,  in  Orange  County,  North  Carolina,  the 
seat  of  the  new  University  of  North  Carolina. 
It  is  eleven  miles  south  by  east  of  Hillsborough, 
and  465  south-west  of  Philadelphia. 

CHA'PERON,  ra.  s.  French.  A  kind  of  hood 
or  cap  worn  by  the  knights  of  the  garter  in  their 
habits. 

I  will  omit  the  honourable  habiliments,  as  robes  of 
state,  parliament  robes,  chaperons,  and  caps  of  state. 

Camden. 

CHAPERON,  CHAPERONNE,  or  CHAPEROON, 
was  a  sort  of  hood  or  covering  for  the  head,  an- 
ciently worn  by  both  men  and  women,  of  all 
ranks,  and  afterwards  appropriated  to  the  doc- 
tors, and  licentiates  in  colleges,  &c.  Hence  the 
name  passed  to  certain  little  shields,  and  other 
funeral  devices,  placed  on  the  foreheads  of  the 
horses  that  drew  the  hearses  in  pompous  funerals, 
which  are  still  called  chaperoons,  or  shafferoons ; 
because  these  were  originally  fastened  on  the 
chaperonnes,  worn  by  those  horses. 

CHA'PITER,  n.  s.  Chapiteau,  Fr.  The  up- 
per part  or  capital  of  a  pillar. 

He  overlaid  their  chapiter*  and  their  fillets  with 
gold.  Exodus. 

CHA'PLAIN,  n.  s.  1       Lat.  capellanus,  one 

CHA'PLAINSHIP,  n.s.  }  that  officiates  in  domes- 
tic worship,  or  that  performs  divine  service  in  a 
chapel,  and  attends  the  king  or  other  person,  for 
the  instruction  of  him  and  his  family,  to  read 
prayers,  and  preach.  The  peers  have  the  pri- 
vilege of  conferring  chaplainships  according  to 
their  rank.  See  PEERAGE.  Chaplainship  is  the 
possession  of  the  office  or  its  revenues. 
Wishing  me  to  permit 

John  de  la  Court,  my  chaplain}  a  choice  hour 
To  h^ar  from  him  a  matter  of  some  moment. 

Shahspcare. 


Chaplain,  away !  thy  priesthood  saves  thy  life.    Id, 

Since  death  and  sin  did  human  nature  blot, 
The  chiefest  blessing  Adam's  chaplain  got.       Marvell. 

A  chief  governor  can  never  fail  of  some  worthless 
illiterate  chaplain,  fond  of  a  title  and  precedence. 

Swift. 

CHA'PLET,  n.  s.  Chapdet,  Fr.  A  garland 
or  wreath  to  be  worn  about  the  head ;  and  a 
string  of  beads  worn  in  the  Romish  church. 

Where  bene  the  nosegayes  that  she  dight  for  thee, 
The  coloured  chaplets  wrought  with  a  chiefe. 
The  knotted  rush-ringes,  and  gilt  rosemaree, 
For  she  deemed  nothing  too  deere  for  thee. 

Spenser's  Shepheard's  Calendar. 
Upon  old  Hyems'  chin,  and  icy  crown, 

An  odorous  chaplet  of  sweet  summer's  buds, 

Is,  as  in  mockery,  set.  Shakspeare. 

I  strangely  long  to  know 

Whether  they  nobler  chaplets  wear, 

Those  that  their  mistress'  scorn  did  bear, 

Or  those  that  were  used  kindly.  Suckling. 

The  winding  ivy  chaplet  to  Invade, 
And  folded  fern,  that  your  fair  forehead  shade. 

Dryden. 

They  made  an  humble  chaplet  for  the  king.     Swift. 

CHA'PLET,  in  architecture,  a  little  moulding 
carved  into  round  beads,  pearls,  or  olives. 

CHA'PLET,  a  tuft  of  feathers  on  the  peacock's 
head. 

CHAPLET  is  frequently  used  to  signify  the  circle 
of  a  crown.  There  are  instances  of  its  being 
borne  in  a  coat  of  arms,  as  well  as  for  crests ; 
the  paternal  arms  for  Lascelles  are  argent,  three 
chaplets,  gules. 

CHA'PMAN,  n.  s.  ceapman,  Sax.     A  cheap- 
ner ;  one  that  offers  as  a  purchaser. 
And  spedily  the  tables  were  ylaide, 

And  to  the  diner  faste  they  hem  spedde, 

And  richely  this  monk  the  chapman  fedde  ; 

And  after  dinner,  Dan  John  sobrely 

This  chapman  toke  apart.        Chaucer's  Cant.  Tales. 
Fair  Diomede,  you  do  as  chapmen  do, 

Dispraise  the  thing  that  you  intend  to  buy. 

Shakspeare. 

Yet  have  they  seen  the  maps,  and  bought  'em  too, 
And  understand  'em  as  most  chapmen  do. 

Ben  Jonson. 

CHAPONE  (Hester),  an  authoress,  the  daughter 
of  T.  Mulso,  Esq.  was  born  at  Twywell  in 
Northamptonshire,  in  1727,  and  at  the  age  of 
nineteen  years  is  said  to  have  written  a  romance. 
She  was  then  discouraged  by  her  mother  from 
continuing  her  studies,  but  at  stolen  opportuni- 
ties composed  the  interesting  story  of  Fidelia  in 
the  Adventurer,  an  Ode  to  Peace,  and  a  Poem 
prefixed  to  the  translation  of  Epictetus,  by  Mrs. 
Carter.  She  married,  in  1760,  Mr.  Chapone, 
a  legal  gentleman,  but  her  married  life  lasted 
only  ten  months,  and  was  not  happy.  She  was 
now  and  for  the  rest  of  her  life  a  widow  in  nar- 
row circumstances.  In  1770  she  went  with  Mrs. 
Montague  to  Scotland,  and  in  1773  appeared 
her  Letters  on  the  Improvement  of  the  Mind. 
This  was  followed  by  a  volume  of  Miscellanies. 
But  the  loss  of  a  beloved  niece,  to  whom  her 
Letters  were  addressed,  and  that  of  her  brother, 
preying  upon  her  mind,  she  gradually  declined 
in  health,  and  expired  at  Hadley,  December  25th, 
1801.  Her  works,  with  a  sketch  of  her  life 
were  collected  and  published  in  1807. 


CHA 


333 


CHA 


CHAPPE,  in  heraldry,  the  dividing  an  es- 
cutcheon by  lines  drawn  from  the  centre  of  the 
upper  edge  to  the  angles  below,  into  three  parts, 
the  sections  on  the  sides  being  of  different  metal 
or  color  from  the  rest. 

CHATTER,  n.  s.  Cfiapitre,  Fr.  from  capi- 
tulum,  Latin.  A  division  of  a  book.  The  pro- 
verbial phrase,  '  to  the  end  of  the  chapter/ 
signifies  throughout;  to  the  end. 

Now  for  as  moche  as  the  second  part  of  penitence 
stont  in  confession  of  mouth,  as  I  began  in  the  first 
chapitre,  I  say,  seint  Augustine  saith  sinne  is  every  word 
aud  every  dede,  and  all  that  men  coveiten,  against 
the  law  of  Jesus  Christ.  Chaucer.  Persones  Tale. 

The  first  book  we  divide  into  three  sections  ;  where- 
of the  first  is  these  three  chapters.  Burnet's  Theory. 

If  these  mighty  men  at  chapter  and  verse,  can  pro- 
duce no  scripture,  to  overthrow  our  church  ceremo- 
nies, I  will  undertake  to  produce  scripture  enough 
to  warrant  them.  South. 

Money  does  all  things  ;  it  gives  and  it  takes  away, 
it  makes  honest  men  and  knaves,  fools  and  philoso- 
phers ;  and  so  forward,  mutatis  mutandis,  to  the  end 
of  the  chapter.  L' Estrange. 

CHA'PTER,  from  capitulurn,  signifieth,  in  our 
common  law,  as  in  the  canon  law,  whence  it  is 
borrowed,  an  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  a  cathe- 
dral or  collegiate  church.  Cowell. 

The  abbot  takes  the  advice  and  consent  of  his  chap- 
ter, before  he  enters  on  any  matters  of  importance. 

Addison  on  Italy. 
So  skimming  the  fat  off, 
Say  grace  with  your  hat  off, 
O,  then  with  what  rapture 
Will  it  fill  dean  and  chapter  I  Gay. 

The  place  where  delinquents  receive  discipline 
and  correction.  Ayliffe  's  Parerg. 

A  decretal  epistle.  Id. 

Chapter-house  ;  the  place  in  which  assemblies 
of  the  clergy  are  held. 

Though  the  canonical  constitution  does  strictly  re- 
quire it  to  be  made  in  tlie  cathedral,  yet  it  matters 
not  where  it  be  made,  either  in  the  choir  or  chapter- 
house. Ayliffe  '*  Parerg. 

CHAPTER,  in  ecclesiastical  polity,  an  assem- 
bly of  the  clergy  of  a  collegiate  church  or  cathe- 
dral. It  was  in  the  eighth  century  that  the  body 
of  canons  began  to  be  called  a  chapter.  They 
were  a  standing  council  to  the  bishop,  and,  dur- 
ing the  vacancy  of  the  see,  had  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  diocese.  In  the  early  ages  the  bishop  was 
head  of  the  chapter;  afterwards  abbots  and 
other  dignities  were  preferred  to  this  distinction. 
The  deans  and  chapters  had  the  privilege  of 
choosing  the  bishops  in  England;  but  Henry VIII. 
got  this  power  vested  in  the  crown.  Those  he 
thus  regulated  were  called  deans  and  chapters  of 
the  new  foundation ;  such  are  Canterbury,  Win- 
chester, ^Ely,  Carlisle,  8cc.  See  DEAN. 

CHA'PTREL,  n.  s.  probably  from  chapiter. 
The  capitals  of  pillars,  or  pilasters,  which  sup- 
port arches,  commonly  called  imposts. 

Let  the  keystone  break  without  the  arch,  so  much 
as  you  project  over  the  jaums  with  the  chaptrels. 

Moron. 

CHAR.  Lat.  scarus  ;  Irish,  cear,  red ;  from 
Kipptv,  a  kind  of  trout,  found  only  in  Winander- 
jnueer,  Lancashire. 


CHAR,  n.s.  &  v.  a.        }       Bar.    Lat.   carlo; 

CHA'RCOAL.  j  Fr.     charbon,     from 

K«ta»,  wood  burnt  to  cinders.  To  blacken  wood 
by  burning  it  in  the  fire.  Charcoal  is  thus  pro- 
duced. 

Spray  wood,  in  charring,  parts  into  various  cracks. 

Woodward 
Love  is  a  fire  that  burns  and  sparkles 

In  men  as  naturally  as  in  charcoals, 

Which  sooty  chymists  stop  in  holes, 

When  out  of  wood  they  extract  coals.        Hudibras. 

Is  there  who,  locked  from  ink  and  paper,  scrawls, 
With  desperate  charcoal  round  his  darkened  walls  ? 

Pope. 

I  see  no  frightful  spectacle  of  infuriated  power,  or 
suffering  humanity — I  see  no  tortures — I  hear  no 
shrieks — I  no  longer  see  the  human  heart  charred  in 
the  flame  of  its  own  vile  and  paltry  passions — black 
and  bloodless — capable  only  of  catching  and  commu- 
nicating that  destructive  fire  by  which  it  devours,  and 
is  itself  devoured.  Curran's  Speechet. 

CHAR,  n.  s.  &  v.  n.    )      Teut.    kar  ;    Saxon, 

CHA'RWOMAN,  n.  s.  $  cerre ;  Swedish,  kora; 
Sax.  cerren ;  Teut.  kerren  ;  to  go  about,  to  turn. 
Thus  the  noun  signifies  a  turn,  a  job,  a  day's  work. 
To  char  is  to  work  at  other's  houses  by  the  day, 
without  being  a  hired  servant.  Thus  a  charwo- 
man is  a  woman  hired  incidentally  for  odd  work, 
or  single  days. 

A  meer  woman,  and  commanded 

By  such  poor  passion,  as  the  maid  that  milks 

And  does  the  meanest  chars.  Shalispeare. 

She,  harvest  done,  to  char  work  did  aspire  ; 

Meat,  drink,  and  two-pence  were  her  daily  hire. 

Dry  den. 

Get  three  or  four  char-women  to  attend  you  con- 
stantly in  the  kitchen,  •whom  you  pay  only  with  the 
broken  meat,  a  few  coals,  and  all  the  cinders. 

Swift. 

CIIARA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  monandria 
order  and  monoecia  class  of  plants.  Male,  CAL. 
none :  COR.  none :  anthera  placed  under  the 
germen.  Female,  CAL.  tetraphyllous  :  COR.  none; 
the  stigma  quiuquefid :  SEED,  polyspermous- 
berry. 

CHARABON.     See  CHERIBON. 

CHARACENE,  the  most  southern  part  of 
Susiana,  a  province  of  Persia,  lying  on  the  Persian 
Gulf,  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Eulaeus ;  so 
named  from  the  city  of  Chorax.  It  was  seized 
by  Pasines,  the  son  of  Sogdonacus,  king  of  the 
neighbouring  Arabs,  during  the  troubles  of  Sy- 
ria, and  erected  into  a  kingdom.  Lucian  calls 
him  Hyspasines,  and  adds,  that  he  ruled  over  the 
Characeni  and  the  neighbouring  people :  he  died 
in  the  eighty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  The  only 
other  kings  of  this  country,  mentioned  by  the 
ancients,  are  Teraeus,  who  died  in  the  ninety- 
second  year  of  his  age ;  and  after  him  Artabazus 
VII.  as  Lucian  informs  us,  who  was  driven  from 
the  throne  by  his  subjects,  but  restored  by  the 
Parthians. 

CHA'RACTER,  n.  s.  &  v.  a^      Lat.  charac- 

CiiARAcrERi'sxiCAL,  adj.          \  ter ;    Gr.  Xa- 

CHARACTERI'STICALNESS.         [  paicrjjp.Itspri- 

CHARACTERI'STIC.  ^mary  sense  is  a 

CHARACTERIZE,  v.  a.  mark,  a  stamp, 

CHA'RACTERLESS.  an  impression. 

CIIA'RACTERY.  J  In   its   secon- 

dary meaning  it  is  applied  to  the  instrument  tha! 


CHA 


334 


CHA 


produces  the  mark,  stamp,  or  impression  :  thus, 
the  hand  or  manner  of  writing  is  termed  charac- 
ter ;  so  are  letters  used  in  printing  or  writing. 
Hence  it  has  proceeded  to  denote  whatever 
distinguishes  any  thing  or  person ;  the  marks 
and  impressions  which  they  exhibit  of  qualities 
good  or  bad.  Whatever  enacts,  represents,  or 
describes,  gives  the  character.  Hence  fictitious 
personages  on  the  stage,  are  called  the  charac- 
ters. The  peculiar  properties,  whether  natural 
or  moral,  or  both,  constitute  the  character.  As 
these  are  the  qualities  that  strike  or  impress 
others,  they  are  so  termed. 

I  found  the  letter  thrown  in  at  the  casement  of  my 
closet.  You  know  the  character  to  be  your  brother's. 

Shakspeare. 

But  his  neat  cookery  ! 

He  cuts  our  roots  in  characters.  Id. 

Shew  me  one  scar  charactered  on  thy  skin.       Id. 
And  mighty  states  characterless  are  grated 

To  dusty  nothing.  Id. 

All  my  engagements  I  will  construe  to  thee, 

All  the  charactery  of  my  sad  brows.  Id. 

They  may  be  called  anticipations,  prenotions,  or 
sentiments,  characterized,  and  engraven  in  the  soul, 
born  with  it,  and  growing  up  with  it. 

Hole's  Origin  of  Mankind. 
In  outward  also  her  resembling  less 

His  image,  who  made  both  ;  and  less  expressing 

The  character  of  that  dominion  given 

O'er  other  creatures.  Milton.    Paradise  Lost. 

The  pleasing  poison 

The  visage  quite  transforms  of  him  that  drinks, 

And  the  inglorious  likeness  of  a  beast 

Fixes  instead,  unmpulding  reason's  mintage, 

diaractered  in  the  face.  Id. 

Each  drew  fair  characters,  yet  none 

Of  these  they  feigned  excels  their  own.    Denham. 

The  shining  quality  of  an  epick  hero,  his  magnani- 
mity, his  constancy,  his  patience,  his  piety,  or  what- 
ever characteristical  virtue  his  poet  gives  him,  raises 
our  admiration.  Id. 

There  are  faces  not  only  individual,  but  gentili- 
tious  and  national  ;  European,  •  Asiatick,  Chinese, 
African,  and  Grecian  faces  are  characterized. 

A  r  but  knot  on  Air. 

The  chief  honour  of  the  magistrate  consists  in 
maintaining  the  dignity  of  his  character  by  suitable 
actions.  Atterbury. 

It  is  some  commendation,  that  we  have  avoided 
publicly  to  characterize  any  person,  without  long  ex- 
perience. Swift. 

This  vast  invention  exerts  itself  in  Homer,  in  a 
manner  superior  to  that  of  any  poet ;  it  is  the  great 
and  peculiar  characteristich  which  distinguishes  him 
from  all  others.  Pope. 

This  subterraneous  passage  is  much  mended,  since 
Seneca  gave  so  bad  a  character  of  it. 

Addison  on  Italy. 

Some  write  a  narrative  of  wars,  and  feats 
Of  heroes  little  known  ;  and  call  the  rant 
An  history  :  describe  the  man,  of  whom 
His  own  coevals  took  but  little  note, 
And  paint  his  person,  character,  and  views, 
As  they  had  known  him  from  his  mother's  womb. 

Cotcper.   The  Garden. 

CHARACTER,  in  a  general  sense,  signifies  a 
mark  or  figure,  drawn  on  paper,  metal,  stone,  or 
other  matter,  with  a  pen,  graver,  chissel,  or  other 
instrument.  The  various  kinds  of  characters  may 
be  reduced  to  three  classes,  viz.  literal  characters, 
numeral  characters,  and  abbreviations. 

CHARACTERS,  LITERAL,  are  letters  of  the  al- 


phabet, serving  to  indicate  some  articulate  sound, 
expressive  of  some  idea  or  conception  of  the 
mind.  See  ALPHABET. 

CHARACTERS,  AKABIC  NUMERAL,  are  the 
common  figures  now  used  throughout  Europe 
and  America,  in  all  sorts  of  calculations.  See 
ARITHMETIC. 

CHARACTERS,  FRENCH  NUMERAL,  used  in  the 
ci-devant  chamber  of  accounts,  and  by  those 
concerned  in  the  revenue,  were  chiefly  Roman 
numerals,  only  in  small  letters :  thus  j,  or  i,  i, 
v  5,  x  10,  1  50,  and  c  100.  But  instead  of  m, 
or  cjc,  the  Greek  y  was  used  for  1000 ;  and  some- 
times jjjxxx  for  90  :  b  was  also  used  for  v  5. 

CHARACTERS,  GREEK  NUMERAL.  The  Greeks 
had  three  ways  of  expressing  numbers: — I. 
Every  letter,  according  to  its  place  in  the  al- 
phabet, denoted  a  number  from  a,  1,  to  w,  24. 
In  this  manner  the  books  of  Homer's  Iliad  are 
numbered.  II.  Another  way  was  by  dividing 
the  alphabet  into,  first,  8  Units:  a  1,  /3  2,  &c. 
Secondly,  8  tens:  i  10,  K  20,  &c.  Thirdly?  8 
hundreds  :  p  100,  a  200,  &c.  And,  to  complete 
these  numbers,  the  contraction  <r  stood  for  6,  as 
well  as  for  90  and  900.  Thousands  they  ex- 
pressed by  a  point  or  accent  under  a  letter,  e.  g. 
a  1000,  /3  2000,  &c.  III.  The  third  way  was  by 
six  capital  letters,  being  the  initials  of  the  words; 
thus,  I  [ia  for  put]  1  ;  n  [Trsvrf]  5 ;  A  [Siica] 
10 ;  H  [Hicarov]  100 ;  X  [xiXut]  1000 ;  M  [/luptaj 
10,000 :  and  when  the  letter  n  enclosed  any  of 
these,  except  I,  it  showed  the  enclosed  letter  to 
be  five  times  its  own  value,  as 

JA|  50,   |H|  500,  JXJ  5000,  JM|  50,000. 

CHARACTERS,  HEBREW  NUMERAL.  The  He- 
brew alphabet  was  divided  into  nine  units:  K  1, 
3  2,  &c.— 9  tens :  '  10,  3,  20,  &c.— 9  hundreds : 
p  100,  T  200,  &c.  T  500,  »  600,  3  700,  *)  800, 
¥  900.  Thousands  were  sometimes  expressed 
by  the  units  prefixed  to  hundreds,  as  "iSnK, 
1534,  &c.,  and  even  to  tens,  as,  ¥«,  1070,  &c. 
But  generally  by^the  word  t\h&,  1000;  D'^X, 
2000 ;  Q'S^K,  with  the  other  numerals  prefixed, 
to  signify  the  number  of  thousands;  e.g.  O^KD, 
3000,  &c. 

CHARACTERS,  ROMAN  NUMERAL,  consist  of 
seven  majuscule  letters  of  the  Roman  alphabet, 
viz.  I,  V,  X,  L,  C,  D,  M.  The  I  denotes  1,  V 
5,  X  10,  L  50,  C  100,  D  500,  and  M  1000. 
The  I  repeated  twice  makes  2,  II;  thrice,  3, 
III ;  four  is  expressed  thus  IV,  as  I  before  V  or 
X  takes  one  from  the  number  expressed  by  the 
letters.  One  I  added  to  V.  makes  VI.  6 ;  two, 
VII.  7 ;  and  three,  VIII.  8 ;  nine  is  expressed 
by  an  I  before  X,  thus,  IX.  X  before  L  or  C, 
diminishes  the  number  by  tens :  thus,  XL  de- 
notes forty,  XC  ninety ;  but  X  after  L  or  C, 
proportionably  increases  them ;  as  LX  sixty ; 
LXX  seventy,  &c.  The  C  before  D  or  M  di- 
minishes each  by  a  hundred.  Five  hundred  is 
sometimes  expressed  by  an  I  before  a  C  inverted 
thuslQ;  and  jl 000  by  an  I  between  two  C's, 
the  one  direct  and  the  other  inverted,  thus  CI3. 
The  addition  of  C  and  3  before  and  after,  raises 
C!Q  by  tens ;  thus,  CCI33  expresses  ten  thou- 
sand, CCCI^33,  a  hundred  thousand.  The 
Romans  also  expressed  any  number  of  thousands 


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335 


CHA 


by  a  line  drawn  over  any  numeral  less  than  a 
thousand;  thus~V  denotes  5000;  "DT  60,000; 
so  likewise  M  is  one  million,  MM  two  rail- 
lions,  &c. 

CHARACTERS  OF  THE  ASPECTS,  NODES,  &c. 
Bq.  Biquintile  <5  or  S  Conjunction 

SI  Dragon's  head  SS  Semisextile 

751  Dragon's  tail  *  Sextile 

§  Opposition  Td.  Tredecile 

n  Quartile  A  Trine 

Q  Quintile  Vc.  Quincunx 

CHARACTERS  OF  THE  PLANETS.   See  PLANETS. 

CHARACTERS  OF  THE  SIGNS.     See  ZODIAC. 

CHARACTERS  IN  CHEMISTRY.  See  CHEMISTRY. 

CHARACTERS  IN  GEOMETRY  AND  TRIGONOME- 
TRY, ARE 

/.  an  angle  '  a  minute 

/.  right  angle  *  a  second 

0  a  circle  '"  a  third 

0  a  degree  ""  fourths 

V  Equiangular,  or  si-  J_  perpendicular 
=     milar  [  ]  Zj  rectangle 

_L  equilateral  D  square 

||  parallel  A  triangle 

CHARACTERS  IN  GRAMMAR,  POETRY,  RHETORIC, 

&c.  ARE 

!  admiration  '  emphasis,  or  accent 

'  apostrophe  -  hyphen 

*  asterisk  ?  interrogation 

breve  IT  paragraph 

A  caret  (  )  parenthesis 

A  circumflex  .  period 

:  colon  "  quotation 

,  comma  f  J  references 

[]  crochet  §  section 

-  dialysis  ;  semicolon 

CHARACTERS  IN  MEDICINE  AND  PHARMACY,  ARE 


of  each  alike. 


Ana,          5 

C.  C.  cornu  cervi,  hartshorn 

Coch.  cochleare,  a  spoonful 

Cong,  congius,  a  gallon 

Gr.  grains 

L.  L.  laudanum 

P.  JR.  paries  aqua.es,  equal  quantities 

P.  P.  pulvis  patrum,  Jesuits'  bark 

S.  A.  secundem  artem,  according  to  art 

Ss.  or  ss.  semis,  the  half  of  any  tiling 

Tinct.  Theb.  tinctura  thebaica,  laudanum,  &c. 

CHARACTERS  IN  Music.     See  Music. 

CHARACTERS  IN  OLD  LAW  WRITINGS  AND 
INSCRIPTIONS. 

CHARACTER,  in  natural  history,  is  synonymous 
with  the  definition  of  the  genera  of  animals, 
plants,  &c. 

CHARADE,  a  modern  species  of  literary 
amusement.  It  owes  its  name  to  the  idler  who 
invented  it.  Its  subject  must  be  a  word  of  two 
syllables,  each  forming  a  distinct  word;  and 
these  two  syllables  must  be  concealed  in  an  enig- 
matical description,  first  separately,  and  then  to- 
gether. It  is  too  well  known  to  young  persons 
to  require  any  illustration  in  a  Dictionary  of 
Science. 


the  feet  have  three  toes.  There  are  about  thirty- 
two  species,  of  which  the  following  are  the  most 
remarkable  :  1.  C.  hiaticula,  the  sea  lark  of  Ray, 
has  a  black  breast,  a  white  streak  along  the 
front,  the  top  of  the  head  is  brown,  and  the  legs 
and  beak  are  reddish.  They  are  found  on  the 
shores  of  Europe  and  America.  2.  C.  morinel- 
lus,  the  dotterel  of  Ray,  has  an  iron-colored 
breast,  a  small  white  streak  on  the  breast  and 
eye-brows,  and  black  legs.  It  is  a  native  of 
Europe,  and  is  found  in  the  counties  of  Cam- 
bridge, Lincoln,  and  Derby.  3.  C.  cedicnemus, 
the  stone  curlew  of  Ray,  is  of  a  gray  color,  with 
two  of  the  prime  wing  feathers  black,  but  white 
in  the  middle ;  it  has  a  sharp  bill,  and  ash- 
colored  feet,  and  is  about  the  size  of  a  crow.  In 
Hampshire,  Norfolk,  and  on  Lincoln  heath,  it  is 
called  the  stone  curlew,  from  a  similarity  of  colors 
to  the  curlew.  It  has  a  shrill  voice,  somewhat 
resembling  that  of  the  black  woodpecker,  which 
it  raises  and  lowers  successively,  uttering  agree- 
able notes.  4.  C.  pluvialis,  the  green  plover  of 
Ray,  is  black  above,  with  green  spots,  white 
underneath,  and  the  feet  are  ash-colored.  It  is 
a  native  of  Europe.  5.  C.  Zelandicus,  the  New 
Zealand  plover,  has  the  fore  part  of  the  head,  the 
eye,  chin,  and  throat,  black,  passing  backwards 
in  a  collar  at  the  hind  head  ;  all  the  back  part  of 
the  head,  behind  the  eye,  greenish  ash-color ; 
these  two  colors  divided  by  white ;  the  plumage 
on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  is  the  same  color 
as  the  back  of  the  head  :  the  quills  and  tail  are 
dusky  :  the  last  order  of  coverts  is  white  for  some 
part  of  their  length,  forming  a  bar  on  the  wing : 
the  under  parts  of  the  body  are  white,  and  the 
legs  red.  It  inhabits  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound  ; 
where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  doodooroa  at- 
too. 

CHARASM,  a  fertile  country  of  Asia,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Turkestan,  east  by  Great  Bucha- 
ria,  south  by  Khorasan,  and  west  by  the  Caspian 
Sea.  It  is  divided  among  several  Tartarian 
princes,  of  whom  one  takes  the  title  of  khan,  with 
a  sort  of  pre-eminence  over  the  rest.  See  KHA- 
RASM. 

CHARBON,  in  the  menage,  the  little  black 
spot  or  mark  which  remains  after  a  large  spot 
in  the  cavity  of  the  corner  teeth  of  a  horse. 
About  the  seventh  or  eighth  year,  when  the  ca- 
vity fills  up,  the  tooth  being  smooth  aud  equal, 
it  is  said  to  be  rased. 

CHARCAS,  or  CHERCOS,  a  province  or  in- 
tendancy  of  the  united  provinces  of  South 
America,  formerly  included  in  the  kingdom  of 
Peru;  and  then,  by  the  Spanish  government, 
with  the  vice-royalty  of  Buenos  Ayres.  It  is  a 
mountainous  region  that  has  been  little  explored, 
but  is  described  as  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Peru,  on  the  east  by  Brasil,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  great  ridge  of  the  Andes.  It  is  nearly  900 
miles  in  length;  subject,  in  the  mountains,  to 
extreme  cold,  and  to  excessive  heat  in  the  plains. 

CHARCOAL.     See  CARBON  and  GUNPOW- 

CHARDIN  (Sir  John),  a  celebrated  traveller, 
born  at  Paris  in  1643.  His  father,  who  was  a 


CHARADRIUS,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  be-    jeweller,  had  him  educated  in  the  Protestant  re- 


longing  to  the  order  of  grallse.     The  beak  is  cy- 
lindrical and  blunt ;  the  nostrils  are  linear,  and 


ligion :  after  which  he  travelled  into  Persia  and 
India.     He  came  to  England  subsequently  to  the 


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336 


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revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  in  1685,  and 
had  the  honor  of  knighthood  conferred  on  him 
by  Charles  II.  He  died  at  London  in  1713. 
His  account  of  his  travels  is  much  esteemed. 

CHARENTE,  a  department  of  France,  bc-unded 
by  those  of  the  Deux  Sevres  and  Vienne  on  the 
north ;  Upper  Vienne  on  the  east ;  Dordogne  on 
the  south ;  and  Lower  Charente  on  the  west.  It 
•ncludes  the  ci-devant  province  of  Angoumois. 
Angouleme  is  the  capital.  The  air  is  generally 
warmer  than  at  Paris,  though  the  country  is  hilly. 
The  soil  produces  abundance  of  wheat,  rye,  oats, 
Spanish  corn,  saffron,  grapes,  and  all  sorts  of 
fruits.  It  has  several  iron  mines,  which  yield  a 
very  good  sort  of  iron.  This  province  suffered 
severely  during  the  civil  wars  in  La  Vendee. 

CHARENTE,  LOWER,  a  department  of  France, 
bounded  by  that  of  the  Charente  on  the  east; 
Gironde  on  the  south  ;  the  Bay  of  Biscay  on  the 
west ;  the  department  of  La  Vendee  on  the 
north,  and  that  of  the  Deux  Sevres  on  the  north- 
east. It  consists  of  the  ci-devant  province  of 
Aunis  and  Saintonge.  Saintes  is  the  capital. 

CHARENTE,  a  river  of  France,  which  rises  in 
the  department  of  the  Dordogne,  and  after  run- 
ning through  the  two  departments,  to  which  it 
gives  name,  and  passing  by  Angouleme,  Saintes, 
and  Rochefort,  falls  into  theBay  of  Biscay,  oppo- 
site to  the  isle  of  Oleion.  It  abounds  with  ex- 
cellent fish,  and  often  overflows  its  banks. 

CHARENTON,  a  town  of  France,  four  miles 
south-east  of  Paris,  seated  on  the  Seine,  near  its 
confluence  with  the  Marne.  In  this  town  the 
Protestants  had  their  principal  church,  which 
was  demolished  upon  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes.  Also  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Allier,  the  ci-devant  province  of 
Bourbonnois,  seated  011  the  Marmande. 

CHARES  the  Lydiau,  a  celebrated  statuary, 
was  the  disciple  of  Lysippus,  and  the  con- 
structor of  the  famous  colossus  of  the  sun,  in  the 
city  of  Rhodes.  Flourished  288  years  before 
Christ. 

CHARETTE  (de  la  Contrie,  F.A.),  a  celebrated 
French  royalist,  born  in  1763.  He  was  bred  to 
the  navy,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant ;  but  is 
chiefly  famed  as  the  leader  of  a  party  of  royalists 
in  La  Vendee.  He  was  defeated  in  February,  1796, 
and  wounded  in  the  head,  besides  having  three 
fingers  cut  off  with  a  sabre.  He  escaped  from 
the  field  of  battle,  but  in  a  short  time  after  was 
taken  in  a  wood,  and  carried  to  Nantes,  where 
he  was  shot  in  March  following.  He  refused  to 
kneel,  but  laid  open  his  breast,  and,  with  a  spirit 
undaunted,  gave  the  signal  for  the  soldiers  to 
fire. 

CHA'REY,  adj.  ^    Teut.  cherig,  kareg,  karg. 

CHA'RILY,  adv.  >  Careful,  attentive,  saving; 

CHA'RINESS.  n.  J  caution;  nicety;  scrupu- 
lousness. . 

What  paper  do  you  take  up  so  charily  ? 

Shakspeare. 

I  will  consent  to  act  any  villany  against  him,  that 
may  not  sully  the  chariness  of  your  honesty.  Id. 


The  chariest  maid  is  prodigal  enough, 
If  she  unmask  her  beauty  to  the  moon. 


Id. 


CHARGE,  v.a.,v. n.,&  n.  s.^.      Lat.  curatio. 
CHANGEABLE,  adj.  I  Care,        trust, 

CHA'RGEABLENESS,  n.  s.         (commission  for 
CHA'RGEABLY,  adv.  Ta  certain  pur- 

CHA'RGEFUL,  adj.  l  pose.  When  sy- 

CHA'RGER,  n.  s.  *  nonymouswiih 

the  Fr.  charge,  Ital.  carica,  carca,  Span,  carga, 
it  means  a  load,  weight,  pressure,  attack,  impo- 
sition, expense,  command.  The  verb  is  derived 
from  this,  and  signifies  to  load,  press  upon,  at- 
tack, onerate,  impose,  command  ;  as  also  to  en- 
trust; to  commission. 

And  the  captain  of  the  guard  charged  Joseph  with 
them,  and  he  served  them.  Genesis. 

The  priest  shall  cftargeher  by  an  oath.  Numbers. 
And  his  angels  he  charged  with  folly.  Job. 

Hir  dremes  shul  not  now  be  told  for  me  j 
Ful  were  hir  hedes  of  fumositee, 
That  causeth  dreme  of  which  ther  is  no  charge. 

Chaucer.    The  Squiere's  Tale. 
Fiercely  at  first  those  knights  they  .did  assayle., 
And  drove  them  to  recoile,  but  when  againe 
They  gave  fresh  charge  their  forces  gan  to  fayle, 
Unable  their  encounter  to  sustaine.  Spenser, 

Saul  might  even  lawfully  have  offered  to  God, 
those  reserved  spoils,  had  not  the  Lord,  in  that  par- 
ticular case,  given  special  charge  to  the  contrary. 

Hooker. 

He  procured  it  not  with  his  money,  but  by  his 
wisdom  ;  not  chargeably  bought  by  him,  but  liberally 
given  by  others  by  his  means.  Asc/utm. 

Thou  canst  not,  cardinal,  devise  a  name 
So  slight,  unworthy,  and  ridiculous, 
To  charge  me  to  an  answer  as  the  pope. 

Shakspeare. 

What  a  sigh  is  there.     The  heart  is 

sorely  charged.  Id. 

Asses  of  great  charge.  Id, 

What  you  have  charged  me  with,  that  I  have  done. 

Id. 

With  his  prepared  sword  he  charges  home 
My  unprovided  body,  lanced  my  arm.  Id. 

Here's  the  note 

How  much  your  chain  weighs  to  the  utmost  carat, 
The  fineness  of  the  gold,  the  charge/id  fashion.   Id. 

I  may  not  suffer  you  to  visit  them  ; 
The  king  hath  strictly  charged  the  contrary.         Id. 

Their  neighing  coursers  daring  of  the  spur, 
Their  armed  staves  in  charge,  their  beavers  down. 

Id. 

Their  charge  was  always  born  by  the  queen,  and 
duly  paid  out  of  the  exchequer. 

Bacon's  Advice  to  Villiers. 

Honourable  retreats  are  no  ways  inferior  to  brave 
charges ;  as  having  less  of  fortune,  more  of  discipline, 
and  as  much  of  valour.  Id.  War  with  Spain. 

He  who  requires 

From  us  no  other  service,  than  to  keep 
This  one,  this  easy  charge  ;  of  all  the  trees 
In  Paradise,  that  bear  delicious  fruit 
So  various,  not  to  taste  that  only  tree    • 
Of  knowledge,  planted  by  the  tree  of  life. 

Milton. 

Why  hast  thou,  Satan,  broke  the  bounds  prescribed 
To  thy  transgressions,  and  disturbed  the  charge 
Of  others  ?  Id.  Paradise  Lost. 

Nothing  can  be  a  reasonable  ground  of  despising  a 
man,  but  some  fault  or  other  chargeaole  upon  him. 

South. 

They  both  accept  the  cltarge  wilh  me, 
To  fight  a  battel  from  all  gunshot  free. 

Marvell. 


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337 


CHA 


No  more  accuse  thy  pen,  but  charge  the  crime 
On  native  sloth,  and  negligence  of  time.         Dryden. 

The  Grecians  rally,  and  their  powers  unite  ; 
With  fury  charge  us,  and  renew  the  fight.  Id. 

Why  dost  thou  turn  thy  face  ?     I  charge  thee,  an- 
swer 
To  what  I  shall  enquire.  •"*• 

All  the  tributes  land  and  sea  affords, 
Heaped  in  great  charges  load  our  sumptuous  boards. 

Denham. 

That  which  most  deters  me  from  such  trials,  is  not 
their  chargeableness,  but  their  unsatisfactoriness, 
though  they  should  succeed.  Boyle. 

A  fault  in  the  ordinary  method  of  education,  is  the 
tharging  of  children's  memories  with  rules  and  pre- 
cepts. Locke. 

It  is  not  barely  the  ploughman's  pains;  the  reaper's 
and  thrasher's  toil,  and  the  baker's  sweat,  is  to  be 
counted  into  the  bread  we  eat ;  the  plough,  mill, 
oven,  or  any  other  utensils,  must  all  be  charged  on 
the  account  of  labour.  Id. 

It  is  easy  to  account  for  the  difficulties  he  charges 
on  the  peripatetick  doctrine.  Id. 

The  gospel  chargeth  us  with  piety  towards  God, 
and  justice  and  charity  to  men,  and  temperance  and 
chastity  in  reference  to  ourselves.  Tillotson. 

Go,  first  the  master  of  thy  herds  to  find, 

True  to  his  charge,  a  loyal  swain  and  kind.     Pope. 

We  charge  that  upon  necessity,  which  was  really 
desired  and  chosen.  Wattt's  Logic. 

Distinguished  by  the  splendour  of  his  arms,  he 
charged  in  person  the  cavalry  of  his  rival ;  and  his 
irresistible  attack  determined  the  fortune  of  the  day. 

Gibbon. 
Here  pause  we  for  the  present — as  even  then 

That  awful  pause  dividing  life  from  death, 
Struck  for  an  instant  on  the  hearts  of  men, 

Thousands  of  whom  were  drawing  their  last  breath  ; 
A  moment,  and  all  will  be  life  again! 
The  march !  the  charge  !  the  shouts  of  either  faith  ! 

Byron. 

What  ho  !  my  chargers  !  Never  yet  were  better, 
Since  Phaeton  was  upset  into  the  Po. 

Id.   Deformed  Transformed. 

CHARGE,  in  gunnery.     See  GUXNERY. 

CHARGE,  in  heraldry,  is  applied  to  the  figures 
represented  on  the  escutcheon,  by  which  the 
bearers  are  distinguished  from  one  another.  Too 
many  charges  are  not  so  honorable  as  fewer. 

CHARGE,  in  law.  It  signifies  also  a  thing  done 
that  bindeth  him  who  doth  it ;  of  which  discharge 
is  the  removal.  Lands  may  be  charged  in  various 
ways  ;  as,  by  grant  of  rent  out  of  them ;  by  sta- 
tutes, judgments,  conditions,  warranties,  8cc. 

CHARILA,  a  festival  observed  once  in  nine 
years  by  the  Delphians,  and  so  called  after  a  girl 
named  Charila,  who  was  sacrificed  at  Delphi  in 
a  famine. 

CHA'RIOT,  n.s.v.  a.^        Fr.   chariot;    Ital. 

CHARIOTE'ER,  n.s.        fcarrelto;  Welsh    car- 

CHA'RIOT-RACE.  j  rliod.    A  wheeled  car ; 

for  it  is  well  known  the  Britons  fought  in  such. 
Chaucer  writes  it  char.  Also  a  lighter  kind  of 
coach  with  only  front  seats  ;  a  carriage  of  plea- 
sure. 

Amonges  other  thinges  that  he  wan 
Hire  char,  that  was  with  gold  wrought  and  pierrie  ; 
This  grete  Remain,  this  Aurelian, 
Hath  with  him  lad  for  that  men  shuld  it  see. 

Chaucer.  Monhes  Tale. 
VOL.  V. 


Thy  grand  captain  Antony, 
Shall  set  thee  on  triumphant  cluiriots, 
And  put  garlands  on  thy  head.  Shalispeare. 

An  angel  all  in  flames  ascended, 
As  in  a  fiery  column  charioting 
His  godlike  presence. 

Milton's  Sampson  Ayonistei. 

All  the  ground, 

With  shivered  armour  strown,  and  on  a  heap, 
Chariot  and  charioteer  lay  overturned, 
And  fiery  foaming  steeds.          Id.    Paradise  Lost. 

But  at  my  back  I  always  hear 
Time's  winged  chariot  hurrying  near, 
And  yonder  all  before  us  lye, 
Deserts  of  vast  eternity.  Marvell. 

Show  us  the  youthful  handsome  cJiarioteer, 
Firm  in  his  seat,  and  running  his  career.       Prior. 
There  is  a  wonderful  vigour  and  spirit  in  the  de- 
scription of  the  horse  and  chariot-race.  Addison. 

Or  when  the  sun  casts  a  declining  ray, 
And  drives  his  chariot  down  the  western  way, 
Let  your  obsequious  ranger  search  around, 
Where  yellow  stubble  withers  on  the  ground. 

Gay's  Rural  Sports. 

CHARIOTS,  in  antiquity,  were  chiefly  used  in 
war,  and  called  bigae,  trigae,  &c.  according  to  the 
number  of  horses  applied  to  draw  them.  Every 
chariot  carried  two  men,  who  were  probably  the 
warrior  and  the  charioteer ;  and  we  read  of  seve- 
ral men  of  note  and  valor  employed  in  driving 
the  chariot.  Warriors  in  close  fight,  alighted  out 
of  the  chariot,  and  fought  on  foot;  but  when 
they  were  weary,  which  often  happened  by  rea- 
son of  their  armour,  they  retired  into  their  cha- 
riots, and  thence  annoyed  their  enemies  with 
darts  and  missive  weapons.  The  covinus  was  a 
war  chariot,  and  a  very  terrible  instrument  of  de- 
struction ;  being  armed  with  sharp  scythes  and 
hooks  for  cutting  and  tearing  all  who  came  within 
its  reach.  This  kind  was  made  very  slight,  and 
had  few  or  no  men  in  it  besides  the  charioteer ; 
being  designed  to  drive  with  great  force  and  ra- 
pidity, and  to  do  execution  chiefly  with  its 
hooks  and  scythes.  The  essedum  and  rheda 
were  also  war  chariots,  probably  of  a  large  size, 
and  stronger  made  than  the  covinus,  designed  for 
containing  a  charioteer,  and  one  or  two  warriors. 
The  greatest  number  of  the  British  war  chariots 
seem  to  have  been  of  this  kind.  Chariots  were 
sometimes  consecrated  to  the  sun.  The  trium- 
phal chariot  was  one  of  the  principal  ornaments 
of  the  Roman  celebration  of  a  victory. 

CHARISIA,  in  antiquity,  a  wake,  or  night 
festival,  instituted  in  honor  of  the  graces. 

CHARITES,  and  Gratia;,  in  heathen  my- 
thology, the  three  Graces;  the  daughter  of  Ju- 
piter and  Eurynome.  Their  names  were  Aglaia, 
Thalia,  and  Euphrosyne. 

CHA'RITY,  n.  s.  ^      Lat.  caritas ;    Fr.  cha- 

CHA'RITABLE,  adj.  yrite ;  xaPa-  Love;   kind- 

CHA'RITABLY,  adv.j  ness  ;   beneficence.      Its 

sweeter   acceptation    is    alms-giving,    or  relief 

given  to  the  poor. 

Concerning  charity,  the  final  object  whereof  is  that 
incomprehensible  beauty  which  shiueth  in  the  coun- 
tenance of  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God.  Hooker. 

There  she  awhile  him  stayes,  himselfe  to  rest, 
That  to  the  rest  more  hable  he  might  be  : 
During  which  time,  in  every  good  behest, 
And  godly  worke  of  alines  and  charitee, 
Shee  him  instructed  with  great  induslrie.    Speiuer 

z 


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338 


CHA 


We  must  incline  to  the  king ;  I  will  look  for  him, 
and  privily  relieve  him  ;  go  you  and  maintain  talk 
with  the  duke,  that  my  charity  be  not  of  him  per- 
ceived. Shakspeare. 

How  had  you  been  my  friends  else  ?  Why  have  you 
that  charitable  title  from  thousands,  did  younotrhiefly 
belong  to  my  heart  ?  Id.  Timon. 

Only  add 

Deeds  to  thy  knowledge  answerable  ;  add  faith, 

Add  virtue,  patience,  temperance ;  add  love, 

By  name  to  come  called  charity,  the  soul 

Of  all  the  rest.  Milton. 

By  thee, 

Founded  in  reason,  loyal,  just,  and  pure, 

Relations  dear,  and  all  the  charities 

Of  father,  son,  and  brother,  first  were  known.     Id. 

He  that   hinders   a  charitable  person  from  giving 
alms  to  a  poor  man,  is  tied  to  restitution,  if  he  hin- 
dered him  by  fraud  or  violence.  Taylor's  Holy  Living. 
I  never  had  the  confidence  to  beg  a  charity. 

Dryden. 

The  heathen  poet,  in  commending  the  charity  of 
Dido  to  the  Trojans,  spoke  like  a  Christian.  .  Id. 

My  errours,  I  hope,  are  only  those  of  charity  to 
mankind  ;  and  such  as  my  own  charity  had  caused 
me  to  commit,  that  of  others  may  more  easily  excuse. 

Id. 

Charity,  or  a  love  of  God  which  works  by  a  love  of 
cur  neighbour,  is  greater  than  faith  or  hope. 

A  tier  bury. 
In  faith  and  hope  the  world  will  disagree, 

But  all  mankind's  concern  is  charity.  Pope. 

Pleased  with  his  guests  the  good   man  learned  to 

glow, 

And  quite  forgot  their  vices  in  their  woe  ; 
Careless  their  merits  or  their  faults  to  scan, 
His  pity  gave  ere  charity  began.  Goldsmith. 

The  societies  which  were  instituted  in  the  cities 
of  the  Roman  empire  were  united  only  by  the  ties  of 
faith  and  charity.  Gibbon. 

CHARITY,  FEASTS  OF.     See  AGAPE. 

CHARITY  OF  OUR  LADY,  in  church  history, 
a  ci-devant  religious  order  in  France,  established 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  which,  though  charity 
was  the  principal  motive  of  their  union,  became 
so  disorderly  and  irregular,  that  their  order 
dwindled,  and  at  last  became  extinct. 

CHARITY  OF  ST.  HIPPOLITUS,  a  religious  con- 
gregation, founded  about  the  end  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  by  one  Bernardin  Alvarez,  a 
Mexican,  in  honor  of  St.  Hippolitus,  the  martyr, 
patron  of  Mexico,  and  approved  of  by  pope  Gre- 
gory XIII. 

CHARITY,  ORDER  OF.  There  are- several  re- 
ligious orders  which  bear  this  title ;  particularly 
one  instituted  by  St.  John  de  Dieu,  for  the  as- 
sistance of  the  sick ;  approved  of  in  1520,  by 
Leo  X.  and  confirmed  by  Paul  V.  in  1617. 
They  apply  themselves  wholly  to  the  service  of 
the  diseased. 

CHARK.     See  CHAR.     To  make  charcoal. 

Excess  either  with  an  apoplexy  knocks  a  man  on 
the  head,  or  with  a  fever,  like  fire  in  a  strong  water 
shop,  burns  him  down  to  the  ground ;  or,  if  it  flames 
not  out,  charks  him  to  a  coal. 

Grew'*  Cosmologia  Sucra. 

CHARKOV,  or  KHARKOF,  a  town  and  go- 
vernment of  Europe  in  'Russia,  standing  on  the 
rivers  Charka  and  Lapan,  which  divide  it  into 
three  parts.  Here  has  long  been  a  considerable 
monastic  college,  which,  in  1803,  was  erected 


into  a  university ;  and  the  town  contains  ten 
churches,  two  convents,  and  11,000  inhabitants. 
The  houses  are  mostly  of  wood,  and  the  place  is 
very  ill  paved.  Four  great  yearly  fairs  are  held 
at  Charkov.  It  is  350  miles  south-west  of  Mos- 
cow, and  640  S.S.E.  of  Petersburg. 

CHA'RLATAN,  n.  s.    }     Yr. charlatan; ltd. 

CHARLATA'NICAL,  adj.   \ciarlatano;  a  market 

CHA'RLATANRY,  n.  s.  j  crier,  a  quack;  from 
ciarlare ;  Lat.  ciere.  A  mountebank  ;  an  igno- 
rant pretender  to  knowledge ;  one  who  wheedles 
and  cheats. 

For  charlatans  can  do  no  good, 
Until  they're  mounted  in  a  crowd.     Hudibras. 

A  cowardly  soldier  and  a  charlatanical  doctor,  are 
the  principal  subjects  of  comedy.  Cowley. 

CHARLEMONT  (James  Caulfield),  Earl  of, 
an  Irish  literary  nobleman,  patriot,  and  the 
friend  of  Burke,  Flood,  and  other  celebrated 
statesmen  of  the  sister  island ;  travelled  when 
young,  in  France,  It  .ly,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor. 
On  his  return  he  took  his  seat  in  the  Irish  house 
of  peers  as  baron  Caulfield,  and  was  raised  in 
1763  to  the  earldom  of  Charlemont.  He  is  re- 
markable both  for  the  firmness  and  mildness  with 
which  he  acted  as  the  commander  of  the  armed 
volunteer  association  of  Ireland,  who,  during  the 
American  war,  obtained  the  relinquishment  of  all 
control  over  Ireland  by  the  British  legislature. 
He  was  president  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy ; 
and  died  much  esteemed  and  respected,  in  August, 
1799,  aged  seventy.  Letters  highly  honorable 
to  this  nobleman  have  appeared  in  a  volume  en- 
titled, Original  Letters,  principally  from  lord 
Charlemont,  Edmund  Burke,  &c.  to  the  right 
hon.  Henry  Flood,  1820,  4to.,  and  an  interesting 
life  of  him,  by  Mr.  Hardy. 

CHARLEMONT,  a  fortress  on  the  frontiers  of 
the  Netherlands,  and  now  belonging  to  that 
kingdom.  It  was  ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty 
of  Nimeguen,  and  retained  by  that  power  till 
1815,  when  it  was  given  up  to  the  sovereign  of 
the  Netherlands.  While  under  the  French  do- 
minion it  formed  part  of  the  department  of  the 
Ardennes.  It  is  about  twenty-five  miles  south- 
west of  Namur.  Long.  4°  40'  E.,  lat.  50°  6'  N. 

CHARLEMONT,  a  town  of  Ireland,  situated  on 
the  Blackwater,  in  the  county  of  Armagh,  about 
six  miles  south-east  of  Dungannon,  and  sixty- 
eight  north-west  of  Dublin.  Long.  6°  50*  W., 
lat.  50°  16'  N. 

CHARLEROY,  a  strong  town  of  the  Nether- 
lands, in  the  county  of  Namur.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Sambre,  eighteen  miles  west  of  Namur; 
and  has  often  been  taken  and  retaken  in  the 
wars  of  the  Netherlands.  At  Ligny,  near  this 
town,  Napoleon  first  attacked  the  Prussian  line, 
just  previous  to  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  defeated 
it,  and  compelled  it  to  fall  back  to  Wavres. 
Since  the  peace  the  fortifications  have  been  re- 
paired ;  and  the  town  now  contains  4000  inha- 
bitants. 

CHARLEMAGNE.     See  FRANCE. 

CHARLES  I.  and  II.     See  ENGLAND.    ' 

CHARLES  V.     See  GERMANY  and  SPAIN. 

CHARLES  IX.     See  FRANCE. 

CHARLES  XII.     See  SWEDEN. 

CHARLES,  a  county  of  Maryland,  on  ihe 
western  shore,  bounded  on  the  south  and  west 


CHA 


339 


CHA 


by  the  Potomac,  which  separates  it  from  Vir- 
ginia ;  on  the  north  by  Prince  George's ;  on  the 
east  by  the  Patuxent,  and  on  the  south-east  by 
St.  Mary's.  It  is  twenty-seven  miles  long,  and 
equally  broad.  The  lands  in  general  are  low 
and  sandy,  and  produce  tobaoco,  Indian  corn, 
and  potatoes.  The  chief  town  is  Port  Tobacco. 

CHARLES,  LAKE  ST.,  a  lake  of  Lower  Canada, 
twelve  miles  north  of  Quebec.  It  is  surrounded 
by  most  beautiful  scenery,  and  extends  about 
four  miles  in  length,  giving  its  source  to  a  river 
of  the  same  name,  which  is  not  above  thirty 
yards  wide  at  its  mouth,  and  falls  into  the  ocean 
near  Quebec. 

CHARLES,  a  river  of  Massachusetts,  which 
flows  from  a  spring  near  Hopkinton,  in  Wor- 
cester county,  and  falls  into  Boston  harbour, 
between  that  city  and  Charlestown.  It  is  na- 
vigable in  boats  for  seven  miles,  up  to  Water- 
town.  In  its  course  through  Newton  township 
it  has  several  romantic  and  picturesque  water- 
falls. Two  bridges  are  erected  over  it.  See 
CHARLESTON. 

CHARLES,  CAPE,  a  promontory  of  Virginia, 
on  the  north  side  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  Long.  75° 
30'  \V.,  lat.  37°  12'  N. 

CHARLES,  CAPE,  a  promontory  on  the  south- 
west part  of  the  strait,  entering  Hudson's  Bay, 
Long.  75°  15'  W.,  lat.  62°  10'  N. 

CHARLES-CITT,  a  county  in  Virginia,  thirty 
miles  long,  and  nine  broad.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  and  east  by  the  Chickahominy,  which 
separates  it  from  the  counties  of  New  Kent  and 
James-city ;  on  the  south  and  west  by  James- 
river,  and  on  the  north-west  by  Henrico. 

CHARLES'S  WAIN,  n.  s.  The  northern  con- 
stellation called  the  bear.  '  Karl  wagn,'  says 
Thomson,  '  in  the  Gothic  dialect,  is  supposed  by 
some  to  be  named  after  Thor,  who  was  called 
karl ;  by  others  from  Charlemagne.' 

There  are  seven  stars  in  Ursa  minor,  and  in  Charles's- 
wain,  or  Plaustrum  of  Ursa  major,  seven. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours^ 

CHARLESTON,  a  district  of  the  United 
States,  in  South  Carolina,  bounded  on  the  north- 
east by  that  of  George-town  ;  on  the  north-west 
by  Orangeburgh;  on  the  soirth-west  by  Beau- 
fort, and  on  the  south-east  by  the  ocean.  Its 
form  is  oblong,  being  about  sixty  miles  long  and 
fifty-five  broad.  It  is  watered  by  the  rivers 
\N  ando,  Cooper,  Ashley,  Ponpon,  Ashepoo,  and 
Combahee.  The  soil  near  the  rivers  and  on  the 
coast  is  rich  and  well  cultivated,  producing 
large  crops  of  Indian  corn,  rice,  indigo,  &c. 

CHARLESTON,  a  handsome  city  in  the  above 
district,  and  the  capital  of  the  state,  situated 
on  the  peninsula  formed  by  the  Ashley  and  the 
Cooper,  which  unite  on  the  east  side  "of  it,  fall 
into  the  ocean  six  miles  east  by  south  of  it,  and 
are  navigable,  for  twenty  miles  above  it.  This  city 
is  built  on  a  regular  plan,  consisting  of  parallel 
streets,  which  extend  east  and  west  from  river 
to  river,  and  are  crossed  by  others  at  right  angles. 
Their  breadth  is  from  thirty-five  to  sixty-six  feet, 
and  they  are  furnished  with  piazzas.  The  houses 
are  mostly  of  brick  and  well  built.  The  public 
buildings  are  a  state-house,  an  exchange,  an  ar- 
moury, a  college,  several  academies,  an  oruhan- 


house,  a  poors'-house,  a  Jewish  synagogue,  and 
numerous  other  places  of  worship.  The  situation 
is  healthy,  and  the  neighbourhood  very  beau- 
tiful. The  harbour  is  commodious,  but  a  bar 
hinders  vessels  of  more  than  200  tons  burden, 
loaded,  from  entering.  The  fortifications  are 
strong,  having  Fort  Mechanic  on  the  south, 
Fort  Pinckney  on  the  east,  Fort  Moultrie  on 
the  southern  part  of  Sullivan's  Island,  and  Fort 
Johnson,  about  three  miles  to  the  south-east. 
Charleston  carries  on  almost  the  entire  trade  of 
the  state,  and  is  the  fourth  commercial  town  in 
the  Union.  It  was  incorporated  in  1733,  and 
divided  into  thirteen  wards,  each  of  which  chooses 
a  warden,  and  from  these  the  citizens  elect  an  in- 
tendant.  The  intendant  and  wardens  form  the 
city  council.  A  federal  circuit  court  is  held  in  it 
on  the  25th  of  October,  and  a  district  court 
quarterly,  on  Monday.  It  has  often  suffered 
from  fire.  This  city  lies  119  miles  north-east 
of  Savannah,  376  from  Edington,  540  from 
Richmond,  644  from  Baltimore,  and  746  south- 
west by  south  of  Philadelphia. 

CHARLESTON,  a  handsome  town  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  the  largest  in  Middlesex  county.  It 
is  seated  ton  a  peninsula  formed  by  the  river 
Mystic  on  the  north,  and  a  bay  of  Charles  Rivei 
on  the  south-west.  It  is  separated  from  Boston 
by  the  Charles,  over  which  a  bridge  was  erected 
in  1787,  supported  by 'seventy-five  wooden  piers, 
with  a  draw-bridge  in  the  middle  for  the  passage 
of  vessels.  Charleston  is  connected  with  Maiden 
by  another  bridge,  erected  in  1788.  This  town 
was  burnt  in  1775  by  general  Gage,  when 
houses  and  property  were  destroyed  to  the 
amount  of  £136,900,  but  it  has  revived  of 
late,  and  contains  about  2000  inhabitants.  They 
manufacture  pot  and  pearl-ashes,  rum,  brass, 
pewter,  leather,  &cv  and  a  small  ship-building 
trade  is  carried  on. 

CHARLESTON,  a  post  town  of  Maryland,  on 
the  eastern  shore,  in  Cecil  county,  west  of  the 
river  North  East,  four  miles  from  the  head  of 
Chesapeake  Bay.  It  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  per- 
sons engaged  in  the  herring  fishery.  It  is  ten 
miles  west-south-west  of  Elkton,  and  fifty-nine 
south-west  by  west  of  Philadelphia.  Several 
other  towns  of  the  United  States  bear  the  same 
name. 

CHARLESTON,  one  of  the  four  principal  towns 
of  Barbadoes. 

CHARLESTOWN,  the  only  town  in  the  isle 
of  Nevis.  On  the  south  side  of  it  there  is  a  large 
spot  of  sulphureous  ground,  at  a  chasm  called 
Sulphur  Gut,  the  heat  of  which  is  so  great  as  to 
be  felt  through  the  soles  of  one's  shoes.  A  pond 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  town  is  milk  warm, 
and  has  excellent  fish.  Here  are  many  good 
houses  and  shops. 

CHARLEVILLE,  a  town  of  France,  the 
head  of  a  canton  in  the  department  of  Ardennes. 
The  streets  are  straight,  and  the  houses  of  equal 
height.  It  has  a  magnificent  square,  with  a  foun- 
tain in  the  centre.  It  is  seated  on  the  Meuse, 
near  Mezieres,  to  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
bridge  and  causeway :  fifteen  miles  north-west 
of  Sedan,  and  140  north-east  of  Paris.  Popu- 
lation 7700. 

CHARLOCK,  n.  s.  A  weed  growing  among 

Z  2 


CHA 


340 


CHA 


the  corn  with  a  yellow  flower.    It  is  a  species  of 
inithridate  mustard. 

CHARLOTTE,  a  populous  and  fertile  county 
of  Virginia,  bounded  by  Campbell  county  on 
the  west,  Prince  Edward  and  Buckingham  on 
the  north,  Mecklenburgh  on  the  south-east,  and 
Halifax  and  Pennsylvania  counties  on  the  south. 
CHARLOTTE  TOWN,  the  capital  of  Dominica, 
formerly  called  llosseau.  It  stands  on  a  point 
of  land  on  the  south-west  side  of  the  island, 
which  forms  two  bays,  and  is  twenty-one  miles 
south-east  of  Prince  Rupert's  Bay. 

CHARLOTTENBURG,  a  town  of  the  elec- 
torate of  Brandenburgh,  in  the  Middle  Mark, 
with  a  royal  palace  and  magnificent  gardens.    It 
was  built  by  Sophia  Charlotte,  the  first  queen  of 
Prussia,  and  is  situated  on  the  river  Spree,  four 
miles  east-south-east  of  Berlin.   Population  2350. 
CHARM,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.^\      Fr.  charme,   from 
CHA'RMED,  adj.  I  Lat.  carmen.  Words, 

CHA'RMER,  n.  s.  or  philtres,  or  cha- 

CHA'RMERESS,  n.  s.        ^racters,  imagined  to 
CHA'RMING,  part.  adj.    I  have  some  occult  or 
CHA'RMINGLY,  adv.        \  unintelligible  power. 
CHA'RMINGNESS,  n.  s.  J  Something  of  power 
to  subdue  opposition,  and  gain  the  affections ; 
to  summon  by  incantation;  to  subdue  by  some 
secret  power;  to  amaze ;  to  overpower :  one  that 
has  the  power  of  charms  or  enchantments;  a 
word  of  endearment  between  lOvers ;  pleasing  in 
the  highest  degree ;  the  power  of  pleasing  in  the 
highest  degree. 

There  sawe  I,  playing,  jogel«urs; 
Magicians  and  tragetours  ; 
And  phitonesses,  charmeresses , 
And  olde  witches,  and  sorceresses 
That  uscn  exorsiasions 
And  eke  subfumigacions. 

Chaitcer'i  Home  of  Fame. 
I  never  knew  a  woman  so  dote  upon  a  man  ;  surely 

I  think  you  have  charms. Not  I,  I  assure  thee  j 

setting  the  attractions  of  my  good  parts  aside,  I  have 
no  other  eharmt.  Shakspeare. 

That  handkerchief 

Did  an  Egyptian  to  my  mother  give ; 
She  was  a  charmer,  and  could  almost  read 
The  thoughts  of  people.  Id. 

I,  in  mine  own  woe  charmed, 

Could  not  find  death,  where  I  did  hear  him  groan  . 
Nor  feel  him  where  he  struck.  Id\ 

Let  fall  thy  blade  on  vulnerable  crests ; 
I  bear  a  charmed  life,  which  must  not  yield 
To  one  of  woman  born.  Id. 

Upon  my  knees 

I  charm  you  by  my  once  commended  beauty, 
By  all  your  vows  of  love,  and  that  great  vow 
Which  did  incorporate  and  make  us  one.  Id. 

'Tis  your  graces 

That  from  my  mutest  conscience  to  my  tongue 
Charms  this  report  out.  Id, 

Arcadia  was  the  charmed  circle,  where  all  his  spirits 
for  ever  should  be  enchanted.  Sidney. 

We  implore  thy  powerful  hand, 
To  undo  the  ehcurmed band 
Of  true  virgin  here  distressed.  Milton. 

By  slain  beasts'  entrails,  and  fowls'  .narked  flight, 
Tiiereto  he  tempests  raised  by  many  a  spright, 
•*nd  charmed  the  sun  and  moon,  and  changed  the  day 
and  night.  Fletcher's  Purple  Island. 


To  famed  Apelles  when  young  Ammon  brought 

The  darling  idol  of  his  captive  heart ; 
And  the  pleased  nymph  with  kind  attention  sat, 
To  have  her  charms  recorded  by  his  art.       Waller. 
The  passion  you  pretended, 

Was  only  to  obtain ; 
But  when  the  charm  is  ended, 

The  charmer  you  disdain.  Dryden. 

She  smiled  very  charmingly,  and  discovered  as  fine 
a  set  of  teeth  as  ever  eye  beheld.  Addisun. 

Oh!  who  the  exquisite  delight  can  tell, 

The  joy  which  mutual  confidence  imparts  ! 
Or  who  can  paint  the  charm  unspeakable 
Which  links  in  tender  bands  two  faithful  hearts  ? 
Mrs.  Tighe's  Psyche. 

CHA'RNEL,  adj.  }  Fr.  chamier ;  Lat. 
CHA'RNEL-HOUSE,  n.  s.  S  carnarium ;  from  euro, 
carnis,  Carnarium  was  supposed  to  be  origi- 
nally cranarium,  a  place  of  skulls.  Containing 
flesh  or  carcases  ;  a  cemetery ;  a  vault,  in  which 
dead  bodies  are  deposited. 

If  charnel-houses  and  our  graves  must  send 
Those  that  we  bury,  back ;  our  monuments 
Shall  be  the  maws  of  kites.  Shakspcare. 

When  they  were  in  those  charnel-houses,  every  one 
was  placed  in  order,  and  a  black  pillar  or  coffin  set 
by  him.  Taylor. 

Such  are  those  thick  and  gloomy  shadows  damp, 
Oft  found  in  charnel  vaults  and  sepulchres 
Lingering,  and  sitting  by  a  new-made  grave.    Milfrn. 

CHARNEL  HOUSES  were  anciently  a  kind  of 
galleries,  usually  in  or  near  a  church-yard,  over 
which  were  laid  the  bones  of  the  dead,  after  the 
flesh  was  wholly  consumed.  Charnel  houses  are 
now  usually  adjoining  to  the  chwrch. 

CHARON,  in  fabulous  history,  the  son  of 
Erebus  and  Nox,  whose  office  was  to  ferry  the 
souls  of  the  deceased  over  the  waters  of  Styx  and 
Acheron,  to  the  infernal  regions.  See  STYX. 

CHARPENTIER  (Francis),  dean  of  the 
French  Academy,  was  born  in  1620.  M.  Col- 
bert made  use  of  his  abilities  in  establishing  his 
Academy  of  Medals  and  Inscriptions ;  and  no 
person  of  that  learned  society  contributed  more 
towards  that  superb  series  of  medals,  which  were 
struck  on  the  events  that  distinguished  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.  He  published,  1.  The  Life  of 
Socrates,  1650.  2,  3.  Translations  of  Xeno- 
phon's  Memorabilia  and  Cyropsedia,  1558.  4. 
An  Account  of  the  French  East  India  Company, 
1665.  And,  5,  6.  Two  works  on  the  Excellency 
of  the  French  Language;  with  some  other 
pieces.  He  died  in  1702,  aged  eighty-two. 

CHART,  n.  s.  Lat.  charta.  A  delineation 
or  map  of  coasts,  for  the  use  of  sailors.  It  is 
distinguished  from  a  map,  by  representing  only 
the  coasts 

The  Portuguese,  when  they  had  doubled  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  found  skilful  pilots  using  astronomical 
instruments,  geographical  charts,  and  compasses. 

Arbuthnot. 

CHART,  or  SEA  CHART,  in  hydrography,  is  a 
projection  of  some  part  of  the  earth's  superfices 
in  piano.  Sea  charts  differ  very  considerably 
from  geographical  or  land  maps,  which  are  of  no 
use  in  navigation.  They  are  of  different  kind  ? ; 
such  as, 

CHART,  GLOBULAR,  a  meridional  projection, 
wlyerein  the  distance  of  the  eye  from  the  plane  of 


CHA 


341 


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the  meridian,  upon  which  the  projection  is  made, 
is  supposed  to  be  equal  to  the  line  of  the  angle 
45°.  This  projection  comes  the  nearest  of  all  to 
the  nature  of  the  globe,  because  the  meridians 
therein  are  placed  at  equal  distances;  the  pa- 
rallels also  are  nearly  equidistant,  and  conse- 
quently the  several  parts  of  the  earth  have  their 
proper  proportion  of  magnitude,  distance,  and 
situation,  nearly  the  same  as  on  the  globe  itself. 
See  GLOBULAR  PROJECTION. 

CHART,  HYDROGRAPHIC,  a  sheet  of  large 
paper,  whereon  several  parts  of  the  land  and  sea 
are  described,  with  their  respective  coasts,  har- 
bours, sounds,  flats,  rocks,  shelves,  sands,  &c. 
together  with  the  longitude  and  latitude  of  each 
place,  and  the  points  of  the  compass. 

CHART,  MERCATOR'S/IS  that  where  the  meri- 
dians are  straight  lines,  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  equidistant;  the  parallels  are  also  straight 
lines,  and  parallel  to  each  other :  but  the  dis- 
tance between  them  increases  from  the  equinoc- 
tial towards  either  pole,  in  the  ratio  of  the  secant 
of  the  latitude  to  the  radius.  Suppose  the  super- 
ficies of  the  terrestrial  globe  to  be  taken  off,  and 
extended  on  a  plane,  so  as  to  make  the  meridians 
parallel  to  each  other,  and  the  degrees  of  longi- 
tude everywhere  equal,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that 
it  must  be  productive  of  the  most  palpable 
errors ;  for  an  island  in  latitude  60°,  where  the 
radius  of  the  parallel  is  only  equal  to  one  half  of 
the  radius  of  the  equator,  will  have  its  length 
from  east  to  west  distorted  in  a  double  ratio  to 
what  it  was  on  the  globe ;  i.  e.  its  length  from 
east  to  west  compared  with  its  breadth  from 
north  to  south  will  appear  in  a  double  propor- 
tion to  what  it  is  in  reality  :  so  that,  in  whatever 
proportion  the  degrees  of  any  parallel  are  in- 
creased or  diminished  by  a  projection  in  piano, 
the  degrees  of  longitude  ought  to  be  increased  or 
diminished  in  the  same  ratio ;  otherwise  the  true 
bearings  of  places  will  be  lost,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  plane  chart,  where  the  degrees  of  latitude 
and  longitude  are  all  equal.  Although  this  pro- 
jection is  commonly  called  Mercator's  projec- 
tion, yet  our  countryman,  Mr.  Wright,  had  long 
before  demonstrated  its  use,  and  shown  a  ready 
way  of  constructing  it,  by  enlarging  the  meridian 
line,  by  a  continued  addition  of  secants.  See 
NAVIGATION. 

CHART,  PLANE,  is  a  representation  of  some 
small  part  of  the  earth  only,  or  of  some  parti- 
cular place,  without  regard  to  its  relative  situa- 
tion. 

CHA'RTER,  n.  s.        ~\      Lat.  charta.    Any 
CHA'RTER-PARTY,  ?i.  s.  >  writing       bestowing 
CHA'RTERED,  adj.          }  privileges   or  rights. 
Privilege  ;  immunity ;  exemption ;  invested  with 
privileges  by  charter;  privileged.  Charter-party, 
Fr.  charh-e  partie.     A  paper  relating  to  a  con- 
tract, of  which  each  party  has  a  copy. 

A  conference  between  the  king  [John]  and  the 
barons  \vas  appointed  at  Runnemede,  between  Wind- 
sor and  Staines  ;  a  place  which  has  ever  since  been 
extremely  celebrated  on  account  of  this  great  event. 
The  two  parties  encamped  apart,  like  open  enemies  ; 
and,  after  a  debate  of  a  few  days,  the  king,  on  the 
19th  June,  with  a  facility  somewhat  suspicious, 
signed  and  sealed  the  charter  which  was  required  of 
him.  This  famous  deed,  commonly  called  the  Great 


Charter,  either  granted  or  secured  very  importan 
liberties  and  privileges  to  every  order  of  men  in  the 
kingdom  ;  to  the  clergy,  to  the  barons,  and  lo  the 
people.  Hume's  History  of  England. 

I  must  have  liberty 

Withal  as  large  a  charter  as  the  wind, 

To  blow  on  whom  I  please  ;  for  so  fools  have ; 

And  they  that  are  most  galled  with  my  folly, 

They  most  must  laugh.  Shukspeare. 

When  he  speaks 
The  air,  a  chartered  libertine,  is  still.  Id. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  that  the  great  charter 
whereby  God  bestowed  the  whole  earth  upon  Adam, 
and  confirmed  it  unto  the  sons  of  Noah,  being  as  brief 
in  word  as  large  in  effect,  hath  bred  much  quarrel  of 
interpretation.  Raleigh's  Essays. 

Here  was  that  charter  sealed,  wherein  the  crown 
All  marks  of  arbitrary  power  lays  down.  Denham. 

God  renewed  this  charter  of  man's  sovereignty  over 
the  creatures.  South. 

CHARTA,  xaPT»7C>  originally  signifies  a  sort 
of  paper  made  of  the  plant  papyrus  or  biblus. 
See  PAPER.  The  word  is  also  used  in  our  an- 
cient customs  for  a  charter,  01  deed  in  writing. 
See  CHARTER. 

CHARTA  EMPORETICA,  in  pharmacy,  &c.  a 
kind  of  paper  made  very  soft  and  porous,  used 
for  the  purpose  of  filtering. 

CHARTA  MAGNA.     See  MAGNA  CHARTA. 

CHARTER-PARTY,  Fr.  chartre-partie,  is  an  in- 
strument of  freightage,  or  articles  of  agreement 
made  between  merchants  and  sea-faring  men, 
concerning  their  merchandise  and  maritime 
affairs.  The  charter-party  must  be  in  writing ; 
and  be  signed  both  by  the  proprietor  or  the 
master  of  the  ship,  and  the  merchant  who  freights 
it.  It  should  contain  the  name  and  the  burden 
of  the  vessel ;  the  names  of  the  master  and  the 
freighter;  the  rate  of  freight;  and  the  time  of 
loading  and  unloading ;  and  the  other  conditions 
agreed  on.  It  is  properly  a  deed,  whereby  the 
master  or  proprietor  of  the  vessel  engages  to  fur- 
nish immediately  a  sound  vessel  well  equipped, 
caulked,  and  stopped,  provided  with  anchors, 
sails,  cordage,  and  all  other  furniture  to  make  the 
voyage  required,  as  equipage,  hands,  victuals, 
and  other  munitions ;  in  consideration  of  a  cer- 
tain sum  to  be  paid  by  the  merchant  for  the 
freight.  Lastly,  the  ship  with  all  its  furniture, 
and  the  cargo,  are  respectively  subjected  to  the 
conditions  of  the  charter-party.  The  charter- 
party  differs  from  a  bill  of  lading,  in  that  the 
first  is  for  the  entire  freight,  both  going  and  re- 
turning ;  whereas  the  latter  is  only  for  a  part  of 
the  freight,  or  at  most  only  for  the  voyage  one 
way. 

CHARTOPHYLAX,  an  officer  of  the  church 
of  Constantinople,  who,  when  the  sacrament  is 
administered,  gives  notice  to  the  priests  to  come 
to  the  table.  He  represents  the  patriarch  upon 
the  bench,  tries  all  ecclesiastical  causes,  keeps 
the  marriage  registers,  assists  at  the  consecration 
of  bishops,  and  presents  the  bishop  elect,  and  all 
other  subordinate  clergy. 

CHARTRES,  an  ancient  and  large  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Eure  and  Loire, 
and  the  see  of  a  bishop.  Its  ancient  name  was 
Autricum,  and  Carnutes.  Its  principal  trade  is 
in  corn,  wine,  and  some  few  manufactured  goods. 
The  cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest  in  France,  and 


CHA 


342  CHA 


its  steeple  is  much  admired.  It  is  seated  on  the 
Eure,  over  which  is  a  bridge  built  by  Vauban. 
It  was  the  birthplace  of  Nicole  the  moralist,  the 
poet  Regnier,  and  Brissot.  Forty-five  miles 
south-west  of  Paris.  Long.  1°  34'  E.,  lat.  48° 
27' N. 

CHARTREUSE,  or  the  GRAND  CHAR- 
TREUSE, a  late  celebrated  monastery,  the  capital 
of  all  the  convents  of  the  Carthusian  monks, 
about  seven  miles  north-east  of  Grenoble,  in  the 
ci-devant  province  of  Dauphine,  now  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Isere.  The  situation  of  this 
place  has  been  much  admired  and  celebrated, 
being  one  of  the  most  romantic  and  beautiful 
scenes  to  be  seen  in  the  whole  range  of  the  Alps. 
From  Echelles,  a  little  village  in  the  mountains 
of  Savoy,  to  the  Chartreuse,  which  is  built  on  a 
mountain  of  the  same  name,  the  distance  is  six 
miles.  Along  this  course,  the  road  runs  winding 
up,  for  the  most  part  not  six  feet  broad.  On  one 
hand  is  the  rock  with  woods  of  pine  tree  hanging 
over  head ;  on  the  other  a  prodigious  precipice 
almost  perpendicular ;  at  the  bottom  of  which 
rolls  a  torrent,  that  sometimes  tumbling  among 
the  fragments  of  stone  which  have  fallen  from  on 
high,  and  sometimes  precipitating  itself  down 
vast  descents  with  a  noise  like  thunder,  rendered 
yet  more  tremendous  by  the  echo  from  the  moun- 
tains on  each  side,  concurs  to  form  one  of  the 
most  solemn,  the  most  romantic,  and  most  asto- 
nishing scenes  in  nature. 

CHARTREUSE  of  London,  corruptly  called  the 
Charter-house,  took  its  name  from  the  Grand 
Chartreuse,  but  is  now  converted  into  an  hospital, 
and  endowed  with  a  noble  revenue.  Here  are 
maintained  eighty  decayed  gentlemen,  not  under 
fifty  years  of  age :  and  forty  boys  are  educated 
and  fitted  either  for  the  university  or  trades. 
Those  sent  to  the  university  have  an  exhibition 
of  £20  a  year  for  eight  years ;  and  have  an  im- 
mediate title  to  nine  church  livings  in  the  gift  of 
the  governors  of  the  hospital,  who  are  sixteen  in 
number,  all  persons  of  the  first  distinction,  and 
taking  their  turns  in  the  nomination  of  pensioners 
and  scholars .  For  a  description  of  the  new  and 
excellent  method  of  discipline,  adopted  by  the 
school  of  this  foundation,  see  EDUCATION. 

CHARYBDIS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  fa- 
mous whirlpool  in  the  strait  of  Messina,  lying 
between  Calabria  in  Italy  and  the  island  of 
Sicily,  opposite  to  Scylla,  a  dangerous  rock  on 
the  coast  of  Italy,  against  which  mariners  were 
often  dashed  in  endeavouring  to  avoid  Cha- 
rybdis ;  whence  the  Latin  adage, 

Incidit  in  Scyllam  qui  vult  vitare  Charybdin. 

This  whirlpool  is  said  to  have  been  much  affected 
by  the  dreadful  earthquake  in  1783.  It  is  now 
called  Calofaro  and  Larema. 

CHASE,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.  >  The  substantive  agrees 
CHA'SER,  n.  t.  5  with  the  Isl.  and  Swed. 
kas;  Fr.  chace  ;  Ital.  caccia;  Teut.  jeichen,  jagen, 
to  drive,  to  pursue,  to  hunt.  Thus  the  verb  sig- 
nifies to  hunt ;  to  pursue  as  an  enemy  ;  to  drive 
away ;  to  follow  as  a  thing  desirable ;  to  drive. 
The  substantive  chaser,  is  sometimes  used  for  en- 
chaser,  a  chaser  of  metals. 

And  Abimclcch  chased  him,  aud  he  fled  before  him. 

Judges, 


It  shall  be  as  the  chased  roe. 


Istiiah. 


Upon  a  day 


As  she  the  woodes  with  bow  and  shaftes  did  raunge, 
The  hartlesse  hynde  and  roebuck  to  dismay, 
Ban  Faunus  chaunst  to  meet  her  by  the  way, 
And  kindling  fire  at  her  faire-burning  eye, 
Inflamed  was  to  follow  beauties  chace  ; 
And  chaced  her,  that  fast  from  him  did  fly  ; 
As  hynd  from  her,  so  she  fled  from  her  enemy. 

Spenser. 

She,  seeing  the  towering  of  her  pursued  chace,  went 
circling  about,  rising  so  with  the  less  sense  of  rising. 

Sidney 

Whilst  he  was  hastening  in  the  cJuue,  it  seems, 
Of  this  fair  couple,  meets  he  on  the  way 
The  father  of  this  seeming  lady.  Shahspeare. 

A  maid  I  am,  and  of  thy  virgin  train  ; 
Oh !  let  me  still  that  spotless  name  retain, 
Frequent  the  forests,  thy  chaste  will  obey, 
And  only  make  the  beasts  of  chase  my  prey. 

Dryden. 

When  the  following  morn  had  chased  away 
The  flying  stars,  and  light  restored  the  day.  Id. 

Yet  this  mad  chase  of  fame,  by  few  pursued, 
Has  drawn  destruction  on  the  multitude. 

Id.  Juvenal. 

They  seek  that  joy,  which  used  to  glow 
Expanded  on  the  hero's  face, 

When  the  thick  squadrons  prest  the  foe 
And  William  led  the  glorious  chase.  Prior. 

Stretched  on  the  lawn,  his  second  hope  survey, 
At  once  the  chaser,  and  at  once  the  prey ! 
Lo,  Rufus,  tugging  at  the  deadly  dart, 
Bleeds  in  the  forest  like  a  wounded  hart.  Pope. 

Let  the  keen  hunter  from  the  chase  refrain, 
Nor  render  all  the  ploughman's  labour  vain 
When  Ceres  pours  out  plenty  from  her  horn, 
And  clothes  the  fields  with  golden  ears  of  corn. 

•  Gay's  Rural  Sports. 

CHASES,  or  CHACES,  want  courts  of  attach- 
ment, swainmote,  and  justice-seat.  See  FOREST. 
Crompton  observes  that  a  forest  cannot  be  in  the 
hands  of  a  subject,  but  it  forthwith  loses  its 
name,  and  becomes  a  chase ;  as  all  those  courts 
lose  their  nature  when  they  come  into  the  hands 
of  a  subject ;  and  that  none  but  a  king  can  make 
a  lord  chief  justice  in  eyre  of  the  forest.  See 
JUSTICE  IN  EYRE. 

CHASING,  in  sculpture,  the  art  of  embossing 
on  metals.  This  is  the  art  of  representing  figures, 
&c.  in  a  kind  of  bassi  relievi,  which  is  punched 
out  from  behind,  and  sculptured  on  the  front 
with  small  chisels  and  gravers.  See  ENCHASING. 
CHASM,  n.  s.  Xa<r/ia.  A  breach  unclosed ; 
a  cleft ;  a  gap ;  an  opening.  A  place  unfilled ; 
a  vacuity. 

Some  lazy  ages,  lost  in  ease, 
No  action  leave  to  busy  chronicles  ; 
Such,  whose  supine  felicity  but  makes 
In  story  chasms,  in  epochas  mistakes.       Dryden. 
In  all  that  visible  corporeal  world,  we  see  no  chasms 
or  gaps.  Locke. 

The  ground  adust  her  riven  mouth  disparts ; 
Horrible  chasm !  profound.  Philips. 

CHA'SSELAS,n.s.    French.   A  sort  of  grape. 
CHA'STEN,v.a.      -\      Fr.   chattier,    chasti- 
CHASTI'SE,  v.  a.         9ment;  Lat.  castigo.    To 
CHASTISEMENT,?*.?,  £  afflict  for  faults;  to  cor- 
CHASTI'SER,  n.s.       V  rect  by  severe  treatment; 
by  justice,  suffering  inflicted ;  but  distinguished 
from  that  which  is  penal. 


CHA 


S43 


CHA 


Chasten  thy  son  -while  there  is  hope,  and  let  not  thy 
soul  spare  for  his  crying.  Proverbs. 

But  who  so  woll  chattise.  me, 
Anone  my  love  yloste  hath  he  ; 
For  I  love  no  roan,  in  no  gise, 
That  woll  me  reprove  or  chastise. 
But  I  woll  all  folk  undertake, 
And  of  no  wight  no  teching  take  ; 
For  I  that  other  folk  chastie, 
Woll  not  be  taught  fro  my  folie. 

Chaucer's  Romaunt  oj   the  Ruse. 
My  hreast  I'll  burst  with  straining  of  my  courage, 
But  I  will  chastise  this  high-minded  strumpet. 

Shahnpeare. 

Shall  I  so  much  dishonour  my  fair  stars, 
On  equal  terms  to  give  him  chastisement.  Id. 

He  held  the  chastisement  of  one,  which  molested 
the  see  of  Rome,  pleasing  to  God.  Raleigh's  Essays. 

I  follow  thee,  safe  guide!  the  path 

Thou  leadest  me!  and  to  the  hand  of  heaven  submit, 

However  chastening.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

I  am  glad  to  see  the  vanity  or  envy  of  the  canting 

chymists  thus  discovered  and  chastised.  Boyle. 

Like  you,  commissioned  to  chastise  and  bless, 
He  must  avenge  the  world,  and  give  it  peace.    Prior. 

Some  feel  the  rod, 
And  own,  like  us,  the  father's  chastening  hand. 

R'juie. 

The  gay  social  sense 

By  decency  chastised.  Thomson. 

He  had  been  tempted — chastened — and  the  chain 
Yet  on  his  arms,  might  ever  there  remain. 

Byron's  Cors&ir. 

CHASTITY,  n.  s.~\      Lat.    castitas,    castus; 
CHASTE,  adj.  \Fr.  cliaste.    Purity;  free- 

CHA'STELY,  adv.      £  dom  from  obscurity ;  free- 
CHA'STEXESS,  n.  s.  J  dom  from  bad  mixture  of 
any  kind.     Purity  of  the  marriage  bed.     Purity 
of  language  opposed  to  barbarisms ;  without  con- 
tamination. 

Love  your  children  j  be  discreet ;  chaste,  keepers  at 
home.  Titus. 

Now  as  to  the  outragious  array  of  women,  God 
wote,  that  though  the  visiges  of  som  of  hem  semen 
ful  chaste  and  debonaire,  yet  notifien  they  in  hir  array 
of  attire,  likerousuesse  and  pride. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 
It  is  chaste  and  pure  as  purest  snow, 
Xe  lets  her  waves  with  any  filth  be  dyde  ; 
But  ever,  like  herself,  unstayned  hath  been  tryde. 

Spenser. 

You  should  not  pass  here  ;  no,  though  it  were  as 
virtuous  to  lie  as  to  live  chastely.  Shakspeare. 

Who  can  be  bound  by  any  solemn  vow 
To  force  a  spotless  virgin'*  cliastity.  Id. 

There  is  not  chastity  enough  in  language, 
Without  offence  to  utter  them.  Id.  Much  Ado. 

Chastity  is  either  abstinence  or  continence  :  absti- 
nence is  that  ot  virgins  or  widows  :  continence,  of 
married  persons  :  chaste  marriages  are  honourable  and 
pleasing  to  God.  Taylor. 

And  our  chaste  lamps  we  hourly  trim, 
Lest  the  great  bridegroom  find  them  dim.    Marvell. 

Succession  of  a  long  descent, 
Vi  hid)  cJiastely  in  the  channels  ran, 
And  from  our  demi-gods  began.  Dryden 

Even  here,  where  frozen  oltastity  retires, 
Love  finds  an  altar  for  forbidden  fires.  Pope. 

Among  words  which  signify  the  same  principal 
ideas,  some  are  clean  and  decent,  others  unclean  ; 
some  chaste,  others  obscene.  Watts's  Logic. 


The  chaste  severity  of  the  fathers,  in  whatever  re* 
lated  to  the  commerce  of  the  two  sexes,  flowed  from 
the  same  principle  ;  their  abhorrence  of  every  enjoy- 
ment which  might  gratify  the  sensual,  and  degrade 
the  spiritual,  nature  of  man.  Gibbon. 

CHASTITY,  LAWS  RESPECTING.  The  Roman 
law  justifies  homicide  in  defence  of  the  chastity 
either  of  one's  self  or  relations ;  and  so  also  stood 
the  la%v  in  the  Jewish  republic.  Our  law  like- 
wise justifies  a  woman  for  killing  a  man  who 
attempts  to  ravish  her.  Even  the  husband  or 
father  may  kill  a  man  who  attempts  a  rape  upon 
his  wife  or  daughter ;  but  not  if  lie  takes  them 
in  adultery  by  consent:  for  the  one  is  forcible 
and  felonious,  but  not  the  other. 

CHAT,  v. n.,  v.  a.,  &  n.  s.  }  From  fr.-caqueter, 
CIIA'TT':.R,  v.  n.  &  n.  s.  /  Skinner ;  Isl.  kuttru , 
CHA'TTLRER,  n.  s.  5  Dan.  jadde.ro. ;  per- 

haps from  achat,  purchase  or  cheapening,  on  ac- 
count of  the  prate  naturally  produced  in  a  bargain; 
or  only,  as  it  is  most  likely,  contracted  from  chat- 
ter. To  prate;  to  talk  idly;  to  prattle;  to  cackle; 
to  converse  at  ease.  Idle  talk  ;  prate  ;  slight  or 
negligent  tattle.  Chatter  is  derived  from  the 
same  etymon,  and  differs  very  little  in  meaning 
from  chat.  It  signifies  to  talk  idly  or  carelessly ; 
to  make  a  noise  as  a  pie,  or  other  unharmonious 
bird ;  to  make  a  noise  by  collision  of  the  teeth. 
Nightingales  seldom  sing,  the  pie  still  chattereth. 

Sidney. 

So  doth  the  cuckow,  when  the  mavis  sings, 
Begin  his  witless  note  apace  to  chatter.         Spenser. 

Lords,  that  can  prate 
As  amply  and  unnecessarily 
As  this  Gonzalo,  I  myself  would  make 
A  chough  of  as  deep  chat.  Shakspeare. 

Your  prattling  nurse 
Into  a  rapture  lets  her  baby  cry, 
While  she  chats  him.  Id. 

Because  that  I  familiarly  sometimes 
Do  use  you  for  my  fool,  and  chat  with  you, 
Your  sauciness  will  jest  upon  my  love.  Id. 

The  shepherds  on  the  lawn 

Sat  simply  chatting  in  a  rustick  row.  MUton. 

With  much  good-will  the  motion  was  embraced, 
To  chat  awhile  on  their  adventures  passed.       Drydtti. 

Your  birds  of  knowledge,  that  in  dusky  air 
Chatter  futurity.  Id 

The  time  between  before  the  fire  they  sat. 
And  shortened  the  delay  by  pleasing  chat.  Id 

Stood  Theodore  surprised  in  deadly  fright, 
\Vilh  chattering  teeth,  and  bristling  hair  upright.     Id. 

Dip  but  your  toes  into  cold  water, 
Their  correspondent  teeth  will  chatter.         Prior. 
The  least  is  good,  far  greater  than  the  tick!:: 
his  palate  with  a  glass  of  wine,  or  the  idle  chat  of  a 
soaking  club.  Locke. 

Come  sit  by  rr.y  side  while  this  picture  I  draw ; 
In  chattering  a  magpie,  in  pride  a  jackdaw  ; 
A  temper  the  devil  himself  could  not  bridle, 
Impertinent  mixture  of  busy  and  idle.  Swift. 

I  am  a  member  of  a  female  society  who  call  our- 
selves the  chit-chat  club,  and  am  ordered  by  the 
whole  sisterhood  to  congratulate  you  upon  the  use  of 
your  tongue.  Spectator. 

The  birds, 

Assembled  on  affairs  of  love, 
And  with  much  twitter  and  much  cliatter 
Began  to  agitate  the  matter.  Cowp«r. 

CHAT,  n. «.  The  keys  of  trees  are  called  chats ; 
as,  ash  chats. 


CHA 


344 


CHA 


CHAT,  in  the  cannon  foundry,  an  instrument 
used  in  the  examination  of  ordnance ;  consisting 
of  a  piece  of  iron  fastened  to  a  wooden  shaft, 
and  having  three  prongs,  which,  being  introduced 
into  the  bore  of  the  gun,  show  whether  it  be 
honey-combed,  damaged,  or  otherwise  defective. 
There  is  an  improvement  on  this,  having  a  spring 
so  contrived  that  the  least  cavity  releases  the 
spring,  and  by  means  of  a  catch  instantly  betrays 
tire  defect. 

CHATEAU-CAMBRESIS,OrCATEAU-CAMBRE- 

sis,  iii  the  department  of  the  North,  and  late 
province  of  Cambresis.  It  has  a  magnificent 
palace,  which  belonged  to  the  ci-devant  archie- 
piscopal  see  of  Cambray;  and  is  famous  for  the 
treaty  concluded  between  Henry  II.  of  France, 
and  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  It  also  had,  before  the 
Revolution,  a  noble  Benedictine  abbey,  now  sup- 
pressed. It  is  seated  on  the  Seille,  fifteen  miles 
south-east  of  Camhray. 

CHATEAU-DAUPHIN,  a  very  strong  castle  of 
Piedmont,  in  the  marquisate  of  Saluces,  belong- 
ing to  the  king  of  Sardinia.  It  was  taken  by 
the  combined  army  of  France  and  Spain  in  1 744, 
and  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

CHATEAU  DU  LOIRE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Sarte,  and  ci-devant  province 
of  Maine,  famous  for  sustaining  a  siege  of  seven 
years  against  Herbert  count  of  Mans.  It  is  seated 
on  the  Loire,  twenty-two  miles  south-east  of 
Mans,  and  ninety-seven  west  of  Paris.  Many 
small  towns  in  France  have  the  prefix,  Chateau. 

CHATEAUROTJX,  a  large  town  of  France,  capital 
of  the  department  of  the  Indre,  and  ci-devant  pro- 
vince of  Berry.  It  has  a  considerable  woollen 
manufacture,  and  is  seated  in  a  very  pleasant 
plain  on  the  Indre,  fifteen  miles  south-west  of 
Issoudun,  and  150  south-west  of  Paris.  Popu- 
lation 8500. 

CHATEL  (Peter  du),  in  Latin,  Castellanus,  a 
learned  French  divine,  born  at  Arc,  and  educated 
at  Dijon.  He  assisted  Erasmus  in  his  transla- 
tions from  the  Greek,  and  became  corrector  of 
the  press  in  Frobenius's  office  at  Basil.  Henry 
II.  translated  him  to  Orleans,  where  he  died  in 
1552. 

CHATELET,  the  name  of  certain  ci-devant 
courts  of  justice  in  France.  The  grand  chatelet 
at  Paris  was  the  place  where  the  presidial  or 
ordinary  court  of  justice  of  the  provost  of  Paris 
was  held ;  and  consisted  of  presidial,  a  civil 
chamber,  a  criminal  chamber,  and  a  chamber  of 
policy. 

CHATELLANY,  n.  s.  Fr.  chdtelenie.  The 
district  under  the  dominion  of  a  castle. 

Here  are  about  twenty  towns  and  forts  of  great  im- 
portance, with  their  cfwtellanies  and  dependencies. 

Dryden. 

CHATELLERAULT,  a  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  the  Vienne,  and  late  province 
of  Poitou ;  seated  in  a  fertile  and  pleasant  coun- 
try, on  the  river  Vienne,  over  which  is  a  hand- 
some stnne  bridge.  It  is  noted  for  its  cutlery, 
watch-making,  cloth,  and  the  cutting  of  false 
diamonds.  It  is  twenty-two. miles  northeast  of 
Poitiers,  and  168  south-west  of  Paris. 

CHATHAM,  called  in  Domesday  book  Cet- 
cham,  an  important  market  town  of  Kent,  ad- 
joining the  east  side  of  the  city  of  Rochester,  on 
the  Medwav.  It  i«  "neofthe  principal  stations 


of  the  royal  navy  ;  the  yards  and  magazines,  of 
which  there  are  whole  streets,  being  furnished 
with  all  kinds  of  stores,  and  materials  for  build- 
ing, rigging,  and  repairing  the  largest  vessels. 
The  entrance  into  the  Medway  is  defended  by 
Sheerness  and  other  forts ;  notwithstanding  which 
the  Dutch  burnt  several  ships  of  war  here  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  The  dock-yard  and  ordnance- 
wharf  are,  together,  about  a  mile  in  length ;  some 
of  the  store  rooms  are  near  700  feet  long,  and 
the  sail  loft  is  209  feet.  Twenty  smiths'  forges 
are  often  at  work,  and  some  of  the  anchors  made 
here  weigh  between  four  and  five  tons.  The 
new  rope-house  is  1140  feet  in  length,  in  which 
cables  are  made  120  fathoms  long  and  twenty- 
two  inches  in  circumference.  In  the  yard  are 
four  docks  for  repairing,  and  six  slips  for  build- 
ing vessels.  The  unfortunate  Royal-George,  the 
Victory,  and  the  Royal-Charlotte,  three  of  the 
largest  ships  in  the  navy,  were  built  here.  There 
is  in  this  town  a  complete  set  of  block  machinery 
similar  to  that  of  Portsmorth.  The  victualling 
office,  a  neat  and  convenient  building,  stands  at 
the  entrance  of  the  town. 

The  chest  of  Chatham,  instituted  in  1553,  by 
the  seamen  in  the  service  of  queen  Elizabeth,  for 
the  relief  of  thfe  sufferers  in  the  defeat  of  the 
Spanish  armada,  was  moved  to  Greenwich  in 
1802,  and  placed  under  the  direction  of  the  first 
lord  of  the  admiralty.  But  here  is  an  hospital  for 
decayed  mariners  and  shipwrights,  and  their 
widows,  from  which  the  pensioners  have  eight 
shillings  and  their  widows  seven  shilling  per 
week,  and  a  quarter  of  a  chaldron  of  coals  yearly, 
no  person  being  eligible  who  has  not  been 
maimed  or  disabled,  or  otherwise  brought  to 
poverty  in  the  royal  navy.  Twenty-six  governors 
preside  over  the  institution,  four  of  whom  are 
elective ;  and  the  others  are  governors  by  virtue 
of  their  respective  offices,  viz.  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  the  bishop  of  Rochester,  the  lord 
high  admiral,  the  lord-warden  of  the  Cinque- 
ports,  the  dean  of  Rochester,  the  treasurer,  comp- 
troller, surveyor  and  clerk  of  the  acts,  six  prin- 
cipal master  mariners,  two  principal  shipwrights, 
the  master  and  warden  of  the  Trinity-house,  the 
commissioner,  the  two  master-attendants,  and 
the  master-shipwright  of  Chatham  dock-yard. 
This  hospital,  called  Sir  John  Hawkins's,  has 
lately  been  rebuilt. 

In  1757  the  present  Zincs  were  commenced  un- 
der the  direction  of  William,  duke  of  Cumberland, 
and  much  enlarged  during  the  latewar.  Chatham 
is  thirty-one  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  London.  •  The 
population  in  1821  was  15,268. 

CHATHAM,  a  well-cultivated  county  of  North 
Carolina,  in  Hillsborough  district,  bounded  on 
the  west  by  Randolph,  north  by  Orange,  east  by 
Wake,  and  south  by  Cumberland  and  Moore 
counties.  It  is  watered  by  the  north-west  branch 
of  Cape  Fear  River.  It  abounds  in  iron  ore, 
which  is  manufactured  into  iron  a*.  Fish-creek. 
The  chief  town  is  Pitshurg. 

CHATHAM  ISLAND,  an  island  in  the  South  Pa- 
cific, discovered  by  Lieutenant  Broughton  in 
1791,  but  hitherto  little  explored.  Near  the 
coast  it  is  woody  and  well  furnished  with  har- 
bours :  fish  and  the  feathered  tribes  are  numer- 
ous, and  the  latter  remarkably  tame.  The  inha- 
bitants are  copper-colored  and  verv  wild.  Lat. 


345 


CHA 


of  the  noith  point  43°  43'  S  ,  long.  183  2'  E. 
Also  an  island  in  the  South  Pacific,  supposed  by 
the  officers  of  the  Pandora  to  be  twice  as  large 
as  Otaheite.  The  natives  spoke  of  a  large  river 
in  the  interior,  which  empties  itself  into  a  spacious 
bay.  They  traded  in  an  unusually  fair  way. 

CHATHAM  STRAIT,  a  channel  on  the  west  coast 
of  North  America,  which  divides  King  George 
the  Third's  Archipelago  from  Admiralty  Island. 
It  is  about  100  miles  in  length  from  north  to 
south  ;  and  was  found  by  Vancouver  very  abund- 
ant in  sea-otters. 

CHATTEL,  n.  s.  See  CATTLE.  Any  move- 
able  possession ;  a  term  scarce  used  but  in  forms 
C«f  law. 

Nay,  look  not  big,  nor  stamp,  nor  stare,  nor  fret  j 
I  -will  be  master  of  what  is  mine  own  ; 
She  is  my  goods,  my  cfiatteli.  Shaktpeare. 

Honour's  a  lease  for  lives  to  come, 
And  cannot  be  extended  from 
The  legal  tenant ;  'tis  a  chattle 
Not  to  be  forfeited  in  battle.  Hudibras. 

CHATTERPOOR,  an  ancient  city  of  Hin- 
dostan,  so  named  from  its  founder,  the  rajah 
Chattersal,  in  the  district  of  Bundelcund  and 
province  of  Allahabad.  It  is  situated  not  far 
from  the  famous  Pinnah  diamond  mines,  and  was 
formerly  a  flourishing  entrepot  for  the  trade 
between  the  Deccan  and  Benares.  It  was  ob- 
tained by'  the  British  at  the  close  of  the  last 
Mahratta  war;  and  is  237  miles  from  Benares, 
698  from  Calcutta,  and  247  from  Bombay. 

CHATTERTON  (Thomas),  an  English  poet, 
whose  fate  and  performances  excited  some  years 
ago,  in  no  small  degree,  the  public  attention,  and 
gave  rise  to  much  controversy.  He  was  born  at 
Bristol,  November  20th,  1752;  and  educated  at 
a  charity  school  on  St.  Augustin's  Back,  where 
nothing  more  was  taught  than  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic.  At  fourteen  years  of  age,  he 
was  articled  clerk  to  an  attorney  at  Bristol,  with 
whom  he  continued  about  three  years.  Though 
his  education  was  thus  confined,  he  discovered 
an  early  turn  for  poetry,  English  antiquities,  and 
heraldry.  In  April,  1770,  he  left  Bristol,  dis- 
gusted with  his  profession,  and  came  to  London 
in  hopes  of  advancing  his  fortune  by  his  pen. 
Having  written  something  in  praise  of  Beckford, 
the  lord  mayor,  he  had  the  honor  of  being  pre- 
sented to  his  lordship  ;  and  observes,  respecting 
his  reception,  '  there  is  no  money  to  be  got  on 
this  side  of  the  question.  However,  he  is  a  poor 
author  who  cannot  write  on  both  sides.  Essays 
on  the  patriotic  side  will  fetch  no  more  than  what 
the  copy  is  sold  for.  As  the  patriots  themselves 
are  searching  for  places,  they  have  no  gratuity  to 
spare.  On  the  other  hand  unpopular  essays  will 
not  even  be  accepted,  and  you  must  pay  to  have 
them  printed  ;  but  then  you  seldom  lose  by  it, 
as  courtiers  are  so  sensible  of  their  deficiency  in 
merit,  that  they  generously  reward  all  who  know 
how  to  daub  them  with  the  appearance  of  it.' 
He  continued  to  write  incessantly  in  various  pe- 
riodical publications.  But  all  these  exertions  of 
his  genius  brought  in  so  little  money,  that  he 
was  soon  reduced  to  the  extremes!  indigence  : 
and  at  last,  oppressed  with  poverty  and  disease, 
he  in  a  fit  of  despair,  put  an  end  to  his  existence 
by  taking  poison,  August,  1770.  In  1777  were 


published  in  1  vol.  8vo.,  Poems  supposed  to 
have  been  written  at  Bristol,  by  Thomas  Rowley 
and  others,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  greatest 
part  now  first  published  from  the  most  authentic 
copies,  with  an  engraved  specimen  of  one  of  the 
MSS.  :  to  which  are  added  a  Preface,  an  Intro- 
ductory Account  of  the  several  Pieces,  and  a 
Glossary.  And  in  1778  were  published  in  one 
vol.  8vo.,  Miscellanies  in  Prose  and  Verse, 
by  Thomas  Chatterton,  supposed  author  of  the 
Poems  published  under  the  names  of  Rowley, 
&c.  Dr.  Watkins,  in  his  Memoir  of  Chatterton, 
says,  What  has  given  celebrity  to  his  name,  is 
the  real  or  pretended  discovery  of  poems,  written 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  by  Thomas  Rowley,  a 
priest  of  Bristol,  and  others,  in  Redcliffe  church, 
of  which  Chatterton's  ancestors  had  been  sextons 
near  a  century  and  a  half.  His  father  certainly 
removed  a  number  of  parchments  from  an  old 
chest  in  that  church,  most  of  which  were  used  in 
covering  books.  Young  Chatterton,  from  the 
perusal  of  some  of  them,  is  supposed  to  have 
formed  the  design  of  a  literary  forgery.  A 
sharp  controversy  was  carried  on  for  some  time 
on  that  point,  between  Mr.  Warton,  Mr. 
Bryant,  Mr.  Matthias,  and  others;  and  the 
poems  are  now  generally  considered  as  Chatter- 
ton's  own  productions.  A  new  edition  of  his 
works  was  published  by  Mr.  Southey,  in  3  vols. 
8vo. 

CHATS  WORTH,  a  villa  on  the  peak  of 
Derby,  a  magnificent  seat  of  the  duke  of  Devon- 
shire. It  is  seated  on  the  Derwent,  and  built  of 
stone  dug  on  the  spot;  being  six  miles  from 
Chesterfield,  and  141  from  London.  It  was  here 
that  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  was  imprisoned  seven- 
teen years,  in  memory  of  which  part  of  the  build- 
ing is  called  the  Queen  of  Scots'  Apartments. 
Its  gardens  and  park  occupy  an  extent  of  nine 
miles  in  circumference. 

CHAVARIGHTS,  or  CHAVARITES,  a  sect  of 
Mahommedans,  who  deny  that  God  ever  sent  a 
prophet  that,  was  infallible,  with  a  commission  to 
give  a  law  to  mankind.  They  say,  that  if  such 
an  office  were  necessary,  it  would  not  be  con- 
fined to  a  single  family,  but  that  every  man  of 
probity  and  virtue  would  be  capable  of  that 
honor. 

CHAUCER  (Sir  Geoffrey),  the  father  of  Eng- 
lish poetry,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  was  born 
in  London  in  1328.  After  he  left  the  university 
he  travelled  into  Holland,  France  and  other 
countries.  Upon  his  return  he  entered  himself 
in  the.  Inner  Temple,  where  he  studied  the  law. 
His  first  station  at  court  was  that  of  page  to  Ed- 
ward III.  from  whom  he  had  a  pension.  Soon 
after,  he  was  made  gentleman,  of  the  king's  privy 
chamber,  and  shield-bearer  to  the  king.  He 
spent  his  younger  days  in  a  constant  attendance 
at  court,  or  for  the  most  part  living  near  it,  in 
a  square  stone  house,  near  the  park  gate  at 
Woodstock,  still  called  Chaucer's  House.  Be- 
ing patronised  by  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  he  was 
sent  in  1373  to  the  republic  of  Genoa,  to  hire 
ships  for  the  king's  navy  ;  and  the  king  was  so 
well  satisfied  witli  his  negociations,  that  on  his 
return  he  obtained  a  grant  of  a  pitcher  of  wine 
daily  in  the  port  of  London,  to  be  delivered  by 
the  butler  of  England;  and  soon  after  was  made 


CHA 


346 


CHA 


comptroller  of  the  customs  for  wool,  wool-fells, 
and  hides;  an  office  which  he  discharged  with 
great  diligence  and  integrity.  At  this  period, 
his  income  was  about  £1000  a  year ;  a  sum 
which  in  those  days  enabled  him  to  live  with 
dignity  in  his  office,  and  hospitality  among  his 
friends.  It  was  in  this  meridian  blaze  of  prospe- 
rity, that  he  wrote  his  most  humorous  poems. 
His  satires  against  the  priests  were  probably 
written  to  oblige  his  patron  the  duke  of  Lancas- 
ter, W!K>  favored  the  cause  of  Wickliff,  and  en- 
deavoured to  expose  the  clergy  to  the  indigna- 
tion of  the  people.  la  the  last  year  of  Edward 
III.  our  poet  was  employed  in  a  commission  to 
treat  with  the  French ;  and,  in  the  beginning  of 
Richard's  reign,  he  was  in  some  degree  of  favor 
at  court.  But  the  duke's  interest  failing,  that  of 
Chaucer  entirely  sunk ;  and  the  former  passing 
over  sea,  his  friends  felt  all  the  malice  of 
the  opposite  party.  These  misfortunes  occasioned 
his  writing  that  excellent  treatise,  The  Testament 
of  Love,  an  imitation  of  Boethius  on  the  Conso- 
lation of  Philosophy.  He  soon  after  returned  to 
Woodstock,  where  he  produced  his  admirable 
treatise  of  the  Astrolabe.  The  duke  of  Lancaster 
at  last  surmounting  his  troubles,  married  lady 
Catharine  Swynford,  sister  to  Chaucer's  wife ; 
so  that  Thomas  Chaucer,  our  poet's  son,  became 
allied  to  most  of  the  nobility,  and  to  several  of 
the  kings  of  England.  By  the  influence  of  the 
duke's  marriage,  he  again  obtained  a  considera- 
ble share  of  wealth.  But  being  now  near  se- 
venty, he  retired  to  Donnington  Castle  near 
Newbury.  He  had  not  enjoyed  his  retirement 
long  before  Henry  IV.  son  of  the  duke  of  Lan- 
caster, assumed  the  crown,  and  in  the  first  year 
of  his  reign  gave  our  poet  several  marks  of  his 
favor.  But  the  grants  of  the  late  king  being 
annulled,  Chaucer,  to  procure  fresh  grants  of  his 
pensions,  left  his  retirement,  and  applied  to 
court :  where,  though  he  obtained  a  confirmation 
of  some  grants,  yet  the  fatigue  of  attendance,  and 
his  great  age,  prevented  him  from  enjoying  them. 
He  fell  sick  at  London,  and  ended  his  days  in 
the  seventy-second  year  of  his  age.  He  was  in- 
terred in  Westminster  Abbey  ;  and  in  1556  Mr. 
Nicholas  Bingham,  a  gentleman  of  Oxford, 
erected  a  handsome  monument  for  him  there  at 
his  own  expense.  Caxton  first  printed  the  Can- 
terbury Tales ;  but  his  works  were  first  collected 
and  pubhshed  in  one  volume  folio  by  William 
Thynne,  London,  in  1542.  They  were  after- 
wards reprinted  in  1561,  1598,  1602;  and  at 
Oxford  in  1721. 

CHAUCI,  an  ancient  people  of  Germany,  who 
inhabited  Chaucis.  They  were  divided  into,  1. 
Chauci  Majores,  the  ancient  inhabitants,  of  the 
territory  now  called  Bremen,  and  part  of  Lunen- 
burg;  and  2.  Chauci  Minores,  the  ancient  inha- 
bitants of  East  Friesland,  and  Oldenburg. 

CHAUDIERE,  a  river  of  Canada,  North 
America,  has  its  source  in  Lake  Megantic,  Lower 
Canada,  and  after  a  northerly  course  of  102  miles, 
falls  into  the  St.  Lawrence,  six  miles  above  Que- 
bec. Its  breadth  varies  from  350  to  600  yards. 
Its  banks  are  steep  and  woody,  and  the  stream 
is  divided  by  numerous  islands;  but  is  princi- 
pally remarkable  for  its  beautiful  falls,  about  four 
miles  before  it  discharges  itself  into  the  St.  Law- 


rence. Here  it  presents  one  of  the  greatest  "na- 
tural curiosities  of  the  New  Continent.  The 
stream,  not  less  than  360  feet  wide,  rushes  forth 
from  the  shades  of  a  thick  wood,  and  expands 
considerably  just  above  the  cataract.  Immense 
masses  of  disjointed  rock  now  arrest  its  progress, 
and  impel  the  whole  of  its  agitated  waters  down 
a  precipice  of  120  perpendicular  feet.  In  the 
centre,  and  on  the  very  brow  of  this  precipice, 
is  a  projecting  fragment  of  rock,  that  forms  an 
island,  on  which  appears  a  single  handsome  fir- 
tree.  The  surrounding  scenery  altogether  is  said 
to  be  beautiful  beyond  description  :  yielding  in 
grandeur  only  to  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  but  in 
picturesque  combinations  and  effect,  to  no  other 
earthly  object.  The  water,  in  some  particular 
parts  of  the  fall,  rolls  over  its  immoveable  ob- 
structions in  majestic  sheets  and  volumes,  which 
seem  to  shake  the  whole  earth  around,  and  to  be 
capable  of  bearing  away  everything  below  :  in 
other  places  it  is  interrupted  by  fragments  of 
rock,  widely  scattered  over  the  face  of  the  preci- 
pice, and  conducting  the  angry  element  from 
cavity  to  cavity,  until  it  mingles  in  ungovernable 
rage  with  the  boiling  surge  at  bottom;  and  hur- 
ries onward  until  it  is  lost  in  the  St.  Lawrence. 
The  margin  of  immense  woods,  on  either  side, 
adds,  in  no  small  degree,  to  the  romance  of  the 
scenery  ;  and  uniting  their  dark  foliage  with  the 
brown  heads  of  the  weather-beaten  rocks  form  a 
fine  contrast  with  the  milky  whiteness  of  the  va- 
por and  spray  around. 

CHAUD-MEDLEY.   See  CHANCE-MEDLEY. 

CHA'VENDER,  n.  s.  Fr.  chevesne.  The 
chub :  a  fish. 

These  are  a  choice  bait  for  the  chub,  or  chavender, 
or  indeed  any  great  fish.  Walton's  Angler. 

CHAULIEU  (William  Amfrye  de),  abbe 
d'Aumale,  one  of  the  most  polite  and  ingenious 
of  the  French  poets,  was  born  in  1639,  and  died 
at  the  age  of  eighty-four.  The  most  complete 
edition  of  his  poems  is  that  printed  in  2  vols. 
8vo. in  1733. 

CIIAUMONT,  a  considerable  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Loire,  on  the  Siez.  It 
has  manufactures  of  cloth,  silk,  and  ribands. 
Twenty-two  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Lyons.  Popula- 
tion 5000. 

CHAUMONTE'LLE,  n.  s.  French.  A.  sort 
of  pear. 

CHAUN  f ,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Aisne,  and  ci-devant  province  of 
Picardy ;  seated  on  the  Oise,  twenty  miles  east 
of  Noyon.  Long.  3°  18'  E.,  lat.  49°  17'  N. 

CHAUVJN  (Stephen),  a  celebrated  Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Nismes  in  1640.  He  left 
France  upon  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes,  and  retired  to  Rotterdam,  where  he  began 
a  new  Journal  des  Sfavans;  and  afterwards  re- 
moving to  Berlin,  continued  it  there  three  years. 
He  was  made  professor  of  philosophy  at  Berlin, 
and  discharged  that  office  with  much  honor  and 
reputation,  His  principal  work  is  a  Philosophi- 
cal Dictionary,  in  Latin,  which  he  published  at 
Rotterdam  in  1692;  and  gave  a  new  edition  of 
it  much  augmented,  at  Lewarden,  in  1713,  folio. 
He  died  in  1735,  aged  eighty-five. 

CHAW,  v.  a.  &  n.  *.  Germ,  kawen.  To 
champ  between  the  teeth ;  to  chew,  to  masticate. 


CHA 


347 


CHA 


The  noun  is  derived  from  the  verb.   It  means  the 
chap;  the  upper  or  under  part  of  a  beast's  mouth. 

And  next  to  him  [Avarice]  malicious  Envy  rode 
Upon  a  ravenous  wolfe,  and  still  did  chaw 
Between  his  cankred  teeth  a  venemous  tode 
That  all  the  poison  run  about  his  chaw  ; 
But  inwardly  he  chawed  his  own  maw.  Spenser. 

They  come  to  us,  but  us  love  draws  ; 
He  swallows  us,  and  never  chaws  ; 
He  is  the  tyrant  pike,  and  we  the  fry.        Donne. 
The  man  who  laught  but  once,  to  see  an  ass 
Mumbling  to  make  the  cross-grained  thistles  pass, 
Might  laugh  again,  to  see  a  jury  chaw 
The  prickles  of  unpalatable  law.  Dryden. 

I  will  turn  thee  back,  and  put  hooks  into  thy  chaws, 
and  will  bring  thee  forth,  and  all  thme  army. 

Exekiel. 

CHA'WDRON,  or  CHAUDRON.  Goth,  kui- 
dron,  kuithron,  a  paunch ;  Sax.  cwith ;  Swed. 
qued ;  Scot.  kite.  The  stomach  ;  the  entrails  of 
a  beast  Chaldron  is  sometimes  thus  written, 
which  is  a  measure  of  36  bushels  of  coals. 

Add  thereto  a  tyger's  chawdron, 
For  the  ingredients  of  our  cauldron.    Shakspeare. 

CHAZELLES  (John  Matthew),  a  celebrated 
French  mathematician  and  engineer,  born  at 
Lyons  in  1657.  M.  du  Hamel,  observing  his 
strong  predilection  for  astronomy,  introduced  him 
to  M.  Cassini,  who  employed  him  in  his  observato- 
ry. Having,  in  1684,  instructed  the  duke  of  Mor- 
temar  in  mathematics,  he  procured  him  the  pro- 
fessorship of  hydrography,  *for  the  galleys  of 
Marseilles.  In  1686,  the  galleys  made  four 
courses  merely  for  exercise.  Chazelles  went  on 
hoard  every  time  with  them ;  kept  his  school 
upon  the  sea,  and  showed  the  practice  of  what 
he  taught.  In  1687,  and  1688,  he  drew  many 
plans  of  ports,  roads,  towns,  and  forts,  which 
were  lodged  with  the  ministers  of  state.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  war,  which  ended  with  the 
peace  of  Ryswick,  Chazelles  was  sent  to  make 
the  experiment,  whether  the  galleys  might  not 
serve  to  tow  the  men  of  war  when  the  wind 
failed  or  proved  contrary,  and  help  to. secure  the 
coast  of  Prance  upon  the  ocean.  Accordingly, 
in  1690,  fifteen  galleys,  new  built,  set  sail  for 
Ilochefort,  cruised  as  far  as  Torbay,  and  proved 
useful  at  the  descent  upon  Tinmouth.  After  this, 
he  digested  into  order  the  observations  he  had 
made  on  the  coasts  of  the  ocean ;  and  drew  dis- 
tinct maps,  with  descriptions  to  them.  These 
maps  were  inserted  in  the  Neptune  Francoise, 
published  in  1692,  when  Chazelles  was  engineer 
at  the  descent  of  Oneglia.  To  make  observations 
on  geography  and  astronomy,  he  undertook  a 
voyage  to  the  Levant  in  1693  ;  and,  among  other 
things,  he  measured  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  and 
found  the  four  sides  of  the  largest  of  them  exactly 
to  face  the  four  cardinal  points  of  the  compass. 
He  made  a  report  of  his  voyage,  on  his  return, 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  upon  which  he  was 
named  a  member  in  1 695,  and  had  many  papers 
inserted  in  their  Memoirs,  from  1693  to  1708. 
He  died,  at  Marseilles,  16th  Jan.  1710. 
CHEAP,  n.  s.  &  adj.*\  Swed.  hop;  Teut. 
CHE'APEN,  v.  a.  Ikauff;  Belg.  /coop; 

CHE'APLY,  adv.  /Sax   c^ap,  a  bargain; 

CUE'APNESS,  n.  s.       J  Swed.  godt,  kop  ;  Fr 


a  bonne  march's. ;  Old  Fr.  a  chapt,  a  chat,  a  ceapt, 
a  purchase,  from  Goth,  kaupa.  Cheaping,  chip- 
ping, is  an  old  term  for  market,  when  connected 
with  the  names  of  places,  as  Chipping  Norton, 
Eastcheap,  Cheapside.  To  cheapen,  is  not  only 
to  bargain,  but  to  abate  the  terms  of  the  seller, 
or  to  purchase  at  a  lower  rate  than  is  demanded ; 
to  bid  for  or  ask  the  price  of  a  commodity. 

With  danger  uttren  we  all  our  chaffare  ; 
Gret  prees  at  market  maketh  dere  ware, 
And  to  gret  chepe  is  holden  at  litel  prise  ; 
This  knoweth  every  woman  that  is  wise.    Chaucer, 
The   goodness,    that  is    cheap   in  beauty,    makes 
beauty  brief  in  goodness.  Shakspeare. 

Rich  she  shall  be,  that's  certain  ;  wise,  or  I'll  none  ; 
virtuous,  or  I'll  never  cheapen  her.  Id. 

He  that  is  too  much  in  any  thing,  so  that  he  giveth 
another  occasion  of  society,  maketh  himself  cheap. 

Bacon. 

Ancient  statues  incite  merchant-strangers  to  bring 
in  commodities  ;  having  for  end  cheapness.  Id. 

The  same  wine  which  we  pay  so  dear  for  now-a- 
days,  in  that  good  world,  was  very  good  cheap. 

Sidney. 

It  is  many  a  wise  man's  case  to  tire  himself  out 
with  hunting  after  that  abroad,  which  he  carries  about 
him  all  the  while,  and  may  have  it  better  cheap  at 
home.  L' Estrange. 

Blood,  rapines,  massacres,  were  cheaply  bought, 
So  mighty  recompence  your  beauty  brought.    Dryden. 

May  your  sick  fame  still  languish  till  it  die, 
And  you  grow  cheap  in  every  subject's  eye.  Id. 

The  discredit  which  is  grown  upon  Ireland,  has 
been  the  great  discouragement  to  other  nations  to 
transplant  themselves  hither,  and  prevailed  farther 
than  all  the  invitations  which  the  cheapness  and 
plenty  of  the  country  has  made  them.  Temple. 

The  merchant  ought  to  make  his  out-set  as  cheap 
as  possible,  that  he  may  find  greater  profit  upon  his 
returns ;  and  nothing  will  enable  him  to  do  this  like 
the  reduction  of  the  price  of  labour  upon  all  our  ma- 
nufactures. Spectator. 

Incomparable  gem!  thy  worth  untold  ; 
Cheap  though  blood-bought ;  and  thrown  away  when 
sold.  Cowper. 

CHEAR.     See  CHEER. 
CHEAT,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.  >      Thomson  traces  the 
CHE'ATER,  n.  $.  ]  substantive     to     Sax. 

ceat,  from  Isl.  and  Swed.  kyta,  to  change  ;  Lat. 
capta,  captus ;  and  he  gives  the  following  defini- 
tions :  deception,  fraud,  imposture.  Johnson 
thus  accounts  for  its  form  and  application,  pro- 
bably from  Fr.  acheter,  to  purchase,  alluding  to 
the  tricks  used  in  making  bargains.  Of  the  noun 
he  observes,  some  think  it  is  abbreviated  from 
escheat,  because  many  fraudulent  measures  being 
taken  by  the  lords  of  manors  in  procuring  es- 
cheats, cheat,  the  abridgment,  was  brought  to 
convey  a  bad  meaning.  To  defraud  ;  to  impose 
upon ;  to  trick.  It  is  used  commonly  of  low 
cunning.  Cheat  is  a  fraud,  a  trick,  an  impos- 
ture ;  a  cheat,  or  cheater,  is  one  guilty  of  fraud. 

I  that  am  curtailed  of  man's  fair  proportion  j 
Cheated  of  feature  by  dissembling  nature, 
Deformed,  unfinished.  Shakspeare. 

I  will  be  cheater  to  them  both,  and  they  shall  be 
exchequers  to  me.  [It  is  here  for  escheater.]  Id. 

And  drowned  their  discipline  like  a  kitten 
On  which  they'd  been  so  long  a  sitting ; 
Decried  it  as  a  holy  cfteat, 
Grown  out  of  date,  and  obsolete.  tntdibrai. 


CHE 


348 


CHE 


An  English  pilot  too  (oh  shame!  oh  sin  !) 
Cheated  of 's  pay  was  he  that  showed  them  in. 

Marrell. 

All  sorts  of  injurious  persons,  the  sacrilegious,  the 
detainers  of  tithes,  cheaters  of  men's  inheritances, 
false  witnesses  and  accusers. 

Taylor's  Rule  of  Living  Holy. 
No  man  will  trust  a  known  cheat.  South. 

When  I  consider  life,  'tis  all  a  cheat; 
Yet,  fooled  with  hope,  men  favour  the  deceit : 
Trust  on,  and  think  to-morrow  will  repay  j 
To-morrow's  falser  than  the  former  day.     Dryden. 
It  is  a  dangerous  commerce,  where  an  honest  man 
is  sure  at  first  of  being  cheated  ;  and  he  recovers  not 
his  losses,  but  by  learning  to  cheat  others.  Id, 

The  cheat  ambition,  eager  to  espouse 
Dominion,  courts  it  with  a  lying  shew, 
And  shines  in  borrowed  pomp  to  serve  a  turn. 

Jeffery's  Edwin. 

CHEAT,  in  law,  any  common  imposter.  If  any 
person  deceitfully  get  into  his  hands  or  possession 
any  money  or  other  things  of  any  other  person's 
by  any  false  token,  &c.  being  convicted,  he  shall 
have  such  punishment  by  imprisonment,  or  by  any 
corporeal  pain  except  death,  as  shall  be  adjudged 
by  the  persons  before  whom  he  shall  be  convicted. 
As  there  are  some  frauds  which  may  be  relieved 
civilly,  so  there  are  others  which  cannot,  but  must 
be  punished  criminally.  Thus,  if  a  minor,  pre- 
tending to  be  of  age,  defrauds  many  persons  by 
taking  credit  for  a  considerable  quantity  of  goods, 
and  then  insisting  on  his  nonage,  the  persons 
injured  cannot  recover  the  value  of  their  goods, 
but  they  may  indict  and  punish  him  for  a  com- 
mon cheat.  Persons  convicted  of  obtaining  mo- 
ney or  goods  by  false  pretences,  or  of  sending 
threatening  letters  in  order  to  extort  money  or 
goods,  may  be  punished  with  fine  or  imprison- 
ment, or  by  whipping,  or  transportation. 

CHEBAR,  a  river  of  Chaldea,  where  the  pro- 
phet Ezekiel  saw  several  of  his  visions.  It  is 
thought  to  have  been  cut  between  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris.  Others  say  it  had  its  rise  near 
the  head  of  the  Tigris,  and,  running  south-west 
through  Mesopotamia,  fell  into  the  Euphrates,  a 
little  south  of  Carchemish. 

CHECK,  v.  a.,  v.  n.  &  n.  s.  >      From  the  Fr, 

CUE'CK-MATE,  n.  s.  $  echecs,  chess.  To 

repress ;  to  curb ;  to  restrain  ;  to  warn  of  danger ; 
to  reprove ;  to  chide ;  to  control  by  a  counter- 
reckoning  ;  to  arrest ;  to  stop  the  progress  of  any 
person  or  thing ;  to  class ;  to  compare ;  to  inter- 
fere ;  sudden  repressure  and  restraint ;  any  stop 
or  interruption ;  the  correspondent  cipher  of  a 
bank-bill;  a  term  used  in  the  game  of  chess 
when  one  party  obliges  the  other  either  to  move 
or  guard  the  king.  See  CHESS. 

Therwith,  Fortune  ysayed  :  '  Cheke,'  here  ; 

And  '  mate,'  in  the  myd  poynt  of  the  checkere ; 

With  a  paune  errant.     Alas  ! 

Ful  craftyer  to  play  she  was 

Than  Athalus  that  made  the  game, 

First  of  the  chesse  so  was  his  name. 

Chaucer's  Boke  of  the  Duchesse. 

Richard,  with  his  eyes  brimful  of  tears, 
Then  checked  and  rated  by  Northumberland, 
Did  speak  these  words,  now  proved  a  prophecy. 

Shakspeare. 
Rebellion  in  this  land  shall  lose  its  sway, 

Meeting  the  check  of  such  another  day.  Id. 


Oh !  this  life 

Is  nobler  than  attending  for  a  check,      Shakspeare. 
Love  they  him  called,  that  gave  me  the  checkmate. 
But  better  might  they  have  behote  him  hate.  Spenser. 
If  love  clieck  with  business,  it  troubleth  men's  for- 
tunes. Bacon. 
Fames  may  be  sown  and  raised,  they  may  be  spread 
and  multiplied,  they  may  be  checked  and  laid  dead. 

Id. 

We  see  also,  that  kings  that  have  been  fortunate 
conquerors  in  their  first  years,  must  have  some  check 
or  arrest  in  their  fortunes.  Id.  Essays. 

I  hate  when  vice  can  bolt  her  arguments, 
And  virtue  has  no  tongue  to  check  her  pride. 

Milton. 

He  who  sat  at  a  table,  richly  and  deliciously  fur- 
nished, but  with  a  sword  hanging  over  his  head  by 
one  single  thread  or  hair,  surely  had  enough  to  check 
his  appetite.  South. 

He  was  unhappily  too  much  used  as  a  check  upon 
the  lord  Coventry.  Clarendon. 

I'll  avoid  his  presence  j 
It  checks  too  strong  upon  me.  Dryden. 

You  want  to  lead 

My  reason  blindfold,  like  a  hampered  lion 

Checked  of  his  noble  vigour.  Otway. 

The   mind  once  jaded,   by   an   attempt   above   its 

power,  either  is  disabled  for  the  future,  or  else  checks 

at  any  vigorous  undertaking  ever  after.  Locke. 

The  great  struggle  with  passions  is  in  the  first  check. 

Rogers. 

He  still  remembered  that  he  once  was  young  ; 
His  easy  presence  checked  no  decent  joy. 

Armstrong's  Art  of  Preserving  Health. 
He  hears  where'er  he  moves,  the  dreadful  sound  j 
Check  the  deep  vales,  and  check  the  woods  rebound  : 
No  place  remains  :  he  sees  the  certain  fate, 
And  yields  his  throne  to  ruin,  and  checkmate. 

Sir  W.  Jones. 
Nor  be  thy  generous  indignation  checked, 

Nor  checked  the  tender  tear  to  misery  given ; 
From  Guilt's  contagious  power  shall  that  protect, 
This  soften  and  refine  the  soul  for  heaven.     Beattie. 
CHECK.    In  falconry.    When  a  hawk  forsakes 
her  proper  game  to  follow  rooks,  pies,  or  other 
birds  that  cross  her  flight. — Chambers. 

A  young  woman  is  a  hawk  upon  her  wings  ;  and 
if  she  be  handsome,  she  is  the  more  subject  to  go 
out  on  check.  Suckling. 

When  whistled  from  the  fist 
Some  falcon  stoops  at  what  her  eye  designed, 
And  witli  her  eagerness,  the  quarry  missed, 
Straight  flies  a  check,  and  clips  it  down  the  wind. 

Dryden. 

CHE'CKER,  v.  a  &  n.  s.  ^     Of  the  same  de- 
CHE'QUER,  v.  a.  >rivation  as  the  last 

CHE'CKERWORK,  n.  s.  j  word.  To  varie- 
gate or  diversify,  in  the  "nanner  of  a  chess-board, 
with  alternate  colors,  or  with  darker  and  brighter 
parts ;  work  varied  alternately  as  to  its  colors  or 
materials. 

Nets  of  checker-work    and  wreaths  of  chain-work 

for   the  chapiters  which   were   upon  the   top  of  the 

pillars.  1  Kings. 

They  toke  their  in  and  loggit  them  at  mydmorowe 

I  trowe, 

Atte  cheker  of  the  hope  that  many  a  man  doth  know. 
Chaucer's  Cant.  Tales. 

The  gray-eyed  morn  smiles  on  the  frowning  night, 
Checkering  the  eastern  cloud?  with  streaks  of  light. 

Shniupearc, 


CHE 


349 


CHE 


The  wealthy  spring  yet  never  bore 

That  sweet  nor  dainty  flower, 
That  damasked  not  the  dickered  floor 

Of  Cynthia's  summer  bower.  Drayton. 

In  the  chess-board,  the  use   of  each  chess-man  is 

determined  only  within  that  checquered  pisce  of  wood. 

Locke. 

In  our  present  condition,  which  is  a  middle  state, 
our  minds  are,  as  it  were,  chequered  with  truth  and 
falsehood.  Addison. 

Here  waving  groves  a  checkered  scene  display, 
And  part  admit,  and  part  exclude  the  day.          Pope. 

Of  armies  on  the  chequered  field  arrayed 
And  guiltless  war  in  pleasing  form  displayed. 
When  two  bold  kings  contend  with  vain  alarms, 
In  ivory  this,  and   that  in  ebon  arms. 

Sir  W.  Jones. 

CHE'CKROLL,  n.  s.  From  check  and  roll. 
A  roll,  or  book,  containing  the  names  of  such  as 
are  attendants  on,  and  in  pay  to,  great  person- 
ages, as  their  household  servants. 

Not  daring  to  extend  this  law  further  thfcn  to  the 
king's  servants  in  checkroll,  lest  it  should  have  been 
too  harsh  to  the  gentlemen  of  the  kingdom. 

Bacon's  Henry  VII. 

CHECKY,  in  heraldry,  is  when  the  shield, 
or  a  bordure,  &c.  is  chequered,  or  divided  into 
chequers  or  squares,  in  the  manner  of  a  chess- 
board. This  is  one  of  the  most  noble  and  an- 
cient figures  used  in  armoury ;  and  ought  to  be 
given  to  none  but  great  warriors,  in  token  of 
their  bravery ;  for  the  chess-board  represents  a 
field  of  battle ;  and  the  pawns  placed  on  both  sides 
represent  the  soldiers  of  the  two  armies,  which 
move,  attack,  advance,  or  retire,  according  to  the 
will  of  the  gamesters,  who  are  the  generals.  This 
figure  is  always  composed  of  metal  and  color ;  but 
some  authors  would  have  it  reckoned  among  the 
several  sorts  of  furs.  See  HERALDRY. 

CHEDORLAOMER.kingof  Elam,  the  first 
monarch  recorded  in  authentic  history,  who  made 
other  kings  tributaries.  His  name  signifies  a 
generation  of  bondage,  and,  about  A.  M.  2078, 
he  subdued  the  kingdoms  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah, 
Ad mah,  Zeboim,  and  Zoar,  which,  after  serving 
him  twelve  years,  rebelled.  See  Gen.  xiv. 
Shuckford  supposes  him  to  have  been  the  same 
with  Ninyas  king  of  Assyria;  but  his  reasons  are 
not  conclusive. 

CHEDUBA,  an  island  in  the  bay  of  Bengal, 
on  the  coast  of  Arracan,  twenty-five  miles  in 
length.  It  yields  abundance  of  rice,  and  was 
governed  by  a  lieutenant  of  the  Burmese  govern- 
ment, to  whom  it  belonged.  It  has  been  ceded 
to  the  East  India  Company  by  the  recent  treaty. 
The  most  western  point  is  in  long.  93°  40'  E., 
lat.  18°  40'  N. 

CHEEK,  n.  s.  Sax.  ceac.  The  side  of  the 
face  below  the  eye. 

I  awoke, 

And  found  my  chamber  full  of  smoke  ; 
JM  v  chekes  eke  unto  the  eres, 
And  all  my  body  wet  with  teres. 

Chaucer's  Dreame. 
Her  no^e,  her  mouthe,  and  eye,  and  cheke, 

Well  wrought.  Id.   Romaunt  of  the  Rose. 

And  now  and  then  an  ample  tear  trilled  down 

Her  delicate  cheek.  Shakspeare. 

Her  beauty  hangs  upon  the  cheek  of  night 

Like  a  rich  jewel  in  an  ^Ethiop's  ear.  Id. 


I  shall  survey,  and  sji? 
Death  in  thy  cheeks,  and  darkness  in  thy  eye. 

Ddnne. 
Her    eyes,   her   lips,    her  cheeks,   her  shape,  her 

features, 

Seem  to  be  drawn,  by  love's  own  hand  ;  by  love 
Himself  in  love.  Dryden's  Love  Triumphant. 

We  bleed,  we  tremble,  we  forget,  we  smile, 
The  mind  turns  fool,  before  the  cheek  is  dry. 

Young's  Night  Thoughts. 

CHEEK,  a  general  name  among  mechanics, 
for  almost  all  those  pieces  of  their  machines  and 
intruments  that  are  double,  and  perfectly  alike. 

CHEEKS,  in  ship-building,  are  two  pieces  of 
timber,  fitted  one  on  each  side  of  the  mast  at  the 
top,  serving  to  strengthen  the  masts  there.  The 
uppermost  bail  or  piece  of  timber  in  the  beak  of 
a  ship,  is  called  the  cheek.  The  knees  which 
fasten  the  beak  head  to  the  ship,  are  called  cheeks ; 
and  the  sides  of  any  block,  or  the  sides  of  a  ship's 
carriage  of  a  gun,  are  also  called  cheeks. 

CHE'EKBONE,  n.  s.  From  cheek  and  bone. 

I  cut  the  tumour,  and  felt  the  slug  :  it  lay  partly 
under  the  os  jugale,  or  cheekbone.  Wiseman. 

CHE'EKTOOTH,  n.  s.  From  cheek  and  tooth. 
The  hinder-tooth  or  tusk. 

He  hath  the  cheekteeth  of  a  great  lion.  Joel 

CHEER,n.s.,v.a.,&v.n.>)       Ital.  ciera  ;  Fr. 
CHE'ERER,  n.s.  chere;  Span,  xira; 

CHE'ERFUL,  adj.  Lat.  churls;  x«P*C- 

CHE'ERFULLY,  adv.  ^  The  French  signi- 

CHE'ERFULLXESS,  n.s        f  fies  entertainment, 
CHE'ERLESS,  adj.  and    the    Spanish 

CHE'ERLY,  adj.  &  adv.         the   countenance  ; 
CHE'ERY,  adj.  j  it  seems  to  have  in 

English  some  relation  to  both  these  senses.  En- 
tertainment ;  jollity ;  gaiety.  To  incite  ;  to  en- 
courage ;  to  inspirit ;  to  comfort ;  to  console. 
Gladdener  ;  giver  of  gaiety ;  full  of  life ;  mirth ; 
of  gay  appearance.  Freedom  from  dejection,  and 
gloom ;  alacrity.  Cheerless  the  reverse  of  all 
this. 

Wherefore,  with  all  my  hert,  I  pray 
Ye  rise,  and  let  us  talk  and  play  : 
And  see  how  many  ladies  here 
Be  comen  for  to  make  gode  chere. 

Chaucer's  Dreame. 

Her  chere  was  simple  as  birde  in  boure. 

Id.  Romaunt  of  the  Rose. 

Right  faithful  true  he  was  in  deed  and  word, 
But  of  his  cheer  did  seem  too  solemn  sad  : 
Nothing  did  he  dread,  but  ever  was  ydrad.     Spenser. 

The  clieerful  birds  of  sundry  kind 
Do  chaunt  sweet  musick  to  Jelight  his  mind. 

Faerie  Qveene. 
But  though  my  cates  be  mean,  take  them  in  gooa 

part; 

Better  cheer  you  may  have,  but  not  with  better  b<?art. 

Shaftspeaf!. 

I  have  not  that  alacrity  of  spirit, 
Nor  cheer  of  mind,  that  I  was  wout  to  have.  /•/. 

He  ended  ;  and  his  words  their  drooping  cheer 
Enlightened,  and  their  languished  hope  revived. 

Miifn. 

Oft  listening  how  the  hounds  and  horn 
Cheerly  rouse  the  slumbering  morn. 


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350  CHE 


Dot  trine  fs  that  which  must  prepare  men  for  discip- 
line ;  and  men  never  go  on  so  cheerfully,  as  when 
they  see  where  they  go.  South. 

Sad  Amynta  sighed  alone, 
From  the  cheerless  dawn  of  morning 
Till  the  dews  of  night  returning.  Dryden. 

Displeased  at  what,  not  suffering,  they  had  seen, 
They  went  to  cheer  the  faction  of  the  green.  Id. 

With  what  resolution  and  cheerfulness,  with  what 
courage  and  patience,  did  vast  numbers  of  all  sorts  of 
people,  in  the  first  ages  of  Christianity,  encounter  all 
the  rage  and  malice  of  the  world,  and  embrace  tor- 
ments and  death.  Tillotson. 
They  are  useful  to  mankind,  in  affording  them  con- 
renient  situations  of  houses  and  villages,  reflecting  the 
benign  and  cherishing  sun  beams,  and  so  rendering 
their  habitations  both  more  comfortable  and  more 
cheerly  in  winter.  Ray  on  the  Creation. 

Hark !  a  glad  voice  the  lonely  desert  cheers : 
Prepare  the  way  ;  a  god,  a  god  appears ! 

Pope's  Messiah. 

Saffron  is  the  safest  and  most  simple  cordial,  the 
greatest  reviver  of  the  heart,  and  cheererof  the  spirits. 

Temple. 

Prime  cheerer,  light, 
Of  all  material  beings  first  and  best. 

Thomson's  Summer. 

Conn,  let  us  hie,  and  quaff  a  cheery  bowl ; 
Let  cyder  new  wash  sorrow  from  thy  soul. 

Gay's  Pastorals. 

Hope,  like  the  glimmering  taper's  light, 
Adorns  and  cheers  the  way  ; 
And  still  as  darker  grows  the  night 
Emits  a  brighter  ray.  Goldsmith. 

And  none  did  love  him — though  to  hall  and  bower 
He  gathered  revellers  from  far  and  near, 
He  knew  them  flatterers  of  the  festal  hour  ; 
The  heartless  parasites  of  present  cheer. 

Byron's  Childe  Harold. 
CHEESE,  n.  s. 
CHE'ESE-CAKE,  n.  s. 


CHE'ESE-MONGER,  n.  $. 


CIIE'ESE-PARING, 
CIIE'ESE-PRESS,  n.  s. 
CHE'ESE-VAT,  n.s. 
CHE'ESY,  adj. 


Lat.     caseus;    Sax. 
cyse ;  Tartar  and  Turk. 


aous,  coagulated  milk, 


-produced  from  Goth, 
and  Swed.  ost,  curds. 
Food  made  from  milk 
curds.  Cheese-cake 

consists  of  soft  curds,"  sugar,  and  butter.  Cheese- 
monger is  one  who  deals  in  cheese.  The  press 
and  the  vat  are  machines  used  in  the  making  of 
cheese.  In  the  one  the  curds  are  pressed  and  in 
the  other  they  are  confined. 

I  will  rather  trust  a  Fleming  with  my  butter,  the 
Welshman  with  my  cheese,  than  my  wife  with  herself. 

Shaktpeare. 

Of  all  cheeses,  I  take  that  kind  which  we  call  Ban- 
1  ury  cheese  to  be  the  best.  Burton' t  Anat.  Mel. 

A  true  owl  of  London, 
That  gives  out  he's  undone, 
Being  a  cheesemonger, 

By  trusting.  Ben  Jonson. 

His  sen«e  occasions  the  careless  rustic  to  judge  the 

sun  no  bigger  than  a  cheesevat.  GlanviUe. 

Where  many  a  man  at  variance  with  his  wife. 
With  softening  mead  and  cheesecake  ends  the  strife. 

King. 

The  cleanly  cheesepress  she  could  never  turn, 
Her  aukward  fist  did  ne'er  employ  the  churn. 

Gay's  Pastorals. 

Acids  mixed  with  them  precipitate  a  tophaccous 
clialky  matter,  but  not  a  cheesy  substance. 

Arbuthnot  on  Aliments. 


But  how  shall  I 

Pass  where  in  piles  Cornavion  cheeses  lye  ? 
Cheese  that  the  table's  closing  rites  denies, 
And  bids  me  with  the  unwilling  chaplain  rise. 

Gay. 

Ye  who  but  see  the  saving  man  at  table 
And  scorn  his  temperate  board  as  none  at  all, 
And  wonder  how  the  wealthy  can  be  sparing, 
Know  not  what  visions  spring  from  each  cheese-paring. 

Byron. 

CHEESE,  in  rural  economy,  is  composed  of 
coagulated  milk,  which  has  undergone  a  chemi- 
cal process,  combined  with  the  mechanical  ope- 
ration of  a  powerful  press,  usually  employed  to 
expel  the  serum  or  whey,  which  would  otherwise 
retain  it  in  a  nearly  fluid  state,  and  as  such  pro- 
duce decomposition. 

The  quality,  and  as  such  the  value,  of  cheese 
generally  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  milk  em- 
ployed, which  varies  very  considerably  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  England.  Indeed,  almost  every 
country  has  places  noted  for  this  commodity ; 
thus  Chester  and  Gloucester  cheese  are  famous 
in  England  ;  and  the  Parmesan  cheese  is  in  no 
less  repute  abroad,  especially  in  France.  This 
sort  of  cheese  is  entirely  made  of  sweet  cow-milk ; 
while  at  Ilochefort,  in  Languedoc,  they  make  it 
of  ewes'  milk ;  and  in  other  places  it  is  usual  to 
add  goat  or  ewe's  milk,  in  a  certain  proportion, 
to  that  of  the  cow.  There  is  likewise  a  kind  of 
medicated  cheese  made  by  intimately  mixing  the 
expressed  juice  of  certain  herbs,  as  sage  o^  mint, 
with  the  curd,  before  it  is  formed  into  a  cheese. 
The  Laplanders  manufacture  a  species  of  cheese 
of  the  milk  of  their  rein-deer,  which  is  not  only 
of  great  service  to  them  as  food,  but  also  for  a 
variety  of  other  purposes  connected  with  domestic 
economy. 

The  finest  cheese  prepared  in  England,  speak- 
ing generally,  is  furnished  from  the  dairies  in 
Cheshire,  some  connoisseurs  may  perhaps  prefer 
Stilton  ;  and,  as  this  important  article  of  British 
manufacture  is  now  exported  to  a  considerable 
extent,  we  purpose  under  the  article  Dairy  to 
enter  pretty  fully  into  the  various  modes  of  pre- 
paring it.  See  DAIRY. 

CHEILOCACE,  a  swelling  of  the  lips,  to 
which  the  inhabitants  of  northern  countries, 
especially  children,  are  said  to  be  very  subject. 

CHE1RANTHUS,  stock  gilliflower,  or  wall- 
flower, a  genus  of  the  siliquosse  order,  and 
the  tetradynamia  class  of  olants :  GERM. 
marked  with  a  glandulous  denti«  e  on  each  side; 
CAL.  is  close,  with  two  of  its  leaves  gibbous  at 
the  base ;  SEED  plane. .  There  are  thirty-four 
known  species,  of  which  the  following  are  most 
worthy  of  notice : — C.  annuus,  or  ten  weeks' 
stock,  with  an  upright,  woody,  smooth  stalk, 
divided  into  a  branchy  head,  twelve  or  fifteen 
inches  high,  garnished  with  spear-shaped,  blunt, 
hoary  leaves,  a  little  indented,  and  all  the  bran- 
ches terminated  by  long  erect  spikes  of  numerous 
flowers  of  different  colors,  in  different  varieties 
C  cheiri,  or  the  common  wall-flower,  with  ligne- 
ous, long,  tough  roots;  an  upright,  woody, 
abiding  stalk,  divided  into  many  erect  angular 
branches,  forming  a  bushy  head  from  one  to  two 
feet  high,  closely  garnished  with  spear-shaped, 
acute,  smooth  leaves,  and  all  the  branches  termi- 


CHE 


351 


CHE 


natmg  in  long  erect  spikes  of  numerous  flowers, 
which  in  different  varieties  are  yellow,  bloody, 
white,  &c.  C.  incanus,  the  hoary  cheiranthus, 
with  ligneous,  long,  naked,  white  roots ;  and  an 
upright,  strong,  woody,  abiding  stem,  from  one  to 
three  feet  high,  branchy  at  top,  adorned  with 
long,  spear-shaped,  obtuse,  hoary  leaves ;  and 
the  top  of  the  stalk  and  all  the  branches  termi- 
nated by  erect  spikes  of  flowers  from  one  to  two 
or  three  feet  long,  of  different  colors  in  different 
varieties.  The  last  two  sorts  are  very  hardy 
evergreen  biennials  or  perennials;  but  the  first, 
being  an  annual  plant,  must  be  continued  by 
seed  sown  every  year ;  and  even  the  last  two, 
notwithstanding  their  being  perennial,  degenerate 
so  much  in  their  flowers  after  the  first  year,  that 
it  will  be  proper  also  to  raise  an  annual  supply 
of  them.  The  seeds  are  to  be  saved  only  from 
the  plants  with  single  flowers ;  for  the  double 
ones  bring  no  seeds  to  perfection.  The  seeds 
are  to  be  chosen  from  such  flowers  as  have  five, 
six,  or  more  petals,  or  from  such  as  grow  near  to 
the  double  ones.  They  may  be  sown  in  the  full 
ground  in  the  spring,  and  afterwards  transplant- 
ed. When  fine  doubles  of  the  last  two  kinds  are 
obtained,  they  may  be  multiplied  by  slips  from 
the  old  plants. 

CHEKAO,  in  natural  history,  a  hard,  stfny 
earth  found  in  many  parts  of  the  East  Indies, 
and  sometimes  used  by  the  Chinese  in  their  porce- 
lain manufactures. 

CHEKE  (Sir  John),  a  celebrated  statesman, 
grammarian,  and  divine,  of  an  ancient  family  in 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  was  born  at  Cambridge  in 
1514,  and  educated  in  that  university;  where, 
after  taking  his  degrees  in  arts,  he  was  first  cho- 
sen Greek  lecturer,  and  in  1540  professor  of 
that  language,  with  a  stipend  of  £40  a-year.  In 
this  station  he  was  principally  instrumental  in 
reformingthe  pronunciation  of  the  Greek  language, 
which,  having  been  much  neglected,  was  imper- 
fectly understood.  In  1544  he  was  sent  to  the 
court  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  appointed  tutor  for 
the  Latin  language,  jointly  with  Sir  Anthony 
Cooke,  to  prince  Edward,  about  which  time  he 
was  made  canon  of  the  college  newly  founded  in 
Oxford.  On  the  accession  of  his  royal  pupil  to 
the  crown,  he  was  first  rewarded  with  a  pension 
of  100  marks,  and  afterwards  obtained  several 
considerable  grants  from  the  crown.  In  1550  he 
was  made  chief  gentleman  of  the  privy  chamber; 
in  1551  he  was  knighted;  in  1552  made  cham- 
berlain of  the  exchequer  ;  in  1553  clerk  of  the 
council ;  and  soon  after  secretary  of  state  and 
privy  councillor.  But  these  honors  were  of  short 
duration.  Having  concurred  in  the  measures  of 
the  duke  of  Northumberland,  settling  the  crown 
on  the  unfortunate  lady  Jane  Grey,  and  acted  as 
her  secretary  during  the  nine  days  of  her  reign, 
on  the  accession  of  queen  Mary  he  was  sent  to 
the  tower,  and  stripped  of  the  greatest  part  of  his 
possessions.  In  September,  1554.  he  obtained 
his  liberty,  and  a  license  to  go  abroad.  He  first 
went  to  Basil,  thence  to  Italy,  and  afterwards 
returned  to  Strasburg,  where  he  was  reduced  to 
the  necessity  of  reading  Greek  lectures  for  sub- 
sistence. In  1556  he  set  out  to  meet  his  wife  at 
Brussels ;  but,  before  he  reached  that  city,  he  was 
seized  by  order  of  Philip  II.,  hoodwinked,  and 


thrown  into  a  waggon  ;  and  thus  ignominionsly 
conducted  to  a  ship,  which  brought  him  to  the 
tower  of  London.  He  soon  found  that  religion 
was  the  cause  of  his  imprisonment ;  for  he  was 
immediately  visited  by  two  Romish  priests,  who 
piously  endeavoured  to  convert  him,  but  without 
success.  However,  he  was  visited  by  Flecken- 
ham ;  who  told  him  from  the  queen,  that  he  must 
either  comply  or  burn.  Sir  John  accordingly 
complied  in  form,  and  his  lands  were  restored  : 
but  his  remorse  soon  put  an  end  to  his  life.  He 
died  in  September,  1557,  at  the  house  of  his 
friend  Mr.  Peter  Osborne,  in  Wood-street,  Lon- 
don, and  was  buried  in  St.  Alban's  church.  He 
left  three  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom,  Henry,  was 
knighted  by  queen  Elizabeth.  He  wrote,  1.  A 
Latin  Translation  of  two  of  St.  Chrysostom's 
Homilies,  London,  1543,  4to.  2.  The  Hurt  of 
Sedition,  London,  1549,  1576,  1641.  3.  Latin 
Translation  of  the  English  Communion  Service : 
printed  among  Bucer's  Opuscula.  4.  De  Pro- 
nunciatione  Graecae,  Basil,  1555,  8vo. 

CHELIDONIUM,  celandine,  horned,  or 
prickly  poppy,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order 
and  pentandria  class  of  plants ;  natural  order 
twenty-seventh,  rhaeadaea :  COR.  is  tetrapetalous  : 
CAL.  diphyllous,  siliqua  unilocular  and  linear. 
C.  majus  is  an  article  in  the  materia  medica. 

CHELMSFORD,  a  populous  town  in  the 
centre  of  Essex,  and  the  capital  of  the  county,  is 
seated  in  a  beautiful  valley  between  the  Chelmer 
and  the  Can.  Maurice,  bishop  of  London,  first 
made  it  a  place  of  importance,  A.  D.  1100,  by 
building  a  bridge  of  three  arches  over  the  latter 
river ;  which,  being  narrow,  though  very  dura- 
ble, was  taken  down  not  long  since,  and  an  ele- 
gant stone  bridge  of  one  arch  erected  in  its  stead. 
The  natural  confluence  of  these  rivers  is  about 
half  a  mile  from  the  town ;  but  a  little  below  the 
bridge  the  Chelmer  is  diverted  into  the  Can  b- 
a  canal.  Chelmsford  is  separated  by  the  Can 
from  the  hamlet  of  Moulsham.  The  principal 
street  is  spacious,  and  adorned  with  elegant 
buildings.  The  town  has  an  ancient  Gothic 
church;  a  free-school  founded  by  Edward  VI.; 
a  theatre;  and  a  magnificent  new  county  house, 
fronted  with  stone,  and  placed  with  great  taste, 
in  an  oblique  position,  at  the  end  of  the  high 
street.  In  an  open  space,  adjoining  the  town- 
hall,  stands  a  public  conduit ;  its  origin  is 
uncertain,  but  it  has  been  beautified  by  the  fami- 
ly of  the  Fitzwalters,  is  of  a  quadrangular  form, 
about  fifteen  feet  high,  and  built  of  stone  and 
brick,  with  a  pipe  on  each  of  the  four  sides. 
The  spring  which  supplies  it,  rises  at  Burgess- 
Well,  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  town. 
To  the  left  of  the  Shire-Hall  is  the  church,  about 
300  years  old,  a  stately  structure,  at  the  west  end 
of  which  stands  a  square  stone  tower,  with  pyra- 
mids at  each  corner,  and  a  neat  spire.  The 
windows  are  gothic.  In  1800  the  whole  middle 
aisle,  from  the  tower  to  the  chancel,  fell  in. 
Chelmsford  is  a  great  thoroughfare ;  the  east  road 
from  London  passing  through  it.  The  late  queen 
Charlotte  gave  an  annual  plate  of  100  guineas, 
and  two  subscription  plates  are  annually  run  for 
on  the  race  ground  at  Gaily  wood  common. 
There  is  a  well-stocked  market  on  Friday,  and 
this  town  sends  two  members  to  parliament.  It 


CHE 


352 


CHE 


1  ies  twenty-one  miles  south-west  by  west  of  Col- 
chester, and  twenty-nine  miles  north-east  by  east 
of  London. 

CHELMSFORp,a  town  of  Massachusetts,  in  Mid- 
dlesex county,  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Merrimackjover  which  is  a  curious  bridge,  at  Pa- 
tucket  Falls,  which  connects  the  town  with  Dra- 
cut.  It  is  twenty-eight  miles  N.  N.W.  of  Boston. 

CHELONE,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  angios- 
permia  order,  and  didynarnia  class  of  plants; 
natural  order  fortieth,  personatse :  CAL.  quinque- 
partite ;  the  rudiment  of  a  fifth  filament  among 
the  highest  stamina ;  the  capsule  bilocular. 
There  are  three  species,  all  natives  of  North 
America ;  and  are  herbaceous  flowery  perenni- 
als, with  upright  stalks  two  feet  high,  decorated 
with  spear-shaped  leaves,  and  beautiful  spikes  of 
monopetalous,  ringent  flowers,  red,  rose-colored, 
blue,  and  purple.  They  flower  from  September 
to  November,  and  are  sometimes  succeeded  by 
ripe  seeds  in  this  country.  They  are  very  hardy, 
and  may  be  propagated  by  seeds  in  any  soil ; 
but  the  first  two  multiply  so  fast  by  their  creep- 
ing roots,  that  the  seeds  are  seldom  regarded. 

CHELSEA,  a  fine  village,  situated  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Thames,  a  mile  west  of  West- 
minster, remarkable  for  the  magnificent  hospital 
for  invalids  and  old  decrepit  soldiers;  and  a 
noble  botanic  garden  belonging  to  the  Company 
of  Apothecaries.  The  royal  hospital  for  invalids 
was  first  projected  by  Stephen  Fox,  who  him- 
self contributed  above  £l  3,000  to  its  establish- 
ment. It  was  designed  by  Sir  C.  Wren,  begun 
by  Charles  II.  carried  on  by  James  II.  and 
finished  by  William  III.  It  consists  of  a  vast 
range  of  buildings,  that  form  three  large  elegant 
squares.  It  stands  at  a  small  distance  from  the 
river,  and  is  built  of  brick,  excepting  the  orna- 
mental parts,  which  are  of  freestone.  The  prin- 
cipal building  is  a  large  quadrangle,  open  on  the 
south  side,  having  in  the  centre  a  bronze  statue  of 
the  founder  Charles  II.  in  Roman  attire.  Its 
whole  length  is  270  feet.  In  the  wings  are  sixteen 
wards,  in  which  are  accommodations  for  above 
400  men ;  and  there  are,  besides,  in  the'  other 
buildings,  a  considerable  number  of  apartments 
for  officers  and  servants.  The  whole  expense  of 
erecting  the  building  is  computed  to  have  been 
£150,000;  and  the  extent  of  it  is  about  forty- 
eight  acres.  It  is  under  the  direction  of  com- 
missioners, who  consist  generally  of  officers  of 
state  and  of  war.  The  governor  has  a  salary  of 
£500,  the  lieutenant-governor  £400,  the  major 
£250.  The  physician,  secretary,  comptroller, 
deputy-treasurer,  steward,  and  surgeon,  have 
each  £100  yearly,  and  many  of  the  other  officers 
have  considerable  salaries.  There  are  also  in- 
ferior officers,  Serjeants,  corporals,  and  drums, 
who  all  do  garrison  duty ;  and  there  are  above 
10,000  out-pensioners;  all  which  expense  is  de- 
frayed by  a  poundage  deducted  from  the  army, 
deficiences  being  made  good  by  parliament.  The 
annual  expense  of  the  house  establishment,  in- 
cluding officers*  salaries,  and  all  incidental 
charges,  varies  from  27,000.  to  £30,000.  The 
botanic  garden  is  very  exteosive,  enriched  with  a 
variety  of  domestic  and  exotic  plants,  the  original 
stock  of  which  was  given  to  the  apothecaries  of 
London  by  Sir  Hans  Sloarie.  The  Royal  Mili- 


tary Asylum  for  educating  about  1000  cuildren 
of  non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers,  has 
lately  been  erected  by  a  grant  from  parliament* 
near  Sloane  Square.  Towards  the  support  of  this 
institution,  the  whole  army  contributes  one  day' 
pay  per  annum. 

CHELTENHAM,  or  CIIILTENHA.M,  a  marktt 
town,  nine  miles  north-east  of  Gloucester,  and 
ninety-five  from  London,  which  takes  its  nan-e 
from  the  rivulet  Chilt,  passing  through  it  into  the 
Seveni  from  Dowdeswell.  The  town  lies  in  a  flat 
marshy  soil,  on  the  borders  of  a  fine  fertile  vale, 
about  two  miles  from  Clieve,  Presbury,  and 
Lockhampton  hills,  which  join  the  Cotswolds, 
and  form  a  kind  of  semicircle,  defending  the  town 
from  those  cold  blasts  which  proceed  from  the 
eastern  quarter.  There  is  no  manufacture  carried 
on,  but  the  poorer  inhabitants  spin  wool  for  the 
clothiers  around.  On  an  easy  ascent,  about  half 
a  mile  south  of  the  church,  rises  the  Spa,  whhh 
first  attracted  the  attention  of  the  public  in  1740. 
It  is  ascended  by  pleasant  gravel  walks,  and  at 
the  Spa  there  is  a  walk  200  yards  long,  and 
twenty  feet  broad.  The  pump  appears  under  a 
dome,  through  a  neat  archway,  with  two  pos- 
terns, and  supported  by  pillars  ;  on  the  left  is  the 
breakfasting  room,  forty  feet  by  twenty,  with  an 
orchestra;  this  is  occasionally  converted  into  a 
ball-room.  The  season  for  drinking  the  waters 
is  from  May  to  October.  They  are  impregnated 
with  salts,  sulphur,  steel,  calcareous  earth,  and 
operate  at  the  same  time  as  purgative  and  resto- 
rative, very  much  resembling  those  of  Scar- 
borough. Other  springs  of  the  same  quality  are 
found  not  far  distant,,  but  they  are  not  frequented. 
Dry  weather  is  the  best  for  these  waters,  as  well 
as  for  all  mineral  waters  ;  they  are  more  plentiful 
in  rainy  seasons,  but  not  so  powerful.  The  town 
has  a  market  on  Thursday,  and  fairs  on  Holy 
Thursday,  St.  James's  day,  and  the  2d  Thursday 
in  September.  It  has  been  much  improved 
within  these  twenty  years.  A  new  market-house 
has  been  erected,  the  streets  cleaned  and  paved ; 
a  theatre  has  been  erected,  and  the  whole  town 
beautified  considerably.  The  church  is  a  vener- 
able gothic  structure,  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  with 
aisles  on  each  side,  and  an  octagonal  spire  in  the 
middle.  The  churchyard  is  the  most  commodi- 
ous in  England,  300  feet  long,  and  is  planted 
with  double  rows  of  lime-trees. 

CHE'LY,  n.  s.  Lat.  chela.  The.  claw  of  a 
shell  fish. 

It  happeneth  often,  I  confess,  that  a  lobster  hath 
the  c/iely,  or  great  claw,  of  one  side  longer  than  the 
other.  Browne. 

CHEMINAlS(Tirnoleon),  a  celebrated  French 
preacher,  born  at  Paris  in  1682.  He  was  for 
some  time  teacher  of  languages  and  rhetoric  in 
the  Jesuits'  school  at  Orleans ;  and  afterwards 
gained  much  applause  as  a  preacher,  both  at 
Paris  and  Versailles  :  his  style  was  exceedingly 
pathetic,  and  indeed  unrivalled  till  the  appear- 
ance of  Massillon.  His  health  early  declined, 
but  such  was  his  zeal  that  when  unable  to  preach 
he  visited  die  country  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
structing the  poor.  After  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  his  thirty-eighth  year,  three  volumes  of 
his  sermons  were  published  by  Bretonneau,  which 
have  been  since  reprinted 


353 


CHEMISTRY. 


1.  CiiEMiSTRT.     The  reader  will  observe,  by 
attending  to  the   following  definitions   of   this 
interesting  and  popular  science,  that  there  have 
been  some  difficulties  attendant  upon  endeavours 
to  mark  precisely  its  proper  boundaries,  or  to 
distinguish  accurately  the  nature  of  chemical,  as 
separate  from  other  branches  of   natural   phi- 
losophy. 

2.  '  When  we  consider,'  says  the  Abbe  Hau'y, 
'  the  general  and  permanent  properties  of  bodies, 
or  when  the  changes  that  these  bodies   undergo 
are  slight,  and  they  return  to  their  former  state 
after  the  cause  has  ceased  to  act ;  when  also,  the 
laws  which  determine  the  reciprocal  action  of  the 
same  bodies  are  propagated  to  distances  more 
or  less  considerable ;  the  results  of  our  observa- 
tions  are   still   within   the   confines  of  natural 
philosophy.     But  when  the  phenomena  depend 
on  the  ultimate  action  which  the  molecules  exert 
on  each  other  at  distances  almost  infinitely  small, 
by  virtue  of  which   the  molecules  separate,  to 
unite  again  in   a  different  order,  forming  new 
combinations  with  new  properties,  the  study  of 
the  phenomena  belongs  to  chemistry.' 

3.  '  Chemistry,'  says  Jacquin,  '  is  that  branch 
of  natural  philosophy  which  unfolds  the  nature 
of  all  material  bodies,  determines  the  number 
and  properties  of  their  component  parts,  and 
teaches  us  how  those  parts  are  united,  and  by 
what  means  they  may  be  separated  and  recom- 
bined.' 

4.  Dr.  Thomson  defines   the  science  to   be 
'  that  which  treats  of  those  events  or  changes  in 
natural   bodies  which  are   not  accompanied  by 
sensible  motions.' 

5.  Murray  calls  '  it  the  science  which  investi- 
gates the  combinations  of  matter,  and  the  laws 
of  those  general  forces  by  which  these  combina- 
tions are  established  and  subverted.' 

6.  '  It  is  the  object  of  chemistry,'  says  Mr. 
Brande,   '  to  investigate  all  changes  in  the  con- 
stitution of  matter,  whether   effected  by  heat, 
mixture,  or  other  means.' 

7.  Dr.  Ure's  definition  is,  '  the  science  which 
investigates  the  composition  of   material   sub- 
stances, and  the  permanent  changes  of  constitu- 
tion which  their  mutual  actions  produce.' 

8.  While  an  author,  of  whose  labors  in  the 
present  treatise  we  shall  largely  avail  ourselves, 
defines   chemistry,   that  branch  of   philosophy, 
'  the  object  of  which  is  to  discover  and  explain 
the  changes  of  composition  that  occur  among 
the  integrant  and  constituent  parts  of  different 
bodies.' 

9.  It  will  be  perceived  that  most  of  the  above 
definitions  (and  we  might  multiply  their  number) 
go  upon  the  idea  of  combination  in  bodies,  pro- 
ducing change;    a  principle  we  may  illustrate 
oy  a  very  familiar  example.     Suppose  two  sub- 
stances in  a  state  of  powder,  or  minute  commi- 
nution of  their  particles,  to  be  rubbed  together 
m  a  mortar,  an  intimate  mixture  would  be  thus 
obtained   of  the  particles  of  the  one  with  the 
.^articles  of  the  other  mass;  but  suppose  this  to 

VOL.  V. 


be  mere  mixture,  and  that,  notwithstanding  their 
very  intimate  combination,  the  particles  of  each 
body  retain  their  essential  characters,  the  ope- 
ration will  have  been,  not  a  chemical,  but  a 
mechanical  process ;  no  absolute  change  has 
been  effected,  and  why  ?  because,  as  the  chemists 
express  themselves,  no  attraction  had  existed  be- 
tween these  bodies ;  but  supposing  two  other 
masses  of  matter  to  be  treated  in  the  same  man- 
ner, the  particles  of  these  last  having  towards 
each  other  a  mutual  attraction  or  affinity ;  then, 
instead  of  a  simple  intermixture,  or  mere  me- 
chanical combination  of  the  two  substances, 
a  positive  interchange  of  principles  shall  have 
been  effected,  and  the  resuit  of  the  union  shall 
be  a  tertium  quid  ;  a  something  actually  different 
from  the  two  materials  upon  which  the  experi- 
ment has  been  made. 

10.  In  this  example  the  distinction  between 
mechanical  and  chemical  agency  is  sufficiently 
definite  and  precise ;   but  a  change  may  be  ef- 
fected by  the  mutual  action  of  bodies  upon  each 
other,  which  is  rather  formative  than  essential, 
and  it  is  in  these  last  that  the  sciences  of  natural 
philosophy  and  chemistry  seem  so  to  blend  in  with 
each  other,  that  it  is  not  in  all  instances  easy  to 
preserve  their  respective  peculiarities.    If  change 
of  essence  were  positively  requisite  to  constitute 
a  chemical  process,  solution  and  the  expansion 
of  bodies  by  heat  would  scarcely  be  recognisable 
as  chemical   effects,  and   there   are   many  cir- 
cumstances that  occur  in  nature  or  are  instituted 
by  art,  which  are  at  once  both  formative  and 
essential;  although,  then,  change  in  essence  is 
one  of  the  most  conspicuous,  it  is  not,  perhaps, 
the  sole  characteristic  of  chemical  agency ;  and 
if  we  be  desirous  of  stamping  a  niore  abstract 
and  definite  mark  upon  the  objects  of  chemical 
investigation,  we  must  still  seek  for  something 
further  in  order  to  effect  our  purpose. 

11.  We  have  seen   above   that  Mr.  Brande 
claims  for  chemistry  the  right  and  power  of  in- 
vestigating all    changes   in   the  constitution  of 
matter  ;  and  it  is  in  this  word  constitution  that 
we  shall  find  the  principal  secret  of  distinction 
to  be  between  this  and  other  branches  of  na- 
tural science,  the  constituent  principles,  or,  as  it 
is  somewhat  hypothetically  expressed,   the  mo- 
lecules of  bodies  being  the  objects  of  its  recogni- 
tion, while  the  business  of  the  natural  philoso- 
pher rather  refers  to  mass.     See  ATTRACTION. 

12.  We  do  not  know  then  that  we  can  do 
better  than    adopt   the  definition   above  given 
from    Dr.   Henry,     and     call    chemistry    'that 
science,  the  object  of  which,  is  to  discover  and 
explain  the  changes  of  composition  that  occur 
among  the  integrant  and   constituent  parts  of 
different  bodies.' 

13.  For  the  introductory  and  historical  part 
of  the  present  treatise,   that  part  to  which  w  ? 
immediately  proceed,  we  shall  be  much  indebtec? 
to   another  contemporary   writer  of  great   and 
deserved  celebrity ;   we  allude  to  Mr.  Brand?, 
whose  historical  sketch  of  the  progress  of  clie- 

2  A 


3:4 


CHEMISTRY. 


mical  science,  prefixed  to  his  Manual  of  Che- 
mistry, is  in  our  minds  a  master-piece  of  com- 
position and  able  reasoning ;  a  meed  of  praise, 
this,  which  no  one  having  read  it,  will  feel 
reluctant  to  bestow,  when  he  shall  have  recol- 
lected the  combination  of  talent  and  acquire- 
ment supposed  in  an  individual  at  once  to  detail 
facts  with  fidelity,  arrange  them  in  logical  order, 
and  wield  the  pen  of  an  elegant  and  powerful 
writer. 

14.  The  history  of  the  science  which  we  are 
now  about  to  present,  will,  it  is  proper  to  say, 
embrace   some   particulars,    not   intelligible   to 
those  who    shall   come  to   its  perusal  entirely 
ignorant  of  the  principles  of  chemistry.      We 
would  recommend,  however,  a  careful  reading 
of  it,  even  by  such  persons,  prior  to  their  enter- 
ing upon  the   body  of  the  treatise;    and  after 
this  last  shall  have  been  studied  and  digested, 
the  introduction   may  then  be  reperused  with 
more  satisfaction  and  profit. 

PART  I. 

PROGRESS  OF  CHEMICAL  SCIENCE. 

15.  '  Chemistry,'  says  Mr.  Brande,   '  cannot 
be  said  to  have  existed  as  a  science  previous  to 
the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century ; 
for  although  we  find  in  the  writings  of  the  earlier 
chemists  m?iny  curious  and  important  facts  and 
discoveries,  these  remained  useless  and  unap- 
plied so  long  as  the  minds  of  men  were  exclu- 
sively directed  to  the  transmutation  of  metals, 
the  fabrication   of  an  universal  elixir,    and  the 
production  of  the  alcahest  or  general  solvent. 
Although,  therefore,   it  may  often'  be  amusing 
and  sometimes  profitable  to  revert  to  the  crude 
speculations  and  waking  dreams  of  the  volumin- 
ous writers  on  these  subjects  who  were  eminent 
in  the  fourteenth  and  two  successive  centuries, 
the  time  of  the  student  will  be  more  usefully 
employed  in  tracing  the  labors  of  those  who, 
discarding   visionary   hypotheses,  proceeded  to 
the  investigation  of  truth,  and  who  were  led  on 
not  by  the  vague  glimmerings  of  speculative  no- 
tions, but  by  the  steady  day-light  of  real  phi- 
losophy. 

16.  It  may  be  right  briefly  to  advert  to  the 
circumstances  of  more  ancient  times  in  reference 
to   chemical   pursuits,   than   those  from  which 
Mr.  Brande  commences  his  historical  disquisi- 
tion.     In  these  earlier  periods,   however,  che- 
mistry, if  it  might  be  said  to  exist  at  all,  rather 
existed  as  an  art  than  as  a  science.     '  Were  we,' 
says  a  writer  of  fifteen  years  ago,  '  to  treat  of 
the  history  of  chemical  arts,  we  should  be  car- 
ried back  to  a  very  remote  era;    were  we  to 
speak  of   chemistry  as   a  science,  our   history 
would  scarcely  yet  have  a  beginning.     Chemical 
arts  do  not  imply  chemical   science  ;    and  we 
shall  consequently  overlook  the  fancies  of  those 
who  see  in  common  operations,  the  rudiments 
of  what  has  since  been  so  advantageously  de- 
veloped ;  who  admire,  for  instance,  the  ingenuity 
of  those  ancient  artists  who  could  be  so  far  in- 
structed as  to  produce  a  Scarlet  dye,  when  they 
were  in  reality  ignorant  of  such  a  color.'    *  And' 
says  another  writer  in  the  same  spirit,  and  with 
equal  truth, '  although  the  working  of  metals,  and 


other  chemical  arts,  were  known  in  the  early 
ages  of  the  world ;  and  among  the  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  and  Romans,  many  of  the  arts  depend- 
ing on  chemistry  had  reached  some  degree  of 
perfection ;  yet  this  knowledge  must  be  regarded 
as  consisting  only  of  a  number  of  scattered,  un- 
connected facts,  which  deserve  not  to  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  science.  A  carpenter 
may  erect  a  piece  of  machinery,  arranged  and 
constructed  exactly  similar  to  what  he  has  seen, 
without  the  knowledge  of  a  single  principle  of 
its  construction  ;  but  the  man  of  science,  who 
can  neither  handle  the  axe  nor  the  chisel,  ob- 
serves and  estimates  the  power  and  operation  of 
all  its  parts,  and  determines  the  general  effect  of 
the  whole  machine. 

17.  In   Egypt,  however,  many  processes  ap- 
pear to  have  been  carried  on  which  implied  at 
least  very  considerable  acquaintance  with  what 
we  should  call  chemical  facts,  such  as  painting 
on  glass,  fabricating  porcelain,  gilding  of  metals, 
extracting  salts  from  their  bases,  separating  oils, 
and  preparing  wine  and  vinegar.     The  dying  of 
silks  too  was  common  among  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians ;    and  the  process  of   embalming  was  of 
course  a  chemical  one.     They  likewise  worked 
considerably  among  metals. 

18.  In  this  last  employ  the  Phoenicians  also 
were  expert,  and  these  people  are  described  as 
skilled    in   the  manufacture  of    glass.      Many 
mineral   substances  were  also   familiar   to   the 
Phoenicians. 

19.  The  historians  of  the  Chinese,  claim  for 
these  people    a  very  early   acquaintance   with 
chemical,  as   well  as  other   branches   of    phi- 
losophy.    Metallurgic  processes  are  said  to  have 
been  from  the  most  ancient  date  carried  on  by 
the  Chinese,  and  working  in  horn  and  ivory  very 
common  with  them. 

20.  It  is,  perhaps,  in  Greece  and  Rome  that 
we   hear   less   of  arts   and   manufactures,   and 
institutions  of  a  chemical  nature,  than  in  other 
countries     of     ancient     times.       Mathematics, 
philosophy,  the  fine  arts,  and  what  in  the  present 
day  would  be  termed  polite  literature,  rather 
occupied  the  attention   of  the  former  of  these 
people,  than  those  particulars  which  had  to  do 
with  the  more  vulgar  business  of  life  ;  and  in 
respect  to   the  latter,  the  Romans,  '  the  pomp, 
pride,  and  circumstance  of  war'  for  a  very  long 
period  so  absorbed  every  other  consideration,  as  to 
render  them  inattentive  to,  and  almost  despisers 
of,  everything  that  had  not  some  connexion  with 
military  affairs. 

21.  'It  is,'  to  revert  to  the  author  from  whom 
we  have  deviated,  '  among  our  own  countrymen 
that  we  discover  the  fathers  of  chemical   phi- 
losophy ;  for  Bacon,  Boyle,  Hooke,  Mayow,  and 
Newton  present  unequivocal  claims  to  that  dis- 
tinctive title.     As  induction  from  experiment  is 
exclusively  the  basis  of  chemical  science,  little 
progress  could  be  made  in  it  till  the  futility  of 
of  the  ancient  philosophical  systems  had  been 
shown,  and  their  influence  annihilated,  till  the 
true  end  of  science  was  rightly  defined,  and  the 
road  to  it  rendered  straight  and  passable  ;  till  the 
necessity  of  well-digested  experiment  had  been 
established,  which  '  first  procures  the  light,  then 
shows  the  way  by  its  means.' 


CHEMISTRY. 


355 


22.  The  history  of  chemistry  necessarily  com- 
prises an  account  of  alchemic  attempts  to  con- 
vert the  baser  metals  into  gold,  to  obtain  an 
universal  medicine,  and  to  procure  the  means  of 
obviating  the  necessity  of  death ;   for,  difficult 
as  it  may  appear  in  the  present  day  to  conceive 
how  these  visionary  projects  could  be  made  the 
subjects  of   serious  investigation   and    pursuit, 
certain  it    is,    that  such    notions   were   largely 
entertained  and  extensively   acted  on ;    and  in 
some  cases  by  individuals,  who,  with  the  exception 
of  being  influenced  by  this,  the  fan-atic  knavery  of 
the  times  in  which  they  lived,  seemed  men  of  high 
intellect  and  correct  morals. 

23.  Under  the  word  ALCHEMY   the    reader 
will  find  a  notice  of   some  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous of  those  individuals  whose  exertions 
and  experiments  were  directed  by  the  desire  and 
expectation  of  finding  '  the  philosopher's  stone,' 
and  the  '  universal   elixer.'      We   shall   in  this 
place  enlarge  a  little  on  this  history,  and  pre- 
sent  the   reader   with   an    abridgment   of  Mr. 
Brande's  account  of  Alchymy,  such  we  find  to 
be    his    orthography   of  the   word.      See   the 
Etymological  Definitions. 

24.  Hermes  Trismegistus,  who  is  said  to  have 
lived  in  the  year  of   the  world   2076  (we  now 
extract  from  Mr.   Brande),  has  generally  been 
quoted  as  the  oldest  of  the  alchemists :   there 
can,    however,   be   very   little   doubt   that   the 
writings  attributed  to  him  are  entirely  spurious. 
The  Tractatus  Aureus,  or  Golden  Work,  is  evi- 
dently a  farrago  of  occult  philosophy,  belonging 
to  a  much  later  period.     Hermes,  at  the  outset, 
is  made  to  apologise  for  divulging  the  secrets  of 
the  black  art.     '  I  should  never  have  revealed 
them,'  he  says,  'had  not  the  fear  of  eternal  judg- 
ment, or  the  hazard  of  the  perdition  of  my  soul, 
prevailed  with  me  for  such  a  concealment.     It 
is  a  debt  I  am  willing  to  pay  to  the  just,  even  as 
the  Father  of  the  just  has  liberally  bestowed  it 
upon  me.'     After  this  prelude  we  might  expect 
to  be  let  into  some  of  the  mysteries  of  alchemy, 
but   our   curiosity  is   quickly  disappointed   by 
finding  that  they  are  only  revealed  to  the  eyes 
and  ears  of  the  sons  of  art,  '  not  to  the  profane, 
the   unworthy,  and  the   scoffers,  who,  being  as 
greedy  dogs,  wolves,  and  foxes,  are  not  to  feed 
at  our  divine  repast.'     The  reader  is  then  con- 
ducted into  what  is  termed  the  innermost  chamber, 
and  regaled  with  a  history  and  explication  of 
various  matters  relating  to  the  philosopher's  stone, 
by  means  of  which,  '  through  the  permission  of 
the  Omnipotent,  the  greatest  disease  is  cured, 
and  sorrow,  distress,  evil,  and  every  hurtful  thing 
evaded,  by  help  of  which  we  pass  from  darkness 
to  light,  from  a  desert  and  wilderness  to  a  habitation 
and  home,  and  from  straightness  and  necessities 
to  a  large  and  ample  estate.'     We  are  then  di- 
rected to  'catch  the  flying  bird,'  by  which  is 
meant  quicksilver,  '  and  drown    t  so  that  it  may 
fly  no  more ;'  this  is  what  is  afterwards  termed 
the  fixation  of  mercury,  by  waiting  it  to  gold. 
It  is  then  to  be  plunged  into  the  '  well  of  the 
philosophers,'  or  aqua  regia,  '  by  which  its  soul 
•will  be  dissipated,  and  its  corporeal   particles 
united  to  the  red  eagle,'  or  muriate  of  gold. 

25.  All  the  details  bear  upon  this  one  point, 
that  of  increasing  the  weight  of  gold  by  the  in- 


fluence of  mercury,  and  this  imaginary  document 
of  Hermes  will  suffice  as  an  example  of  all  the 
earliest  alchemical  authors. 

26.  Geber  is  another  great  name  in  the  history 
of  alchemy,  who  lived  probably  not  later  than 
the   seventh  century.      His  three  books   of  al- 
chemy were  published  atStrasburg  in  1520,  and 
if  genuine,  of  which  there  is  much  doubt,  con- 
tain   matter    that   well  justifies   the    praise   of 
Boerhaave,  who  considers  him  as   a    first-rate 
philosopher  of  his  age.     In  his  chapter  on  the 
Alchemie  of  Sol,  after  descanting  upon  the  dif- 
ferent means  of  refining  and  dissolving  gold,  he 
describes  several  solar  medicines,  in   language 
which  is  tolerably  intelligible ;  they  are  all  so- 
lutions of  gold  in  nitro-muriatic  acid,  with  the 
addition  of  quicksilver,  nitre,  common  salt,  and 
some  other  saline  matters,  and  the  student  is  di- 
rected to  prepare  his  mind  for  their  performance 
by  suitable  acts  of  piety  and  charity,  which,  if 
earnestly   and   perseveringly    carried   on,    may, 
after  due  time,  enable  him,  in  the  language  of 
Dr.  Salmon,   his   translator,  '  to  change  argent 
vive  into  an  infinite  solific  and  lunific,  without 
the  help  of   anything  more   than   its  multipli- 
cation. 

27.  Artephius,   in    123G,    published    several 
alchemical  tracts.     We  are  told  by  Roger  Bacon 
and  others  that   he  died  at  the  advanced  age  of 
125,  having  prolonged  his  life  by  the  miraculous 
virtues  of  his  medicines  ;  but  his  name,  and  that 
of   John   de   Rupescissa,  are    now   deservedly 
buried  in  oblivion. 

28.  Roger  Bacon  was  a  native  of  Ilchester,  in 
Somersetshire,  and  descended  from  an  ancient 
and  honorable  family.     He  acquired  celebrity  at 
Oxford,  after  his  return  from  Paris,  in  1240;  but 
his  boldness  in   opposing  the   dogmas    of   the 
schools,  occasioned  him  to  be  subjected  to  much 
and  violent  opposition,  and  even,  it  is  said,  en- 
dangered his  life. 

29.  I  know  of  no  work,  says  Mr.  Brande,  that 
strikes  one  with  more  surprise  and  admiration 
than  the  Opus    Majus  of  Roger    Bacon,  '  he 
stands  alone,  like  a  beacon  upon  a  waste ;  his 
expressions  are  conspicuous  and  comprehensive, 
such  as  betoken  a  rare  and  unclouded  intellect ; 
and  they  are  full  of  anticipations  of  the  advan- 
tages likely  to  be  derived  from  that  mode  of  in- 
vestigation insisted  upon  by  his  great  successor, 
chancellor  Bacon.      This  resemblance  between 
Roger  Bacon  and  his  illustrious  namesake  has 
scarcely  been  noticed  by  the  historians  of  his 
period  ;  it  has,  however,  not  escaped  Mr.  Hal- 
lam's    observation,   who    adverts   to    it   in   the 
History  of  the  Middle   Ages.     '  Whether  lord 
Bacon,'  he  says,  '  ever  read  the  Opus  Majus  I 
know  not,  but  it   is  singular  that  his  favorite 
quaint  expression,  prerogative  scientiarum  should 
be  found  in  that  work ;  and  whoever  reads  the 
sixth  part  of  the  Opus  Majus  upon  experimental 
science,  must  be  struck  by  it  as  the  prototype  in 
spirit  of  the  Novum  Organum.     The  same  san- 
guine,  and    sometimes  rash   confidence  in  the 
effect  of  physical  discoveries  ;  the  same  fondness 
for  experiments ;    the  same  preference  of    in- 
ductive   to   abstract    reasoning;  pervade    both 
works. 

30.  Bacoa's  alchemical  work  that  has  been 

2  A2 


most  spoken  of,  is  the  Mirror  of  Alchemy.  To 
him  has  been  ascribed  the  invention  of  gun- 
powder by  some,  while  others  have  traced  it  to 
Bartholomew  Schwartz,  a  German  monk,  who 
lived  early  in  the  fourteenth  century.  But,  ac- 
cording to  an  Arabic  writer  in  the  Escurial 
collection,  this  composition  was  brought  into 
Europe  by  the  Saracenic  invaders.  It  seems  to 
be  pretty  well  made  out,  that  the  use  of  gun- 
powder was  known  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Edward  III.  employed  ar- 
tillery with  memorable  effect  at  the  battle  of 
Cressy,  and  in  the  fifteenth  century  hand  cannons 
and  muskets  came  into  use,  and  gunpowder  was 
in  common  employ. 

31.  Contemporary  with  Bacon  was  Albert  of 
Cologne,  who  was  the  inventor  of  the  celebrated 
brazen  head,   which    Dr.  Aquinas,  his   pupil, 
demolished,  in  consequence  of  its  being  suspected 
to  be  an  agent  of  the  devil. 

32.  Albertus  Magnus  was  said  to  be  deeply 
skilled  in  alchemic  lore,  as  was  also  Raymond 
Lully  of  Majorca,  who  died  on  his  passage  from 
Africa,,  in  1315,  whither  he  had  been  to  propa- 
gate the  gospel.     Lully  is  said  to  have  converted 
iron  into  gold,  in  the  presence  of  Edward  I.  in 
London.     Arnold  de  Villeneuve  prophesied  that 
the  world  would  come  to  an  end  in  1376.     He  was 
renowned  as  a  physician  and  astrologer,  as  well 
as  an  alchemist ;  and  Mariana  and  others  ridi- 
culously accuse  him  of  magic. 

33.  The   treatise   on   alchemy  published    at 
Paris  in  1561,  and  attributed  to  Flamel,  is  said 
to  be  spurious.      Flamel  was  thought  to  possess 
the  secret,  from  his  becoming  suddenly,  as  it  is 
said,   very  rich.      He  was  celebrated   also   for 
his    hieroglyphics,  '  which    are    much    of    the 
same  cast  as   those   that   now  adorn    Moore's 
Almanack,   and   quite  as    edifying.' 

34.  George  Ripley  figures  in  Salmon's  col- 
lection as  the  author  of  the  Marrow  of  Alchymy. 
He  was  a  chemical  poet,  and  Mr.  Brande  ex- 
tracts  the   following   stanzas   from  the  preface 
to   his   Compound   of  Alchemic,  dedicated  to 
Edward  IV. 

But  into  chapters  thys  Treatis  I  shall  devyde, 
In  number  twelve,  with  dew  recapytulatyon : 
Superfluous  rehearsalls  I  lay  asyde, 
Intending  only  to  give  trew  informatyon, 
Both  of  the  theoryke  and  practycall  operatyon  ; 
That  by  my  writyng  who  so  will  guyded  be, 
Of  hys  intente  perfectly  speed  shall  he. 

The  fyrst  chapter  shall  be  of  natural!  Calcination; 
The  second  of  Dyssolution,  secret  and  phylosophycall  ; 
The  third  of  our  elementall  Separation  ; 
The  fourth  of  Conjunction  matrimonial! ; 
The  fyfth  of  Putrefaction  then  followe  shall ; 
Of  Congelation  Albyficative  shall  be  the  sixt, 
Then  of  Cybation,  the  seaventh,  shall  follow  next. 

The   secret  of    our  Sully mation  the   eyght    shall 

show  ; 

The  nynth  shall  be  of  Fermentatyon  ; 
The  tenth  of  our  Exaltation  I  trow  ; 
The  eleventh  of  our  mervelose  Multiplication ; 
The  twelfth  of  Projection,  then  recapytulatyon. 
And  so  this  treatise  shall  take  an  <  mi, 
By  the  help  of  God,  as  I  intend 


Thus  here  the  tract  of  Alchemie  doth  end, 
Which  tract  was  by  George  Ripley,  Chanon,  penn'd. 
It  was  composed,  writt,  and  signed  his  owrie, 
In  anno  twice  seaven  hundred  seaventy-one. 
Reader,  assist  him,  make  it  thy  desire, 
That  after  lyfe  he  may  have  gentle  fire ! 

AMEN. 

35.  Failure  after  failure,  although   it  might 
shake  the  faith  placed   in  alchemy,  did  not  pre- 
vent perseverance,  and  men  still  continued  to 
act  under  the  belief  that  eventual  success  would 
attend  the  great  endeavour.     Salmon's  creed  is 
that  of  most  of  his  contemporaries  ;  '  as  to  the 
great  and  philosophic  work,'  says  he,  meaning 
transmutation, '  it  is  my  opinion  and  belief  that 
there  is  such  a  thing  in  nature.     I   know  the 
matter  of  fact  to  be  true,  though  the  way  and 
manner  of  doing  it  is  as  yet  hid  from  me.     I 
have  been  eye-witness  of  so  much  as   is  able 
to    convince    any  man,   endued   with    rational 
faculties,  that  there  is  a  possibility  of  the  trans- 
mutation of  metals  ;    yet,  for  all  these  things, 
will  not  advise  any  man,  ignorant  of  the  power 
of  nature,  and  the  way  of  operation,  to  attempt 
the  work,  lest,  erring  in  the  foundation,  he  should 
suffer  loss,  and  blame  me.     Without  doubt  it  is 
a  gift  of  God  from  above,  and  he  that  attains  it 
must  patiently  wait  the  moving  of  the  waters : 
when  the  destined  angel  moves  the  waters  of  the 
pool,  then  is  the  time  to   immerge  the  leprous 
metal,  and  cleanse  it  from  all  impurities.' 

36.  Van  Helmont  expresses  himself  on   the 
same  subject  in  the  following  words  :  '  I  am  con- 
strained to  believe  in  the  making  of  gold  and 
silver,  though  I  know  many  exquisite  chemists 
who  have  consumed  their  own  and  other  men's 
goods  in  search  of  this  mystery;  and  to  this  day 
we  see  these  unworthy  and  simple  laborers  cun- 
ningly deluded  by  a  diabolical  crew  of  gold  and 
silver  sucking  flies  and  leeches.     But  I  know 
that  many  will  contradict  this  truth  ;  one  says  it 
is  the  work  of  the  devil,  and  another  that  the 
sauce  is  dearer  than  the  meat.' 

37.  Bergman,   speaking   of   transmuting   re- 
lations, says,  '  although   most  of  them  are  de- 
ceptive, and  many  uncertain ;  some  bear  such 
character  and  testimony,  that  unless  we  reject  all 
historical  evidence,  we  must  allow  them  entitled 
to  confidence.' 

38.  '  For  my  own  part,'  says  Mr.  Brande, '  the 
perusal  of  the  histories  of  transmutation,'  and, 
as  far  as  we  have  perused  them,  we  have  formed 
the  same  judgment,  '  appears  to  me  to  furnish 
solid  grounds  for  a  diametrically  opposite  opinion 
fiom  that  expressed  by  Bergman.     The  histories 
are  all  of  a  most  suspicious  character ;  some- 
times the  fraud  was   open  and  intentional,  se- 
conded by  juggling  dexterity ;  at  other  times  the 
performers  deceived  themselves ;  they  purchased 
what  was  called  a  powder  of  projection,  prepared 
by  the  adepts,  containing  a  portion  of  gold,  and 
when  they  threw  it  into  the  fire  with  mercury, 
and  found  that  portion  of  gold  remaining  in 
their  crucible,  they  had  not  wit  enough  to  detect 
its  source.     But  the  cases  which  are  quoted  as 
least  exceptionable,  are  often  exactly  those  which 
are  really  impossible.     I  mean  where  the  weight 
ot  the  powder  of  projection,  and  of  the  lead,  or 
other  base  metal,  taken  conjointly,  was  exceeded 


CHEMISTRY. 


357 


by  that  of  the  gold  produced.  Such  is  Herne's 
history  of  Paykul's  transmutation,  who,  with 
six  drachms  of  lead  and  one  of  powder,  produced 
an  ingot  that  was  coined  into  147  ducats  ;  and 
many  others.  But  the  most  celebrated  history 
of  transmutation  is  that  given  by  Helvetius,  in 
his  Brief  of  the  Golden  Calf;  discovering  the 
rarest  miracle  in  nature,  how,  by  the  smallest 
portion  of  the  philosopher's  stone,  a  great  piece 
of  common  lead  was  totally  transmuted  into  the 
purest  resplendent  gold,  at  the  Hague,  in  1666. 
39.  As  this,  says  Mr.  Brande,  is  a  luminous 
epitome  of  all  that  has  been  done  on  this  subject 
I  shall  briefly  abridge  the  proceedings.  '  The 
27th  day  of  December,  1666,  in  the  afternoon, 
came  a  stranger  to  my  house  at  the  Hague,  in  a 
plebeick  habit,  of  honest  gravity  and  serious 
authority,  of  a  mean  stature,  and  a  little  long 
face,  black  hair,  not  curled,  a  beardless  chin,  and 
about  forty-four  years  (as  I  guess)  of  age,  and 
born  in  North  Holland.  After  salutation,  he 
beseeched  me  with  great  reverence  to  pardon  his 
rude  accesses,  for  he  was  a  lover  of  the  pyrotech- 
nian  art,  and  having  read  my  treatise  against  the 
sympathetic  powder  of  Sir  Kenelm  Digby,  and 
observed  my  doubt  about  this  phylosophic  mys- 
tery, induced  him  to  ask  me  if  I  really  was  a 
disbeliever  as  to  the  existence  of  an  universal 
medicine  which  would  cure  all  diseases,  unless 
the  principal  parts  were  perished  or  the  predes- 
tinated time  of  death  come.  I  replied,  I  never 
met  with  an  adept,  or  saw  such  a  medicine, 
though  I  had  fervently  praid  for  it.  Then  I  said 
surely  you  are  a  learned  physician.  No,  said  he, 
I  am  a  brass  founder  and  lover  of  chemistry. 
He  then  took  from  his  bosom  pouch  a  neat  ivory 
box,  and  out  of  it  three  ponderous  lumps  of  stone, 
each  about  the  bigness  of  a  walnut.  I  greedily 
saw  and  handled  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  this 
most  noble  substance,  the  value  ot  which  might 
be  somewhere  about  twenty  tons  of  gold ;  and 
having  drawn  from  the  owner  many  rare  secrets 
of  its  admirable  effects,  I  returned  him  this 
treasure  of  treasures  with  a  most  sorrowful  mind, 
humbly  beseeching  him  to  bestow  a  fragment  of 
it  upon  me  in  perpetual  memory  of  him  though 
but  the  size  of  a  coriander  seed.  No,  no,  said 
he,  that  is  not  lawful ;  though  thou  wouldst  give 
me  as  many  golden  ducats  as  would  fill  this 
room  ;  for  it  would  have  particular  consequences, 
and  if  fire  could  be  burned  of  fire,  I  would  at 
this  instant  rather  cast  it  all  into  the  fiercest 
flames.  He  then  asked  if  I  had  a  private 
chamber  whose  prospect  was  from  the  public 
street ;  so  I  presently  conducted  him  to  my  best 
furnished  room  backwards,  which  he  entered 
says  Helvetius,  in  the  true  spirit  of  Dutch  clean- 
liness, without  wiping  his  shoes,  which  were  full 
of  snow  and  dirt.  I  now  expected  he  would 
bestow  some  great  secret  upon  me,  but  in  vain. 
He  asked  for  a  piece  of  gold,  and  opening  his 
doublet  showed  me  five  pieces  of  that  precious 
metal  which  he  wore  upon  a  green  riband,  and 
which  very  much  excelled  mine  inflexibility  and 
colour,  each  being  the  size  of  a  small  trencher. 
I  now  earnestly  again  craved  a  crumb  of  the 
stone,  and  at  last,  out  of  his  philosophical  com- 
miseration, he  gave  me  a  morsel  as  large  as  a 
rape-seed,  but  I  said  this  scanty  morsel  will 


scarcely  transmute  four  grains  of  lead.  Then, 
said  he,  deliver  it  me  back  :  which  I  did  in 
hopes  of  a  greater  parcel ;  but  he  cutting  off 
half  with  his  nail  said,  even  this  is  sufficient  for 
thee.  Sir,  said  I,  with  a  dejected  countenance, 
what  means  this,  and  he  said  even  that  will 
transmute  half  an  ounce  of  lead.  So  I  gave  him 
great  thanks,  and  said  I  would  try  it  and  reveal 
it  to  no  one.  He  then  took  his  leave  and  said 
he  would  call  again  next  morning  at  nine.  I 
then  confessed  that  while  the  mass  of  his  medi- 
cine was  in  my  hand  the  day  before,  I  had 
secretly  scraped  off  a  bit  with  my  nail,  which  I 
projected  on  lead,  but  it  caused  no  transmutation 
for  the  whole  flew  away  in  fumes.  Friend, 
said  he,  thou  art  more  dexterous  in  committing 
theft  than  in  applying  medicine;  hadst  thou 
wrapt  up  thy  stolen  prey  in  yellow  wax  it  would 
have  penetrated  and  transmuted  the  lead  into 
gold.  I  then  asked  if  the  philosophic  work  cost 
much  or  required  long  time,  for  philosophers  say 
that  nine  or  ten  months  are  required  for  it.  He 
answered,  their  writings  are  only  to  be  under- 
stood by  the  adepts,  without  whom  no  student 
can  prepare  this  magistery.  Fling  not  away 
therefore  thy  money  and  goods  in  hunting  out 
this  art,  for  thou  shalt  never  find  it.  To  which, 
I  replied,  as  thy  master  showed  it  to  thee,  so 
mayest  thou  perchance  discover  something  thereof 
to  me,  who  know  the  rudiments,  and  therefore 
it  may  be  easier  to  add  to  a  foundation  than 
begin  anew.  In  this  art,  said  he,  it  is  quite 
otherwise ;  for  unless  taou  knowest  the  thing 
from  head  to  heel  thou  canst  not  break  open  the 
glassy  seal  of  Hermes.  But  enough,  to-morrow 
at  the  ninth  hour  I  will  show  thee  the  manner  of 
projection.  But  Elias  never  came  again,  so  my 
wife,  who  was  curious  in  the  art  whereof  the 
worthy  man  had  discoursed,  teazed  me  to  make 
the  experiment  with  the  little  spark  of  bounty 
the  artist  had  left  me ;  so  I  melted  half  an  ounce 
of  lead,  upon  which  my  wife  put  in  the  said 
medicine,  it  hissed  and  bubbled  and  in  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  the  mass  of  lead  was  transmuted  into 
fine  gold,  at  which  we  were  exceedingly  amazed. 
I  took  it  to  the  goldsmith,  who  judged  it  most 
excellent,  and  willingly  offered  fifty  florins  for 
each  ounce.'  Such  adds  Mr.  Brande,  is  the 
celebrated  history  of  Elias  the  artist,  and  Dr. 
Helvetius. 

40.  Evelyn  in  his  diary  mentions  that  Sir 
Kenelm  Digby  gave  him  a  certain  powder  '  with 
which  he  affirmed  he  had  fixed  mercury  before 
the  late  king.  He  advised  me  to  try  (says  Evelyn) 
and  digest  a  little  better,  and  gave  me  a  water 
which  he  said  was  only  rain  water  of  the  autum- 
nal   equinox    exceedingly   rectified    and    very 
volatile  ;  it  had  a  taste  of  strong  vitriolic,  and 
smelt  like  aqua-fortis.       He  intended  it  for  a 
dissolvent  of  calx  of  gold  ;  but  the  truth  is  Sir 
Kenelm  was  an  arrant  mountebank.' 

41.  Descartes  is  said  to  have  supported   the 
opinion  that  life  might  be  prolonged  for  a  very 
considerable  period;  this  opinion  would  seem  to 
imply  a  belief  in  the  discovery  of  some  philo- 
sophical process  or  specific,  but  says  our  author 
his  plan  seemed  to  be  the  very  rational  one  of  li- 
miting all  excess  of  diet,  and  enjoining  punctual 
and  frugal  me.  •>. 


358 


CHEMISTRY. 


42.  Elias   Ashmole   published,  in   1652,  his 
The? train  Chemicum  Britannicum,   containing 
several  Poeticall  Pieces  of  our  famous  English 
•philosophers  who  have  written  the  Hermetique 
Mysteries  in  their  own  ancient  language.     The 
most  remarkable  piece  in  this   collection  is  the 
Ordinall  of  Alchimy,  by  Thomas  Norton,  illus- 
trated  by  several   comical   cuts.     It  treats,  in 
separate  chapters,  of  the  objects  of  the  occult 
science  ;  of  the  difficulties  of  attaining  them ;  of 
the  different  methods  of  pursuing  them ;  of  the 
characters  of  the  elements ;  and  of  the  five  con- 
cords, of  which  the  first  is  patience,  the  second 
assistance,   the    third   instruments,    the   fourth 
situation,  and  the  fifth  planetary  influence.     It 
is  difficult  to  select  from  this  production  any 
specimen  capable  of  conveying  an  idea  of  its 
merits,   that  can  come  within   the  limits  of  a 
quotation.     Perhaps  the  following  lines  picked 
out  of  the  second  chapter,  touching  '  the  Regi- 
ment of  Fiers'  may  serve  to  convey  some  idea 
of  the  author's  talents  in  the  double  capacity  of 
poet  and  philosopher. 

In  many  authors  written  you  may  see, 
Totum  consistit  in  ignis  regimine  ; 
Wherefore  in  all  things  so  proceed, 
That  heat  work  no  more,  no  less  than  it  need  \ 
Wherein  many  of  Geber's  cooks 
Deceived  were,  though  they  be  wise  in  books. 
Such  heate  wherewith  a  pig  or  goose  is  scalded 
In  this  arte  Decoction  it  is  called  ; 
Such  heate  as  dry  the  lawne  karchiefs  fair, 
In  thirty  operations  serveth  for  our  ayre  ; 
But  for  divisions  you  must  use  such  heate, 
As  cooks  make,  when  they  roast  raw  meat. 
Ignis  humidus,  another  fier  alsoe 
Is,  and  yet  seemeth  oppositum  in  adjecto  ; 
Another  fier,  is  fier  of  dessication, 
For  matters  which  be  imbibed  with  humectatioa. 
Ignis  corrodent  serveth  in  this  arte, 
Elementa  propinqua  wisely  to  depart. 
By  one  point  of  excess  all  your  work  is  slieiit , 
And  one  point  too  little  is  insufficient ; 
Who  can  be  sure  to  find  its  trew  degree. 
Majister  magnvs  in  igne  shall  he  be. 
All  that  hath  pleasure  in  this  booke  to  reade, 
Pray  for  my  soule,  and  all  both  quick  and  df-ade. 
In  this  year  of  Christ  1477, 
This  work  was  begun,  honor  to  God  in  heaven. 

43.  Some  few  believers  in  transmutation  have 
been  found  in  later  times.  Dr.  Price  of  Guildford, 
in  the  year  1782,  professed  to  convert  mercury 
into  silver  and  gold  by  means  of  a  white  and 
a  red  powder,  and  is  said  to  have  convinced  many 
disbelievers  of  the  possibility  of  this  change :  his 
experiments  were  to  have  been  repeated  before 
an  adequate  tribunal,  but  he  put  a  period  to  his 
existence  by  swallowing  laurel  water. 

44.  Peter  Woulfe,  who  died  so  late  as  1805, 
and  who  is  the  author  of  several  papers  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions,  was  a  believer  in  the 
mysteries  of  the  transmuting  art.      He  had  long 
vainly  searched  for  the  elixir,  and  attributed  his 
repeated  failures  to  the  want  of  due  preparation 
by  pious  and  charitable  acts.      And  a  few  other 
persons,  adds  Mr.  Brande,    of  less  note  might 
be  quoted  as  believers  in  transmutation,  but  the 
history  of  one  is  that  of  all :  and  in  the  emphatic 
language  of  Spenser,  they  were  doomed 


To  lose  good  days  that  might  he  better  spent, 
To  waste  long  nights  in  pensive  discontent  j 
To  speed  to  day,  to  be  put  back  to  morrow, 
To  feed  on  hope,  to  pine  with  fear  and  sorrow  ; 
To  fret  their  souls  with  crosses  and  with  cares, 
To  eat  their  hearts,  through  comfortless  despairs : 
Unhappy  wights !  born  to  disastrous  end, 
That  do  their  lives  in  tedious  tendance  spend. 

45.  But  although  the  alchemists   have  given 
us  little  in  the  way  of  useful  facts,  or  applicable 
discoveries,  their  reign  was  fruitful  in  the  inven- 
tion  of  apparatus.       Alembics,   stills,   retorts, 
receivers,  and  a  variety  of  whimsical  and  com- 
plex vessels,  in  glass  and  porcelain,  are  described 
and  depicted  in  their  works ;  and  they  not  only 
possessed  all  the  furnaces  with  which  our  modern 
laboratories  are  necessarily  supplied,  but  were 
particularly  expert  in   their  construction,    and 
often  surprisingly  happy  in  their  invention,  and 
in  this   way   the  beau   ideal  of    their  strange 
anticipation  has  worked  good  to  their  posterity. 

46.  Contemporary  with  the  alchemists   lived 
other  men,  whose  pursuits  were  conducted  upon 
more  rational  principles;  and  although,  in  the 
writings   of   these  individuals,   you   sometimes 
meet  with  matter  indicating  the  complexion  of 
the  times  in  which  they  wrote,  and  tinctured 
with  astrological,  and  magical,  and  alchemical 
notions,  yet,  compared  with  the  men  who  have 
just  passed  before  us  in  review,  they  were  en- 
lightened  philosophers    and    sober    reasoners ; 
these  often,  says  Mr.  B.,  indulged  in  the  insane 
caprices  of  the  mere  searchers   of  the  philoso- 
pher's stone,  but  their  madness  had  method  in 
it,   and   their  wanderings  were   not  without  a 
plan. 

47.  Of   these  persons,   the    first   which   our 
author  selects,  is  Basil  Valentine,   of  Erfurth, 
who  wrote  about  the   middle   of  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  who  may  justly  be  considered  as 
one  of  the  founders  of  modern  chemistry :  his 
experiments  always  had  an  object,  and  he  details 
them  with  intelligible  perspicuity ;  it  is  true  that 
he  often  launches  into  the  sea  of  alchemy,  but 
he  returns  unpolluted  by  its  follies;  when  he 
speaks  as  an  adept  he  is  as  absurd  as  need  be, 
but  as  the  narrator  of  experiments  he  abounds  in 
shrewd  remarks,  and  was  uncommonly  successful 
in  his  pursuits.     The  extant  works  of  Valentine 
are  not  very  numerous,  and  they  have  mostly 
become   extremely   scarce.     In   1671    his   Tri- 
umphant Chariot  of  Antimony  was  republished 
at  Amsterdam,  from  the  original  edition  of  1624, 
with  copious  notes,  by  Dr.  Theodore  Kirkingius; 
and,  a  few  years  after,  an  English  translation  of 
that  celebrated  production  was  printed  at  London. 
In  1644  his  Ilaliographia  appeared  at  Bologna. 
This  work   treats  of  the  preparation,  uses,  and 
virtues  of  mineral,  animal,  and  vegetable  salts, 
and  is  a  curious  and  well-digested  body  of  in- 
formation upon  a  variety  of  chemical  subjects. 
In  both  these  works  Valentine  appears  in  the 
double  capacity  of  chemist  and  physician.     In 
physic  he  was  a  brave  champion  for  the  chemical 
sect,  and,  in  his  Triumphant  Chariot  of  Anti- 
mony, especially,  abounds  in  reflections,  not  of 
the  mildest  description,  upon  the  practice  and 
theories  of  his  adversaries,  whom  he  despises, 
because  unable  to  prepare  their  own  medicines, 


CHEMISTRY. 


359 


'they  know  not  whether  they  be  hot  or  dry, 
black  or  white ;  they  only  know  them  as  written 
in  books,  and  seek  after  nothing  but  money. 
Labor  is  tedious  to  them,  and  they  commit  all 
to  chance  ;  they  have  no  conscience,  and  coals 
are  outlandish  wares  with  them  ;  they  write  long 
scrolls  of  prescriptions,  and  the  apothecary 
thumps  their  medicine  in  his  mortar,  and  health 
out  of  his  patient.' 

48.  In  the  Currus  Triumphalis  is,  however,  to 
be  found  much  useful  matter.     To  Valentine  we 
owe  the  first  accurate  mention  of,  and  intelligible 
directions  for,  the  preparation  of  nitric,  muriatic, 
and  sulphuric  acids.      His  process  for  obtaining 
the  water  of  nitre,  as  he  terms  the  acid,  viz.  that 
of  distilling  three  parts  of  powdered  earthen-ware 
with  one  of  nitre,  is  still  followed  in  some  coun- 
tries, and  the  acid  it  affords  is  sufficiently  pure. 
It  was  supposed,  by  the  old  chemists,  that  the 
clay  in  this  process  held  down  the  nitre  so  as  to 
expose  it  to  the  searching  influence  of  the  fire  ; 
but  the  decomposition,  and  consequent  produc- 
tion of  the  acid,  depends  upon  the  attraction  of 
the  potash  of  the  nitre  for  the  ingredients  of  the 
clay. 

49.  Another  process  mentioned  by  Valentine, 
though  this  seems  to  have  been  known  to  Ray- 
mond Lully,  is  much  nearer  that  at  present  in 
use.     It  consists  in  distilling  equal  parts  of  nitre 
and  dried  green  vitriol.     The  residue  consists  of 
sulphate  of  potass  and  oxide  of  iron;    the  former 
may  be  separated  by  washing  with  hot  water,  and 
an  oxide  of  iron  of  a  deep  red  color  remains, 
used  by  the  polishers  of  plate  glass  under  the 
name  of  colcothar. 

50.  In  the   Haliographia  a  third  process  is 
mentioned,  which  consists  in  distilling  salt-petre 
with  finely  powdered  flints.     In  this  case  the  si- 
lica combines  with  the  potass,  and  the  acid  is  dis- 
engaged. 

51.  This  water,  or  acid  spirit  of  nitre,  was  af- 
terwards called  aqua-fortis,  and  its  true  nature 
and  chemical  history  made  but  little  advance 
until  the  researches  of  Priestley  and  Cavendish, 
which  were  commenced  about  the  middle  of  the 
last  century. 

52.  The  method  which  in  this  country  is  now 
resorted   to,   for  the  production  of  aqua-fortis, 
consists  in  the  decomposition  of  nitre  by  sulphu- 
ric acid ;  the  results  are  liquid  nitric  acid  and 
sulphate  of  potash. 

53.  To  Basil  Valentine  seems  due  the  honor, 
also,  of  discovering  the  oil  of  vitriol,  or,  as  it  is 
now  called,  sulphuric  acid.     It  is  in  the  Halio- 
graphia that  oil  of  vitriol  is  distinctly  mentioned, 
'  and  what,'  says  Mr.  Brande, '  is  curious,  we  find, 
in  the  chapter  of  that  tract  relating  to  the  extrac- 
tion of  the  salts  of  iron,  particular  directions  for 
the  preparation  of  the  sulphate  of  iron,  by  dis- 
solving iron  filings  in  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  oil 
of  vitriol  and  two  of  water;   this  solution,'  he 
says, '  when  putaside  in  a  cool  place,  soon  forms 
beautiful   crystals ; '  and   in  another  section  wo 
are  told,  that  'this  salt  is  an  excellent  tonic,  tkit 
it  comforts  weak  stomachs,  and  that,  externally 
applied,  it  is  a  valuable  styptic;'  and  this,  in 
fact,  is  nearly  all  that  we  can  say  of  the  prepara- 
tion and  medical  uses  of  this  salt  of  iron  at  the 
present  day. 


54.  The  mode  of  obtaining  sulphuric  acid,  by 
the  distillation  of  sulphate  of  iron  or  green  vitriol, 
is  still  extensively  practised  upon   the  continent, 
in  Germany,  Sweden,  and  more  especially  at  Bleyl 
in   Bohmia.     The  vitriol  is  first  deprived   of  its 
water  of  crystallisation   and  then  submitted,  in 
glass  retorts  coated  with  clay,  to  a  red  heat ;  white 
fumes  pass  over  into  the  receivers  which  become 
very  hot  during  the  condensation  of  these  fumes 
into   an   unctuous   reddish-brown  fluid,  which, 
from  its  viscidity  and  appearance,  acquired  the 
name  of  oil  of  vitriol ;  there  remains  in  the  ves- 
sels a  substance  of  a  fine  red  color,  which,  when 
washed  and  levigated,  furnishes  what  has  been 
termed  colcothar,  or  caput  mortuum,  of  vitriol; ; 
for  the  old  chemists  were  in  the  habit  of  repre- 
senting the  dregs  and  last  products  of  substances 
by   the   symbol   of    a  death's  head   and   cross 
bones. 

55.  The  oil  of  vitriol,  thus  prepared,  exhales 
fumes  when  exposed  to  a  moist  atmosphere,  and 
occasionally  congeals   or  crystallises  ;    circum- 
stances which  led  to  its  name  of  glacial  oil  of 
vitriol,  and  which  show  that  it  differs  from  the  acid 
as  ordinarily  prepared. 

56.  That  sulphur,  during  combustion,  produ- 
ces a  portion  of  acid  water,  seems  to  have  been 
known  at  a  very  early  period ;  but  the  method 
of  obtaining  sulphuric  acid,  by  burning  a  mix- 
ture of  sulphur  and  nitre,  was  first,  it  appears, 
described  by  Valentine  in  his  Chariot  of  Anti- 
mony, under  the  name  of  oil  of  antimony,  for  he 
employed  sulphuret  of  antimony  for  its  produc- 
tion.    The  original  recipe  runs  thus  : — 'Take  of 
antimony,  sulphur,  salt-nitre,  of  each  equal  parts, 
fulminate  them  under  a  bell,  as  oil  of  sulphur 
per  campanum  is  made,  which  way  of  preparation 
has  long  since  been  known  to  the  ancients,  but 
you  will  have  a  better  way  if,  instead  of  a  bell, 
you  take  an  alembic,  and  apply  to  it  a  recipient; 
so  you  will  obtain  more  oil,  which  will  indeed  be 
of  the  same  color  as  that  made  of  common  sul- 
phur, but  in  powers  and  virtues  not  a  little  more 
excellent.' 

57.  Dr.  Ward,  the  inventor  of  many  celebrated 
nostrums,  was  the  first  person  who  brought  this 
preparation  into  notice  in  England  ;  and  he  ob- 
tained a  patent  for  his  invention,  and  for  a  con- 
siderable time  monopolised  the  manufacture  of 
the  acid.     At  length  Dr.  Roebuck,  an  eminent 
physician  of  Birmingham,  substituted  an  appara- 
tus of  lead  for  the  glass  vessels  previously  used. 
This  was  in  1746,   since  which  the  price  of  the 
acid  has  been  greatly  reduced,  and  the  manufac- 
turer consequently  enabled  to  employ  it  for  a 
variety  of  purposes  to  which  it  was  previously 
inapplicable   from  its  scarcity  and  high  price. 
In  1772  the  first  manufactory  of  sulphuric  acid, 
near  the  metropolis,  was  established  by  Messrs. 
Kingscote  and  Walker  at  Battersea. 

58.  To  Valentine,  it  has  been  said,  was  known 
the  necessity  and  advantage  of  nitre,  as  an  addi- 
tion to  sulphur,  in  increasing  the  acid  product ; 
but  the  manner  in  which  nitre  operates  is  a  later 
discovery.     It  has  bean  supposed  merely  to  fur- 
nish oxygen,  but  that  this  is  not  the  case  is  proved 
by  sulphurous,  and  not  sulphuric,  acid  being  the 
result  of  burning  sulphur  in  pure,  oxygen.     The 
solution  of  this  chemical  problem  has  been  chiefly 


360 


CHEMISTRY. 


effected  by  the  researches  of  Sir  H.  Davy,  who 
has  proved  that  the  products  of  the  nitre  are 
concerned  in  transferring  oxygen  to  the  sulphur. 
A  patent  has,  however,  lately  been  taken  out  for 
a  mode  of  preparing  sulphuric  acid  by  the  com- 
bustion of  pyrites,  without  the  intervention  of 
nitre,  which  promises  perfect  success. 

59.  The   numerous   antimonial    preparations 
described  in  the  Chariot  of  Antimony,  deserve 
more  notice  than  they   have  generally  received 
from  the  chemical  historian  ;  and  the  perusal  of 
that  work  affords  some  insight  into  the  celebrated 
disputes   between   the   galenical   and   chemical 
physicians,  which  were  afterwards  pushed  so  far 
by  Paracelsus. 

60.  Of  this  extraordinary  man,    Paracelsus, 
the  following  account  is  given  by  our  author. 
His  real  name  was  Philip   Hochener,  which  he 
changed  on  commencing  his  professional  career 
into  Theophrastus   Bombastus    Paracelsus.     At 
an  early  age  he  visited  the  most  renowned  towns 
in  Europe,  and  returning  to  his  native  country 
was  made  professor  of  medicine  and  chemistry 
at  Basle  ;  he  availed  himself  of  his  public  situa- 
tion, not  to  instruct  the  unlearned,  but  to  vilify 
his   contemporaries    and    predecessors.      It    is 
generally   said   that  his  dissolute  manners  and 
intractable  temper  obliged  him  to   quit  his  oc- 
cupation.    But  others  have  told  a  more  plausible 
story  :    a    rich   Canon   fell   sick,    and    getting 
frightened,  offered  100  florins  to  any  one  who 
could  cure  him.     Paracelsus  administered  three 
pills,  and  the  Canon  got  well ;  but  being  so  soon 
restored,  and  by  such  simple  means,  he  refused 
to  fulfil  his  promise.     The  matter  was  brought 
before  a  magistrate,  who  decreed  that  the  doctor 
should  only  recover  the  customary  fee.     Irritated 
at  the  flimsy  excuses  and  unpardonable  ingrati- 
tude of  the  priest,  and  at  the  magistrate's  partial 
decision,    Paracelsus    declared  that    he   would 
leave  the  inhabitants  of  Basle  to  the  eternal  de- 
struction which  they  deserved  ;  he  then  retired 
to  Strasburg,  and  thence  into  Hungary,  where  he 
took  to  drinking,  and  died  in  great  poverty  at 
Saltzburg  im  1541,  and  in  the  forty-third  year  of 
his  age.     Though  we  can  fix  upon  no  particular 
discovery  upon  which  to  found  his  merits  as  a 
chemist,  and  though  his  writings  are  deficient  in 
the  acumen  and  knowledge  displayed  by  several 
of  his  contemporaries  and  immediate  successors, 
especially  bjr  Theodore  de  Mayerne  and  Du 
Chesne,  or,  as  he  was  generally  called,  Quercita- 
nus,  it  is  undeniable  that  he  gave  a  most  im- 
portant turn  to  pharmaceutical  chemistry  ;  and 
calomel,  first  described  by  Crollius  in  1609,  with 
a  variety  of  mercurial  and  antimonial  prepara- 
tions, as  likewise  opium,  came  into  general  use. 
Although  the  chemical  physicians,  however,  were 
very  successful,  they  were  aware  of  the  unpopu- 
larity of  their  means ;  people  were  frightened  at 
the  idea  of  mercury  and  antimony,  which  were 
accordingly  exhibi'ed  under  fantastic  and  assu- 
med names.     Towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century  the  use  of  antimony  was  prohibited  at 
Paris;    and    Besnier   expelled   the   faculty   for 
having  persevered  in  administering  it.      In  En- 
gland   chemical   medicines   began  to    be   em- 
ployed in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.      In    1644 
Schroder  published  his  Chemico-medical   Phar- 


macopoeia; and,  shortly  after,  that  of  the  Lon- 
don College  made  its  appearance  ;  but,  although 
the  history  of  pharmaceutical  chemistry  must  not 
be  blended  with  the  abstract  progress  of  the 
science,  yet  should  it  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  great  modern  improvements  in  chemistry 
have  sprung  from  its.  application  to  medicine, 
and  that  the  foundations  of  chemical  science  are 
to  be  found  in  the  medical  and  pharmaceutical 
writers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  who  rescued  it 
from  the  hands  of  the  alchemical  pretenders,  and 
gave  it  a  place  and  character  of  its  own. 

61.  Van  Helmont  now  appeared  on  the  field 
of  science,  and  Mr.  Brande,  in  that  part  of  che- 
mical history  which  leads  him  to  the  mention  of 
this  celebrated   philosopher,   takes   occasion  to 
present  the  following  extract  from  his  work,  as 
illustrative  of  the  style  and  pursuits  of  their  au- 
thor : — '  In  1594,'  says  Van  Helmont, '  I  finished 
my   courses   of    philosophy,  but    upon   seeing 
none  admitted  to  examinations  at  Louvain  who 
were  not  in  a  gown  and  hood,  as  though  the 
garment  made  the  man,  I  was  struck  with  the 
mockery  of  taking  degrees  in  arts.      I  therefore 
thought  it  more  profitable  seriously  and  consci- 
entiously to  examine  myself :  and  then  I  per- 
ceived that  I  really  knew  nothing,  or,  at  least, 
nothing  that  was  worth  knowing.    I  had,  in  fact, 
merely  learned  to  talk  and  to  wrangle,  and  there- 
fore refused  the  title  of  master  of  arts,  finding 
that  nothing  was  sacred,  nothing  true;  and  I  was 
unwilling  to  be  declared  master  of  the  seven 
arts  when  my  conscience  told  me   I  knew  not 
one.     The  Jesuits,  who  then  taught  philosophy 
at  Louvain,  expounded  to  me  the  disquisitions, 
and  secrets  of  magic,  but  these  were  empty  and 
unprofitable   conceits ;    and  instead  of  grain  I 
reaped  stubble.     In  moral  philosophy,  when  I 
expected  to  grasp  the  quintessence  of  truth,  the 
empty  and  swollen  bubble  snapped  in  my  hands. 
I   then  turned  my  thoughts  to  medicine:    and, 
having  seriously  read  Galen  and  Hippocrates, 
noted  all  that  seemed  certain  and  incontroverti- 
ble; but  was  dismayed  upon  revising  my  notes, 
when  I  found  that  the  pains  I  had  bestowed, 
and  the  years  I  had  spent,  were  altogether  fruit- 
less ;  but  I  learned,  at  least,  the  emptiness  of 
books,  and  formal  discourses  and  promises  of 
the  schools.     I   went  abroad,  and  there  I  found 
the  same  sluggishness  iu  study,  the  same  blind 
obedience  to  the  doctrines  of  their  forefathers,  the 
same  deep-rooted  ignorance.' 

62.  The  elemental  doctrine  was  now  in  full 
vogue ;    and  salt,  sulphur,   and  mercury  were 
talked  of  as  the  ultimate  parts  of  matter.    In  the 
writings  of  Van  Helmont  we  find  allusions  to 
the  existence  of  aeriform  fluids ;  and  the  word 
gas  first  occurs  in  his  pages.     He  even  distin- 
guishes between  condensible,  and  permanently 
elastic,  fluids;  and  his  gas  sylvestre  seems  to  be 
what  was   subsequently  termed    fixed   air,   the 
caitjunic  acid  gas  of  modern  times.     The  weight 
and  elasticity  of  the  air  seem  to  have  been  appre- 
ciated and  well  argued  upon  by  Van  Helmont ; 
and  he  has  detailed  the  effect  of  temperature 
and  pressure  in  reference  to  atmospheric  condi- 
tion. 

63.  The  historian  of  chemical  discoveries  and 
improvements  hu*  now  arrived  at  the  rtjddle  of 


CHEMISTRY. 


the  serenteenth  century;  and, among  the  writers 
of  his  time,  Glauber  of  Amsterdam  stands  out 
conspicuous.  He  was  not  a  mere  experimenter, 
hut  a  sensible  and  acute  reasoner.  In  consis- 
tency with  the  fashion  of  the  age,  he  depreciated 
the  labors  of  others,  and  talked  too  presumptu- 
ously and  egotistically  of  his  own  claims  to  atten- 
tion ;  but,  in  spite  of  these  drawbacks,  we  find 
a  great  deal  to  admire  and  to  praise  in  the 
writings  of  this  chemist. 

64.  The  distillation   of  volatile   alkali  from 
bones,  and  its  conversion  into  sal-ammoniac,  by 
the  affusion  of  spirit  of  salt ;  the  preparation  of 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  which  he  calls  secret  sal- 
ammoniac,  and  its  conversion  into  common  sal- 
ammoniac  by  distillation  with  common  salt;  the 
production  of  blue  vitriol  by  the  action  of  acid 
of  vitriol  upon  the  green  rust  of  copper ;   the 
distillation  of  vinegar  from  wood,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  a  variety  of  salts,  useful  in  medicine  and 
the  arts,  by  its  action  upon  alkaline,  earthy,  and 
metallic  substances ;  the  distillation  of  muriatic 
acid,  or  spirit  of  salt,  from  a  mixture  of  common 
salt  and  acid  of  vitriol ;  and  the  extraction  of 
sulphate  of  soda,  or  sal  mirabile,  from  the  resi- 
due of  this  experiment,  are  a  few,  and  only  a 
very  few,  of  the  truly  important  inventions  and 
discoveries  that  crowd  upon  us  in  the  perusal  of 
the  verbose  pages  of  Glauber.      Of  these,  the 
production  of  vinegar  of  wood,  and  of  muriatic 
acid,  may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  of  the  greatest 
interest  and  importance. 

65.  The  acid  liquor  produced  during  the  de- 
structive distillation  of  wood,  has  lately  becom&a 
manufacture  of  much  importance,  and  is  prepared 
by  the  makers  of  gunpowder,  who  obtain  it  as 
the  result  of  their  process  for  procuring  charcoal. 

66.  Glauber  describes  the  distillatory  appara- 
tus,  which   he   calls  a  press  for  extracting  the 
juice  of  wood  ;  he  shows  its  condensation  into 
an  acid  liquor,  and  directs  the  method  of  burn- 
ing lime  by  ranging  layers  of  chalk  alternately 
with  those  of  the  wood.      He  also  says  that,  by 
rectifying  this  spirit,  'a  sharp  hot  oil  of  a  dark 
reddish  color  remains,   and  the  vinegar  passes 
over  fit  for  the  preparation  of  medicines,  and  all 
other  uses  to  which  vinegar  is  applicable.'     The 
oil,  he  says,  is  an  admirable  preservative  of  wood, 
and,  when  saponified  with  alkali,  forms  a  most 
valuable  manure;  'a  hogshead  of  which  may  be 
carried    into   fields  and   vineyards,  far  remote, 
more  easily  than  ten  loads  of  common  manure, 
which  is  carried  to  vineyards,  in  rocky  places, 
with  great  difficulty.    As  to  the  spirit,  physicians 
may  use  this  noble  and  efficacious  juice,  with 
great  honor  and  profit,  in  the  cure  of  many  dis- 
eases hitherto  incurable  ; '  and  he  highly  extols 
an  acid  bath  made  by  due  admixture  of  the  vin- 
egar of  wood  with  warm  water;  he  also  shows 
the  mode  of  concentrating  it  by  exposure  to  cold, 
when  '  the  phlegm  only  freezeth,  but  the  sharp 
spirit  remaineth  in  the '  middle  of  the  hogshead, 
so  sharp  that  it  corrodeth  metals  like  aqua-fortis.' 
After  many  other  shrewd  and  clever  remarks,  re- 
specting the  tar  of  wood  and  its  acid,  Glauber 
closes  his  discourse,  fearing  that  it  will  not  be 
believed  by  many,  which  he  says  he  cannot  help  ; 
4 it  contenteth  me  that  I  have  written  the  truth, 
and  lighted  a  candle  to  my  neighbours.' 


67.  The  preparation  of  muriatic  acid,  as  no\r 
commonly  conducted,  was  first  directed  by  Glau- 
ber ;    he  obtained  it  by  distilling  common  salt 
with  acid  of  vitriol,  and  gives  a  sufficiently  clear 
account  of  the  nature  of   the  chemical  ch.inge 
that  ensues.     The  residue  of  this  operation  re- 
tains to  this  day  the  name  of  Glauber's  salt,  or, 
as  he  termed  it,  sal  mirabile.      Upon  its  virtues 
he  has  descanted  at  great  length,  and  though,  in 
his  history  of  this  salt,   its  value  and  uses  are 
preposterously  exaggerated, his  observations  serve 
to  show  the  diligence  and  acuteness  with  which 
he  investigated  its  applications,  and  offer  proofs 
of  the  extensive  information  which  he  possessed, 
relative  to  many  processes  of  agriculture  and  the 
arts.      Salt,  in  short,  was  Glauber's  favorite  ele- 
ment.    '  It  is, '  says  he,  '  the  beginning  and  end 
of  all  things,  and  it  increaseth  and  exalteth  their 
powers  and  virtues  ;   it  is  the  true  universal  me- 
dicine; not  that  I  would  have  any  man  persuade 
himself  that  in  these  words  I  would  assert  im- 
mortality,  for  my  purpose  tendeth  not  thither, 
seeing  that  I  am  not  ignorant  there  is  no  medi- 
cine against  death.'     And  then,  adverting  to  the 
opposition  to  chemical  medicines  by  contempo- 
rary physicians,  he  advises  them  not  to  envy  those 
who  have  received  such  divine  gifts  as  his  won- 
derful salt,    nor  to  provoke  the  innocent  with 
their  filthy  calumnies  and  slanders,  but  to  leave 
those    things   which    exceed    their    capacities. 
'  Nothing,'  he  says, '  can  extinguish  truth ;  it  may 
be  prest  but  cannot  be  overcome ;  like  the  sun's 
light  it  may  be  hidden  but  not  extinguished.' 

68.  The  directions  he  gives  for  the  preparation 
of  the  sal  mirabile,  and  the  account  of  its  pro- 
perties, are  in  general  very  correct.     'Its  color 
ought  to  be  white  and  transparent ;  its  figure  is 
in  long  strize  of  crystals ;    its  taste  is  like  ice 
melting  upon  the  tongue,  and  yields  some  bitter- 
ishness.     Being  dried  in  the   fire,  and   all  the 
moisture  gone  off,  it  will  lose  about  three  parts  of 
its  own  body,  and  retain  a  fourth  part  only ;  being 
dissolved  in  water  it  will  recover  those   three 
parts  again.     But,  on  the  contrary,  if  it  shoot 
into  a  square  figure,  and  has  as  yet  a  saltish  taste, 
and  being  dried  loseth  but  little  of  its  weight,  it 
is  not  worth  a  rush,  and  shows  that  either  the  oil 
of  vitriol  was  not  good,  or  not  enough  of  it  used 
in  the  operation.      These  things  we  would  not 
bury  in  silence,  that  so  we  might  well  advise 
young  beginners,  and  withdraw  them  from  their 
errors.' 

69.  The  present  mode  of  preparing  muriatic 
acid  is  almost  exactly  that  devised  by  Glauber. 
In  its  pure  state  it  was  first  obtained  and  exam- 
ined by  Dr.  Priestley.     The  composition  of  this 
acid  is  a  discovery  of  more  modern  date.      The 
investigation  which  led  to  it  was  commenced  by 
Scheele,   and  perfected  by  our  contemporaries, 
Gay  Lussac  and  Davy. 

70.  Glauber  has  great  merit  as  an  inventor 
and  improver  of  chemical  apparatus,  much  of 
which  is  depicted  in  the  plates  attached  to  his 
works.      The  form  of  distillatory  vessels,  com- 
monly called  Woulfe's    apparatus,  is  found  in 
Glauber's  chemical  furnaces ;    and  he  contrived 
a  very  ingenious  mode  of  heating  large  vessels 
of  water  by  steam,  and  with  great  economy  of 
fuel,  a  method  now  often  resorted  to. 


362 


CHEMISTRY. 


71.  He  published  a  pamphlet,   called  'The 
Consolation  of  Navigators,  in  which  is   taught 
how  they  who  travel  by  sea  may  preserve  them- 
selves from  hunger  and  thirst,  and  also  from 
those  diseases  which  are  wont  to  happen  in  long 
voyages.     Written  for  the  health,  comfort,  and 
solace  of  all  those  who  travel  by  water  for  the 
good  of  their  country. '     The  very  sensible  plan 
of  employing  extract  of  malt  as  a  portable  vege- 
table diet,  and  dilute  muriatic  acid  to  quench 
thirst,  is  here  recommended  ;    and  many  of  the 
medicinal  uses  of  the  muriatic  acid  are  dwelt 
upon  at  length,   which  have  been  claimed  as 
recent  discoveries.      On  the  whole  there  is  no 
author,   contemporary  with  Glauber,   who  has 
written  so  much  to  the  purpose,  and  in  whom  we 
find  such  abundant  anticipations  of  modern  sci- 
entific improvements.     '  He  was  cast, '  says  Mr. 
Brande,  from  whom  we  have  extracted  the  whole 
of  the  above  account,  '  in  the  true  mould  of  an 
experimental  chemist,  and  had  he  lived  in  a  more 
propitious  age  would  doubtless  have  rivalled  the 
eminence  of  Scheele  and  Priestley.' 

72.  In  1662  the  Royal  Society  was  incorpo- 
rated, by  Charles  II.,  under  a  royal  charter;  and 
in  1666  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  was  in- 
stituted at  Paris,  under  the  prelection  of  Louis 
XIV. ;    in  the  annals  of  this  last  the  names  of 
Homberg,  Geoffroy,  and  the  two  Lemerys  soon 
became  celebrated.      Homberg  discovered  the 
ooracic  acid,  which  he  prepared  under  the  name 
of  sedative  salt.     He  was  also  the  discoverer  of 
cyrophorus.     Boyle  and  Hooke  became  conspi- 
cuous in  our  own  country ;  the  former  a  volu- 
minous writer,  of  a  most  amiable  temper  and 
upright  mind ;  the  latter  an  original  and  acute 
experimentalist,  but  a  peevish  and  distrustful  man. 

73.  Of   Boyle,    his    contemporary,    Evelyn 
speaks  in  the  following  words  :    '  he  had  a  mar- 
vellous sagacity  in  finding  out  many  useful  and 
noble  experiments.     Never  did  stubborn  matter 
come    under    his    inquisition,  but  he  extorted 
a  confession  of  all  that  lay  in  her  most  intricate 
Tecesses,  and  what  he  discovered  he  as  faithfully 
registered  and  frankly  communicated.     In  this, 
exceeding  my  lord  Verulam,  who  (though  never 
to  be  mentioned  without  honor  and  admiration) 
was  used  not  to  tell  all  that  came  to  hand.     His 
severer  studies    did   not  in   the  least   sour   his 
conversation,  and  I  question  whether  any  man  has 
produced  more  experiments  without  dogmatis- 
ing.   He  was  a  corpuscularian  without  Epicurus, 
a  great  and  happy  analyser,  addicted  to  no  par- 
ticular sect,  but,  as  became  a  generous  and  free 
philosopher,  preferring  truth  above  all ;    in  a 
word,   a  person  of   that   singular   candor  and 
worth,  that  to  draw  a  just  character  of  him,  one 
must  ran  through  all  the  virtues  as  well  as  all 
the  sciences.' 

74.  It  is  well  said,  however,  of  Boyle,  by 
Mr.  Brande,  that  he  was  rather  the  historian  than 
the  actor  in  science  ;  but  it  may  be  remarked, 
he  adds,  that  in  Boyle,  and  especially  in  his  con- 
temporary Hooke,  we  have  the  first  genuine  ex- 
ample of  the  influence  of  lord  Bacon's  doctrines, 
which  actuated  all  their  proceedings,  and  pro- 
duced    effects    marvellously    beneficial.      Mr. 
Boyle's  Ess«vs  on  the  successfulness  and  unsuc- 
cessfulness  o"  experiments,  and  the  preface  to 


his  philosophical  writings,  are  in  the  genuine 
spirit  of  experimental  research ;  and  Hooke,  in 
the  preface  to  the  Micrographia,  has  spoken 
much  to  the  point,  and  in  language  so  novel 
and  bold  in  the  then  state  of  the  science,  that 
upon  perusing  it  we  are  struck  with  the  entire 
confidence  which  it  bespeaks  for  his  subsequent 
experimental  details. 

75.  After  adverting  to  the  deep-rooted  errors 
that  have  been  grafted   upon   science,  by  the 
shpperiness  of  the  memory,  the  rashness  of  the 
understanding,  and  the  narrowness  of  the  senses, 
and  shewing  that  these  failings  may  in  some  de- 
gree be  obviated  by  the   right   ordering,   and 
rendering  them  duly  subservient  to  each  other, 
he  proceeds  to  point  out  the  means  of  tracing 
the  footsteps  of  nature,  '  not'  as  he  says,  '  in  her 
ordinary  course  only,  but  also  in  her  doublings 
and  turnings;  and  in  this  investigation,  upon 
which  the  desirable  reform  in  philosophy  is  to 
be  founded,  there  is  not  so  much  required  any 
strength  of  imagination,  or  exactness  of  method, 
or  depth  of  contemplation,  as  a  sincere  hand 
and  faithful  eye,  to  examine  and  record  the  things 
themselves  as  they  really  appear. 

76.  In  the  article  AIR  it  has  been  stated,  that 
Hooke,  in  a  measure,  anticipated  some  of  the 
recent  discoveries  which  have  so  much  enriched 
chemical  science,   in  reference  to  the  part  per^ 
formed   by  the   presence   of  atmospheric  air  in 
combustion.      Thus  he  speaks  of  the  air  as  the 
universal  dissolvent  of  inflammable  bodies,  of 
the  dissolution  generating  heat  which  we  call 
fire,  that  this  dissolution  is  made  by  a  substance 
mixed  with  the  air,  that  is  like  unto,  or  the  very 
same  as,  that  which  is  fixed  in  salt-petre ;  that, 
of  the  burning  body,  one  portion  is  turned  into 
air,  and  anothe/  portion  is  indissoluble,  &c.  so 
that  he  concludes  there  is  no  such  thing  as  an 
element  of  fire,  but  that  flame  results  from  the 
mutual  agency  of  the  volatile  parts  of  combus- 
tibles, and  a  part  of  the  atmosphere. 

77.  He  particularly  also  alludes  to  the  use  of 
the  air  in  respiration,  as  well  as  in  combustion. 
In  his  Lampas  published  in  1677,  he  has  given 
a  very  beautiful  explanation  of  the  way  in  which 
a  candle  burns ;  he  attributes  the  light  and  heat 
to  the  action  of  the  air  upon  the  combustible 
matter  of  the  flame,  and  shows  that  the  interior 
of  the  flame  is  not  luminous,  by  the  simple  ex- 
pedient of  viewing  its  section  through  a  thin 
piece  of  glass,  or  of  mica. 

78.  To  the  intimations  of  Mayow,  who  pub- 
lished  in   1674,  we  have  also  adverted  in  the 
article  Aiu,  and  extracted  the  account  given  of 
him  from  the  historical  sketch  of  which  we  are 
now  making  use.     About  this  time  Beccher  and 
Stahl,  in  Germany,  were  at  work  on  the  subject 
of  combustion,  and  they  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing an  hypothesis  in  explanation  of  this  pheno- 
menon, which'  came  afterwards  into  such  general 
reception   under    the    name  of   the    Phlogistic 
Theory.  Beccher,  too,  in  his  Physica  Subterranea, 
anticipated  much  of  what  is  received  as  geolo- 
gical theory  in  the  present  day.     His  notions, 
however,    of    the    elementary    constitution    ot 
bodies,  are  obscure  and  gratuitous.     He  talks'  o. 
air,  water,  and  three  earths,  one  "of  which  is  in- 
flammable, another  mercurial,  and  another  fusi- 


CHEMISTRY. 


333 


ble.  The  three  earths,  combined  with  water, 
constitute  a  universal  acid,  which  is  the  base  of 
all  other  acids.  The  combination  of  two  earths 
produces  lapideous  bodies,  and  in  the  metals  the 
three  earths  are  united  in  various  proportions. 
We  are  requested  by  Mr.  Brande  to  compare 
these  doctrines  with  the  luminous  experiments  of 
Hooke,  in  order  to  set  the  merits  of  the  latter  in 
their  true  light. 

79.  Stahl    rejected    the    mercurial    earth  of 
Becher,  and  retained  as     elements,  water,  acid, 
earth,  and  fire ;  or  as  he  termed  it  phlogiston,  a 
principal  of  extreme  tenuity,  and  prone  to  a  kind 
of  vibratory  motion,  in  which  it  appears  as  fire. 
When  phosphorus  is  burned,    it   produces  an 
acid  matter,  with  the  evolution  of  much  heat  and 
light,  consequently  phosphorus  consists  of  acid 
and  phlogiston  ;  if  this  acid  be  now  heated  with 
charcoal,  or  other  body  abounding  in  phlogiston, 
phosphorus  will  be  reproduced. 

80.  When  zinc  is  heated  to  redness,  it  burns 
with  a  brilliant  flame,  and  is  converted  into  a 
white   earthy   substance   or  calx.      Hence  zinc 
consists  of  this  earth  and  phlogiston. 

81.  It  will  be  observed,  that  nothing  is  said 
here  of  the  increase   of  weight  which  Rey  and 
Mayow  had  noticed ;   the  first  attributing  it  to 
the  condensation  of  air,  the  second  to  the  fixation 
of  Hooke's  nitro-aerial  particles.      Nor  is  any 
notice  taken  of  the  circumstance,  that  air  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  for  combustion. 

82.  In  spite   of  these  objections,    however, 
against  the  phlogistic  theory,  it  was  generally 
embraced  as  a  correct  rationale  of  combustion, 
until  overturned  by  Lavoisier,    '  who,  availing 
himself  of  the  discoveries  of  Scheele,  Priestley, 
and  Black,  brought  an  insuperable  mass  of  evi- 
dence to  bear  against  the  doctrine  of  phlogiston.' 
But,  as  we  shall  soon  see,  he  himself  generalised 
to  an  extent  not  warranted  by  fact,  and  it  has 
been    reserved  for  still  more  recent  chemists, 
especially  for  Sir  H.  Davy,  to  show  that  many 
of  Lavoisier's  inferences,  however  correct  as  ob- 
jections  to   the  phlogistic  hypothesis,   are  not 
tenable  as  satisfactory  explanations  of  the  whole 
process  of  which  their  promulgator  assumed  to 
be  the  sole  discoverer. 

83.  We  should  do  injustice  to  Mr.  Brande, 
and  to  the  cause  of  legitimate  science,  were  we 
not  to  extract  the  sentence  with  which  he  con- 
cludes that  section  of  his  history  to  which  the 
reader  is  now  brought.     '  We  may  glean  some 
profit,'  says  he,   '  upon  the  field  of  discussion 
that  we  have  passed  over.      It  may  teach  us 
circumspection  in  adopting  hypotheses,  and  cau- 
tion in  deduction  even  from  experiments  ;  while 
in  the  views  that  have  successively  risen  and 
vanished,  in  the  confident  security  with  which 
they  have  been  at  one  time,  received,  and  the 
unceremonious  neglect    into   which    they  have 
subsequently  fallen,  we  have  painted  as  it  were 
before  us,  a  striking  memento  of  the  frailty  and 
insignificance  of  human  exertions.' 

84.  Mayow,  whose  name  has  been  adverted 
to  above,  and  who  is  mentioned  in  the  thirty- 
first  section  of  the  article  AIR,   as  tracing  the 
analogy  between   combustion  and    respiration, 
and  as  approaching  very  nearly  to  the  pneumatic 
discoveries  of  subsequent  times,  had  likewise  a 


considerable  insight  into  the  nature  of  chemical 
union  and  decomposition;  before  his  time  it 
was  imagined  that  bodies  combined  in  a  sort  of 
mechanical  manner,  and  that  the  chemical  union 
of  an  acid  and  an  alkali  resulted  from  the  des- 
truction of  the  particles  of  its  components.  It 
was  not  admitted,  or  at  least  not  generally  ad- 
mitted, that  the  acid  and  alkali  existed  as  such, 
and  might  again  be  separated  from  the  neutral 
salt.  Mayow  first  set  about  rectifying  this  gross 
error.  When  the  spirit  of  salt,  he  says,  is 
mixed  with  sal  volatile,  or,  to  use  more  intelligi- 
ble terms,  when  muriatic  acid  is  saturated  with 
ammonia,  sal-ammoniac  is  produced,  in  which  it 
is  true,  neither  the  properties  of  acid  nor  of 
alkali  are  apparent ;  yet,  if  salt  of  tartar  be  dis- 
tilled with  sal-ammoniac,  the  volatile  alkali  will 
be  displaced  with  all  its  previous  characters,  be- 
cause there  is  a  greater  attraction  between  spirit  of 
salt  and  tartar,  than  between  spirit  of  salt  and 
volatile  alkali.  Again,  to  show  that  the  acid  is 
not  destroyed  in  saline  combustions,  he  instances 
the  decomposition  of  nitre  by  oil  of  vitriol, 
which  he  says  displaces  the  nitric  acid,  and  the 
residuum  in  the  retort  furnishes  vitriolated  tartar. 
It  may  be  asked,  he  says,  why,  when  nitre  is 
heated,  the  nitric  acid  does  not  rise,  for  it  is,  as 
we  have  just  seen,  very  volatile ;  the  reason  is, 
that  it  is  restrained  and'  kept  down  by  its  attrac- 
tion for  the  tartar,  and  can  only  be  displaced  by 
bodies  which  have  a  stronger  attraction  for  tartar 
than  it. 

85.  He  then  goes  on  to  show  that  acids  have 
a  greater  attraction  for  alkalies  than  for  metals. 
The  metals,  he  says,  are  soluble  in  one  or  other 
of  the  acids,  but  their  solutions  are  decomposed 
by  salt  of  tartar ;  the  acid  then  combines  with 
the  tartar,  and  the  metal  is  precipitated.     In  the 
same  way  alkali  unites  to  sulphur;  but  if  this 
combination  be  dissolved   in    water,  and    acid 
added  to  the  solution,  the  sulphur  falls,  and  the 
acid  and  alkali  unite. 

86.  Combinations  of  sulphur  with  metals  are 
also  decomposed  by  acids  ;  thus  if  sulphuret  of 
antimony  be  distilled  with  aqua-fortis,  the  acid 
and  metal  combine,  and  sulphur  sublimes. 

87.  Mayow's  views  relating  to   chemical  at- 
traction are  at  once  clever  and  correct,  and  their 
merit  will   be  especially  enhanced  by  a  com- 
parison with  the  absurd  and  groundless  specula- 
tions previously  entertained  upon  this  subject, 
which  indeed  are  too  crude  and  silly  to  merit 
repetition.     But  he  has  other,  and  more  weighty 
evidence  in  his  favor,  for  it  is  remarkable  that 
his  views  and  language  were  adopted  by  Newton, 
and  that  the  masterly  sketch  of  chemical  attrac- 
tion given  by  that  philosopher  in  the  queries, 
annexed  to  the  third  book  of  optics,  is  nearly  in 
the  language,  and  quite  in  the  spirit,  and  meaning 
of  his  predecessor.     The  following  are  a  few  of 
the  points  urged  by  Newton  in  the  explication  of 
these  phenomena. 

88.  If  carbonate  of  potash  be  exposed  to  the 
air  it  deliquesces,  in  consequence,  says  Newton, 
of  an  attraction  between  the  salt  and  the  parti- 
cles of  water  contained  in  the  atmosphere.    And 
why  does  not  common  salt  and  salt-petre  deli- 
quesce in  the  same  way,  except  for  want  of  such 
attraction. 


364 


CHEMISTRY. 


89.  And  again,  where  he  especially  comes  in 
contact  with  Mayow,  he  says, '  when  spirit  of  vit- 
riol,  poured  upon  common  salt  or  salt-petre, 
makes  an  ebullition,  and  affords  on  distillation 
the  muriatic  and  nitric  acids,  the  acid  part  of  the 
spirit  of  vitriol  staying  behind,  does  not  this  ar- 
gue that  the  fixed  alkali  in  the  common  salt  and 
salt-petre  attracts  the  acid  spirit  of  the  vitriol 
more  strongly  than  its  own  spirit,  and,  not  being 
able  to  hold  them  both,  lets  go  its  own.     How 
these  attractions  may  be  performed, '  continues 
Newton, '  I  do  not  here  consider ;  what  I  call  at- 
traction may  be  performed  by  impulse,  or  by 
some  other  means  unknown  to  me :  I  use  that 
word  to  signify  any  force  by  which  bodies  tend 
towards  one  another,  whatever  be  the  cause.' 
Thus,  he  says, '  muriatic  acid  unites  to  salt  of  tar- 
tar by  virtue  of  their  respective  attractions ;   but 
when  oil  of  vitriol  is  poured  upon  this  compound 
the  former  acid  is  displaced  by  the  superior  at- 
traction of  the  latter.     Silver  is  separated  from 
aqua-fortis  by  quicksilver,  quicksilver  by  copper, 
and  copper  by  iron  ;  which  argues  that  the  acid 
particles  of  the  aqua-fortis  are  attracted  more 
strongly  by  iron  than  by  copper,  by  copper  than 
by  quicksilver,  and  by  quicksilver  than  by  sil- 
ver. 

90.  Thus,  then,  chiefly  by  the  experimental 
labors  of  Mayow,  and   the  sagacious  views  of 
Newton,  the  old  and  prevailing  notions  of  atomic 
forms  of  bodies,  the  hypothesis  of  hooks,  rings, 
points  and  wedges,  by  which  the  component 
parts  of  bodies  were  supposed  to  be  held  united, 
gave  way  to  the  simple  and  independent  expres- 
sion of  facts. 

91.  We    now   proceed    to    give,    from    Mr. 
Brande,  an  outline  of  the  doctrines  of  chemical 
attraction,  from  the  time  of  Mayow  to  the  pre- 
sent period.     In  1718  Geoffroy  invented  those 
tables  of  affinity  which  are  given  in  elementary 
works,  and  which  have  certainly  proved  of  ser- 
vice in  extending  chemical  knosvledge ;    he  con- 
sidered the  order  in  which  bodies  separate  each 
other  from  a  given  body  as  permanent  and  con- 
stant.    Thus,  he  thought,  the  metals  were  always 
separated  from   acids  by  the  absorbent  earths, 
these  by  volatile  alkali,  and  the  volatile  by  the 
fixed  alkalis ;  to  represent,  therefore,  the  attrac- 
tion of  acids  for  these  substances,  he  placed  them 
at  the  head  of  a  column,  with  the  other  bodies 
beneath  in  the  order  of  attraction  : — 

ACIDS. 

Fixed  alkalis. 
Volatile  alkali. 
Absorbent  earths. 
Metals. 

92.  He  then  constructed  a  column  for  each 
particular  acid  ;  thus  the  table  for  nitric  acid, 
taken  from  Newton's  experiments,  would  stand  as 
follows  : — 

NITRIC  ACID. 

Fixed  alkali.  Copper. 

Volatile  alkali.  Lead. 

Earths.  Mercury. 

Iron.  '      Silver. 

93.  Gilbert  and  Limbourg,  in  1751  and  1758, 
extended,  and  in  some  respects  improved,  these 


tabular  representations  of  the  results  of  attraction  ; 
but  no  considerable  progress  was  made  in  the 
investigation  connected  with  the  subject  until 
Bergman  published  his  dissertation  upon  it,  in 
1775.  Bergman  was  born  in  Sweden  in  1735, 
and  died  in  1784. 

94.  Bergman  named  affinity  elective  attraction. 
He  considered  that  every  substance  possessed  a 
peculiar  attractive  force  for  every  other  substance 
with  which  it  combines,  a  force  capable  of  being 
represented  numerically :  he  regarded  decompo- 
sition as  complete ;    that  is  whenever  a  third 
body,  c,  is  added  to  a  compound,  a,  b,  for  one  of 
the  constituents  of  which  it  has  a  stronger  attrac- 
tion than  that  which  already  exists  between  them, 
the  compound  will  be  decomposed  and  the  whole 
of  one  of  its  elements  transferred  to  the  added 
body.     Thus  suppose  the  attraction  of  a  for  b  to 
be  represented  by  1,  and  of  a  for  c  by  2,  then  the 
addition  of  c  to  a  b  will  produce  the  compound 
a  c,  and  b  will  be  separated.     When  lime  water 
is  added  to  nitrate  of  magnesia  the  latter  earth  is 
precipitated,  and  the  former  combines  with  the 
nitric  acid.     Hence  nitric  acid,  poured  upon  a 
mixture    of  lime  and   magnesia,   dissolves  the 
former  in  preference  to  the  latter  earth. 

95.  The  observation  of  these  facts  led  Berg- 
man to  call  this  kind  of  attraction  elective,  and 
he  has  given  tables  showing  these  relative  at- 
tractions of  bodies  both  in  the  dry  and  humid 
way. 


SILVER. 

Lead. 

Copper. 

Mercury. 

Bismuth. 

Tin. 

Gold. 


OXIDE  OF  SILVER. 
Sulphuric  acid. 
Oxalic. 
Phosphoric. 
Nitric. 
Tartaric. 
Citric. 


96.  Bergman's  opinions  relative  to  affinity 
were  generally  admitted  as  correct,  and  con- 
sidered as  standard  authority,  till  Berthollet 
published  his  work  on  Chemical  Statics,  in  1803, 
in  which  he  endeavoured  to  revive,  under  a  new 
aspect,  some  of  the  old  chemico-mechanical  doc- 
trines, and  to  prove  that  the  forms  of  the  acting 
particles  and  their  magnitude,  or  masses  of 
matter,  were  concerned  in  influencing  the  re- 
sults. Though  these  doctrines  may  now  be 
considered  as  exploded,  they  had  many  advo- 
cates, and  were  rapidly  gaining  ground,  until 
the  promulgation  of  the  theory  of  definite 
proportionals.  The  experiments  adduced  by  Ber- 
thollet in  support  of  his  hypothesis  appeared 
at  first  very  satisfactory ;  but  upon  minute 
inspection  they  are  found  to  have  their  weak 
points,  and  many  of  the  errors  into  which 
they  led  have  been  successfully  unravelled  by 
professor  Pfaff  of  Kiel,  by  Sir  II.  Davy,  and 
others.  In  illustration  of  the  agency  of  the  mass 
of  matter,  Berthollet  has  adduced  the  mutual 
action  of  sulphate  of  potassa  and  baryta :  when 
'  solution  of  baryta  is  added  to  sulphate  of  potassa 
potassa  is  liberated,  and  sulphate  of  baryta  is 
formed  and  precipitated  insoluble  ;  but  if  a 
large  quantity  of  potassa  be  added  to  a  smalt 
quantity  of  sulphate  of  baryta  the  mass  will, ' 
according  to  Berthollet,  '  prevail  over  what  ap- 


CHEMISTRY. 


365 


pears  to  oe  the  real  chemical  affiaity,  and  sulphate 
of  potassa  will  be  formed  and  baryta  evolved. 
But  Sir  II.  Davy  has  very  ingeniously  exposed 
the  fallacy  to  which  this  experiment  is  liable  ;  he 
has  shown  that  pure  potassa  does  not  effect  any 
change  upon  sulphate  of  baryta,  but  that  making 
experiments  in  open  vessels  part  of  the  potassa 
acquires  carbonic  acid,  and  then  a  double  affinity 
is  brought  into  action,  the  bodies  present  being 
carbonate  of  potassa  and  sulphate  of  baryta. 
Elements  of  Chemical  Philosophy,  p.  119. 

97.  Berthollet's  notion  that  the  acting  bodies 
are  divided  among  each  other,  in  proportions 
depending  upon  their  relative  masses  and  at- 
tractions, has  been  combated  and  disproved  by 
Pfaff,  who  has  shown  that  tartrate   of  lime  is 
completely  decomposed  by  adding  to  it  a  quantity 
of  sulphuric  acid,  exactly  sufficient  to  saturate 
the  lime  it  contains ;  and  in  the  same  way  he 
has  shown  that  oxalate   of  lead  is  decomposed 
by  adding  sulphuric  acid  sufficient  to  saturate 
the  oxide  of  lead ;  in  these  cases  pure  tartaric 
and  oxalic  acids  are  evolved. 

98.  But    the    establishment   of   the    atomic 
theory,  from  which  we  learn  that  bodies  combine 
only  in  certain  definite  proportions,  has  gone 
further  to  elucidate   the  very  important  subject 
of  chemical  attraction,  and  to  subvert  the  doc- 
trines of  Berthollet,  than  any  previous  objections 
or  partial   experimental  investigations.     In  es- 
tablishing this  theory  all  the  eminent  chemists  of 
Europe  have  taken  an  active  part,  so  that  it  be- 
comes very  difficult  to  assign  to  each  his  indi- 
vidual merit. 

99.  Under  the  word  attraction  our  readers  will 
find  an  account  of  this,  the  atomic  theory,  taken 
principally  from  the  last  edition  of  Dr.  Henry's 
Elements ;  but   as   the  following   statement  of 
its   leading   principles   by   Mr.  Brande   is   ex- 
ceedingly well  made,  and  as  it  is  necessary  to 
fulfil   the   engagement   above   entered   into,   of 
tracing  the  doctrine  of  chemical  affinity  down  to 
our  own  times,  we  shall  continue  to  extract  from 
our  author,  at  the  risk  of  repeating  ourselves. 

100.  Between  the  years  1792  and  1802,  Dr. 
Richter,  of  Berlin,  published  his  Geometry  of 
the  Chemical  Elements,  containing  a  series  of 
tables,  showing  the  weight  of  each  base,  capable 
of  saturating  one  hundred  parts  of  each  acid, 
and  the  weight  of  each  acid  capable  of  saturating 
one  hundred  parts  of  each  base.     He  observed, 
that  in  all  these  tables  the  bases  and  the  acids 
follow   the  same   order,   and  further,  that   the 
numbers  in  each  table  constitute  a  series  having 
the  same   ra-tio  to  each  other  in  all  the  tables. 
Thus,  supposing  in  the  table  of  sulphates,  one 
hundred   parts  of  acid  were   saturated  by  one 
hundred  of  soda,  two  hundred  of  potassa,  and 
»Jiree  hundred  of  baryta ;  then,  in  the  table   of 
nitrates,  the  same  ratio  would  hold  good,  and 
the  soda,  potassa,  and  baryta,  would  there  also 
stand  to  each  other  in  the  rotation  of  one,  two, 
and  three. 

101.  Thus   was    explained,   why,  when   two 
neutral  salts  decompose  each  other,  the  newly- 
formed  salts  are  also  neutral ;  for  the  same  pro- 
portion of  bases  that  saturate  a  given  weight  of 
one  acid,  saturate  a  given  weight  also  of  all  the 
other  acids.     Hence  numbers  may  be  attached 


to  each  acid,  and  to  each  base,  indicating  the 
weight  of  it  which  will  saturate  the  numbers  at- 
tached to  all  the  other  acids  and  bases.  Upon 
this  principle  elementary  works  on  chemistry 
contain  tables  .of  the  representative  numbers  of 
bodies  ;  and,  upon  the  same  principle,  Dr.  Wol- 
laston,  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of  1814, 
by  adapting  such  table  of  number  to  a  moveable 
scale,  on  the  principle  of  Gunter's  sliding  rule, 
has  constructed  the  logoraetric  scale  of  chemical 
equivalents,  which  is  so  important  and  valuable 
an  instrument  to  the  practical  chemist. 

102.  Mr.  Higgins,  in   1789,  in  his  Compa- 
rative View  of  the  Phlogistic  and  Antiphlogistic 
Theories,  and  Mr.  Dalton,  in  1804,  in  his  New 
System  of  Chemical   Philosophy,  called  the  at- 
tention of  chemists  to  the  definite  proportions  in 
which  bodies  unite,  that  form  several  compounds. 
Thus,  seventy  parts  of  potash  unite  to  thirty  of 
carbonic  acid,  and  to  sixty,  but  not  to  any  in- 
termediate  proportions.      Jf   we   represent   the 
weight  of  nitrogen  by  thirteen,  it  will  form  the 
following  compounds  with  oxygen  : 

Nitrous  oxide     .  13  +     7,5  oxygen. 

Nitric  oxide  .     .  13  -j-  15 

Hyponitrous  acid  13  -+-  22,5 

Nitrous  acid      .  13  +  30 

Nitric  acid    .     .  13  +  37,5 

103.  Similar  observations  apply  to  all  other 
bodies ;  and  it  was  hence  that  Mr.  Dalton  was 
induced  to  assert,  that  these  proportional  num- 
bers represent  the  respective   weights    of    the 
atoms  of  combining  bodies  ;  and   one   atom  of 
nitrogen  was  said,  in  the  above  case,  to  combine 
with  one,   two,  three,   four,   or   five  atoms  of 
oxygen. 

104.  In  selecting  the  body  which  should  be 
assumed  as  unity  in  this  numeric  representation, 
Mr.  Dalton  adopted  hydrogen;  and  I,  says  Mr. 
Brande,   am   induced,   for   several  reasons,    to 
follow  his  example,  though  there  is  weighty  au- 
thority in  favor  of  oxygen.     It  will  be  seen,  by 
turning  to  the  article  ATTRACTION,  that  Dr.  Henry 
expresses   concern   that  this   difference  should 
have  obtained  among  chemists  respecting  the 
assumed  unit,  because,  he  says,  and  very  justly 
says,   it    is"  extremely   desirable    that  chemical 
writers  should  employ  a  universal  standard  of 
comparison. 

105.  Mr.  Brande   concludes  this   section  of 
his  history  by  noticing  the  extension  which  Gay 
Lussac  has  proposed  of  definite  proportions  to 
aeriform  bodies,  considering  these  as  determinable 
by  volume,  a  view,  he  says,  which  clashes  with 
parts   of  Mr.  Dalton's   atomic  hypothesis,   but 
which   may  be  adopted,   independent   of    hy- 
pothetical views,   as  a  beautiful   expression   of 
facts. 

106.  From  a  review  of  the  preceding  details, 
the  reader  may  form  some  notion  of  the  state  in 
which  the  science  of  chemistry  existed  at  the  end 
of  the  seventeenth  century ;  and  by  comparing 
the  theories  of  the  French  school,    which    we 
shall   soon   have  to  notice,  with  the  suggestions 
of  Mayow  and  Hooke,  more  especially  in  re- 
lation to  combustion  and  acidification,  it  will 
be  seen  how  nearly  the  individuals  just  named 
approached  to  that  explanation  of  laws  and  civ- 


366 


CHEMISTRY. 


eumstances  which  was  afterwards  more  unequi- 
vocally proposed  by  Lavoisier  and  his  followers. 
See  ACID  and  COMBUSTION. 

107.  Though   something  is   at   least   due   to 
Mayow,  we  must  in  justice,  says  Mr.  Brande,  con- 
fer the  merit  of  founding  pneumatic  chemistry  upon 
Dr.  Stephen  Hales,  who  was  born  in  Kent,  1667, 
whose  researches  came  before  the  public  very 
early  in  the  last  century.     '  He  refused  a  ca- 
non ry  of  Windsor,  that  he  might  continue  to 
devote  himself  to  his  parochial  duties,  and  fa- 
vorite scientific  pursuits ;  and  as   piety,  truth, 
and  virtue,  were  the  principles  of  his  character, 
he  lived  in  universal  esteem  to  the  age  of  eighty- 
four,   dying   at   Teddington,   on  the  fourth   of 
January,  1761,  where  he  was  buried  under  the 
church-tower,  which  he  had  rebuilt  at  his  own 
expense.' 

108.  Dr.  Hales  employed  several  methods  of 
collecting  and  examining  the  gaseous  products 
of  a  variety  of  bodies,  many  of  which  are  nearly 
similar  to  those  in  present  use,  and  in  prosecuting 
his   enquiries   he   stumbled  upon  a  variety  of 
curious  facts  and  observations ;  but  having  un- 
luckily predetermined  that  the  various  products 
formed  were  mere  modifications  and  contami- 
nations of  common  air,  he  let  slip  a  numerous 
series  of  discoveries,  once  fairly  within  his  grasp, 
and  which   were   afterwards   eagerly   amassed, 
and  successfully  reasoned  upon  by  Priestley  and 
his  contemporaries. 

109.  In  the  article  AIR  will  be  found  a  state- 
ment of  the  experiments  and  reasonings  of  Dr. 
Hales ;  and  the  reader,  by  turning  to  the  thirty- 
second,   and   few   following    sections    of    that 
article,  will  save  us  the  necessity  of  repeating  it 
here.     We  shall,  therefore,   in  the  present  in- 
stance, confine  ourselves  to  copying  what  Mr. 
Brande  says  of  this  chemist,  and  of  his  contem- 
porary  Boerhaave,  in  concluding  the   seventh 
section   of   the    historical    investigation    under 
notice. 

110.  When  it  is  recollected,  says  Mr.  B.  that 
Hales  wrote  at  the  commencement  of  the  last 
century,  that  there  were  then  very  few  models  of 
scientific  composition    extant  that  were  worth 
copying,  and  that  a  pompous  and  obscure  style 
of  writing  was  very  prevalent  among  his  experi- 
mental contemporaries,  we  cannot   but  admire 
the  perspicuous  and  unadorned  manner  in  which 
he  details  his  facts  and  observations  ;  he  has  all 
the  merit  in  this  respect  that  belongs  to  Boyle 
without  his  diffusiveness ;  and  a  pleasing  vein 
of  sound  and  unaffected  morality  accompanies 
his  argument,  and  leads  him  whilst  endeavouring 
to  unveil  the  mysteries  of  nature  to  direct  our 
attention  with  becoming  modesty  to  the  penury 
of  man's  wisdom,  when  compared  with  the  ad- 
mirable adjustment  of  causes  and  effects  discover- 
able in  her  lowliest  works. 

111.  Contemporary  with  Hales  was  the  cele- 
brated Boerhaave  who  was  born  near  Ley  den 
1668,  and  died  1738.      He  was  a  man  who  laid 
medicine  and  chemistry  under  deep  obligations; 
the  former  by  his  successful  practice,  and  happy 
method  of  instruction ;  the  latter  by  diligently 
experimenting  on  some  of  its  most  difficult  de- 
partments.    '  He  prosecuted  chemistry'  says  Dr. 
Johnson,  '  with  all  the  ardor  of  a  philosopher 


whose  industry  was  not  to  be  wearied,  and 
whose  love  of  truth  was  too  strong  to  suffer  him 
to  acquiesce  in  the  report  of  others.' 

112.  Boerhaave's    original  chemical   investi- 
gations were  nearly  of  the  same  nature  as  those 
of  Hales ;  he  experimented   upon   the   gaseous 
products  afforded  by  a  variety  of  vegetable  and 
animal  substances ;   he  attributed  the  elasticity 
of  air  to  its  union  with  fire,  and  considered  its 
ponderable  matter  as  susceptible  of   chemical 
combinations.     In  disclosing  these  views  he  has 
certainly  sketched  an  outline  of  one  of  the  mo- 
dern theories  of  combustion,   but  he  went  no 
further,  and  was  not  more  successful  than  Hales 
in  discriminating  between  common  air  and  the 
various  gaseous  products  that  resulted  from  some 
of  his  experiments.  His  writings  are  enumerated 
in  chronological  order  in  the  masterly  sketch  of 
his  life  written  by  Dr.  Johnson ;  '  they  have,'  says 
his  biographer, '  made  all  encomiums  useless  and 
vain,  since  no  man  can  attentively  peruse  them 
without  admiring  the  abilities  and  reverencing 
the  virtues  of  the  author.'     His  only  chemical 
work,    entitled,    Elementa   Chemise,   was    first 
published  in  1732.        It  contains  a  useful  essay 
on  the  history  of  the  science. 

113.  We  have  now  arrived  at  the  sera  when 
chemistry  '  assumed  a  more  important  and  inter- 
esting aspect,'  and  should  proceed  in  order  to 
detail  the  two  leading  and  most  important  dis- 
coveries of  Dr.  Black,  had  this  not  already  been 
done  in  the  article  AIR,  to  which  we  again  refer 
our  readers.    In  the  thirty-seventh  and  following 
sections  of  that  article  will  be  found  an  account 
of  these  discoveries,  which  most  certainly  cleared 
the  ground  for  the  erection  of  the  Lavoisierian 
theory,  and  the  reader,  by  continuing  to  read  the 
page§  to  which  we  now  refer,  will  also  be  fur- 
nished with  materials  for  appreciating  the  labors 
of  Dr.  Priestley,  as  contributing  to  the  establish- 
ment of  pneumatic  chemistry.     The  discoveries 
of  this  philosopher,  says  Mr.  Brande,  are  second 
in  importance  to  none  that  had  been  previously 
made,   and  barely  inferior  to  those   that  have 
adorned  the  recent  progress  of  chemistry.     We 
can  scarcely  call   him  the  founder  of  pneumatic 
chemistry,  after  perusing  the  works  of  Hales  and 
Black ;  but  he  achieved  more  in  that  new  de- 
partment of  the  science  than  any  cf  his  predeces- 
sors or  contemporaries ;   and  though  on  some 
points  anticipated,  his  claims  to  originality  are 
on  others   quite   unequivocal.     He  cannot   be 
called  the  discoverer  of  nitrous  gas,   for   it   is 
noticed  by  Mayow  ;  yet  he  developed  its  prin- 
cipal properties,  pointed  out  its  useful  eudiomet- 
rical  applications,  and  showed  many  new  modes 
of  obtaining  it.      He  has  been  stigmatised  as  a 
defender  of  the  unintelligible  system  of  phlogis- 
ton, and   he  did  defend  it  with  unpardonable 
pertinacity  ;    but  when  we  reflect  that  equally 
erroneous  theories  have  been  as  warmly  espoused 
in  our  own  days,  by  men  who  in  no  respect  are 
to  be  considered  as  inferior  to  our  author,  we 
must  not  impeach  his  discernment  upon  so  flimsy 
an  accusation.    When  we  consider  his  numerous 
and,  as  it  were,  incompatible  occupations,  and 
remember  the  many  channels  into  which  his  ex- 
ertions were  occasionally  diverted,  we  presently 
detect  the  source  of  that  wavering  of  opinion  and 


CHEMISTRY. 


36? 


unsteadiness  of  research,  that  his  philosophical 
pursuits  display.  His  experiments  were  almost 
always  submitted  to  the  public  in  a  crude  and 
undigested  form,  for  he  had  no  time  to  build 
them  into  theories,  or  concoct  them  into  genera- 
lisations, and  it  is  perhaps  as  vrell  that  he  had 
not,  for  the  bent  of  his  mind  was  evidently  such 
as  to  shine  in  experiment  rather  than  argument. 

114.  Bergman  is  here  again  to  be  noticed,  and 
his  researches  dwelt  upon  with  some  degree  of 
minuteness  ;  researches,   says  our  author,  which 
always  appear  to  have  been  made  with  an  object 
in  view,  and  there  is  an  unity  of  design-  in  his 
philosophical   papers   which   pleasingly    distin- 
guishes them  from  the  undigested  chaos  of  ex- 
periments and  observations  which  we  are  obliged 
to  wade  through  in  preceding  authors.      Berg- 
man was  born  in  Sweden  in  the  year  1735  and 
died  in  1784. 

115.  It  is  upon  his  analytical  talents,  says  Mr. 
Brande,  that  I  prupose  to  dwell ;  it  is  there  that 
he  was  pre-eminently  original    and  successful, 
and  upon   that   foundation   his  character  as  a 
chemist  may  be  safely  built. 

116.  The  use  of  tests  for  the  discovery  of  cer- 
tain substances  held  in  aqueous  and  other  solu- 
tions, was  first  particularly  dwelt  upon  by  Boyle, 
and  he  was  sometimes  very  fortunate  in  their 
contrivance  and  applications.     He  noticed  the 
conversion  of  certain  vegetable  blues  to  red  by 
acids,  and  to  green  by  alkalis  ;  the  cloudiness 
produced  by  common  salt  in  solution  of  silver, 
and  the  discoloration  by  liver  of  sulphur ;  and 
several  other  circumstances  connected  with  the  de- 
tection of  certain  principles  by  chemical  re-agents. 

117.  In  1667  Du  Clos  undertook  an  exami- 
nation of  the  waters  of  France ;  and  in  1686  Hierne 
published    some   clever  experiments    upon   the 
same  subject  in  Sweden.     In  these  writers  the 
use  of  galls  for  the  detection  of  iron  is  alluded,  to 
and  the  necessity  pointed  out  of  examining  the 
residuary  product  of  evaporation. 

118.  In  1726,  and  1729,  Boulduc  used  spirit 
of  wine  to  precipitate  certair  saline  bodies  inso- 
luble in  that  menstruum.      In  1755  Venel  poin- 
ted out  the  existence  of  fixed  air  in  the  waters  of 
Seltzer,    Spa,    and    Pyrmont.      Lane   in    1769 
shewed  the  method  of  imitating  chalybeate  springs, 
and  in  1772  Dr.   Priestley  published  directions 
for  saturating  water  with  fixed  air. 

,119.  Bergman,  in  his  Essay  on  Mineral  Wa- 
ters, after  adverting  to  a  variety  of  circumstances 
relating  to  their  general  characters  and  sources, 
proceeds  to  point  out,  in  the  seventh  section,  the 
principal  re-agents  and  precipitants  useful  in 
their  examination,  and  to  describe  the  nature  of 
their  changes  and  indications,  with  useful  preci- 
sion, in  the  following  order  :=^ 

120.  A.  Infusion  of  litmus,  or  turnsole,  is  so 
delicate  a  test  for  the  acids,  that  a  single  grain  of 
sulphuric  acid  reddens  408  cubic  inches  of  the 
blue  tincture. 

Paper  dipped  in  this  tincture  and  reddened  by 
distilled  vinegar,  has  its  blue  color  restored  by 
alkalis ;  but  the  tincture  is  more  sensible  than 
the  paper,  for  the  latter  is  not  reddened  by 
aerial  acid  (fixed  air),  yet  one  part  of  water  sa- 
turated with  aerial  acid,  renders  fifty  parts  of  the 
vnfusiori  red. 


121.  B.  Tincture  of  Brasil-wood  becomes  blue 
by  alkalis,  and  is  sensible  to  less  than  one  grain 
of  crystallized  soda  in  4000  of  water. 

122.  C.  Turmeric,  either  on  paper  or  in  watery 
tincture,  is  a  good,  but  less  sensible  test  for  al- 
kalis, which  render  it  brown. 

123.  D.  Tincture  of  galls  discovers  iron  by  a 
purple  or  black  cloud. 

124.  E.  Prussiate  of  potash  produces  a  blue 
tinge  in  water  containing  a  minute  portion   of 
iron;  it  also  precipitates  other  metals;   copper 
brown  ;  manganese  white. 

125.  F.  Sulphuric  acid  forms  a  white  precipi- 
tate in  all  solutions  containing  baryta.     If  it  pro- 
duce  bubbles  it   indicates  some  combination  of 
aerial  acid.  Nitric  acid  is  highly  useful  for  show- 
ing the  presence  of  sulphur,  which  it  precipitates 
from  all  hepatic  waters. 

126.  G.    Oxalic    acid   detects   the   minutest 
quantity  of  lime  by  producing  a  white   cloud, 
either  immediately   or  after  some  hours.     This 
test  shows  that  scarcely  any  water  is  free  from 
lime ;  and  the  purest  within  twenty-four  hours 
deposits  a  portion  of  oxalate  of  lime,  although 
sometimes  so  sparingly  as  to  escape  observation, 
unless  lines  be  drawn  on  the  bottom  of  the  ves- 
sel with  a  glass  rod,  in  the  direction  of  which 
the  precipitate  attaches  itself. 

127.  II.  Aerated   fixed   alkali,  throws  down 
the  metals  and  earths ;  if  the  substance  be  easily 
soluble  in  aerial  acid,  the  caustic  alkali  may  be 
used. 

128.  I.  Aerated  volatile  alkali,    also  throws 
down  earths  and  rrietals,  and  is  an  excellent  test 
for  the  presence  of  copper,  which  it  indicates  by 
a  blue  color,  more  or  less   intense  according  to 
the  quantity  of  alkali  added. 

129.  K.  Lime   water    detects  aerial    acid  (it 
should  be  recollected  that  carbonic  acid,  or  fixed 
air,  is  always  meant  by  this  term)  by  a  precipitate 
of  aerated  lime. 

130.  L.  Muriate  of  baryta  forms  an  insoluble 
white  precipitate  in  water,  containing  any  soluble 
vitriolic  salt ;  twelve  grains  of  crystallied  Glau- 
ber's salts  dissolved  in  a  kanne  of  distilled  water 
(about  three  quarts)  immediately  exhibits  white 
striae  on  the  application  of  this  test.      Even  one 
grain  in  the  kanne  exhibits  a  white  cloud  after 
some  hours,  and  as  it  only  contains  0,26  grains 
of  sulphuric  acid,  we  may  judge  of  the  nicety  of 
this    precipitant,  which  even  exceeds   turnsole 
itself  in  sensibility. 

131.  M.  Muriate  of  lime  maybe  used  for  the 
detection  of  fixed  alkali,  but  it  is  an  ambiguous 
test,  because  if  sulphate  of  magnesia  be  present 
it  produces  gypsum. 

132.  N.  Solution  of  alum  is  also  of  little  use, 
though  occasionally  employed  as  a  test  for  al- 
kalies. 

133.  O.  Nitrate  of  silver  is  a  certain  and  de- 
licate indicator  of  muriatic  acid,  and  its  combi- 
nations.    A  grain  of  common  salt  in  a  kanne  of 
water  is   instantly   rendered   evident   by   white 
streaks.     Under  some  circumstances  it  may  also 
form  a  precipitate  with  sulphuric  acid,  but  sul- 
phate of  silver  is  much  more  soluble  than  muri- 
ate ;  thus  no  visible  turbidness  arises  unless  the 
kanne  of  water    contain  ninety-eight  grains  of 
Glauber's  salt,    or  twenty-five  of  vitriolic  acid. 


CHEMISTRY. 


The  presence  of  hepatic  air  renders  the  precipi- 
tate of  silver  more  or  less  brown.  Alkalis,  lime, 
and  magnesia,  also  precipitate  nitrate  of  silver. 

134.  P.  Nitrate  of  mercury  is  a  prevaricating 
test,  but  very  sensible  to  a  variety  of  substances 
that  may  exist  in  mineral  waters.      As  Bergman 
has  not  pointed  out  any  particular  application,  in 
which  ttiis  salt  is  essential,  it  will  not  be  necesary 
to  follow  up  his  remarks  on  it,  though  in  other 
respects  important. 

135.  Q.  Corrosive  Sublimate ; 

136.  R.  Acetate  of  Lead; 

137.  S.  Sulphate  of  iron;  and 

138.  T.  White  arsenic;  are  next  enumerated, 
but  their  utility  is  dubious,  and  the  observations 
upon  them  of  little  value  to  the  analyst. 

139.  U.  Spirituous  solution  of  soap  is  useful 
in   giving  general  indications  of  the  purity  of 
water,  which,  if  pure,  scarcely  renders  it  opales- 
cent; but  if  abounding  in  foreign  materials,  or 
hard  and  unfit  for  washing,  it  produces  more  or 
less  opacity  or  precipitation. 

140.  X.  Liver  of    sulphur  is  affected  by  so 
many  causes,  that  it  may  be  dispensed  with  in 
the  examination  of  waters. 

141.  Y.  Alcohol  throws  down  such  salts  as  it 
cannot  dissolve,  especially  the  sulphates.     It  dis- 
solves many  muriates  and  nitrates. 

142.  At  the  end  of  this  list,  Mr.  Brande  states 
that  he  has  thus  enumerated  the  tests  recommend- 
ed by  Bergman,  and  given  an  abridged  account 
of  his  remarks  upon  them,  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  the  rapid  stride  which,  under  his  assis- 
tance, was  made  in  analytical  chemistry  ;  it  is  true 
that  of  many  of  these  re-agents,  and  of  their  ap- 
plication, he  was    not  the  inventor,  but  he  was 
the  first  who  showed  the  real  value  and  limits  of 
the  indications  which  they  afford;  an  effort  of  no 
common  sagacity,  when  we  revert  to  the  state  of 
chemistry  in  his  time. 

143.  The  gaseous  contents  of  mineral  waters, 
are  next  adverted  to  by  Bergman.     These  may  be 
expelled  by  heating  a  given  portion  of  the  water 
in  a  retort,  the  beak  of  which  is  plunged  into 
the  mercurio-pneumatic  apparatus,  and  the  gas 
secured  in  the  usual  way.      It  generally  consists 
of  pure  air,  and  aerial  acid ;  the  latter  may  be 
absolved  by  lime-water.     The  presence  of  hepa- 
tic air  is  easily  recognised  by  its  fcetor. 

144.  The  remaining  water  is  directed  to  be 
evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  residue  weighed 
and  digested  in  pure  alcohol,  shaken  with  eight 
parts   of  cold   water;    and  finally   the   matters 
which   resist   the   actions  of  alcohol   and   cold 
water,  are  to  be  boiled  in  four  or  five  hundred 
parts  of  distilled  water,  and  the  solution  filtered. 
The  ultimate  residuum  generally  contains  iron 
and  carbonate  of  lime,  or  perhaps  of  magnesia 
previously  suspended  by  carbonic  acid  ;  it  may 
be  in  a  few   instances  argillaceous  or  silicious, 
and  perhaps  contain  manganese,and  directions  are 
given  at  length  for  its  separate  analysis,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  aqueous  and  alcoholic  solutions; 
it  is  here  that  Bergman  displays  an  ingenuity  and 
accuracy  then  new  to  chemical  science,  for  in 
measuring  his  merits  by  a  true  estimate,  we  must 
go   back  to  the  state  of  chemistry  at  his  time, 
and  divest  ourselves  of  its  modern  perfections 
and  refinements;  then  the  peculiar  and  genuine 


character  of  his  researches  will  become  promi- 
nent. 

145.  Bergman's  merits  as  an  assayist  of  metals 
in  the  humid  way  (a  dissertation  on  which    he 
published)  are   pointed   out   by   Mr.    Brande ; 
after  a  luminous  summary  of  the  general  phe- 
nomena of  the  solution  of  metals,  he  (Bergman) 
advances  a  series  of  facts  relating  to  their  preci- 
pitation ;  he  shows  that  the  caustic  fixed  alkalis 
occasion  precipitates  of  the  calces,  but  loaded 
with  water  by  which  their  weight  is  much  in- 
creased ;     that    carbonated    alkali'  precipitates 
carbonated   oxides   by    double   decomposition ; 
that   certain  acids,  which  form   insoluble   com- 
pounds with  metals,  throw  them  down  from  their 
soluble  compounds;  that  certain  salts  act  in  the 
same  way   by   double   elective   attraction;  and 
that  in  some  cases  triple  combinations  ensue,  as 
when  platina  is    precipitated  by  sal-ammoniac. 
He  then  adverts   to  the  decomposition  of  one 
metallic  salt  by  another,  even  where  the  acid  is 
the  same  in  both.  Thus  sulphate  of  iron,  and  mu- 
riate of  tin,  decompose  muriate  of  gold.     The 
metals  also  precipitate  one  another  after  a  certain 
order,  which  is  the  same  in  all  acid  solvents,  and 
effected  by  double  elective  attraction ;  '  for  the  me- 
tal to  be  precipitated  exists  in  the  solution  in  a 
calcined  state,  that  being  reduced  by  the  phlo- 
giston of  the   precipitant,   falls  to  the  bottom; 
while  the  precipitant  being  calcined  becomes  so- 
luble.    *  Although,'  he  says,  '  many  anomalous 
circumstances  occur  in  this  matter,  the  order  is 
constant  and  never  inverted.'      The  fifth  section 
of  this  paper,  explains  the  use  of  tests  for  discri- 
minating the  metals,  pointing  out  the  colors  of 
metallic  precipitates.      '  Gold  and  Platinum  are 
only  in  part  separated  from  acids  by  the  alkalis. 
Nitrate  of  silver  affords  a  brown  precipitate  with 
caustic  alkali,  a  white  one  with  aerated  soda  and 
with   muriatic   acid.'      Solution  of  muriate  of 
mercury  gives  a  red  precipitate  with  carbonated, 
and  a  yellow  or  orange  with  caustic  alkali.     The 
latter  is  black  if  the  solution  be  prepared  without 
heat.     Nitrate  of  lead  is  precipitated  white  by 
caustic  alkali,  an  excess  of  which  redissolves  the 
precipitate.      Nitrate  of  copper  gives  a  bright 
green  compound  with  aerated,  and  brown  with 
phlogisticated  alkali  (ferro-prussiate  of  potassa). 
Iron  is  thrown  down  green  by  aerated  alkali,  and 
the  precipitate,  on  exsiccation,  becomes  brownish 
yellow.     Tin  gives  a  white  cloud  with  all  the 
alkalis;  bismuth  white  with  water  and  alkalis; 
nickel  greenish  white  with  alkalis  and  ferro-prus- 
siate of  potassa  ;  zinc  and  antimony  white  with 
all  alkalis. 

146.  Bergman's  essay  on  fixed  air,  or,  as  we 
have  found  he  calls  it,  aerial  acid,  is  the  last  of 
which  Mr.  Brande  makes  particular  mention. 
The  dissertation  which  Mr.  B.  quotes  was  read 
in  1 774  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Sciences  at 
Upsal,  and  is  printed  in  their  Transactions  for 
1775.  After  describing  the  several  methods  of 
obtaining  this  air  by  the  action  of  acids  upon 
carbonates,  by  submitting  them  to  a  red  heat  and 
by  fermentation,  he  proceeds  to  define  the  mean- 
ing of  the  term  acid,  in  order  to  show  that  fixed 
air  belongs  to  that  class  of  bodies,  that  it  is  so- 
luble in  water,  that  it  has  a  sour  taste,  reddens 
turnsole  and  unites  to  and  forms  crystallizable 


CHEMISTRY. 


compounds  with  alkalies,  destroying  at  the  same 
time  their  causticity. 

147.  He  detected  this  air  in  the  marmor  me- 
tallicum  of  Cronstedt  (carbonate  of  baryta),  and 
observed  the  rapidity  with  which  baryta  water 
absorbs  carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  forming  an 
effervescent  precipitate.     Speaking  of  the  action 
of  carbonic  acid  upon  lime,  he  gives  a  masterly 
sketch  of  the  principal  facts  relating  to  the  com- 
position and  decomposition  of  the  carbonate  of 
lime  ;  he  shows  the  solubility  of  calcareous  spar, 
in  water  impregnated  with  fixed  air,  and  its  sub- 
sequent deposition,  often  in  small  crystals  ;    and 
the  same  property  is  also  proved  to  belong  to 
magnesia.     Bergman  then  goes  on  to  discuss  the 
elective  attractions  of  fixed  air,  of  which  he  gives 
the  following  table  : — 

AERIAL  ACID. 

Pure  Terra  ponderosa. 

Lime. 

Fixed  Vegetable  alkali. 

Fixed  Mineral  alkali. 

Magnesia. 

Volatile  alkali. 

Zinc. 

Manganese. 

Iron. 

lie  says  'it  appears  to  be  the  weakest  acid 
known,  for  it  is  expelled  not  only  by  vinegar  but 
by  the  phlogisticated  acid  of  nitre  and  vitriol 
(nitrous  and  sulphurous  acids)  ;  yet  he  observes 
that  acetate  of  lead  is  decomosped  by  carbonic 
acid,  which  appears  an  anomaly,  and  suggests  a 
question  which  he  leaves  undecided  till  experi- 
ment shall  have  enabled  him  to  explain  it.  The 
acid  properties  of  fixed  air  are  most  dwelt  upon, 
and  the  probability  of  its  acidity  resulting  from 
foreign  matter  negatived  ;  for  when  rightly  de- 
purated, though  extricated  by  the  most  different 
means  from  the  most  different  materials,  whether 
by  fire  or  by  solution,  it  is  nevertheless  always 
the  same  and  always  acid.  I  conclude  then, 
with  all  the  certainty  attainable  in  physics,  that 
acidity  is  a  property  essential  to  that  elastic 
fluid.'  From  the  imperfection  of  apparatus, 
Bergman  erred  a  good  deal  in  calculating  the 
specific  gravity  of  fixed  air ;  he,  however,  proved 
it  heavier  than  atmospheric  air,  and  thence  ac- 
counts for  its  lodging  in  low  situations,  as  in  pits 
and  gjots ;  it  is  also  shown  to  extinguish  flame. 

148.  Cavendish  and  Scheele  were  contempo- 
raries, and  immediate   successors  of  Bergman; 
the  former  (Mr.  C.)  was  born  in  London  1731, 
and  died  at  Clapham  1810  ;  the  latter  (Scheele) 
was  born  at  Strasbend  in  1742,  and  died  1786. 
The  first  was  a  leading  person  in  the  scientific 
circles  of  London,  of  noble  family  and  princely 
affluence  ;    the  latter  of  humble  origin,  and  with 
limited  means,  mabe  up  for  deficiencies  of  place 
and  fortune  by  zeal  and  economy,  and  in  the  re- 
tirement of  a  Swedish  village  raised  a  reputation 
that  soon  extended  itself  over  Europe. 

149.  The  properties  and  habits  of  hydrogen 
were  investigated  by  Mr.   Cavendish  with  re- 
markable success.     These  investigations  were, 
indeed,  entirely  his  own ;  for  though  Mayow  had 

VOL.  V. 


collected  it,  and  Hales  had  proved  its  combusti- 
bility, it  may  be  safely  asserted  t'^at  the  pheno- 
notnena  of  its  production  had  entirely  escaped 
attention,  and  that  its  principal  properties  were 
previously  unknown.  Mr.  Cavenish  shews  that 
different  metals  afford  different  quantities  of 
hydrogen ;  thus  zinc  yielded  more  than  iron, 
and  iron  more  than  tin ;  and  further,  that  the 
state  of  dilution  and  quantity  of  the  acid,  pro- 
vided there  were  enough  to  dissolve  the  metal, 
did  not  affect  either  the  quantity  or  properties 
of  the  air.  'In  examining  its  properties,  our 
author  observed  that  it  extinguished  flame,  des- 
troyed animal  life,  and  burned,  when  pure,  with 
a  pale  blue  flame :  he  determined  its  specific 
gravity,  and  found  that  it  was  the  lightest  of  all 
ponderable  matter,  hence  its  subsequent  sugges- 
tion by  Black  and  Cavallo  as  a  substitute  for 
rarified  air  in  the  balloon. 

150.  Having  determined  the  specific  gravity 
and  other  abstract  properties  of  hydrogen  gas, 
Mr.  Cavendish  proceeded  to  examine  the  result 
of  its  combustion,  and  found  that  when  mixed 
with  atmospheric  air  in  certain  proportions,  it 
exploded  on  the  contact  of  flame,  and  deposited 
moisture  in  the  vessel  used  for  the  experiment ; 
this  observation  led  to  one  of  the  most  important 
discoveries  in  modern    chemistry,  namely,  the 
composition  of  water.      The    circumstance  to 
which  we  allude,  was  indeed  first  noticed  by 
Macquer,  in  1766,   and  was    referred  by  Mr. 
Watt  to  the  production  of  water  in  1783  ;  but 
experimental  proofs  were  still  wanting,  and  they 
were  supplied   in  a  masterly  manner   by  Mr. 
Cavendish  in  a  paper  given  to  the  Royal  Society 
in   1784.     He  found  that  steam  of   pure  hy- 
drogen, burned  either  in  air  or  oxygen,  produced 
a  vapor  condensible  into  pure  water.     The  same 
product  resulted  from  the  rapid  combustion  of 
mixture  of  inflammable  and  dephlogisticated  airs 
(oxygen   and   hydrogen    gases).     The    experi- 
ments were  subsequently  verified  by  analytical 
researches  :  water  was  decomposed  by  Lavoisier 
by  passing  steam  through  a  red  hot  tube,  con- 
taining iron,  which  absorbs  its  oxygen,  and  pure 
hydrogen   is  liberated  in  a  gaseous  form.     The 
decomposing  energies  of  electricity,  have  also 
been  applied  to  this  fluid,  and  it  is  found  uni- 
formly to  be  resolved  into  one  volume  of  oxygen, 
and  two  of  hydrogen,  which  disappear  on  passing 
an  electric  spark  through  the  mixture,  and  are 
converted  into  their  weight  of  pure  water. 

151.  Mr.  Cavendish  may  be  said  to  have  dis- 
covered the  true  composition  of  the  nitric  acid, 
or  at  least  he  was  the  first  to  produce  it  by  pass- 
ing   electric    explosions    through     mixtures   of 
oxygen  and  nitrogen  over  solutions  of  potash. 

152.  Of  Scheele's  contributions  to  chemical 
science,   Mr.  Brande   speaks  in   the  following 
terms :    While    Priestley   and  Cavendish   were 
contributing  to  the  chemical  eminence  of  Bri- 
tain,  Scheele  was  diligently  employed  in  the 
same  pursuit,  under  the  patronage  and  guidance 
of  Bergman,  of  whom   it  has  been  emphatically 
said,  'that  his  greatest  discovery  was  the  dis- 
covery of  Scheele,'  for  he  was  the  first  to  remark 
his  promising  genius  and  rising  merit. 

153.  Scheele's  publication,  entitled  Chemical 

2  B 


370 


CHEMISTRY. 


Observations  and  Experiments  on  Air  and  Fire, 
is  prefaced  by  an  introduction  from  the  pen  of 
his  patron  Bergman,  setting  forth  the  advantages 
of  experimental  science,  and  the  probable  be- 
nefits that  may  result  from  the  application  of 
chemistry  to  the  treatment  and  cure  of  diseases. 

154.  Finding  air  necessary  for  the  production 
of  fire,  Scheeie  first  turned  his  attention  to  its 
analysis;  he  found  that  solution  of  liver  of  sul- 
phur, and  certain  other  sulphureous  compounds, 
occasioned  a  diminution  in  the  bulk  of  air,  to 
which  they  were  exposed,  equal  to  one  part  in 
about  five,  the  flame  of  hydrogen  and  that  of 
sulphur  caused  a  similar  decrease  of  bulk  in  air 
standing  over  water,  and  lime-water  not  being 
rendered  in  either  case  turbid  by  the  residuums, 
no  fixed   air  was    formed.      He   then    obtains 
empyreal  air  (oxygen)  by  the  decomposition  of 
nitric  acid,  and  other  processes ;  describes  the 
method  of  transferring,  collecting,  and  examining 
the  gases,  and  endeavours  to  prove  that  heat  is 
a  compound  of  empyreal   air  and  phlogiston ; 
he  also  shows  by  direct  experiments,  that  the 
absorption  occasioned  in  atmospheric  air  by  liver 
of  sulphur,  is  referrible  to  the  abstraction  of  its 
empyreal  portion ;   that  it  totally  absorbs  empy- 
real air,  and  that,  upon  adding  to  the  residuary 
portion  of  atmospheric  air,  a  quantity  of  em- 
pyreal air,  equal  to  that  absorbed  by  the  sul- 
phureous liquor,  an   air  is  again  compounded, 
similar  in  all  respects  to  that  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  identity  of  these  investigations,  with  those 
of  Priestley,  will  not  fail  of  being  observed,  but 
it  must  be  recollected  that  they  were  entirely 
independent,  and  that,   although  Priestley  was 
in  the  field  a  little  before  him,  Scheeie  was  un- 
acquainted with  his  proceedings. 

155.  The  details  concerning  the  nature  of  air 
are  followed  by  an  enquiry  into  the  properties 
of  heat  and  light,  which,  though  a  little  tainted 
by  false  theory,  bears  the  stamp  of  an  able  and 
original  mind.     Adverting  to  the  reflection  of 
the  rays  from  a  common  fire,  by  a  concave  me- 
tallic mirror,  he  remarks  that  they  pass  in  straight 
lines,  without  suffering  any  derangement  from 
currents  or  undulations  in  the  atmosphere  which 
they  traverse;  that  glass  intercepts  the  heat  but 
not  the  light,  that  a  mirror  of  glass  reflects  the 
light  but  absorbs  the  heat,  whereas  metal  reflects 
both ;  the  metal,  therefore,  if  clean,  does  not  be- 
come heated ;  but,  if  blackened  over  a  burning 
candle,  it  then  absorbs  heat,  and  becomes  very 
warm.       He   notices    the   distinction    between 
heated  air,  and  heat  emanating  in  straight  lines; 
'  represent  to  yourself  a  little  hillock  of  burning 
coals;    in  this  case  the  heat  darting  from  this 
hillock  all  around,  is  that  which  maybe  reflected 
by  a  metallic  polished  plate ;  that,  on  the'  con- 
trary, which  rises  upwards,  and  may  be  driven 
by  winds  to  and  fro,  unites  with  the  air.     I  call 
the  first  kind  by  way  of  distinction,  radiant  heat.' 
Discussing  the  phenomena  of  solar  and  terrestrial 
radiation,  he  considers  their  apparent  differences 
to  result,  not  from  any  absolute  difference  in  the 
nature  of  the  emanating  principles,  but  in  their 
quantity.  '  There  is  no  doubt,'  he  says, '  about  the 
light  of  the  sun  and  that  of  a  burning  candle  being 
the  same  thing;  for  this  affects  the  eye  in  the 
j&rce  manner  as  the  sun,  and  represents  the  same 


colors  through  the  prism,  but  being  weaker  it  is 
no  wonder  that  its  beams,  collected  in  a  burning 
glass,  will  not  burn;  nor  is  there  any  doubt 
about  light  being  a  body  in  the  same  manner  as 
heat,  but  I  cannot  persuade  myself  that  light  and 
heat  are  the  same  thing,  since  experiment  proves 
the  contrary. 

156.  Finding  that  light-  blackened  nitrate  of 
silver,  though  heat  alone  had  no  effect  upon  it, 
he  considers  light  as  containing  an  inflammable 
principle,  and  shows  that  luna  cornea  after  long 
exposure  to  the  sun's  rays,  is  no  longer  perfectly 
soluble  in  ammonia,  but  leaves  a  portion  of  re- 
duced silver ;  he  also  shows  that  when  put  into 
water,  it  forms  muriatic  acid  in  the  light,  but 
not  in  the  dark ;  and  that  the  violet  rays  pro- 
duce these  effects  more  rapidly  and  powerfully 
than  the  other  colored  rays,  and  even  than  white 
light. 

157.  Among  Scheele's  experiments  on  air  and 
fire,  some  curious  facts  are  detailed  respecting 
the  spontaneously  inflammable  compound  dis- 
covered early  in  the  last  century  by  Homoeig 
and  called  pyrophorus ;  it  is  shown  that  potass 
is  necessary  to   its  formation;   and    that  alum 
crystallised  by  ammonia,  is  unfit  for  its  produc- 
tion.    The  evolution   of  hydrogen  during  the 
action  of  iron  upon  sulphur,  and  of  nitrogen  in 
the  detonation    of  fulminating  gold,    are    also 
among  the  facts  contained  in  this  essay ;  as  well 
as  a  variety  of  curious  circumstances  relating  to 
the  effect  of   vegetation    and  respiration  upon 
air;  and  it  closes  with  an  accoxint  of  the  pro- 
perties of  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

158.  Scheeie  was  more'to  be  praised  for  a  dili- 
gent observation  and  careful  collection  of  facts, 
than  for  reasoning  or  theorising  upon  the  facts 
detailed;  but  then,  says  Mr.  Brande,  he  is  so 
rich  in  facts,  that  we  the  more  easily  overlook 
theoretical  failings.     His  Dissertation  on  Man- 
ganese for  instance,  with  a  description  of  the 
principal  salts  of  that  metal,  contains  the  im- 
portant discovery  of  dephlogisticated  muriatic 
acid,  or,  as  it  is  now  termed,  chlorine.     In  ano- 
ther place  we  shall  have  to  show  that  the  views 
of  Scheeie  respecting  the  nature  of  this  sub- 
stance and  the  muriatic  acid  are  correct;  and 
that  the  term  oxymuriatic  acid,  by  which  it  was 
known  in  the  French  school,  implies  an  erro- 
neous notion  of  its  constituent  principles.     To 
Sir  H.  Davy  we  are  indebted  for  the  revival  and 
confirmation  of  Scheele's  theory  respecting  .the 
nature  of  chlorine;    indeed   the  antioxygenous 
views  of  this  last  mentioned  philosopher,  if  we 
may  so  express  ourselves,  have  proved,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  matter  now  adverted  to,  of  much 
importance  in  their  bearings  upon  the  doctrines 
of  chemistry  generally. 

159.  In  his  essays  on  fluor  spar  and  its  acid, 
Scheeie  has  committed  several  errors,  amongst 
which,  the  most  glaring  is  the  conclusion  which 
he  draws  respecting  the  formation  of  silicious 
earth.     When  powdered  fluor  spar  is  distilled 
with  sulphuric  acid  in  a  glass  retort,  the  silicious 
earth  of  the  glass  is  dissolved  by  the  acid  of  the 
fluor,  carried  over  with  it  in  the  gaseous  state, 
and  in  part  deposited  in  the  receiver  containing 
water.     Scheeie  inferred  that  silicious  earth  was 
here  formed  by  the  union   t»f  fluor,  acid,  and 


CHEMISTRY. 


371 


water ;  and,  persisting  in  his  error,  he  endeavours 
to  show  that  the  same  formation  ensues  in 
metallic  vessels,  and  therefore  independent  of 
glass  ;  but  he  takes  no  due  precautions  against  the 
the  presence  of  silica  in  the  fluor  he  used.  Yet 
there  is  much  to  praise  in  the  methods  of  analysis 
employed  in  investigating  the  nature  of  this 
singular  body ;  it  is  a  subject  full  of  difficulties, 
and  can  scarcely  be  called  complete  even  at  the 
present  day,  though  it  has  engaged  the  attention 
of  the  most  acute  analysts.  The  acids  of  arsenic 
and  of  molybdenum  were  first  examined  by 


Woodward  in  1724.  In  1752  Macquer's  dis- 
sertation upon  it  presented  a  connected  view  of 
its  chemical  history,  which,  however,  was  im- 
perfect and  unsatisfactory.  Scheele  directed  his 
attention  to  the  discovery  of  the  principle  upon 
which  its  color  depended.  He  shows  that  the 
salt  afforded  by  digesting  Prussian  blue  in 
caustic  pot  ash,  is  a  triple  compound  of  the 
coloring  principle,  iron  and  pot  ash ;  iron  being 
the  medium  by  which  the  coloring  matter  is 
attached  to  the  alkali.  This  salt  he  decomposed 
by  distilling  its  aqueous  solution  with  a  small 


Scheele,  aud  he  first  showed  the  difference  be-  quantity  of  concentrated  vitriolic  acid;  and  the 

tween  molybdenum  and  pluipbago,  and  pointed  liquor  which  passed   into  the   receiver   carried 

out  the  existence  of  charcoal  and  iron  in   the  with  it  a  great  portion  of  the  coloring  principle, 

latter.  which   has   since    been    termed   Prussic    acid. 

160.  In  1778  Scheele  made  known  the  pre-  Scheele  then  goes  on  to  show  that  the  action  of 

paration  of  the  arsenite  of  copper,  and  recom-  this  acid,  in  its  pure  state,  upon  metallic  solu- 

mended  it  as  a  useful  and  permanent  color  in  tions,  is  very  different  from  that  which  it  exhibits 

oil  and  water  painting;  and  in  1779  he  took  up  when  combined  with  alkalis.     United  with  lime, 

the  important  subject  of  the  decomposition  of  he   found   that  it   afforded   precipitates  in   the 

neutral  salts   by  unslaked  lime,  and  iron.     He  greater  number  of  metallic  solutions, 
found  upon  the  iron  hoops    of  a  tub  of  salted 


turnips,  which  had  been  placed  in  a  damp  cel- 
lar, a  quantity  of  salt  resembling  mineral  alkali, 
and  was  struck  with  the  circumstance,  '  knowing 
that  the  attraction  of  acid  of  salt  is  weaker  for 
iron  than  for  mineral  alkali.'  He  dipped  plates 
of  several  other  metals  into  solutions  of  Glau- 
ber's salt,  but  found  that  iron  only  was  effectual 
in  their  decomposition,  and  that  the  action  was 
more  rapid  in  a  damp  cellar  then  elsewhere ;  he 
also  found  that  quicklime  decomposed  those  salts 
in  the  same  situation,  and  that  the  decomposi- 
tion was  dependent  upon  the  presence  of  car- 
bonic acid  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  vault. 

161.  In   the  essays    on    Milk,  and   Sugar  of 
Milk,  there  are  many  curious  circumstances  re- 
specting the  action  of  re-agents  upon  that  liquid, 
and  these  papers  deserve  particular  notice,   as 
among  the  earliest  specimens  of  the  analysis  of 
animal  fluids.     Scheele  observes  that,  from  his 
experiments,  it  appears  '  that  the  acid  of  milk  is 
an  acid  of  a  peculiar  kind ;  and  though  it  expels 
the  vinegar  from  acetated  vegetable  alkali,  yet  it 
seems  destined,  if  I  may  so  speak,  to  be  vinegar.' 
He  attributes  its  difference  to  the  want  of  some 
ferment,  and  shows  that  the  addition  of  a  little 
brandy  to  milk,  causes  it,  when  fermented,  to 
afford  good  vinegar. 

162.  The  method  of  obtaining  the  citric  acid, 
and  some  other  vegetable  acids,  by  decomposing 
their  compounds  with  lime  by  sulphuric  acid, 
is  also  among  Scheele's  discoveries ;  his  essays 
on  Tungsten,  on  the  Preparation  of  Calomel  in  the 
humid  way,  on  Urinary  Calculi,  on  Ether,  and 
on  Benzoic  acid,  each  contains  important  facts, 
displays  new  modes   of  enquiry,  and   deserves 
the  perusal  of  those  who  may  be  engaged  in  in- 
vestigations relating  to  the  several  subjects  on 
which  they  treat. 

163.  The  last  essay  to  which  Mr.  Brande  adverts, 
in  his   historical  view  of  Scheele's  discoveries, 
was  published  in  1782,  and  is  entitled,  Experi- 
ments on  the  Coloring  Matter  of  Prussian  Blue. 
This   very  singular  substance   was   accidentally 
discovered  early  in  the  last  century,  by   Dies- 
bach,  a  color-maker  at  Berlin  ;  the  preparation 
was,    however,   kept   secret    till    published  by 


164.  Lavoisier's    celebrated    reformation    in 
chemical  science  and  nomenclature,  falls  now  to 
be  noticed,  which,  although  it  came  to  affect  the 
whole  body  of  chemical  doctrine  and  reasoning, 
consists  of  very  little  more  than  a  generalisation  ; 
and,  as  we  shall  immediately  see,  in  some  cases, 
a  false,  or  too  hasty,  generalisation  of  facts  and 
circumstances  which  had  been  observed  and  de- 
tailed by  others.     It  cannot,   however,   be   de- 
nied, even  by  those  who  are  least  disposed  to 
appreciate   highly  the  claims  of  Lavoisier,  that 
chemistry  has  become  a  more  simple,  a  more  in- 
teresting, and  a  more  satisfactory  pursuit,  since 
the  destruction  of  the  phlogistic  hypothesis,  and 
the  introduction  in   its  stead  of  the  oxygenous 
explanation  of  combustion.    We  have  seen  above 
that  Rey,  so  far  back  as  early  in  the  seventeenth 
century,   demonstrated   that  air  causes  that  in- 
crease  of  weight   which   is   effected   in   metals 
during  calcination.     Hooke  too,  in  1667,  showed 
that  part  only  of  the  atmosphere  was  concerned 
in  the  support  of  flame.     Oxygen  gas,  or,  as  he 
termed  it,  dephlogisticated  air,  was  discovered 
by  Dr.  Priestley.      Cavendish  proved  the  com- 
position of  water  to  be  a  compound  of  this  air 
and  hydrogen  ;  but  the  reasonings  and  inferences 
of  these  philosophers  were  interfered  with  and 
injured  by  the  hypothesis  of  phlogiston  or  the 
inflammable  principle,  and  Lavoisier  by  discard- 
ing this  imaginary  or  ideal  something,  and  look- 
ing as  it  were  only  to  what  was  sensible  or  tan- 
gible,   embodied   the  suggestions   of  Rey    and 
Hooke  into  one  leading  principle  of  pneumatic 
theory,  and  regarded  the  circumstances  of  cal- 
cination and  combustion  to  be  the   combination 
of  the  ponderable  part  of  the  air  employed  in 
the  process  with  the  burnt  or  calcined  body.    He 
exposed  fifty  cubic  inches  of  atmospheric  air  to 
heated  mercury  ;  by  this  exposure  the  air  under- 
went a  decrease  equal  to  one-sixth  of  its  original 
bulk,  and  became  unfit  for  breathing,  or  for  again 
acting   in  the   phenomenon   of  combustion ;  at 
the  same  time    the  metal  was  converted    partly 
into  a  reddish  matter,  forty-five  grains  of  which, 
heated  red  hot,  afforded  41-5  of     running  mer- 
cury, and  seven  or  eight  cubical  inches  of  gas 
which  proved  to  be   the  dephlogisticated  air  of 

2  B  2 


372 


CHEMISTRY. 


Dr.  Priestley.  He  then  recombined  the  forty- 
1wo  cubical  inches  of  the  air  that  had  been 
rendered  unfit  for  combustion,  with  the  eight 
cubical  inches  of  the  dephlogisticated  air  sepa- 
rated from  the  mercury,  and  thus  produced  the 
original  fifty  cubical  inches  of  common  or  at- 
mospheric air. 

165.  The  above  experiment  affords  an  instance 
not  of  combustion  but  of  calcination,  the  difference 
of  these  two  phenomena  consisting  principally  in 
the  slowness  or  rapidity  with  which  the  ae rial  union 
is  accomplished.   But  how  are  the  heat  and  light 
to  be  accounted  for,  which  are  sensibly  evolved  or 
made   manifest   when   combustion   is   effected? 
Our  theorist  considered  all  aeriform  existence  to 
be  a  compound  of  a  ponderable  base  with  heat 
(caloric)  and  light ;  now  when  this  base  is  made 
to  unite  with  a  body  during  the  process  of  com- 
bustion,   the   caloric   and   light  are  necessarily 
disengaged,  and  in  this  disengagement  you  have 
the  sensible  circumstances  of  the  process.  Instead, 
then,  of  explaining  combustion  or  calcination  by 
assuming  the  presence  and  operation  of  a  princi- 
ple which  has  not  been  demonstrated,  and  which, 
even  in  its  supposition,  is  contradicted  by  the 
fact  that  the  body  operated  on  acquires  rather 
than  loses  by  becoming  dephlogisticated,  Lavoi- 
sier proposed  that  the  denomination  of  the  pro- 
duct should  be  as  it  were  the  statement  of  what 
had  manifestly  taken  place  in  the  process,  and 
that  the  designation  of  the  process  itself  should 
be   founded   on   the   same   principles.     Hence, 
upon  this  nomenclature  being  adopted,  it  became 
necessary  to  consider  dephlogistication  as  oxyge- 
nation,  and  to  study  the  chemists  who  had  writ- 
ten at  the  time  of  phlogiston  being  in  vogue, 
under  the  recollection  of  this  change. 

166.  But  why  were  bodies,  thus  having  become 
united  with  a  part  of  the  air,  named  oxygenated  ? 
So  early  as  the  year  1667,  Mayow,  in  his  experi- 
mental investigations,  found  that  the  igneous  part 
of  the  atmosphere,  as  he  termed  it,  was  concerned 
in  the  formation  of  some  acid  bodies ;  and,  al- 
though this  principle  had  been  subsequently  in 
a  measure  lost  sight  of,  it  was  found  to  harmonise 
with  succeeding  discoveries,  and  more  especially 
with  the  great  discoveries  of  Priestley  and  Scheele 
respecting  dephlogisticated  or  empyreal,  or,  as  it 
is  now  termed,  oxygenous  air;  and  Lavoisier, 
seizing  upon  these  facts  and  principles,  extended, 
generalised,  and  applied,  what  had  before  been  in 
some   sort   observed ;    and   conceived   that   the 
vivifying,  or  empyreal,  or  pure,  or  dephlogisti- 
cated portion  of  the  atmosphere,  was  the  univer- 
sal principle  of  acidification ;  on  this  account  the 
name  oxygen  was  applied  to  it:  and,  as  we  have 
before  observed  (see  ACID),  this  enunciation  of 
Lavoisier  came  to  be  generally  received  and  ac- 
cepted as   the  foundation  of  a  new  system   of 
chemical  doctrine,  and   both  inflammability  and 
acidity  were  thought  to  be  fully  explained  by  the 
oxygenous  theory ;  the  language  in  which  chemi- 
cal facts  were  announced,  underwent  this  leading 
mutation,  and  it  was  expected  that  every  new 
development  of  fact  would  harmonise  with  the 
ne%v  theory  of  causation. 

167.  Guy  ton  Morveau,  and  Fourcroy,  were 
the   two   principal   associates   of    Lavoisier    in 
tuetbodisinp  the  new  nomenclature ;  the  first  of 


these  celebrated  men  was  born  at  Dijon  in  1737, 
and  died  1815;  the  second  (Fourcroy)  was  born 
at  Paris  in  1755,  and  died  in  1809. 

168.  It  shortly,  however,  was  ascertained  that 
Lavoisier   and  his  associates  had  assumed  too 
much  for  oxygenous  agency,  both  in  respect  of 
acidification    and    combustion   (see   ACID   and 
COMBUSTION)  ;   and  the  researches  of  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy  in  particular  have  demonstrated  the 
errors  of  the  French  school  in  its  ingenious  at- 
tempt at  grasping  simplicity.     To   the   article 
CHLORINE,  and  to  the  body  of  the  present  trea- 
tise, we  must  refer  our  readers  for  a  full  explana- 
tion of  these  discoveries  and  inferences ;  and  shall 
bring  the  present  essay  to  a  close  by  remarking 
generally  that  the  progress  of  chemistry  has  beer, 
very  powerfully  aided  within  the  few  preceding 
years  by  the  important  discovery  of  the  metallic 
mode  of  exciting  the  electric  power,  and  the  re- 
lation of  this  power  in  its  various  modifications 
to  chemical  changes. 

169.  That  the  contact  of  different  metals  (we 
now  again  employ  the  words  of  Mr.  Brande), 
is  frequently  attended  by  their  electrical  excita- 
tion, seems  first  to  have  been  observed  by  Mr. 
Bennet  in  the  year  1789  ;  and  the  curious  experi- 
ments of  Galvani  upon  the  convulsions  excited  in 
the  limbs  of  animals,  by  the  application  of  cer- 
tain metals  to  their  muscular  and  nervous  fibres, 
led  Volta  to  investigate  the  cause  of  such  phe- 
nomena,  and  to  attempt  the   accumulation  of 
such  electricity,  which  he  attained  by  a  succes- 
sion of  copper  and  zinc  plates,  with  intervening 
pieces  of  moistened   pasteboard ;   the  zinc  ex- 
tremity of  this  pile  was  always  in  the  positive, 
and  the  copper  in  the  negative,  electrical  state  ; 
and  the  quantity  and  intensity  of  the  electricity 
v^ere  found  to  augment  with  the  number  of  alter- 
nations. 

170  This  instrument  has  been  productive  of 
two  series  of  discoveries  in  chemistry,  one  of 
which  has  arisen  out  of  its  power  in  producing 
heat,  and  the  other  from  its  peculiar  influence 
over  the  composition  of  bodies.  The  former  has 
taught  us  the  fusion  and  combustion  of  a  number 
of  substances ;  the  latter  has  developed  a  new 
cause  which  influences  chemical  effects,  depend- 
ing upon  the  communication  of  attractive  and 
repulsive  energies  to  the  elements  of  compound 
bodies. 

171.  Substances,  held  together  by  the  strongest 
known  affinities,  suffer  decomposition  when  sub- 
mitted to  the  action  of  this  all-powerful  agent, 
one  series  or  class  of  elements  being  always  at- 
tracted by  the  one  pole,  and  another  by  the  op- 
posite electrical  surface ;  and  it  has  been  inferred 
from  these  facts  that  one  power  is  productive  o. 
electrical  and  of  chemical  changes,  acting  in  the 
former  instance  upon  masses  of  matter,  in  the 
latter  upon  its  elementary  particles. 

We  have  thus  brought  to  a  conclusion  the 
first,  or  introductory  part,  of  our  present  trea- 
tise ;  it  has  already  been  intimated  that  the  reader 
will  find  his  account  in  going  over  the  whele,  al- 
though many  portions  of  it,  for  fully  understand- 
ing and  appreciating  them,  will  require  some 
knowledge  of  the  subject.  We  now  proceed  to 
the  second  division  of  the  Essay,  and  treat  of 
Chemical  Properties  and  Principles  generally. 


CHEMISTRY. 


373 


PART  II. 


OF  CHEMICAL  LAWS,  PROPERTIES,  AND  PRIN- 
CIPLES. 

172.  AFFINITY. — Under   the   word   ATTRAC- 
TION, in  this  work,  the  reader  will  find  a  distinc- 
tion pointed  out  between  the  modifications  of 
attractive  power  as  exerted  upon  masses,  or  upon 
the  particles  or  atoms  of  matter :  and  a  further 
distinction,  it  will  there  be  seen,  obtains  between 
cohesive  attraction  and  the  attraction  of  affinity  ; 
the  first  term  denoting  the  power  which  is  exer- 
cised upon  particles  of  a  similar  nature,  while 
affinity  applies  to  the  tendency  of  union  between 
particles  of  a  dissimilar  kind;  a  distinction  which 
is  illustrated  in  the  following  manner : — A  lump 
of  copper  may  be  considered  as  composed  of  an 
infinite  number  of  minute  particles,  or  integrant 
parts,  each  of  which  has  precisely  the  same  pro- 
perties as  those  that  belong  to  the  whole  mass. 
These  are  united  by  the  force  of  cohesion.     But 
if  the  copper  be  combined  with  another  metal 
(such  as  zinc),  we  obtain  a  compound  (brass),  the 
constituent  parts  of  which,  copper  and  zinc,  are 
combined  by  the  power  of  chemical  affinity. 

173.  But  in  chemical  treatises  it  is  necessary 
to  take  cognizance  of  cohesive  attraction,  which 
indeed,  in  one  sense,  may  be  considered  as  a  che- 
mical power,  since,  as  we  have  seen,  its  influence 
is  exerted  among  the  minute  particles  of  which  a 
simple  mass  is  formed ;  or  it  is  rather,  we  should 
say,  the  business  of  chemistry  to  investigate  the 
nature,  and  trace  the  operation  of  those  powers 
and  principles  by  which  cohesive  attraction  is 
interfered  with  and  modified. 

174.  Cohesion,  as  implied  by  the  term,  is  most 
strongly  exerted  in  solid?,  and  according  to  the 
degree  of  solidity  in  a  body,  is  the  exertion  of 
the  power;  in  liquids  it  acts  with  considerably 
less  energy,  and  in  the  gaseous  or  aeriform  mo- 
dification of  matter  its  power  seems  to  be  lost. 
Water,  when  existing  in  the  condition  of  ice,  has, 
of  course,  considerable  cohesion :    when  it  re- 
assumes  the  state  of  water  the  cohesion  is  dimi- 
nished, and  by  the   time   that  it  is  completely 
converted  into  vapor,  the  power  is  gone. 

175.  Mechanical  force,  solution,  and  heat,  are 
the  three  main  powers  by  which  this  cohesive 
property  of  bodies  is  broken  in  upon,  lessened, 
and  destroyed.     As  an  example  of  the  first  we 
may  adduce  the  common  process  of  pounding  a 
mass  in  a  mortar,  which  is  in  fact  a  mechanical 
and  forcible  separation  of  particles :  solution  ef- 
fects the  division  in  a  different  manner,  and  to  a 
greater  extent ;  while  heat  for  the  most  part  ope- 
rates  with   still    greater   energy,   but   is   much 
varied  in  its  influence  according  to  the  nature 
and  circumstances  of  the  body  upon  which  its 
agency  is  exerted. 

176.  The  two  last  powers,  solution  and  heat, 
are  Urictly  chemical  in  their  operations,  and,  of 
course,  fall  to  be  considered  in  the  present  trea- 
tise.   Of  heat,  however,  we  shall  defer  the  inves- 
tigation till  we  shall  have  considered  the  subject 
of  affinity.     We  are  now  then  to  treat  of 

177.  SOLUTION     and     CRYSTALLIZATION. — 
When  a  solid  disappears  in  a  liquid,  if  the  com- 
pound exhibit  perfect  transparency,  an  example 
of  solution  is  presented ;  for  the  expression  is 


applied  both  to  the  act  and  the  result.  Thus 
solution  takes  place  when  you  throw  a  small 
quantity  of  common  salt  into  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  water;  the  salt  disappears,  or,  in  other 
words,  is  dissolved.  Now  this  is  a  case  of  che- 
mical attraction  overcoming  the  cohesive  power; 
but  it  acts  within  certain  limits,  for  a  given 
quantity  of  water  has  only  the  power  of  di'-'solv- 
ing  a  certain  portion  of  salt ;  and  when  tiiis  is 
effected,  the  point  of  saturation  is  said  to  be  ar- 
rived at,  and  the  compound  of  the  salt  and 
water  is  named  a  saturated  solution ;  after  this, 
the  balance  may  be  said  to  turn  on  the  side  of 
cohesion,  the  chemical  affinity  between  the  solid 
and  fluid  being  able  to  manifest  itself  no  further. 

178.  In  this  illustration  we  have  supposed  the 
water  to  be  at  its  ordinary  temperature;  but  if 
you  heat  the  fluid,  in  some  cases,  you  will  there- 
by give  greater  scope  to  solution,  or  enable  some 
salts  to  unite  in  a  greater  quantity  with  the  water ; 
but  when  the  solution  thus  charged  with  a  super- 
abundance of  salt  is  suffered  to  cool  down  to  its 
ordinary  standard,  that  portion  of  the  salt  which 
had  united  with  the  water  in  consequence  of  the 
fluid's  increased  heat  will  be  deposited ;  and  in 
this  reproduction  of  solids,  a  most  interesting 
series  of  phenomena  often  develope  themselves. 

179.  By  the  process  of  cooling,  a  supersatu- 
rated solution  is  thus  made  to  deposit  solid  mat- 
ter ;  but  the  application  of  heat  will,  under  some 
circumstances,  effect  the  same  thing;  the  heat 
expelling  a  portion  of  the  fluid,  or,  as  it  is  termed, 
evaporating  it,  and  thus  giving  room  for  the  co- 
hesive  attraction   again  to  exert  itself.     If  this 
process  of  evaporation  be  conducted  slowly  and 
carefully,  the  saline  particles  will  gradually  ap- 
proach each  other,  and  the  cohesion  or  aggrega- 
tion will  be  effected  according  to  certain  laws, 
and  regularly  shaped  masses  called  crystals  will 
be  formed. 

180.  In  this  act  of  separation,  however,  the 
crystals  of  almost  all  salts  take  with  them  a  quan- 
tity of  water  which  is  necessary  to  their  exist- 
ence, and  which  is  called  their  water  of  crystal- 
lisation ;  this   is  present  in  some  crystals  in  a 
much  larger  proportion  than  in  others;  thus  the 
salt  called  sulphate  of  soda  contains  hi  its  cry- 
stallized form  more  than  half  its  weight  of  water, 
while  in  the  crystals  of  some  other  salts  a  very 
small  portion  of  flu.d  is  present ;  but  it  is  impor- 
tant to  observe  that  in  every  salt  it  exists,  not  in 
uncertain  and  indefinite,  but  in  definite  propor- 
tions ;  that  is,  that  the  same  kind  of  salt  always 
requires  for  its  crystallisation  the  same  quantity 
of  water. 

181.  There  is  another  law  also  in  reference  to 
the  water  of  crystallization  that  is  necessary  to 
recognise,  viz.  that  it  is  retained  in  different  salts 
with  very  different  degrees  of  force.     Mere  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere  is  sufficient  to  dissipate 
the  water  of  crystallization  from  some  kinds  of 
salts ;  while  others,  on  the  contrary,  instead  of 
imparting  water  to  the  air,  take  water  from.  it. 
The  first  species  are  called  efflorescent,  because 
they  become  dry  and  flowery  when  exposed  to 
the  air ;  the  second  are  termed  deliquescent  salts, 
from  their  readily  liquifying. 

182.  When   two   salts   are   contained  in  the 
same  solution,  varying  in  their  degree  of  solubi- 


S74 


CHEMISTRY. 


lity,  and  having  no  strong  attraction  for  each 
other  they  may  be  obtained  separately  ;  for,  by  a 
careful  evaporation  of  part  of  the  solvent,  that 
salt,  the  particles  of  which  have  the  greatest  co- 
hesive tendency,  will  crystallise  first.  If  both 
salts  are  more  soluble  in  heated  than  in  common 
water,  and  the  temperature  of  the  solvent  lias 
been  increased,  the  crystals  will  not  appear  till 
the  water  cools.  But  if  one  of  them,  like  com- 
mon salt,  is  equally  soluble  in  hot  and  in  cold 
water,  crystals  will  make  their  appearance  even 
during  the  act  of  evaporation.  In  this  way  nitre 
may  be  separated  from  common  salt;  nitre  being 
more  soluble  in  hot  than  in  cold  water,  its  cry- 
stals will  not  appear  till  after  the  solvent  has  been 
cooled,  while  the  crystals  of  the  common  salt  will 
form  during  the  evaporation  of  the  water ;  that 
is,  under  the  continued  application  of  heat. 

183.  Crystallisation  is  induced  or  accelerated 
by  introducing  into  the  solution  a  solid  substance 
as  a  nucleus,  such  as  a  piece  of  thread  or  wood  : 
but  it  is  still  more  so  by  immersing  in  the  solu- 
tion an  already  formed  crystal  of  the  same  kind 
with  that  we  expect  to  be  formed  ;  and  in  some 
instances  if  there  be  more  than  one  kind  of  salt 
in  solution  that  will  most  readily  separate,  even 
caeteris  paribus,  of  which  the  crystal  or  crystals 
have  been  introduced. 

184.  A  strong  solution  of  salt  will  sometimes 
refuse  to  crystallise,  if  kept  excluded  from  air, 
but  crystals  will  instantaneously  form,  upon  ad- 
mission of  air.     Agitation  too,  will  often  occasion 
the  immediate  and  copious  production  of  crystals 
in  a  solution  which  will  not  crystallise,  till  thus 
treated.     The  admission  of  light  also,  and  the 
agency  of  the  electric  power,  will  in  some  cases 
rapidly  excite  crystallisation. 

185.  The  nature  of  the  solvent  has  an  influence 
over  crystallisation.      Alcohol    and  water   will 
both  dissolve  some  salts,  but  the  affinity  of  the 
former  for  them  shall  be  so  weak  that  crystals 
are  much   more    readily    thrown    down    from 
alcoholic,  than  from  aqueous  solutions. 

186.  But  the  great  and  fundamental  law  of 
crystallisation  is  that  which  has  been  alluded 
to  in  par.  179,  viz,   that  every  solid  has  a  ten- 
dency to  assume  a  peculiar  shape.     Thus  com- 
mon salt,  when  most  perfectly  crystallised,  forms 
regular  cubes  ;    nitre  assumes  the  shape  of  a 
six-sided  prism,  and  alum  that  of  anoctahedron ; 
so  truly  is  this  the  case,  that  we  are  often  able 
to  determine  the  composition  of  a  substance  by 
observing  its  external   characters ;    but  not  so 
invariably,  for  there  are  certain  exceptions,  at 
least  seeming  exceptions  to  the  principle,  that 
identity  of  crystalline  form  is  necessarily  con- 
nected with  identity  of  chemical  composition ; 
and  it  has  been  known  that  the  same  solid  ad- 
mits of  great  variety  of  crystalline  figure,  with- 
out any  variation  of  its  chemical  composition. 
But  still  the  tendency  as  it  is  expressed  above, 
of  every  solid  to  assume  a  peculiar  shape,  must 
be  received  is  a  fundamental  law  in  crystallisa- 
tion ;  the  variet-ies  being  occasioned  by  accidental 
circumstances  which  interfere  with  cohesive  ten- 
dency, and  the  diversities  themselves  being  found 
reducible  to  a  small  number  of  simple  figures, 
which  for  eacn  individual  species  is  always  the 
si  me. 


THEORY  OF  CRYSTALLISATION.' 

187.  Bergman  first  suggested  that  all  crystal- 
lised forms  had  one  primitive  nucleus,  a   sug- 
gestion he  was  induced  to  make  in  consequence 
of  its  having  been  observed,  tLat  when  a  piece 
of  calcareous  spar  was  broken  with  care,  its 
particles  assumed  a  rhomboidal    figure.      This 
suggestion,  and  the  consequent  investigation  to 
which  it  led,  was  still  further  pursued  by  Rome" 
de  Lisle,  who  referred  all  the  variations  of  form 
in  different  crystallised    substances    to  certain 
truncations  of  an  invariable  primitive  nucleus. 
But  his  method  of  proceeding  was  hypothetical, 
inasmuch    as  he  supposed   a  given    primitive 
form  to  be  truncated  in  different  manners,  and 
thus  established  a  gradation  from  simple,  and 
primitive  to  complicated  figures. 

188.  The  Abbe  Haiiy  was  the  first  to  unfold 
in  an  experimental  and   mathematical  manner 
the  true  theory  of  crystalline  formation.     It  is 
known  to  those  who  are  in  the  practice  of  polish- 
ing gems,  that  crystals  only  present  plane  and 
smooth  surfaces  when  cut  or  broken  in  certain 
directions;  when  the  split  by  the  instrument  is 
effected    in    other    directions,   an    uneven  and 
irregular  surface  is   exposed.      Now  the  Abbe 
pursuing  this  sort  of  natural  division  in  crys- 
tallised bodies,  found  that  the  last  product  of 
the  artificial  division  of  a  six-sided  crystal   of 
calcareous  spar,  was  an  obtuse  rhomboid,  and 
likewise,   that  other  forms  of  calcareous  spar, 
however  different  at  first,  were  reducible  at  last 
to  the  rhomboidal  solid,  by  the  same  mode  of 
treatment ;  whereas  a  crystal  of  another  kind,  a 
cube  for  instance,  of  fluor  spar,  presented  in  its 
ultimate  division  the  octahedron  form. 

189.  Pursuing  still    further  this  method  of 
division,  Haiiy  obtained  six  primitive  forms,  viz. 
1.    The   Parallelopipedon,  which  includes    all 
the  six-sided  solids,  parallel  two  and  two.     2. 
The  tetrahedron.     3.  The  octahedron.     4.  The 
hexangular  prism.  5.  The  rhombic  dodecahedron 
with  equal  rhomboidal  planes.     6.   The  trian- 
gular dodecahedron  with  triangular  planes. 

190.  By  further  mechanical   divisions,  these 
primitive    forms    were    found    resolvable    into 
integral  elements  or  moleculae,  as  Haiiy  termed 
them,  which  are  three  in  number,  viz.  1.  The 
parallelopipedon    or   simplest    solid,   with   six 
faces  parallel  two  and  two.     2.  The  triangular 
or  simplest  prism,  with  five  surfaces.      3.  The 
tetrahedron  or  simplest  pyramid,  with  four  sur- 
faces ;  the  secondary  forms  being  supposed  de- 
pendent upon  decrements  of  particles,  taking 
place  on  different  edges  and  angles  of  the  pri- 
mitive ones. 

191.  But   in  this  theory  of  crystallisation, 
the  following  question  suggests  itself,  viz.  as  a 
whole  mass  of  fluor  spar  is  divisible  into  the 
tetrahedron    and   octahedron    forms,   which  of 
these  forms  is  to  be  regarded  as  primitive  ?    and 
further,  as  neither  of  these  can  fill  space  without 
leaving  vacuities,  how  is  it  possible  to  suppose 
any  arrangement  by  which   the  particles  will 
remain  at  rest,  so  as  to  form  the  base  of  a  per- 
manent crystal  ? 

192.  This  difficulty  Dr.  Wollaston  has  most 
ingeniously  obviated  by  considering  the  elemen- 
tary particles  as  spheres ;  and  Mr.  Daniell  has 


CHEMISTRY. 


375 


'ately  described  a  new  process  of  developing  the 
structure  of  crystals  which  while  it  is  superior 
to  that  of  mechanical  division  has  served  to  pro- 
duce some  remarkable  confirmations  of  Dr.  Wol- 
laston's  hypothesis. 

193.  If  a  shapeless  mass  of  alum  be  immersed 
in  water  and  left  leisurely  to  dissolve,  it  will  be 
found  at  the  end  of  three  weeks  to  have  been 
more  acted  upon  by  the  solvent,  at  the  upper 
than  at  the  lower  part ;  and  the  mass  will  have 
assumed  a  pyramidal  shape.  At  the  lower  end 
ot  the  mass  octahedrons  and  sections  of  the 
same  figure  will  appear  in  abundance  and  as 
if  carved  upon  its  surface.  Other  salts  yield  other 
figures,  the  figures  varying  with  the  different 
faces  of  the  original  mass.  '  In  this  way  alum 
alone  furnishes  octahedrons,  tetrahedrons,  cubes 
four  and  eight-sided  prisms  either  with  plain  or 
pyramidal  terminations,  and  rhombic  parallelo- 
pipedons.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  no  theory  of 
crystallisation  can  be  admitted  which  is  not  foun- 
ded upon  such  a  disposition  of  constituent  parti- 
cles as  may  furnish  all  these  modifications  by 
mere  abstraction  of  certain  individuals  from  the 
congeries,  without  altering  the  original  relative 
position  of  those  which  remain  ;  and  these  con- 
ditions may  be  fulfilled  by  such  an  arrangement 
of  spherical  particles,  as  would  arise  from  the 
combination  of  an  indefinite  number  of  balls  en- 
dued with  mutual  attraction,  and  no  other  geo- 
metrical solid  is  adequate  to  the  purpose ;  and 
where  bodies  afford  crystals  differing  from  the 
octahedral  series,  an  analogous  explanation  is 
furnished  by  supposing  their  constituent  particles 
to  consist  of  oblate  spheroids,  whose  axes  bear 
different  proportions  to  each  other  in  different 
substances.  Hence  we  may  also  conclude  that 
the  internal  structure  of  all  crystals  of  the  same 
body  is  alike,  however  the  external  shapes  differ. 
In  corroboration  of  the  above  hypothesis  we  may 
remark  that  the  hexaedron  is,  of  all  geometrical 
figures,  that  which  includes  the  greatest  capacity 
under  the  least  surface.  If,  therefore,  the  ultimate 
particles  of  crystalline  bodies  be  spheres  or  sphe- 
roids, the  greatest  possible  number  in  the  least 
space  will  be  included  in  this  form.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  the  exterior  shape  of  every  crystal  is 
determined  by  the  nucleus  first  formed  by  a 
certain  definite  number  of  particles,  which  by  the 
power  of  mutual  attraction  overcome  the  resis- 
tance of  the  medium  in  which  they  were  suspen- 
ded, or  from  which  they  were  separated.  This 
number  may  vary  with  the  solvent  or  other  con- 
tingent circumstances.  Four  spherical  particles 
thus  united,  would  balance  each  other  in  a  tetrahe- 
dral  group,  six  in  a  octahedral  group,  and  each 
would  present  particular  points  of  attraction,  to 
which  all  subsequent  deposits  would  be  directed. 
Now,  let  us  imagine  two  nuclei  formed  in  the 
same  solution,  whose  axes  run  in  contrary  direc- 
tions ;  their  increase  will  consequently  be  in 
contrary  directions,  and  each  will  attract  a  par- 
ticular system  of  particles  from  the  surrounding 
medium.  If  these  two  systems  should  cross  each 
other  in  their  course,  a  greater  number  will  be 
brought  within  the  sphere  of  mutual  re-action  at 
the  point  of  junction,  and  they  ought  to  arrange 
.hemselves  in  the  least  possible  compass.  The 
facts  here  answer  to  the  theory.  If  we  select  any 


crystals  having  others  crossing  them  nearly  a% 
right  angles,  and  separate  them,  the  points  of 
junction  invariably  present  an  hexaedral  arrange- 
ment.'— Brande. 

For  further  information  on  the  interesting  sub- 
ject of  crystallisation,  and  for  engraved  figures 
illustrative  of  the  facts  and  the  theory  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  article  CRYSTALOGRAPHY.  in 
the  body  of  the  work. 

ELECTIVE  AFFINITY. 

194.  Bodies  attract  each  other  unequally,  and 
if  several  be   brought  together  those  first  enter 
into  combination  which  have  the  strongest  mutual 
affinity — hence  the  propriety  and  the  application 
of  the  term  elective  as  applied  to  chemical  at- 
traction.     Let  A  represent  nitric  acid  and  B  C 
a  composition  of  lime  andjmagnesia,  B  being  the 
symbol  of  the  former,  and  C  of  the  latter ;  then 
we  should  say  say  that  A  will  unite  to  B  in  pre- 
ference to  C,  and   consequently  if  we  add   an 
aqueous  solution  of  B  to  a  solution  of  C  in  A,  C 
is  thrown  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and 
A  and  C  become  united ;  in  other  words  the  lime 
occupies  the  place  which  the  magnesia  had  first 
occupied  and  the  magnesia  is  precipitated. 

195.  The  above  is  a  case  of  what  is  termed  by 
the  chemists  single  elective  affinity,  and  tables 
of  attraction  have  been  formed  from  actual  ob- 
servation of  the  respective  tendencies  in  bodies 
thus  to  unite  and  reject.      One  acid  for  instance 
is  taken  and  placed  at  the  head  of  a  column, 
and  the  substances  with  which  it  manifests  a  ten- 
dency to  combine,  are  arranged  according  to  the 
degree  in  which  this  tendency  is  manifested,  the 
substance  which  the  acid   attracts  most  power- 
fully being  placed  nearest  to  it,   and  that  for 
which  it  shews  the  least  attraction  being  inserted 
at  the  bottom  of  the  list. 

196.  But  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that  dis- 
placement of  bodies,  in  consequence  of  affinities 
being  brought  into  play  is  often  double  and  com- 
plicated, new  compounds  being  produced  instead 
of  simple  and  single  precipitates ;  it  frequently 
happens  for  example  that  the  compound  of  two 
principles  refuses  to  be  separated  by  the  addition 
of  a  third  or  a  fourth  separately,  but  if  this  third 
and   fourth  be  united  and   made  to  come  into 
contact  with  the  first  compound,  then  a  separation 
or  a  decomposition  will  be  the  result.     Illustra- 
tions of  this  fact  and  principle  are  made  by  the 
following  diagrams  : 


Nitric  acid- 


Sulphuric  acid 


Barytes 


Soda 


Nitrate  of  barytes,  or  p.  composition  of  nitric 
acid  with  barytes  in  solution,  is  supposed  to  be 
mixed  with  sulphate  of  soda  or  a  combination  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  soda,  the  results  are  sulphate 
of  barytes  and  nitrate  of  soda  as  indicated  by  the 
diagonal  lines. 

197.  A  still  more  complete  view  of  the  re- 
sulting changes  is  presented  by  the  following 


376 


CHEMISTRY. 


diagram  ;  tne  origina.  compounds  being  placed 
on  the  outside  of  the  vertical  brackets,  and  the 
new  compounds  above  and  below  the  outsides 
of  the  horizontal  lines  of  the  diagram,  and  the 
component  parts  being  inserted  within  the 
diagram. 

Nitrate  of  Soda 


Nitric 
acid 


Soda 


Nitrate  of  _ 
Barytes 


_  Sulphate  of 
Soda. 


Sulphuric 
Barytes 

J  acid 

Sulphate  of  Barytes. 

198.  In  the  instance  of  double  decomposition 
it  has  been  supposed  that  two  series  of  affinities 
may  be  traced,  and  Mr.  Kirwan   proposed  the 
term  quiescent  to  express  the  one  and  divellent 
to  characterise  the  other,  the  former  tending  to 
preserve   the  original   compound,   or    resisting 
efforts  to  change  it,  the  latter  tending  to  disunite 
•t,  and  effect  new  combinations. 

199.  The  above  example  is  one  in  which   the 
quiescent  affinities  are  between  the  nitric  acid, 
ind   the  barytes,   and  the  divellent  between  the 
sulphuric  acid  and  barytes,  and  of  course,  the 
divellent  must  be  more  forcible  than  the  qui- 
escent affinities  in  order  to  effect  the  decom- 
position. 

200.  But  this   hypothesis  of  quiescent   and 
divellent  affinities,  or  rather  this  mode  of  ex- 
plaining the  phenomena  that  occur  in  conse- 
quence of  different  affinities  of  a  complex  kind, 
will  be  found  illegitimate  in  several  instances ; 
the  forces  of  attraction  being  very  materially  in- 
terfered with  by  several  extraneous  forces,  and 
circumstances,  which  now  demand  notice. 

201.  i.    Quantity  has  a  very  powerful  in- 
fluence upon  affinity,  thus  if  two  salts  be  mixed 
together  in   certain   proportions  decomposition 
will  ensue  ;  but  the  same  effect  will  not  be  pro- 
duced in  some   other  proportions.      Hence   a 
larger  quantity  may  make  up  for  a  weaker  affi- 
nity, and  vice  versa. 

202.  ii.    Cohesion   greatly     influences    the 
tendency  which  bodies  may  otherwise  possess  of 
union  and  separation.     Place  in  sulphuric  acid  a 
quantity  of  solid   fluate   of  lime,   and  you  will 
find  but  little  action  take  place  between  the  two 
materials ;  but  rub  the  stone  into  powder  before 
you  immerse  it  in  the  acid,  and  a  violent  action 
is  the  immediate  result. 

203.  iii.    Insolubility   interferes    with    the 
chemical  influence  of  affinity ;  this  indeed  may 
be  considered  as  having  been  partly  stated  under 
the  head  of  cohesion  ;  but  cohesion  and  solubi- 
lity are  not  in  all  senses  identical  forces.     It  is  to 
be  remarked,  moreover,   that   both   insolubility 
and  cohesion,  under  some  circumstances,  favor 
affinity.      When,  for  example,  to  the  compound 
of  sulphuric  acid  with  barytes  (sulphate  of  ba- 
iyta),  soda  is  added ;  decomposition  would  be 
immediately  effected  were  it  not  prevented  by 
the  insolubility  and  cohesion  of  the  compound. 

204.  iv.    Specific  gravity  must  necessarily 
act   in   aid   of   insolubility  in   interfering  with 
chemical  affinity  ;  and  so  must 


205.  v.  Elasticity.      Elastic  fluids,  indeed, 
it  has  already  been  remarked, have  their  particleg 
separated  so  widely,  that  although  the  bases  of 
them  may  possess  very  powerful  attractions  for 
the  bases  of  others,  the  mechanical  condition  in 
which  the  material  exists  by  preventing  approxi- 
mation prevents  union ;    and  combination  can 
often  only  then  be  procured  where  a  strong  me- 
chanical pressure  is  made  to  oppose  this  tenden- 
cy to  separate. 

206.  vi.  Temperature,  as   will    shortly  "be 
stated  more  at  large,  has  a  most  formidable  in- 
fluence upon  the  circumstances   of  affinity ;  an 
increase  of  temperature  at  one  time  assisting,  at 
another  impeding  chemical  combinations. 

207.  vii.  Chemical  union  is  influenced  in  a 
most  marked  and  important  manner  by  the  dif- 
ferent modifications  of  electricity.      We   have 
already  indeed  said  enough  to  prove  how  very 
effective  this  agency  proves  in  operating  chemi- 
cal change,  and  shall  have  occasion  hereafter  to 
revert  to  the  subject. 

208.  To  mechanical  pressure,  as  influencing 
combination,  we  have  just   alluded  under   the 
fifth  head ;  and  enough  has  now  been  advanced 
to  prove  that  statements  of  laws  and   principles, 
which  go  upon  the  supposition  of  affinity,  as  an 
abstract  power,  must  necessarily  be  erroneous, 
since  so  many  circumstances,  connected  with  the 
being  of  material  substance,  interfere  with  the 
regularity  of  its  operation. 

209.  While  investigating  the  laws  of  chemical 
affinity,  Berthollet  thought  that  he  had  discovered 
ground  to  infer  that  bodies  whose  affinities  are 
thus  interfered  with  by  extraneous  forces,  might 
otherwise  be  united    in  every  proportion.     He 
conceived  also  that  '  the  affinities  of  a  compound 
are  not  newly  acquired  ;  but  are  merely  the  mo- 
dified affinity  of  its   constituents,  the  action  of 
which,  in  their  separate  state,  is    counteracted 
by  the  prevalence  of  opposing  forces.     By  com- 
bination these  forces  are  so  far  overcome,  that  the 
affinities  of  the  constituent  are  enabled  to  exert 
themselves.'     See  96,  et  seq. 

210.  Elementary  affinities  is  a  term  applied 
by  Berthollet  to  the  individual  affinities  of  con- 
stituents ;  while  he  calls  the  action  of  different 
affinities   present  in  one   compound,    resulting 
affinities.      The  term  resulting   affinity   is  used 
also  to  express  the  force  with  which  a  simple 
body  acts  on  a  compound.      '  A  simple  body 
indeed  may  exert  towards  a  compound  both  an 
elementary  and  a  resulting  affinity.     If  the  ele- 
mentary affinity  prevails,  it  will  unite  only  with 
one  of  the  principles  of  the  compound,  as  when 
a  simple  body,  by  its  affinity  for  oxygen,  decom- 
poses nitric  acid,  and  liberates  its  nitrogen  in  a 
separate  form.     If  the  resulting  affinity  be  pre- 
dominant, the  simple  body  will  unite  with  the 
whole  compound,  without  effecting  any  disunion 
of  its  elements.     From  these  views  it  may  be  in- 
ferred that  we  are  not  in  any  case  to  deny  the 
existence   of    an   affinity   between  two   bodies, 
merely  because  they  do  not  combine  when  pre- 
sented to  each  other ;  for  an  affinity  may  be  sup- 
pressed by  the  prevalence  of  opposing  forces.' 

21 1 .  The  theory  of  Berthollet  (says  Dr.  Henry) 
which  promised,  on  its  first  developement,  to 
throw  new  light  on  many  subjects  of  chemical 


C  II  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y. 


37: 


philosophy,  has  lost  much  of  its  probability  by 
the  subsequent  progress  of  the  science.  It  is 
directly  indeed  at  variance  with  the  doctrine  of 
definite  proportions,  which  may  now  be  con- 
sidered as  firmly  established.  It  is  liable  more- 
over, to  the  following  objections. 

212.  i.  It    has    been    shown    by    professor 
Plaffof  Keil,  that  in  various  cases  where  two  acids 
are  brought  into  contact  with  one  base,  the  base 
unites  with  one  acid   to  the   entire  exclusion  of 
the  other.     When,  for  example  to  a  given  weight 
of  lime,  quantities  of  sulphuric  and  tartaric  acids 
are  put,  either  of  which  would  exactly  neutralise 
the  lime,  the  sulphuric  acid  unites  with  the  lime 
to   the   entire  exclusion   of  the   tartaric.      The 
same  evidence  of  a  superior  affinity  of  the  sul- 
phuric acid  over  that  of  the  oxalic,  is  obtained 
by  placing  those  acids  in   contact  with  as  much 
oxide  of  lead  as  would  exactly  saturate  either  of 
them.     Again,  comparing  the  action  of  two  bases 
on  one  acid,  the  same  law  is  found  to  hold  good, 
for  when  potassa  and  magnesia  are  mixed  with 
just  as  much   sulphuric  acid  as  is  required  to 
neutralise  either  of  them,  the  potassa  seizes  the 
whole  of  the  acid,  and  no  part  of  it  unites  with 
the  magnesia.     Nor  can  these  effects  be  explained 
by  any   of  those   extraneous  forces   which  Ber- 
thollet supposes,  in  all  cases,  to  regulate  chemical 
action,  or  by  any  principle  but  a  stronger  affinity 
of  sulphuric  acid,  than  of  tartaric  or  oxalic  acid 
for  the  different  bases,  and  of  potassa  than  mag- 
nesia for  the  same  acid.     See  97. 

213.  ii.  Some  of  the  cases  which  Berthollet 
adduces  to  shew  the  reciprocal   displacement  of 
two  bodies  by  each  other  from  a  third,  are  ex- 
amples, not  of  single  elective  affinity,  in  which 
three  bodies  only  are  concerned,  but  of  complex 
affinity  in  which  the  attractions  of  four  bodies  are 
brought  into  action. 

214.  iii.  In  other  cases,  the  consideration  of 
the  'affinities   of  two  A  and  B  for  a  third  C  is 
complicated  with    this    circumstance,   that   the 
neutral  compound  of  A  and  B  has  an  affinity  for 
a  further  portion  of  one  of  the  ingredients.     If 
then  C  be  brought  into  contact  with  the  com- 
pound A  B,  we  may  have   acting  at   the  same 
moment  the  affinity  of  C  for  A,  which  partly  de- 
composes the  compound  A  B ;  and  the  affinity 
of  the  undecom posed  part  of  A  B  for  that  portion 
of  B  which  is  set  at  liberty.     For  instance,  when 
nitric  acid  acts  on  sulphate  of  potassa,  some  ni- 
trate of  potassa  is  formed ;  and   the   sulphuric 
acid  which  is  set  at  liberty,  uniting  with  the  un- 
decomposed'sulphate  of  potassa,  composes  a  new 
salt,  consisting  of  sulphate  of  potassa  with  an  ex- 
cess of  sulphuric  acia. 

215.  iv.  It  is  a  strong  objection  to  the  the- 
ory of  Berthollet,  that  in  some  cases  decomposi- 
tion happens,  which,  according  to  hisviews,  ought 
not  to  take  place  ;  that  in  others  decomposition 
does  not  ensue,  which  the  theory  would  have  led 
us  to  anticipate. 

216.  v.  The  theory  is    objectionable,    inas- 
much as  in  several  instances  properties  are  sup- 
posed to  operate  before  the  bodies  exist,  to  which 
those  properties  are  attributed.     It  is  inconceiv- 
able, for  instance,  that  the  cohesion  or  insolubi- 
lity of  sulphate  of  baryta  can  have  any  share  in 
producing  the  decomposition  of  sulphate  of  po- 


tassa by  that  earth,  for  the  insolubility  of  sulphate 
of  baryta  can  have  no  agency  till  that  compound 
is  formed,  which  is  the  very  effect  to  be  ex- 
plained. 

217.  We  have  thus  preferred  making  use  of 
Dr.  Henry's  language  in  objecting  to  some  of  the 
doctrines   of  Berthollet,  because  the  objections 
are  stated  in  a  perspicuous  and  concise  manner. 
It  must   be   understood,  as  indeed  Dr.  Henry 
himself  admits,  that  the  extraneous  forces  above 
adverted  to,  do  in  reality  much  modify  attractive 
influences ;    but  '  they  are    entitled  only   to  be 
considered  as  secondary  causes,  and  not  as  deter- 
mining combinations  or  decompositions,  nor  as 
regulating  the  proportions  in  which  bodies  unite  ; 
independently  of  the  superior  force  of  chemical 
affinity.' 

218.  It  has   been  above  intimated,  that  the 
theory  of  definite  proportions,  which  in  itself, 
unincumbered  by  some   of  the  explanations  or 
elucidations  of  it,  is  now  generally  admitted  as  a 
system  of  facts,  goes  counter  to  the  views  which 
Berthollet  took  of  chemical  affinity.     Under  the 
word  ATTRACTION  the  reader  will  find  an  account 
of  this  theory,  we  may  here  take  occasion  to  re- 
peat its  main  and  leading  principle  to  be,  that 
when  bodies  unite,  so  as  to  form  one  compound 
only,  that  compound  always  contains  the  same 
relative  proportions  of  its  components ;  and,  when 
two  bodies  unite  in  more  than  one  proportion,  the 
second,  third,  &c.,  proportions  are  multiples  or 
divisors  of  the  first,  a  principle  the  development 
and  substantiation  of  which  have  served  to  give  a 
new  complexion  to  the  whole  body  of  chemical 
science.    See  ATTRACTION,  and  sec.  27  et  seq.  of 
the  present  essay.     The  doctrine  of  Chemical 
Equivalents  also  explains  these  phenomena. 

HEAT,  CALORIC. 

219.  Philosophers  have  frequently  to  deplore, 
both  the  natural  poverty  and  artificial  laxity  of 
language ;  the  terminology  of  causation  is  often 
applied  to  the   mere  expression   of  effect,  the 
idea  of  process  is  blinded  with  product,  and  com- 
mon perception  is  taken  as  an  estimate  of  powers 
whose  real  value  and  extent  can  only  be  apprecia- 
ted by  other  tests  than  those  of  fallacious  feeling. 

220.  That  the  sensation  of  heat  which  a  body 
imparts,  to  a  person  feeling  it,  is  not  the  true 
measure   of  the   quantity    of  power  producing 
this  sensation,  is  exceedingly  obvious  to  modern 
science,  and,  moreover,  as  it  seemed  inconsistent 
with  that  precision  of  language  which   philoso- 
phy seeks  after,  to  confound  the  cause  of  the 
sensation  with  the  sensation  itself,  the  word  calo- 
ric was  substituted  for  heat,  when  the  power  fell 
to  be  considered  by  the  chemist;  an  objection, 
however,  may  be  fairly  taken,  even  to  this  term, 
partly  on  the  principle  that  makes  the  use  of  the 
word  heat  itself  objectionable,  and  partly  inas- 
much as  a  substantive  notion  is  conveyed  by  its 
employment,  when,  in  point  of  fact,  the  materia- 
lity of  the  power  has  not  hitherto  been  demon- 
strated. 

221.  Heat,  or  Caloric,  so  far  as  its  chemical 
agencies  are  in  question,  may  be  considered  as  a 
principle  and  power  opposed  to  cohesive  attrac- 
tion, for  its  tendency  is  to  separate  the  particles 
of  bodies,  to  a  greater  than  their  natural  distance 
and  the   varied  susceptibility  of  bodies,  thus  to 


378 


CHEMISTRY. 


be  acted  on  by  heat,  determines,  in  the  general 
way,  the  varied  form  in  which  they  exist  as 
more  or  less  solid,  or  fluid,  or  aeriform.  (See 
240.) 

222.  But  heat  and  temperature,  as  we  have 
just  intimated,  are  not  to  be  confounded.     By 
the  latter  term  we  are  to  understand  the  condition 
of  a  body,  relatively  to  its  power  of  producing 
the  sensation  of   heat,  and  generally  of  occa- 
sioning expansion ;  by  the  former,  the  chemist 
expresses  the   absolute  quantity  of  the   power 
present  in  the  body,  whether  it  be  imparted  to 
the  sensations  or  not.  The  caloric  of  temperature 
or  expansion  is  usually  named  free  or  uncom- 
bined  caloric,  the  heat  of  bodies  not  thus  de- 
monstrated was  formerly  termed  latent,  and  now, 
usually,  combined  heat.  , 

223.  The  relative   quantities   of  heat   which 
different  masses  of  matter  in  the  same  condition 
demand,  to  raise  them  to  the  same  temperature, 
is  named  their  specific  heat ;  and  those  bodies 
which  require  most  heat  for  such  elevation  are 
said  to  have  the  greatest  capacity  for  heat. 

224.  Now  the  capacities  of  bodies  for  heat 
considerably  influence,  of   course,  the   rate   at 
which  they  are  heated  and  cooled ;  those  bodies 
having  the  greatest  capacity  which  are  the  most 
slowly  heated  and  cooled. 

225.  From   this   law    it    follows   that  when 
different  masses  of  matter  are  exposed  to  the 
same   source   of   heat,  they  permit   it  to  pass 
through  them,  or  into  and  out  of  them,  with 
very  different  degrees  of  rapidity ;  or   in  other 
words,  they  have   various   conducting  powers. 
Among  solid  bodies  metals   are  the  best  con- 
ductors ;    silver,  and  gold,  and   copper,   being 
better  conductors  than  platinum,  iron,  and  lead. 
Next  to  the  metals  the  diamond  and  topaz   may 
probably  be  placed;  then  glass;  then  flinty  and 
hard   stony  bodies   in   general ;   then   soft  and 
earthy  bodies  of  a  porous  constitution ;   then 
wood,   and,   lastly,  down,   feathers,  wool,   and 
other  porous  articles  of  clothing. 

226.  '  The  different  conducting  powers  of  bo- 
dies, in  respect  to  heat,  are  shown  in  the  appli- 
cation of  wooden  handles  to  metallic  vessels ;  or 
a  stratum  of  ivory  or  wood  is  interposed  between 
the  hot  vessel  and  the   metal    handle.      The 
transfer  of  heat  is  thus  prevented.     Heat  is  con- 
fined  by  bad  conductors ;    hence   clothing  for 
cold   climates  consists    of   woollen    materials ; 
hence,  too,  the  walls  of  furnaces  are  composed 
of  clay  and  sand.     Confined  air  is  a  very  bad 
conductor  of  heat ;  hence  the  advantage  of  double 
doors  to  furnaces,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  heat; 
and  a  double  wall,  with  an  interposed  stratum  of 
air  to  an  icehouse,  which  prevents  the  influx  of 
:ieat  from  without. 

227.  '  From  the  different  conducting  powers 
of  bodies,  in  respect  to  heat,  arise  the  sensations 
of  heat  and  cold,  experienced  upon  their  appli- 
cation to  our  organs,  though  their  thermometric 
temperature  is  similar.     Good  conductors  occa- 
sion, when  touched,  a  greater  sensation  of   heat 
and  cold  than  bad  ones.    .Metal  feels  cold,  be- 
cause it  readily  carries  off  the  heat  of  the  body ; 
and  we  cannot  touch  a  piece  of  metal  immersed 
in  air  of  a  temperature  moderate  to  our  sense.' 
Brande.  ' 


228.  But  heat  is  not  only  different  in   the 
quantity  and  readiness  with  which  it  is  given  off 
from  bodies,  but  also  in  respect  to  its  mode  of 
impartation  to  surrounding  media ;  it  is  not  only 
sent  out  from  bodies,  and  diffused  over  matter 
by  general  communication,  but  it   is  likewise 
projected  in  right  lines  with  great  velocity,  and 
in  the  same  manner,  so  far  as  motion  is  con- 
cerned,  as  is   light.     So  great,    indeed,  is  the 
velocity  with  which  calorific  rays  are  transmitted, 
that  Pictet  found  no  perceptible  interval  between 
the  time  at  which  caloric  quitted  a  heated  body, 
and  impinged  upon  a  thermometer  at  the  distance 
of  sixty-nine  feet. 

229.  The  first  is  called  the  heat  of  communi- 
cation, by  which  a  tendency  to  equilibrium,  and 
equality  of  temperature   is    brought   into  act; 
the    second   is   named    distinctly,   heat   of    ra- 
diation. 

230.  The  heat  of  communication,  then,  as  we 
have  just  intimated,  and  as  its  appellative,  indeed, 
implies,  diffuses  itself  freely  through  all  matter, 
and  mingles  with   the  air  through  which  it  is 
conveyed,  while  the  heat  of  radiation,  or  radiant, 
or  radiating  heat,  moves  through  air  without  ap- 
pearing  to    communicate   to   the  medium  any 
increase  of  temperature,  and  without  being  de- 
pendent on  any  agency  of  the  medium  through 
which   it  passes :  it  even  traverses  a  vacuum ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  will   pass   through 
dense  and  opaque  bodies,  though  by  the  inter- 
vention of  these  bodies  its  velocity  is  very  greatly 
impaired. 

231.  The  heat  we  feel  in  approaching  a  fire 
is   chiefly  occasioned   by  radiation,  while    the 
general  heat  of  the  room  is  the  heat  of  commu- 
nication.    It  must,  however,   be   noticed,  that 
radiation   does  not  depend  upon  the  medium 
through  which  it  passes,  or   rather   upon   any 
agency  of  that  medium,  but  appears  to  be  the 
same  through  all  the  different  varieties  of  aeri- 
form bodies,  yet  that  the  gases  differ  materially 
from   each   other   in   their   conducting    power. 
'  Caloric,  also,  radiates  from  bodies  at  all  tem- 
peratures, but  the  quantity  radiated  bears  some 
proportion  to  the  excess  of  the  temperature  ot 
the  hot  body  above  that  of  the  surrounding  me- 
dium.'   Hence,  if  we  have  any  number  of  bodies 
at  different  temperatures,  in  the  vicinity  of  .each 
other,  they  may  all,  agreeably  to  the  ingenious 
theory  of  M.  Prevost,  be  considered  both  as  ra- 
diating and  receiving  caloric  ;  but  the  hot  ones 
will  radiatq  more  than  they  receive,  while  the 
cold  ones  will  receive  more  than  they  radiate. 

232.  The  process  of  radiation  appears  to  be 
constantly  going  on  from  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  it  is  partly  on  this  principle  that  we  are  to 
explain  why  the  heat  which  our  planet  is  inces- 
santly receiving  from  the  sun  does  not  accumulate 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  it  a  less  fit  Imi- 
tation   for   man.     The   period   when   radiation 
from  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  most  discoverable 
by  its  effects,  seems  to  be  during  the  night,  es- 
pecially when  the  sky  is  perfectly  unclouded ; 
for  a  covering  of  clouds  serves  as  a  mantle  to 
the  earth,  and  prevents  the  free  escape  of  radiart 
heat.      Under  favorable   circumstances,  it   has 
been  shown  by  Dr.  Wells,  that  the  temperature 
of  the  ground,  especially  when  its  covering  is 


CHEMISTRY. 


379 


formed  of  some  substance  that  radiates  freely,  is 
several  degrees  below  that  of  the  atmospheric 
stratum  a  few  feet  above  it.  It  is  this  diminished 
temperature  of  the  earth's  surface  that  occasions 
the  deposition  of  dew  and  hoar  frost,  which  are 
always  observed  to  be  most  abundantly  formed, 
under  a  clear  unclouded  sky/  Henry.  See 
METEOROLOGY. 

233.  The  cause  of  radiation,  or  rather  the 
principle  upon  which  it  is  effected,  has  been  the 
subject  of  investigation  and  controversy.  Some 
have  accounted  for  it  upon  the  assumption  of 
heated  bodies  occasioning  undulations  in  the  air, 
something  in  the  same  manner  as  the  waving  ex- 
cited by  bodies  when  they  emit  sound ;  but  it  is 
said  that  the  different  phenomena  of  prismatic 
refraction,  and  of  solar  and  terrestrial  radiation, 
are  not  satisfactorily  explained  by  such  an  'hy- 
pothesis. 

234.  It  has  been  suggested  further,  that  if  we 
consider  sensible  heat  in  bodies  to  depend  upon 
vibrations  ff  their  particles,  a  certain  intensity 
of  vibrations  may  send  off   particles  into  free 
space,   and    particles  moving   rapidly  in  right 
lines  may,  in  losing  their  own  motions,  commu- 
nicate a  vibratory  motion  to  the  particles  of  ter- 
restrial  bodies.     (Davy's  Elements,  quoted  by 
Brande.)     We  must,  however,  know  more  than 
we  at  present  do,  of  the  absolute  essence  of  heat, 
or  whether  it  is  matter  or  mere  power  before 
speculations   on    its    modus    operand!   can   be 
received    as   entitled  to   the    character  of   le 
gitimacy. 

235.  The  heating  effect  of  solar  rays,  it  has 
long  been  known,  depend  much  upon  the  color 
of  the  surfaces  upon  which  they  infringe,  and 
black  and   dark   bodies  are  more  heated   than 
those  which  are  white  or  of  light  tints,  circum- 
stances dependent  upon  absorption  and  reflection. 
Hence  the  superiority  of  dark  colored  dresses  in 
the  winter  season,  and  the  preference  properly 
given  to  light  colored  clothes  during  the  heats  of 
summer. 

236.  Professor  Leslie  has  shewn  that  the  phe- 
nomena  of  terrestrial  radiation   are  connected 
with  the  nature  of  the  radiating  surface,  and  that 
those  surfaces  which  are  the  best  radiators  of  this 
heat  are  also  gifted  with  the  greatest  absorbing 
power.     Leslie  on  Heat. 

237.  Unmetallic  and  unpolished  surfaces  are 
the  best  radiators  and  also  the  best  receivers  of 
radiant  heat ;  while  polished  metallic  substances 
are  the  worst  radiators,  and  have  the  least  absor- 
bing powers.     In  experiments  with  metallic  mir- 
rors, the  whole  nearly  of  the  heat  is  reflected,  and- 
the  mirror  itself  does  not  become  warm ;  but  if 
it.  be  coated  with  any  unpolished,  and  especially 
unmetallic  coating,  as  with  paper,  or  paint,  the 
reflection  is  then  scarcely  perceptible,  and  the 
mirror  becomes  hot  from  the  absorption  of  the 
radiant  matter.     Brande. 

238.  The  laws  of  radiant  heat  and  of  light  are 
in  some  sort  so  similar  that  it  has  been  imagined 
they  both  depend  upon  slight  modifications  of 
the  same  substance  or  power ;  on  this  head  we 
cannot  do  better  than  extract  the  following  sen- 
tences  from   an   author   whose   reasonings  are 
generally  acute,  and  whose  language  is  always 
perspicuous, — Dr.  Murray. 


239.  The  calorific  rays  (says  this  author)  which 
exist  in  the  solar  beams  though  incapable  of  pro- 
ducing illumination  have  all  the  physical  proper- 
ties of  the  rays  of  light,  observe  the  same  laws  of 
reflection  and  refraction,  and  are  only  inferior 
to  a  certain  extent  in  their  power  of  penetrating 
transparent  bodies ;  hence  the  opinion  may  be 
advanced  as  not  improbable,  that  they  are  of  the 
same  nature  as  light,  only  with  less  projectile 
force,  or  existing  under  some  modification  which 
renders  them  incapable  of  affecting  the  organ  of 
vision.     From  these  solar  calorific  rays,  there  is 
a  kind  of  transition  to  the  rays  projected  from 
heated  bodies,  displayed  in  the  fact  that  the  lat- 
ter differ  in  their  projectile  power  according  to 
the  temperature  at  which  they  are  thrown  off, 
those  discharged  atahigh  heat  penetrating  trans- 
parent media  with  more  facility  than  those  which 
emanate  at  a  lower  temperature.     We  thus  in 
some  measure  trace  the  gradation  .into  quiescent 
caloric  ;  while  the  facts,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the 
discharge  by  radiation  from  bodies  reduces  their 
temperature ;  and  on  the  other,  that  the  whole 
excess  of  heat  in  a  body  may  be  extracted  from 
it  without  any  radiation,  by  direct  communication 
to  another ;  equally  prove,  that  the  principle  dis- 
charged by  radiation  and  by  slow  communication 
is  precisely  the  same :  yet  caloric  in  the  state  in 
which  it  remains   in  bodies  producing  temper- 
ature, and  its  effects,  expansion,  fluidity,  &c.  is 
,so  different  in  all  its  laws  from  light,  and  there 
is  so  much  obscurity  with  regard  to  any  con- 
ceivable operation  by  which   it  should  assume 
these   different   modifications,    that   the   whole 
subject  must  be  regarded  as  very   imperfectly 
understood.  Dr.  Hutton  advanced  an  hypothesis, 
that  radiant  heat  is  light  in  a  state  incapable  of 
exciting  illumination,  founded  on  the  inference 
that  as  the  heating  power  of  the  different  species 
of  visible  light  is  not  proportional  to  their  power 
of  exciting  vision,  there  may  be  a  species  of  light 
capable  of  exciting  temperature  without  being 
luminous  ;  see  LIGHT.    This,  however,  is  vague  ; 
it  does  not  account  for  the  relation  of  radiant 
caloric  to  quiescent  caloric ;  nor  for  the  fact  that  ra- 
diant caloric  has  none  of  the  chemical  properties 
of  light,  and  it  is  even  doubtful  if  light  apart  from 
caloric  has  any  heating  power.  Were  the  materi- 
ality of  caloric  established,  the  hypothesis  might 
not  be  an  improbable  one,  that  the  calorific  rays 
are  composed  of  light  and  caloric ;    that  this 
combination  may  take  place  in  different  propor- 
tions,so  as  to  give  rise  to  different  degrees  ofenergy 
predominant  in  the  one  or  the  other,  and  may 
extend  even  to  the  different  rays  of  visible  light, 
which  differ  in  the  degree  in  which  they  excite 
heat.     But  all  such  speculations  it  must,  be  ac- 
knowledged, are  deficient  in  precision  and  rest  on 
no  satisfactory  evidence. 

240.  We  are  now  to  return  to  the  consideration 
of  caloric  as  a  communicating  and  diffusive 
power.  All  bodies  in  nature  are  regarded  as 
subject  to  two  opposing  forces,  viz.  the  attraction 
of  their  own  particles,  and  the  repulsive  influence 
of  heat  (see  221),  and  the  degree  of  expan- 
sion in  bodies,  in  the  genera  way,  bears  a  propor- 
tion to  their  temperature.  It  is  upon  this  princi- 
ple of  the  expansibility  of  matter  by  heat,  that 
the  thermometer  has  been  constructed — an  instru- 


380 


CHEMISTRY. 


ment  of  large  utility  both  to  enable  us  to  acquire 
and  to  state  the  laws  and  properties  of  heat 
From  what  has  been  observed  however  (220) 
it  will  follow  that  it  is  not  the  absolute  quantity 
of  heat  that  the  thermometer  indicates,  but  that 
it  merely  ascertains  the  quantum  of  one  of  the 
principal  effects  of  heat.  Some  one  body  is  taken 
and  the  degree  of  expansion  produced  by  heat 
in  that  body  observed,  and  it  is  then  made  the 
standard  measure  to  which  every  thing  is  referred. 
The  standard,  as  is  generally  known,  is  most 
commonly  quicksilver,  a  quantity  of  which  is 
contained  in  a  small  globe  of  glass,  from  which 
descends  along narrowtube  (see  THERMOMETER), 
and  the  quicksilver  rises  or  falls  according  to  the 
increment  of  temperature. 

241.  Expansion   then    or   the   dilatation    of 
bodies  may  be  considered  as  an  almost  universal 
consequence  of  an  increase  of  temperature.    But 
expansion  and  temperature  are  not  in  all  bodies 
proportionate.   Liquids  expand  more  than  solids, 
aeriform  bodies  more  than  liquids. 

242.  Nor   is  the  same  degree  of   expansion 
produced  even  in  the  same  solid  or  fluid  body, 
at  all  temperatures,  by  the  same  increment  of 
heat,  in  the  general  way  the  expansion  is  greater 
when  the  temperature  is  high  than  when  it  is 
low.     The  explanation  of  this  fact  is  that  the 
force  opposing  expansion,  viz.  cohesion,  is  dimi- 
nished by  the  interposition  of  caloric  between 
the  particles  of  bodies,  and  therefore,  when  equal 
quantities  of  caloric  are  added  in  succession,  the 
last  portions  meet  with  less  resistance  to  their 
expansive  force  than  the  first.     In  gases  which 
are  destitute  of  cohesion,  equal  increments  of 
heat  appear  on  the  contrary  to  be  attended  with 
precisely  equal  augmentations  of  bulk. 

243.  The  tendency  of  heat  to  produce  an  equili- 
brium has  already  been  intimated.     All  bodies 
in  a  given  space  soon  arrive  at  an  equality  of 
temperature.     This  is  effected  through  the  medi- 
um of  the  air.     '  When  a  heated  ball  or  iron  is 
exposed  to  the  open  air,   the  caloric  which  is 
accumulated  in  it  flows  out,  and  its  temperature 
is  gradually  reduced  to  that  of  the  surrounding 
medium.     This  is  owing  to  two  distinct  causes ; 
the  air,  immediately  surrounding  the  ball,  ac- 
quires part  of  the  caloric  which  escapes,  and 
having  its  bulk  increased,  is  rendered  specifically 
lighter  and  ascends.     This  is  succeeded  by  a 
cooler  and  heavier  portion  of  air  from  above, 
which  in  its  turn  is  expanded  and  carries  off  a 
second  quantity  of  caloric.    Hence  a  considerable 
part  of  the  caloric  which  is  lost  by  a  heated  body 
is  conveyed  away  by  the  ambient  air ;  a  property 
of  which  advantage  is  taken  in  the  warming  and 
ventilating  of  apartments.     But  the  refrigeration 
cannot  be  wholly  explained  on  this  principle; 
for  it  has  long  been  known  that  heated  bodies 
cool,  though  with  less  celerity,  under  the  exhausted 
receiver  of  an  air  pump,  and  even  in  a  Torricel- 
lian vacuum.' 

244.  We  have  hitherto  considered  the  proper- 
ties of  caloric  as  the  power  itself  is  free  or  not 
permanently  combined ;  it  will   be  recollected 
however  that  we  intimated'  its  susceptibility  of 
combination  with  other  bodies,  in  such  sort  as 
to  lose  its  general  characteristics  of  a  free  power 
(see  222),  and  we  now  have  to  notice  the  very 


important  doctrine  of  latent,  or  combined,  or 
specific  heat  to  which  the  reader  will  find  specif 
reference  made  in  the  article  AIR. 

245.  Bodies  in  passing  to  a  rarer  from  a  den- 
ser state,  not  only  receive  large  increments  of 
caloric,  but  they  generally  absorb  heat ;  that  is 
they  are  made  to  receive  and  contain  more  heat, 
than  is  evident  to  the  senses,  or  even  to  the  ther- 
mometer.    And  on  the  other  hand  an  increase  in 
the  density  of  a  body,  is  for  the  most  part  at- 
tended by  the  circumstance  of  setting  free    a 
part  of  the  caloric  of  such  body,  which  was  be- 
fore in  a  manner  locked  up  in  it,  or  not  being 
evidenced  by  temperature,  is  called  latent  heat. 
If  you  hammer  a  piece  of  metal,  you  make  it 
hotter,  that  is,  you  increase  its  density  and  by  so 
doing,  let  out  some  of  its  latent  heat.      In  the 
same  manner,  you  let  out  heat  from  a  liquid  by 
converting  it  into  a  solid,  and  from  a  gas  by 
bringing  it  down  into  the  liquid  form.     Steam 
and  boiling  water,  may  be  at  precisely  the  same 
temperature,  though  in  a  pound  of  the  latter,  a 
much  smaller  quantity  of  caloric  is  contained, 
than  in  a  pound  of  the  former ;  therefore  in  redu- 
cing steam  to  the  state  of  water,  at  a  given  tem- 
perature, you  of  course  set  free  a  much  great- 
er quantity  of  caloric,  than  by  cooling  down  the 
same  weight  of  water  to  the  same  measure  of 
temperature. 

246.  Does  this  latent  heat  of  bodies,  or  that 
part  of  their  caloric,  that  is  not  evidenced  by 
temperature,  combine  chemically  with  the  mass  ? 
'  Does  ice,  for  example,  when  changed  into  water, 
form  a  chemical  union  with  caloric,  similar  to 
that  which  exists  between  potassa  and  sulphuric 
acid  ? '  Modern  chemistry  inclines  to  the  negative 
of  this  view,  since  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  ex- 
trication   of   caloric   from   a  body,   that    more 
energetic  affinities  be  brought  into  play,  as  in  the 
case  of  dislodgment  of  substances,  or  principles 
from  compounds ;  it  may  be  urged  moreover,  that 
it  is  not  very  easy  to  conceive  that  sort  of  union, 
which  implies  tangible  and  demonstrable  matter, 
in  a  principle  the  materiality  of  which,  -as  before 
stated,  has  not  yet  been    brought  to  absolute 
proof. 

247.  In  further  considering  caloric  as  the  cause 
of  liquidity   and   vapor,   it   will   be   seen  how 
influential  the  fact  of  latent,  or  specific,  or  com- 
bined heat  proves,  over  several  of  the  most  im- 
portant processes,  which  are  incessantly  going  on 
in  the  vast  laboratory  of  nature. 

248.  We  shall  take  occasion  to  extract  a  few 
of  the  propositions,  which  we  meet  with  in  Dr. 
Henry's  volumes  on  the  subject  of  temperature, 
and  heat  connected  with  liquefaction.      '1.  The 
temperature  of  melting  snow,  or  thawing  ice,  is 
uniformly  the  same  at  all  times  and  in  all  places. 
2.  The  sensible  heat,  or  temperature  of  ice,  o{ 
32°  Fahrenheit  is  not  changed  by  liquefaction.' 
A  thermometer  in  pounded  ice  stands  at  32°, 
and  at  the  very  same  point  in  the  water,  which 
results   from   the  liquefaction   of  ice.     '3.  Yet 
ice,  during  liquefaction  must  absorb  much  caloric. 
Let  it   be    recollected   further,   that   'the   heat 
which  is  thus  rendered  latent,  by  the  fusion,  or 
liquefaction  of  various  bodies,  is  not  a  constant 
quantity,  but  varies  for  each  individual  body,' 
and  that  the  absorption  cf  caloric  is  often  exten- 


CHEMISTRY, 


381 


eively  effected  b)  admixture  of  another  body  with 
snow,  while  the  snow  is  in  the  process  of  liquefac- 
tion. These  effects  of  cold,  producing  mixtures 
are  so  interesting  and  important,  that  we  shall  ex- 
tract the  examples  given  of  them,  in  the  work  to 
which  allusion  has  just  been  made;  adding  some 
to  them,  from  the  same  work,  illustrative  of  the 
evolution  or  production  of  heat. 

249.  i.  Dilute  a  portion  of  nitric   acid   with 
an  equal  weight  of  water ;  and  when  the  mixture 
has  cooled,  add  to   it  a  quantity  of  light   fresh 
fallen  snow.     On  immersing  the  thermometer  in 
the  mixture,   a   very  considerable  reduction  of 
temperature  will  be  observed.      This  is  owing  to 
the  absorption  and  intimate  fixation,  of  the  free 
caloric  of  the  mixture,  by  the  liquefying  snow. 

250.  ii.  Mix  quickly  together  equal  weights 
of  fresh  fallen  snow,  at  32°  and  of  common  salt 
cooled  by  exposure   to  a  freezing  atmosphere 
down  to  32°.     The  two  solid  bodies  on  admix- 
ture, will  rapidly  liquefy ;  and  the  thermometer 
will   sink  32  ,  or  to  0 ;  or  according  to  Sir  C. 
Blagden,  (Philosophical  Transactions  Ixxviii.  281) 
to  4°  lower.      To  understand  this  experiment,  it 
must  be  recollected  that  the  snow  and  salt,  though 
at  the  freezing  temperature  of  water,  have  each  a 
considerable  portion  of  uncombined  caloric.  Now 
salt  has  a  strong  affinity  for  water,  but  the  union 
cannot    take     place    while    the    water     conti- 
nues solid.      In   order  therefore,   to  act  on  the 
salt,  the  snow  absorbs  all  the  free  caloric  required 
for  its  liquefaction ;  and  during  this  change  the 
free  caloric  both  of  the   snow  and  of  the  salt, 
amounting  to  32°  becomes  latent,  and  is  conceal- 
ed in  the  solution.     This  solution  remains  in  a 
liquid  state  at  0,  or  4°  below  0  of  Fahrenheit ; 
but  if  a  greater  degree  of  cold  be  applied  to  it, 
the  salt  separates  in  a  concrete  form. 

251.  iii.  Most  neutral  salts  also  during  solu- 
tion in  water,  absorb  much  caloric,  and  the  cold 
thus  generated  is  so  intense  as  to  freeze  water, 
and,  even  to  congeal  mercury.      The  former  ex- 
periment, however,  viz.  the  congelation  of  water 
may  easily  be  repeated  on  a  summer's  day.     Add 
to  thirty-two  drachms  of  water,  eleven  drachms 
of  muriate  of  ammonia,  ten  of  nitrate  of  potassa, 
and  sixteen  of  sulphate  of  soda,  all  finely  pow^ 
dered.     The  salts  may  be  dissolved  separately  in 
the  order  sec  down.     A  thermometer  put  into  the 
solution,  will  show  that  the  cold  produced  is  at 
or  below  freezing ;  and  a  little  water  in  a  thin 
glass  tube,  being  immersed  in  the  solution  will  be 
frozen  in  a  few  minutes.     Various  other  freezing 
mixtures  are  described  in  Mr.  Walker's  papers  in 
the  Philosophical  Transactions,  fcr  1787,  88,  89, 
95,  and  1801. 

252.  iv.  Crystallized  muriate  of  lime    when 
mixed  with  snow,  produces  a  most  intense  degree 
of  cold.      This  property  was  discovered  some 
years  ago,  by  Mr.  Lovitz,  of  St.  Petersburgh,  and 
has  since  been  applied,  in  this  country,  to  the 
congelation   of   mercury   on   a   very   extensive 
scale.     The  proportions  which  answer  best  are 
about  equal  weights  of  the  salt  finely  powdered, 
and  of  fresh  fallen  and  light  snow.      On  mixing 
these  together,  and  immersing  a  thermometer  in 
the  mixture,  the  mercury  sinks  with  great  rapi- 
dity .     For  measuring  exactly  the  cold  produced,  a 
spirit  thermometer,  graduated  to  50°  below  0  of 


Fahrenheit  or  still  lower  should  be  employed. 
A  few  pounds  are  sufficient  1o  congeal  a  large 
mass  of  mercury.  By  means  of  thirteen  pounds 
of  the  muriate  and  an  equal  weight  of  snow. 
Messrs.  Pepys  and  Allen,  froze  fifty-six  pounds  of 
quicksilver  into  a  solid  mass.  The  mixture  of 
the  whole  quantity  of  salt  and  snow,  however, 
was  not  made  at  once,  but  part  was  expended 
in  cooling  the  materials  themselves. 

253.  On  a  small  scale  it  may  be  sufficient  to 
employ  two  or  three  pounds  of  the  salt.     Let  a 
few  ounces  of  murcury  in  a  very  thin  glass  retort 
be  immersed,  first  in  a  mixture  of  one  pound  of 
each  and  when  this  has  ceased  to  act,  let  another 
similar  mixture  be  prepared.     The  second  will 
never  fail  to  congeal  the  quicksilver.     The  salt 
thus  expended  may   be  again  evaporated   and 
crystallised  for  future  experiments. 

We  now  proceed  to  the  illustration  of  the 
contrary  principle,  viz.  that  of  evolving  heat,  and 
we  shall  continue  as  above  proposed,  to  extract 
from  the  same  author. 

254.  i.  Water,  if  covered  with  a  thin  stratum 
of  oil,   and  kept  perfectly  free  from  agitation, 
may  be  cooled  down  more  than  20°  below  32°; 
but  in  shaking  it,  or  dropping  into  it  a  small  frag- 
ment of  ice,  it  immediately  congeals,  and  the 
temperature  rises  to  32°. 

255.  ii.  Expose  to  the  atmosphere  when  at 
a  temperature  below  freezing,  (for  example,  at 
25°  Fahrenheit,)  two  equal  quantities  of  water, 
in  one  only  of  which  about  a  fourth  of  its  weight 
of  common  salt  has  been  dissolved.     The  saline 
solution  will  be  gradually  cooled  without  freez- 
ing   to   4°.     The  pure    water    will  then    pro- 
gressively descend  to  32°,  and  will  there  remain 
stationary  a  considerable  time  before  it  congeals ; 
yet  while  thus  stationary,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the   pure  water  is  yielding  caloric  to  the 
atmosphere,  equally  with  the  saline  solution,  for 
it  is  impossible  that  a  warmer  body  can  be  sur- 
rounded  by  a   cooler   one    without   imparting 
caloric  to  the  latter.     The  reason  of  this  equable 
temperature  is  well  explained  by  Dr.  Crawford, 
on   Heat,  p.  80.     Water,  he  observes,  during 
freezing,  is  acted  upon  by  two  different  powers ; 
it  is  deprived  of  caloric  by  exposure  to  a  medium 
whose  temperature  is  below  32°,  and  it  is  sup- 
plied with  caloric  by  the  evolution  of  that  prin- 
ciple   from    itself,   viz.  of   that  portion   which 
constituted  its   fluidity.      As  these  powers  are 
exactly   equal,   the  temperature    of   the   water 
must  remain  unchanged  till  the  caloric  of  fluidity 
is  all  evolved. 

256.  iii.  The  evolution  of  caloric  during  the 
congelation  of  water,  is  well  illustrated   by  the 
following  experiment  of  Dr.  Crawford : — Into 
a  round  tin  vessel  put  a  pound  of  powdered  ice, 
surround  this   by  a  mixture  of  snow  and   salt 
in  a  larger  vessel,  and  stir  the  ice  in  the  inner 
one  till  its  temperature  is  reduced  to  +  4°  of 
Fahrenheit.     To  the  ice  thus  cooled,  add  a  pound 
of  water    at  32°.      One-fifth  of   this    will    be 
frozen  ;  and  the  temperature  of  the  ice  will  rise 
from   4   to  32C.      In  this  instance    the   caloric 
evolved   by  the   congelation    of   one-fifth  of  a 
pound  of  water,  raises  the  temperature  of  a  pound 
of  ice  28°. 

257.  iv.  If  we  dissolve  sulphate  of   soda  in 


382 


CHEMISTRY. 


water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  to  five,  and 
surround  tht  solution  by  a  freezing  mixtu  «,  it 
cools  gradually  down  to  31°.  The  salt  at  this 
point  begins  to  be  deposited,  and  stops  the 
cooling  entirely.  This  evolution  of  caloric 
during  the  separation  of  a  salt,  is  exactly  the  re- 
verse of  what  happens  during  its  solution. 
Blagden,  Philosophical  Transactions,  Ixxviii.  290. 

258.  v.  To  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of 
potassa  in  water,  or  of  any  salt  that  is  insoluble 
in  alcohol,  add  an  equal  measure  of  alcohol. 
The  alcohol  attracting  the  water  more  strongly 
than  the  salt,  retains  it,  precipitates  the  salt,  and 
considerable  heat  is  produced.     Henry. 

259.  It  can  also  be  understood  how  import- 
ant these  laws  and  circumstances,  with  respect  to 
the  latency  and  evolution  of  heat,  according  as 
bodies  pass  from  one  form  to  another,  are  in  the 
operations  of  nature.    All  persons  are  aware  that 
a  fall  of  snow  after  a  continuance  of  cold,  pro- 
duces an  atmospheric  warmth,  a  fact  which  is 
occasioned  by  the  evolution  of  heat  consequent 
upon  the  formation  of  the  snow ;  and  the  same 
principle  of  change  and  interchange  of  the  evo- 
lution and  absorption  of  heat  will  be  found  upon 
investigation  to  regulate  or  accompany  the  mu- 
tations that  are  incessantly  going  on  both  around 
and  upon,  and  even  within  the  earth.     See  ME- 
TEOROLOGY. 

260.  It  will  easily  be  understood,  from  what 
has  been  advanced  above,  that  caloric,  whatever 
may  be  its  nature,  is  a  power  diffused  through 
every  modification  of  matter — in   fact  through 
the  whole  material  universe ;  that  it  is  the  cause 
of  that  condition  of  bodies  called  temperature ; 
that  it  has  a  tendency  to  diffuse  itself  freely  so  as 
to  produce  a  common  temperature ;  but  that  dif- 
ferent bodies,  and  even  different  forms  of  the 
same     bodies,    require   very   different    quanti- 
ties of  heat  in  order  to  manifest  the  same  tempe- 
rature. 

We  now  proceed  to  a  further  illustration  of 
these  principles  by  considering  caloric  as  the 
cause  of  vaporization. 

261.  Throw  as  much  heat  as  you  please  into 
water  after  it  has  once  boiled,  but  you  will  not 
thereby  make  it  one  degree  hotter,  provided  the 
experiment  be  made  under  the  common  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere;  but  if  you  subject  the  water 
to  a  pressure  more  powerful  than  that  under 
which  it  naturally  exists,  you  may  then  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  fluid  above  the  boiling  point, 
and  the  heating  of  it  may  indeed  be  carried  to  an 
almost  unlimited  extent,  provided  as  the  tempe- 
perature  becomes   augmented   you  contrive  an 
equivalent  pressure.      Now  what  is  the  cause  of 
these  effects  ?     Why  is  it  that  we  are  not  able  to 
raise  water,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  beyond 
212°  by  any  increment  of  heat  ?    Because  at  this 
point  of  temperature  the  fluid  in  question  assumes 
a  new  form :  it  becomes  steam ;  this  steam  being 
at    the  same  temperature  with  the  water,  but 
having  a  much  larger  capacity  of  heat  than  was 
possessed  by  the  water,  it  becomes  latent  in  it, 
or  it  becomes  the  heat  of  combination  instead  of 
the  heat  of  temperature.     ' 

262.  Now  different  fluids,  change  into  the  va- 
porous or  gaseous  state  at  very  different  degrees 
of  temperature,  some  indeed  only  requiring  the 


common  atmospheric  heat  to  cause  their  vapor- 
ous existence,  and  these  bodies  therefore  natu- 
rally exist  in  the  aeriform  state.  But  in  all  cases 
if  we  diminish  atmospheric  pressure  we  add  to 
the  facility  of  assuming  this  condition.  Even 
water  itself  will  boil,  or  in  other  words  become 
steam,  at  a  lower  temperature  when  the  barom- 
eter is  at  28  inches,  than  when  it  is  at  31.  At 
the  top  of  Mont  Blanc,  where  the  atmospheric 
pressure  is  comparatively  small,  Saussure  found 
that  it  boiled  at  187°,  so  that  the  heights  of 
mountains,  and  even  of  buildings  may  be  cal- 
culated by  reference  to  the  temperature  at  which 
water  boils  upon  their  summits.  The  following 
pleasing  and  simple  experiment  is  given  by  che- 
mists. 

263.  Insert  a  stopcock  securely  into  the  neck 
of  a  Florence  flask,  containing  a  little  water ;  and 
heat  it  over  a  lamp  till  the  water  boils,  and  the 
steam  freely  escapes  by  the  open  stopcock ;  then 
suddenly  remove  the  lamp  and  close  the  cock. 
The  water  will  soon  cease  to  boil ;  but  if  plunged 
into  a  vessel  of  cold  water,  the  boiling  imme- 
diately recommences,  ceasing  again  if  the  flask 
be  held  near  the  fire. 

264.  The   explanation   of   this    phenomenon 
will   immediately   suggest  itself  to  the  reader. 
The  confined  steam  over  the  surface  of  the  water 
presses   upon   it   and   prevents   ebullition;    by 
cooling  this  steam  it  is   reduced  to  water,  the 
pressure  is  thus  taken  off  and  boiling  recommen- 
ces, from  the  heat  being  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
cause  ebullition  without  pressure. 

265.  We  have  spoken  of  steam  and  vapor  as 
identical   existences;   but  it  may  be   said   the 
former  is  visible,  while  the  latter  is  not ;  it  is 
only,  however,  when  there  is  a  degree  of  con- 
densation in  steam  that  it  becomes  at  all  visible ; 
and  this  condensation  is  a  reapproach  to  the  fluid 
state.    In  like  manner,  we  find  dense  fogs  often 
produced  when  the  weather  becomes  suddenly 
cold  after  having  been  very  warm ;  the  matter 
which  is  now  fog,  and  therefore  visible,  having 
been  vapor  and  invisible  at  the   former  high 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere. 

266.  From  what  has  been  advanced,  the  infe- 
rence will  readily  be  made,  that  caloric  commu- 
nicates its  repulsive  power,  as  it  is  expressed,  to 
matter ;  and  that  while  this  repulsive  power  tends 
to  change  the  constitution  of  matter,  it  is  chiefly 
counteracted  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere ; 
for  were  this  removed  many  bodies  which  at  pre- 
sent exist  as  liquids,  would  become  gaseous;  so 
that  a  similar  effect  will  be  produced  in  relation 
to   the   formative   condition   of  matter   by  two 
causes,  either  by  diminishing  atmospherical  pres- 
sure, or  adding  caloric.     It  has  even  been  proved 
that  water,  by  great  pressure,  may  be  heated  to 
above  400°  of  Fahrenheit  without  boiling,  while 
in  vacuo  it  will  assume  the  form  of  steam  at  a 
very  low  temperature.     Then  again  under  the 
common  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  pure  zether 
will  boil  or  become  gaseous  at  96°,  while  water  re- 
quires 212°.     So   that  as  heat  is  the  occasion 
of  the  resistance  given  to  external  pressure,  so 
is  the  variety  of  existence,  in  matter  dependent 
upon  the  susceptibility  of  its  being  thus  influen- 
ced by  heat.     Those  bodies  that  are  named  per- 
manently elastic  fluids  or  gases,  are  parts  of  the 


CHEMISTRY. 


383 


constitution  of  the  material  universe,  which,  re- 
quire more  than  natural  pressure  on  the  one 
hand,  or  more  than  natural  attraction  of  heat  on 
the  other,  to  convert  them  even  into  a  fluid  state. 

267.  It  must  be  recollected,  however,   that 
both  liquid  bodies,  and  even  solid  ones  that  are 
in  a  certain  degree  porous,  are  capable  of  absorb- 
ing gases,  but  even  during  this  absorption  the 
temperature  of  the  absorbing  substance  is  raised 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  and  rapidity  with 
•which  the  gas  becomes  condensed  or  absorbed  : 
the  great  law  always  obtaining,  that  sensible 
heat  is  increased  in  proportion  as  latent  heat  is 
diminished,  and  that  latent  heat  is  increased  as 
sensible  heat  is  lessened. 

LIGHT. 

268.  When  treating  of  the  radiation  of  heat, 
we  observed  that  several  laws  regulating  it  seem 
to  be  similar  to  those  by  which  light  is  propa- 
gated ;  light  and  caloric  have  indeed  been  con- 
sidered  as  modifications   of   the   same    radiant 
matter,   one  at  any  rate  being  a  common  source 
or  accompaniment  of  the  other,  for  bodies  that  are 
highlv  heated  become  at  the  same  time  luminous. 

269.  The  chemist,  however,  finds  reason  to 
regard  light  and  heat  as  possessed   of  different 
properties ;  caloric,  as  we  have  seen,  pervades 
matter,  and  penetrates  it,  producing  expansion, 
fluidity,  and  gaseous  condition,  and  giving  rise 
to  the  sensation  of  heat  even  when  no  illumina- 
tion is  excited.    Light  produces  chemical  changes 
in  bodies  which  are  by  no  means,  to  say  the 
least,   in  the  ratio  of  the  degree  of   heat  pro- 
duced.    Indeed,  opposite  effects  of  a  chemical 
nature  are  in  some  cases  produced  by  light  and 
heat ;  as  in  the  instance  of  nitric  acid,  which  is 
changed  into  nitrous  acid  by  exposure  to  light, 
while  this  last  nitrous  acid  is  converted  into 
nitric  by  a  proper  application  and  due  measure 
of  heat. 

270.  It  would  be  out  of  place  here  to  treat 
of  light  in   any  other  way   than  as  a  chemical 
agent,  but  it  is  necessary  to  state,  that  its  in- 
fluence as  a  chemical  power  is  most  important 
and  extensive.     As,  however,  its  action  is  for 
the  most  part   displayed   in  detaching  oxygen 
from  its  combinations,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
treat  of  this  last  principle  before  any  discussion 
of  the  qualities  of  the  agent  now  under  notice, 
in  reference  to  this  particular,  can  be  intelligible. 
We  have  already  remarked,  that  light  proves  in- 
fluential often  in  promoting  crystallisation. 

271.  Light,  in   the  state  in  which  it  reaches 
the  eye,  is  not  a  simple  body,  but  is  divisible 
mto  seven  primary  rays,  red,   orange,  yellow, 
green,  blue,  indigo,  and  violet ;  this  division  is 
effected  by  the  prism  upon  a  ray  of  white  light, 
and,  when  they  are  collected  by  a  lens  into  a 
focus,  the  ray  of   white  or  uncolored  light  is 
again  produced.     Now  these  rays,  as  separated 
by  the  prism,   possess  chemical    properties  of 
various  powers,  or  rather  of  different  degrees  of 
power ;  and  it  has  therefore  been  thought,  that 
the  solar  beams  consist  of  three  distinct  kinds  of 
rays,  viz.   rays   of  illumination,    calorific,   and 
oxidising  rays,  and  rays  that  are  dis-oxidising  or 
hydrogenating. 

272.  Light,  though  not  penetrating  and  dif- 


fusive among  the  particles  of  matter  in  the  same 
manner  with  heat,  is  yet  capable  in  some 
instances  of  entering  into  a  sort  of  combination 
with  bodies,  and  in  different  degrees.  In  some 
cases  it  is  absorbed  by  the  body,  and  again 
evolved,  unchanged,  and  without  exciting  any 
alteration  of  temperature,  and  without  being 
attended  by  any  circumstances  analagous  to 
combustion.  Phosphorence,  as  it  is  termed,  is 
an  instance  of  this  kind  of  absorption  and  evo- 
lution. The  sea,  when  agitated  in  a  dark  night, 
often  shows  this  phosphorence  in  a  beautiful 
manner;  the  light  from  the  glow-worm  seems 
to  have  been  received  and  to  be  emitted  upon  a 
similar  principle.  The  extrication  of  light, 
however,  from  what  are  termed  solar  phosphori 
is  materially  influenced  by  temperature.  Attri- 
tion also  evolves  light  from  phosphorescent 
bodies.  Light  too,  as  we  have  intimated,  is 
disengaged  in  various  chemical  circumstances, 
where  nothing  like  combustion  obtains.  '  Thus 
fresh  prepared  pure  magnesia  added  suddenly 
to  highly  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  exhibits  a 
red  heat.' 

273.  For  measuring  the  relative  intensities  of 
light  from  various  sources,  an  instrument  has  been 
contrived  called  the  photometer.     It  is  construc- 
ted on  the  principle  that  the  power  of  a  burning 
body  to  illuminate  any  defined  space  is  directly 
as  the  intensity  of  the  light,  and  inversely  as  the 
square  of  the  distance.     If  two  unequal  lights 
shine  on  the  same  surface  at  equal  obliquities, 
and  an  opaque  body  be  interposed  between  each 
of  them  and  the   illuminated   surface,  the  two 
shadows  must  differ  in  intensity  or  blackness ; 
for  the  shadow  formed  by  intercepting  the  greater 
light  will  be  illuminated  by  the  lesser  light  only ; 
and  reversely,  the  other  shadow  will  be  illumi- 
nated by  the  greater  light ;  that  is,  the  stronger 
light  will  be  attended  by   the  deeper  shadow. 
But  it  is  easy,  by  removing  the  stronger  light  to 
a  greater  distance,  to  render  the  shadow  which 
it  produces  not  deeper  than  that  of  the  smaller, 
or  of  precisely  the  same  intensity.    Tin's  equali- 
sation being  effected,  the  quantity  of  light  emitted 
by  each  lamp  or  candle,  will  be  as  the  square  of  the 
distance  of  the  burning  body  from  the  white  surface. 

274.  The  photometer  of  Mr.  Leslie  is  founded 
on  a  different  principle,  viz.  that  light,  in  pro- 
portion to  its  absorption,  produces  heat.     The 
degree  of  heat  produced,  and  consequently  of 
light  absorbed,  is  measured  by  the  expansion  of 
a  confined  portion  of  air.     A  minute  description 
of  the  ingenious  instrument  contrived  by  Mr. 
Leslie  with  this  view,  may  be  seen  in  his  work 
on  Heat,  or  in  the  third  volume  of  Nicholson's 
4to.  Journal. 

275.  In  its  construction  it  bears  a  considerable 
resemblance  to  the  differential  thermometer  (see 
THERMOMETER)  ;  and  Mr.  Brande  has  ascertained 
that  by  substituting  sether,  as  in  Dr.  Howard's 
modification  of  the  differential  thermometer,  the 
sensibility  of  the  photometer  is  gieatly  increased, 
and  that  it  becomes  most  delicately  susceptible 
of  the  impression  of  light.  An  instrument  of  this 
sort  he  found  fully  adequate  to  determine  the 
comparative    illuminating    powers   of   different 
gases  which  cannot  be  done  when  the  photometer 
is  filled  with  air      Henry.    See  also  OPTICS. 


3S4 


CHEMISTRY. 


ELECTRICITY  AS  A  CHEMICAL  AGENT. 

276.  As  a  chemical  agent  we  say,  for  it  is  only 
in  this  point  of  view  that   the  power  demands 
consideration  in  the  present  treatise ;  it  is  however 
necessary   to   describe    generally   the   mode   in 
which  electricity  is  manifested  or  elicited,  first 
in  respect  to  those  circumstances  to  which  the 
adjective  electrical  would  more  strictly  apply ; 
and  secondly    to    what    is    called  galvanic   or 
voltaic  electricity. 

277.  If  a  glass  rod  be  rubbed  with  a  piece  of 
dry  silk,  light  will  soon  start  out  from  its  surface  ; 
and  if  we  then  present  to  it  some  light  bodies, 
as  pieces  of  straw,  these  will  be  first  attracted  and 
then  repelled.     The   same  condition  of  surface 
will  be  produced  by  rubbing  a  piece  of  sealing- 
wax  with  dry  and  warm  flannel.     In  these  cases 
the  glass  rod  or  the  stick  of  sealing-wax  are  said 
to  be  electrically  excited,  and,  when  in  a  dark 
room,  a  luminous  appearance  always  manifests 
itself  in  the  bodies  thus  heated.      All  bodies, 
however,  are  not  susceptible  of  being  brought 
into  this  condition.     Hence  the  distinction,  in 
relation  to  electricity,  of  bodies  into  two  classes, 
namely,    electrics,   and  non-electrics ;  the   first 
affording  electricity  from  friction,  the  non-elec- 
trics being  unsusceptible  of  this  excitation. 

278.  Bodies  too,  in  relation  to  electricity,  are 
divided  into  conductors  and  non-conductors,  the 
latter  being  in  fact  electrics,  and  therefore  inca- 
pable of  conducting  or  carrying  off  the  excited 
power,  while  a  body  which  has  the  power  of 
thus  conducting  electricity,  is  necessarily  not  in 
an  electric  state,  and  therefore  is  a  non-electric 
or  conductor.     Glass,  resinous  substances,  sul- 
phur, oils,  and  aeriform  fluids  are  the  principal 
non-conductors  of  electrics,  while  the  non-elec- 
trics or  conductors  are  metals,  earthy  and  saline 
substances,  and  water. 

279.  Bodies  are  considered  further  in  their 
electrical  states  as  positive  or  negative.      When 
for  example  glass  is  rubbed  with  silk,  a  portion 
of  electricity  parts  from  the  silk  and  enters  the 
glass ;  the  glass  in  this  way  becomes  positive, 
and  the  silk  negative.     Now  it  is  conceived,  that 
as  in  the  instance  of  heat  so  with  regard  to  elec- 
tricity, all  bodies  contain  it,  but  that  the  pheno- 
menon of  its  excitation  or  manifestation  depends 
upon  its  equilibrium  being  disturbed  ;  the  bodies 
either  acquiring  more  or  less  than  their  natural 
or  orderly  proportion. 

280.  Electricity  is  intimately  connected  both 
with  heat  and  light ;  its  production  of  heat  seems 
dependent  greatly  on  the  resistance  which  a  body 
may  oppose   to  its  transmission;   yet  the  heat 
which  it  excites  may  be  considered  as  in  some 
sort  peculiar,  since  the  fusibility  of  metals  from 
the  electric  action  is  not  in  a  degree  proportionate 
to  the  heat  applied. 

281.  That  light  is  connected  with  electric  exci- 
tation  is  shown  by  the  luminous  spark  which 
attends  the  transmission  of  the  power  from  one 
conductor  to  another,  and  it  has  already  been 
stated,  and  we  shall  immediately  more  particu- 
larly show,  how  influential  it  proves  over  chemical 
combination,  and  chemical  surface  altogether; 
indeed,    as   stated    in   the    first    part    of    the 
piesent_  treatise   (see  169),  the  agent  in  ques- 
tion, especially  as  excited  into  operation  by  the 


means  immediately  to  be  mentioned,  has  been 
brought  into  most  comprehensive  and  successful 
requisition,  for  the  purpose  of  unfolding  some  of 
the  leading  facts,  the  development  of  which 
has  proved  of  most  momentous  bearing  upon 
chemical  science  and  art  generally. 

VOLTAIC,  OR  GALVANIC  ELECTRICITY. 

282.  Galvani  was  the  first  who  accidentally 
observed,  that  contractions  were  excited  in  the 
limbs  of  frogs,  by  applying  a  conductor  of  elec- 
tricity to  the  nerves  and  muscles  of  the  animal. 
He  inferred  from  this  observation,  that  the  two 
parts  are  in  different  states,  of  electricity;  the 
one  positive  and  the  other  negative,  and  that  the 
application  of  the  conductor  occasions  the  dis- 
charge   producing    the    muscular    contraction. 
But  Volta  took  a  different  view  of  the  subject, 
he  proved  indeed  that  Galvani's  hypothesis  was 
unstable,   by   exciting    contractions    in    conse- 
quence  of    establishing   a   connexion   between 
different  parts  of  a  muscle  or  of  a  nerve ;  and 
that  to  produce  the  effect,  two  different  metals 
are  necessary ;  he  showed  also  that  in  a  similar 
way  sensations  can  be  excited ;  that  when  one 
metal,  for  example,  is  applied  to  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  tongue,  and  another  to  the  upper 
surface,  on  bringing  thair  edges  into  contact,  or 
connecting  them  by  a  conductor,  a  peculiar  taste 
is  felt. 

283.  For   some    time,  says  Dr.  Murray,  the 
prosecution  of  these  experiments,  and  the  discus- 
sion of   the  questions  they  involved,   engaged 
the  -attention  of  philosophers  ;  at  length  the  ca- 
pital   discovery,    by    Volta,    of    a    mode     of 
augmenting  greatly  the  Galvanic   energy,   de- 
monstrated the  falsity  of   the  hypothesis,  that 
its  production  is  a  process  of  vitality,  introduced 
into  science  a  new  principle,  and  conferred  on 
chemistry   an   instrument   of  nearly   unlimited 
power.     And  this  discovery,   it  deserves  to  be 
remarked,  was  not  the  result  of  accident,  and 
scarcely  in  any  degree  of  the  progress  of  the 
department    of  knowledge  with  which  it  was 
connected ;    it  was  the   fruit   of   preconceived 
theory,  or  rather  hypothesis,  and,  but  for  the  ap- 
plication of  that  theory,  might   for  ever  have 
remained  unknown.     In  this  respect  the  pile  of 
Volta  stands  unrivalled  in  the  history  of  phi- 
losophy. 

284.  Under  the  word  ELECTRICITY,  in  this 
Encyclopaedia,  will  be  found  a  more  particular 
history  and  account  of  Galvanism,  as  it  is  most 
commonly  termed  ;  but  the  importance  of  the 
subject,  in  its  bearing  upon  chemical  science, 
makes  it  expedient  that  even   in  this  place  we 
give  a  succinct  statement  of  its  leading  prin- 
ciples. 

285.  Dr.  Henry,  in  his  Elements  of  Experi- 
mental Chemistry,   treats  of   Galvanism  under 
the  following  several  items  : — 

i.  The  construction  of  Galvanic  apparatus, 
and  the  circumstances  essential  to  the  excitement 
of  this  modification  of  electricity. 

ii.  The  facts  which  establish  its  identity  with 
the  electricity  excited  by  ordinary  processes. 

iii.  The  agency  of  the  electric  or  Galvanic 
fluid  (power  ?),  in  producing  chemical  changes. 

iv,  The  theory  by  which  these  changes  in  the 


CHEMISTRY. 


385 


present  state  of  our  knowledge  are  best  ex- 
plained. 

v.  The  hypotheses,  which  have  been  framed  to 
account  for  the  origin  of  the  electricity,  excited 
by  galvanic  arrangements.  And, 

vi.  A  general  view  of  the  phenomena  of 
electrico-magnetic  motion,  which,  with  the  prin- 
ciples deducible  from  them,  promise  to  throw 
light  on  some  of  the  most  interesting,  but  ob- 
scure operations  of  nature. 

It  will  be  for  us  to  abridge  the  account  of  Dr. 
Henry. 

286.  It  has  been  stated  above,  that  electricity 
is  excited  by  friction  ;  but  in  Voltaic  electricity 
friction  is  not  necessary.     All  that  is  required 
is   the  simple    contact  of  different  conducting 
bodies  with  each  other ;  and  it  has  even  been 
found  by  Dessaignes  that  two  discs  of  the  same 
metal,  heated   to   different   temperatures,    give 
sufficient  electricity  to  excite  contractions  in  the 
legs  of  a  frog  prepared  for  the  purpose.     Con- 
ductors of   electricity  have  been   divided   into 
perfect  and  imperfect,  the  former  comprehending 
the  metals  plumbago  and  charcoal,  the  mineral 
acids,  and  saline  solutions  ;  the  latter,  or  imper- 
fect, including  water,  alcohol  and  ether,  sul- 
phur, oils,  resins,  metallic  oxides  and  compounds 
of  chlorine. 

287.  The  least  complicated  galvanic  arrange- 
ment, is  termed  a  simple  galvanic  circle.     It 
consists  of  three  conductors,  two  of  which  must 
be  of  the  one  class,  and   one  of  the  other  class. 
In  the  following  tables,  constructed  by  Sir  II. 
Davy,  some  different  simple  circles  are  arranged 
in  the  order  of  their  powers,  the  most  energetic 
occupying  the  highest  place  ;  or,  what  is  of  more 
importance,  being  most  readily  oxydated. 

288.  Table  of  some  electrical  arrangements  which 
by  combination  form  Voltaic  batteries,  composed 
of  two  conductors,  and  one  imperfect  conductor. 


Zinc, 

Each  of  these 

SOLUTIONS    OF 

Iron, 
Tin, 
Lead, 
Copper, 
Silver, 

is  the  positive 
pole  to  all  the 
metals  below 
it,  and  negative 
with  respect  to 

Nitric  acid, 
Muriatic  acid, 
Sulphuric  acid, 
Sal-ammoniac, 

Gold, 
Platinum, 

the  metals  a- 
bove  it  in  the 

Other  neutral  salts. 

Charcoal. 

column. 

289.  Table  of  some  electrical  arrangements, 
consisting  of  one  perfect  conductor,  and  two 
imperfect  conductors. 


SOLUTION  OF 

Copper, 

Nitric  acid, 

Sulphuret  of 
potassa, 
Potassa, 
Soda. 

Silver, 
Lead, 
Tin, 
Zinc, 
Other  metals, 

Sulphuric  acid, 
Muriatic  acid, 
Any  solutions 
containing  acid. 

Charcoal. 

290.  In   explanation   of  these  tables,  Sir  H. 
Davy,  observes,  that  in  all  cases,  when  the  fluid 
menstrua   afford   oxygen,   those   metals  which 
VOL.  VT 


have  the  strongest  attraction  for  oxygen,  are 
those  which  form  the  positive  pole.  But  when 
the  fluid  menstrua  afford  sulphur  to  the  metals, 
the  metal,  which  under  the  existing  circum- 
stances has  the  strongest  attraction  for  sulphur, 
determines  the  positive  pole.  Thus  in  a  series 
of  copper  and  iron  plates,  introduced  into  a  por- 
celain trough,  the  cells  of  which  are  filled  with 
water,  or  acid  solutions,  the  iron  is  positive  and 
the  copper  negative;  but  when  the >  cells  are 
filled  with  solutions  of  sulphuret  of  potassa,  the 
copper  is  positive  and  the  iron  negative.  When 
one  rnetal  only  is  concerned,  the  surface  opposite 
the  acid  is  negative,  and  that  in  contact  with 
solution  of  alkali  and  sulphur,  or  of  alkali  is 
positive.  Elements  of  Chem.  Phil.  p.  148. 

291.  Of  Simple  Galvanic    Circles. — When  a 
piece  of  zinc  is  laid   upon   the  tongue,  and  a 
piece  of  silver  under  it,  no  sensation  is  excited 
while  the  metals  are  kept  apart ;  but  immediately 
that  you  bring  them  into  contact  a  metallic  taste 
is  perceived.     This  instance  affords  an  example 
of  the  arrangement  of  two  perfect  conductors, 
which  are  the  metals,  with  one  imperfect  one, 
the  tongue,  or  rather  the  fluids  which  the  tongue 
contains.     The  metallic  taste  would  seem  to  be 
occasioned  by  the  excitement  of  a  small  quan- 
tity of  electricity,  from  the  contact  of  the  metals, 
and  its  action  on  the  nerves  of  the  tongue. 

292.  Compound  Galvanic  Circles,  or  Galvanic 
Batteries. — The  principle  of  these  is  the  multi- 
plication of  simple  ones.     Thus  if,  between  a 
plate  of  zinc  and  of  silver,  a  piece  of  moistened 
cloth,  of  the  same  sizp  with  these  plates,  be  in- 
terposed,   and   brought   into   contact,  a  simple 
galvanic    circle  is  formed,    as   in    the    instance 
above  adduced  ;  but  if  these  be  piled  on  each 
other,   in    the  order    of   zinc,  silver,  cloth,   for 
several  repetitions,  we  obtain  a  galvanic  battery, 
termed  from  its  discoverer  the  pile  of  Volta.  The 
power  of  such  a  combination  is  sufficient  to  give 
a  smart  shock,  as  may  be  felt  by  grasping  in  the 
hands,  which  should  be  previously  moistened, 
two  metallic  rods,  and  touching  with  these  the 
upper  and  lower  extremity  of   the  pile.      The 
shock  may  be  renewed  at  pleasure,  until  after  a 
few  hours  the  activity  of  the  pile  begins  to  abate, 
and  finally  ceases  altogether. 

293.  The  metals  composing  a  galvanic  battery 
may  be  more  conveniently  arranged  in  the  form 
of  a  trough ;  a  happy  invention  of  Mr.  Cruik- 
shank :  in  a  long  and  narrow  wooden  trough, 
made  of  baked  wood,  grooves  are  cut  opposite 
to,  and  at  the  distance  of  between  one-third  and 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  from,  each  other ;  and 
into  these  are  let  down,  and  secured  by  cement, 
square  plates  of   zinc    and   copper,   previously 
united  together  by  soldering.     The  space,  there- 
fore, between  each  pair  of  plates  forms  a  cell  for 
the  purpose  of  containing  the  liquid,  by  which 
the  combination  is  to  be  made  active.     When 
constructed    in  this  way  the  trough    affords  an 
example  of  a  galvanic  combination  of  the  first 
kind  (see  the  first  table  above),  formed  by  two 
perfect,  and  one  imperfect  conductor.     But  it 
admits  of  being  modified,  by  cementing  into  the 
grooves  plates  of  one  metal  only,  and  filling  the 
cells   alternately  with  two  different   liquids,  as 
diluted  nitric  acid,  and  solution  of  sulphuret  of 

2  C 


386 


CHEMISTRY. 


potassa. :  In  this  case  we  have  a  battery  of  the 
second  order,  formed  by  the  repetition  of  one 
perfect  and  two  imperfect  conductors.  See  the 
second  table  above. 

294.  Other    modifications   of   these  galvanic 
apparatuses  will,  as  above  intimated,  be  described 
in  the   article     ELECTRO-GALVANISM. 

Here  it  may  be  sufficient  to  add,  using  the  words 
still  of  the  author  whom  we  are  following,  that 
every  combination  which  is  capable  of  forming 
a  simple  galvanic  circle,  may,  by  sufficient  repe- 
tition, be  made  to  compose  a  battery.  The 
combinations  also  which  are  most  active  in  simple 
circles  are  observed  to  be  more  efficient  in  com- 
pound ones. 

295.  To  construct  a  battery  of  the  first  order, 
it  is  essential  that  a  fluid  be  employed  which 
exerts  a  chemical  action  upon  one  of  the  metals. 
Pure  water,  entirely  deprived  of  air,  appears  to 
be  inefficient.     In  general,  indeed,  the  galvanic 
effect   is  within  certain  limits   proportioned  to 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  more  oxidable  metal 
is   acted  upon  by  the   intervening  fluid.     The 
fluid  generally  used  is  nitric  acid,  with  twenty 
or  thirty  times  its  weight  of  water.     A  battery 
which  has  ceased  to  be  efficient  has  its  activity 
renewed  by  emptying  the  cells  of  their  liquor, 
and  uncovering  the  plates :  when  the  cells  are 
filled  with  diluted  nitric  acid,  the  apparatus  con- 
tinues active,  even  under  the  exhausted  receiver 
of  an  air-pump,  or  in  an  atmosphere  of  car- 
bonic acid  or  nitrogen  gases.     But  if  the  cells 
be  filled  with  water  only,  all  action  is  suspended 
by  placing  it  under  any  of  these  circumstances. 
Hence  it  appears  that  the  oxidation  of  one  or 
both   of   the   metals   composing   the   trough  is 
essential   to  the   excitement   of  galvanic   elec- 
tricity. 

296.  Are  Galvanism  and   Electricity  identical 
powers? — In   adverting  to,  and  discussing  this 
question,  Dr.  Henry  points   out   the  following 
striking  resemblances  : 

i.  The  sensation  produced  by  the  galvanic 
shock  is  extremely  similar  to  that  which  is  excited 
by  the  discharge  of  a  Leyden  jar.  Both  in-i 
fluences  also  are  propagated  through  a  number 
of  persons  without  any  perceptible  interval  of 
time. 

ii.  Those  bodies  which  are  conductors  of  elec- 
tricity are  also  conductors  of  the  galvanic  fluid 
(galvanism  ?)  as  the  metals,  charcoal,  and  a  variety 
of  liquids.  Again,  it  is  not  transmitted  by  glass, 
sulphur,  and  the  whole  class  of  electrics,  which 
do  not  convey  ordinary  electricity.  Among 
liquids,  those  only  are  conductors  of  electricity 
and  galvanism  which  contain  oxygen  as  one  of 
their  elements. 

.  iii.  The  galvanic  fluid  passes  through  air,  and 
certait  other  non-conductors,  in  the  form  of 
sparks,  accompanied  with  a  snap  or  report ;  and, 
like  the  electric  fluid,  it  may  be  made  to  inflame 
gunpowder,  phosphorus,  and  mixtures  of  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  gases. 

iv.  The  Voltaic  apparatus  is  capable  of  com- 
municating a  charge  to  a  Leyden  jar,  or  even  to 
a  battery.  If  the  zinc  end  of  a  pile,  whether  it 
be  uppermost  or  the  contrary,  be  made  to  com- 
municate with  the  inside  of  a  jar,  it  is  charged 
positively.  If  circumstances  be  reversed,  and 


the  copper  end  be  similarly  connected,  the  jar  is 
charged  negatively.  The  shocks  do  not  differ 
from  those  of  a  jar  or  battery,  charged  to  the 
same  intensity  by  a  common  electrical  ma- 
chine. 

v.  Galvanism,  even  when  excited  by  a  single 
galvanic  cirde  only,  such  as  a  piece  of  zinc,  a 
similar  one  of  copper,  and  a  piece  of  cloth, 
moistened  with  a  solution  of  muriate  of  ammo- 
nia, distinctly  affects  the  gold  leaf  of  the  con- 
densing electrometer.  If  the  zinc  end  be 
uppermost,  and  be  connected  directly  with  the 
instrument,  the  electricity  indicated  is*  positive ; 
if  the  pin  of  the  electrometer  touch  the  copper, 
the  electricity  is  negative;  A  pile,  consisting  of 
sixty  combinations,  produces  the  effect  still  more 
remarkably. 

vi.  The  chemical  changes  produced  by  galvanic 
and  common  electricity,  so  far  as  they  have  hi- 
therto been  examined,  are  precisely  similar.  On 
this  last  proposition  it  is  necessary  to  dwell 
more  particularly,  and,  in  so  doing,  we  shall 
still  follow  the  author  from  whom,  in  the 
present  section,  we  have  already  so  largely  ex- 
tracted. 

297.  The  most  simple  chemical  effects,  pro- 
duced alike  by  the  agency  of  electricity  and 
galvanism,  is  the  ignition  and    fusion  of  metals ; 
when,  indeed,  the  galvanic  power  is  excited  to 
a  considerable  extent,  metallic  wires  may  be  ig- 
nited and  fused,  as  is  the  case  with   a   strong 
electric  battery  ;  but,  in  the  former  instance,  the 
particles  of  the   wire   are  not   scattered   to   a 
distance,  as  they  are  in  the  latter,  since  electricity 
seems   to   act  with   greater   violence  than  gal- 
vanism.    Actual  combustion,  also,  of  metallic 
wires  may  be  effected  both  by  electricity  and 
galvanism. 

298.  But  a  much  more  remarkable  action  is 
exerted    by  the    elective    and   galvanic    fluids 
in  disuniting  the   elements   of   several  combi- 
nations.    One   of  the   first   discoveries   of  the 
chemical  agency  of  the  pile,  was  its  power  of  de- 
composing water.      Two  piles  of  any  metallic 
wire  are  thrust  through  separate  corks,  which  are 
fitted  into  the  open  ends  of  a  glass  tube,  in  such 
a  way  that  the  extremities  of  the  wires,  when  the 
corks  are  in  their  places,  may  not  be  in  contact, 
but  may  be  at  the  distance  from  each  other  of 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 

299.  If  the  parts  of  the  wire  which  project 
from  without  the  tube,  be  made  to  communicate 
the  one  with  the  zinc  or  positive  end,  and  the 
other  with  the  copper,  or  negative  end  of  a  gal- 
vanic  battery,  a  remarkable  appearance   takes 
place.     The  wire  connected  with  the  zinc,  or 
positive  end  of  the  pile  or  trough,  where  it  is 
in  contact  with  the  water,  if  an  oxidable  metal 
is  rapidly  oxidised,  while  from  the  negative  wire 
a  stream  of  small  bubbles  of  gas  arises.     But  if 
the  wires  employed  be  of  a  metal  which  is  not 
susceptible  of  oxidation,  such  as  gold  or  platina, 
gas  is  then  extricated  from  both  wires,  and  may 
be  separately  collected. 

300.  When  a  stream  of  galvanic  electricity  is 
made  to  act  upon  confined  water,   oxygen  gas 
is  given  out  at  the  positive  end  and  hydrogen  at 
the  negative  end,  and  in  the  proportions  which 
by  their  union  compose  water.      At  an  eaily 


CHEMISTRY. 


387 


period  of  the  enquiry  it  was  found,  however, 
by  Mr.  Cruikshank,  that  the  water  surrounding 
the  positive  wire  became  impregnated  with  a  lit- 
tle acid,  and  that  round  the  negative  wire  with  a 
little  alkali. 

301.  It  was  afterwards  discovered,  by  Sir  H. 
Davy,  that  the  gases  constituting  water  may  be 
separately  produced  from  two  quantities  of  water 
not  immediately  in  contact  with  each  other  ;  this 
rery   important  discovery    evinced   the    trans- 
ference of  the  elements  of  a  combination  to  a 
considerable  distance,  through  intervening  sub- 
stances, and  in  a  form  that  escapes  the  cognisance 
of  our  senses.     But  not  only  the   elements  of 
water  but  saline  compositions  and  even  metallic 
salts  were  decomposed  in  the  same  way  by  Sir 
H.  Davy,  the  acid  element  of  the  salt  being  al- 
ways collected  at  the  positive,  and  the  earthy 
or  alkaline  one  at  the  negative  side  of  the  ar- 
rangement.    Sir  H.  Davy  even  found  that  acids 
by  galvanic  excitation  may  be  made  to  traverse 
opposite  principles  without  combination,  or  be 
transferred  through  solutions  of  alkali,  from  the 
negative  to  the  positive  side,  while  on  the  other 
hand  alkalis  and   metallic  oxides  were   found 
transmissable  from  the  positive  to  the  negative 
side,  through  intervening  solutions  of  acids. 

302.  These  very  singular  and  very  momentous 
discoveries  rendered  clear  what  before  seemed 
difficult  of  explanation,  viz.  why,  by  the  agency 
of  galvanism   on   water,  alkali   appears  at  the 
negative  and  acid  at  the  positive  wire.     Sir  H. 
Davy  ascertained  that  all  water,  however  carefully 
distilled,  contains  neutral  salts  in  a  state  of  solu- 
tion,   i  rom  these  impurities  the  alkaline  and  acid 
elements  are  separated,  agreeably  to  a  law  which 
has  already  been  explained.     In  the  same  way, 
also,  the  muriatic  acid  and  alkali  are  accounted 
for,  which  some  chemists  have  obtained  by  gal- 
vanising what  was   before  considered  as  pure 
water ;  a  fact  which  has  been  urged  in  proof  of 
the   synthetic   production  of  both  these  bodies. 
Absolutely  pure  water,  it  has  been  demonstrated 
by  SirH.  Davy,  yields  nothing  but  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  gases.     See  HYDROGEN  in  the  present 
treatise. 

303.  Now  it  has  been  shown  that  ordinary 
electricity,  properly  managed,  is  equal  to  the 
production  of  these  curious  decompositions ;  and 
it  is  fair  to  conclude,  that  galvanism  and  elec- 
tricity are  modifications  of  the  same  power. 

304.  A  most  important  -inference   has   been 
deduced  from  the  discovery  of  these  facts,  viz. 
that  hydrogen,  alkalis,   metals,  and  oxides,  exist 
in  a  positively  electrified  state,  and  therefore  will 
be  repelled  by  surfaces  which  are  in  the  same 
condition  with  themselves;    that  they  will,  on 
the  contrary,  be  attracted  by  surfaces  that  are 
negatively  electrified ;  and  oxygen,  as  also  the 
acids,  in  consequence  of  the  oxygen  they  contain, 
being   in   a   negative   state,   will    be   attracted 
by  positive  surfaces,  and  repelled  by  negative 
ones. 

305.  To  apply  this   theory  to    the    simplest 
possible   case,  the  decomposition  of  water,  the 
hydrogen  of  this  compound  being  itself  positively 
electrified,  is  repelled  by  the  positive  wire,  and 
attracted  by  the  negative  one,  while,  on  the  con- 
trary, oxygen  being  negative,  is  repelled  by  the 


negative  wire,  and  attracted  by  the  positive  one. 
The  flame  of  a  candle,  which  consists  chiefly  of 
ignited  charcoal,  when  placed  between  a  positive 
and  negative  surface,  bends  towards  the  latter, 
but  the  flame  of  phosphorus,  consisting  chiefly 
of  acid  matter,  when  similarly  placed,  takes  a 
direction  towards  the  positive  surface.  In  the 
case  of  neutral  salts,  the  negative  acid  is  at- 
tracted by  the  positive  wire,  and  the  positively 
electrified  alkali  by  the  negative  wire. 

306.  Thus     then,   continues    our  author,   a 
power  has  been  discovered,  superior  in  its  energy 
to  chemical  affinity,  and  capable  either  of  coun- 
teracting it,  or  of  modifying  it  according  to  cir- 
cumstances.    The  chemical  attraction   between 
two  bodies  may  be  destroyed  by  giving  one  of 
them  an  electric  state,  opposite  to  its  natural 
one  ;  or  the  tendency  to  union  may  be  increased 
by  exalting  the  natural  electrical  energies. 

Further  remarks  on  the  theory  of  the  gal- 
vanic, arrangement,  and  on  the  points  on  which 
there  is  a  seeming  difference  between  Voltaic 
and  common  electricity,  will  best  be  discussed 
under  the  articles  ELECTRICITY  and  GALVANISM, 
to  which  we  refer  the  reader. 

PART  III. 

307.  Having  thus  investigated,  to  the  extent 
of  our  limits,  the  general  laws  and  principles  of 
chemical  action,  we  are  now  to  proceed  in  our 
enquiries  respecting  the  individual  substances, 
and  their  diversified  compounds,  the  consideration 
of  which  comes  under  the  cognisance  of  chemical 
philosophy  ;  indeed,  the  whole  world  of  matter, 
as  far  as  composition  is  concerned,  lies  before 
us ;  there  is  nothing  with  which,  in  a  certain 
way,  the  chemist  has  not  to  do;  and,  as  far  as 
arrangement  is  concerned,  we  should  now,  had 
we  been  writing  but  some  few  years  since,  have 
adopted  an  arrangement  of  this  vast  mass  of  ma- 
terials, something  similar,  if  not  quite  the  same, 
as  that  pursued  by  Dr.  Murray,  in  his  excellent 
work.      We  should  have  proceeded  to  treat  of 
atmospheric  air,  or  at  least  have  here  referred 
the  reader  to  that  portion  of  the  work  in  which 
it  is  treated  of;  we  should  then  have  gone  on  to 
the  consideration  of  water,   and   its   base ;    to 
acids,  their  bases  and  composition;  to  alkalis, 
with  their  bases;    to   earths,  and  their  bases; 
metals,  and  their  combinations  ;  and  thence  into 
the  three  great  divisions  of  matter,  mineral,  ve- 
getable, and  animal. 

308.  The  very  curious  and  extensively  opera- 
ting  circumstances  to  which  we  have  just  re- 
ferred at  the  end  of  the  preceding  section,  have, 
however,  given  rise  to  a  modification  of  these 
arrangements,    founded  on    the  principle    that 
bodies  are  divisible  into  two  great  classes,  viz. 
electro-negative,    and    electro-positive.      Upon 
such  assumption   is  founded  the  division   and 
arrangement  which  Dr.  Henry  adopts  ;  and  it 
appears,  to  say  the  least,  to  have  this  i<i  its  fa- 
vor, that  the  student  finds  all  along  as  he  goes, 
more  clear  and  decided  illustrations  of  the  mag- 
nificent discoveries  of  modern  times,  and  has  a 
better  opportunity  furnished  him  for  appreciating 
these  discoveries,  and  of  applying  them  to  their 
respective  purposes. 

309.  This   arrangement,  therefore,  we  shal", 

2C2 


388 


CHEMISTRY. 


likewise,  to  a  certain  extent,  adopt,  although  it 
may  be  opecr,  as  what  artificial  classification  is 
not  ?  to  some  objections ;  it  of  course  leaves 
untouched  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms, 
or  the  materials  of  organic  existence,  which 
therefore,  as  in  other  treatises,  will  fall  to  be 
considered  separately,  and  after  inorganic  exis- 
tence shall  have  been  disposed  of.  The  objec- 
tions which  apply  to  the  subdivisions,  till  recently 
very  generally  observed,  of  combustible  and 
non-combustible,  will  be  best  stated,  because 
most  easily  understood,  as  we  proceed  in  our 
investigations. 

310.  ELECTRO-NEGATIVE  BODIES. — Oxygen. 
This  is  only  known  as  a  separate  principle  in  a 
gaseous  state  of  existence,  and  even  in  this  state 
it  is  combined  with  caloric  ;  in  the  article  AIR 
several  substances  are  mentioned  as  those  from 
which  oxygen  gas  may  be  obtained,  and  it  is 
there  stated,  that  the  chlorate  of  potass  yields  it 
in  the  greatest  purity.     We  have  likewise  given 
in  that  paper  the  general  character  and  habits  of 
oxygen,  which  need  not  be  here  repeated. 

311.  Oxygen  was  long  supposed  to  be  the 
only  supporter  of  combustion,  and  in  the  La- 
voisierian  theory  it  was  treated  of  as  essential  to 
that  process.     It  is  now  found,  however,  that 
other  bodies  are  equally  entitled  to  rank  as  sup- 
porters of  combustion,  among  which  are  chlorine 
and  iodine.     The  hypothesis  of  combustion  pro- 
posed by  the  French  philosophers,  has  indeed 
been  found  altogether  unstable,  both  as  it  respects 
\he  supposed  necessity  of  oxygen  for  the  pro- 
cess, and  its  condensation,  and  as  it  endeavoured 
to  explain  the  heat  and  light  at  times  evolved. 
Numerous  are  the  instances  in  which  oxygen,  in 
the  process  of  combustion,  instead  of  being  so- 
lidified, actually  becomes   gaseous  during   the 
operation;   the  light,  moreover,  depends  upon 
the  combustible,  and  not  upon  the  measure  of 
oxygen  consumed,  and  there  are  several  cases  of 
combustion,  as  just  intimated,  in  which  no  oxygen 
is  present.     Combustion  is  much  more  probably 
dependent    upon    the    electrical    conditions  of 
bodies,  and  ought  at  any  rate  to  be  considered 
rather  as  an  intense  chemical  action  generally, 
than  dependent,  as  Lavoisier  conceived,  upon  a 
particular  principle  or  form  of  matter.     It  will 
be  inferred  from  what  has  been  advanced  above, 
that  all  bodies  acting  powerfully  upon  each  other 
are  in  the  opposite  electrical  states,  and  heat 
and  light  may  be  evolved  as  a  consequence  of 
the  annihilation  of  these  opposite   conditions, 
occasioned  by  their  combination. 

312.  Substances  capable  of  combining  with 
oxygen,  afford  one  or  other  of   the   following 
products:  1.  An  acid.     2.  An  alkali,  or  earth, 
or  3.  An  oxide. 

313.  We  have  already  observed   (see  ACID) 
that  the  theory  of  Lavoisier,  which   regarded 
oxygen  as  the  universal  principle  of  acidity,  is 
not  consistent   with   more  recent  observations 
and  discoveries ;  but  that  acids  are  often  the  pro- 
duct of  oxygenation  will  be  seen  as  we  proceed. 
It  is  not  easy,  as  we  have  before  remarked,  to 
give  very  precise  definitions  of  acids,  since  some 
bodies  have  all  the  other  characteristics  of  acids 
at  the  same  time  that  they  do  not  impart  sour- 
ness to  the  taste  :    of  the  alkalis  and  earths  too 


there  is  some  want  of  precision  in  respect  of 
their  distinctive  designations,  but  they  are  gene- 
rally known  by  their  tendency  to  combine  with 
the  acids,  and  by  this  union  losing  their  indivi- 
dual characters.  See  ALKALI  and  EARTH. 

314.  Oxide  is  a  term  applied  to  bodies  tha 
have  a  less  quantity  of  oxygen  united  to  them 
than  that  which  is  sufficient  to  produce  acidity ; 
these  bodies  may  often  be  brought  to  the  con- 
dition of  positive  acidity  by  causing  them  to 
combine  with  more  oxygen,  and  the  loss  of  the 
acidifying  portion  of  oxygen  may  be  again  so 
managed,  and  effected  only  in  such  quantity,  as 
that    the   acid  shall  be  reduced  to  a  state   »f 
oxide. 

315.  Chlorine.    This  substance  was  discovered 
by  Scheele  in  1774.    It  was  named  by  the  dis- 
coverer dephlogisticated  muriatic  acid.     In  the 
French  nomenclature  it  was  denominated  oxy- 
genated muriatic  acid.     It  may  be  obtained  in 
a  gaseous  form,  by  mixing  black  oxide  of  man- 
ganese with  muriatic  acid,  and  heating  the  mix- 
ture over  a  lamp  in  a  glass  retort.     The  gas  is 
soon  evolved,  and  may  be  collected  over  warm 
water  very  conveniently ;   cold  water  soon  ab- 
sorbs it. 

316.  A  mixture  of  eight  parts  of  muriate  of 
soda,  three  of  black  oxide  of  manganese,  four  of 
sulphuric  acid,  and  four  of  water  will,  if  pro- 
perly heated,  evolve  chlorine. 

317.  This  gas  has  a  pungent  and  disagreeable 
smell  of  a  suffocating  kind,  and  it  is  of  a  yel- 
lowish green  color,  hence  its  name  from  ^Xwpoc, 
green. 

318.  It  is  heavier  than  common  air;  when 
dry  it  suffers  no  change  by  being  subjected  to 
the  most  intense  cold;  but  in  its  common  state 
it  may  be  condensed  into  a  liquid  form,  and, 
when  exposed   to  a  freezing   temperature,  the 
aqueous  part  of  the  gas  is  deposited  in  the  form 
of  crystals ;  this,  however,  is  again  taken  up  by 
the  gas  upon  the  re-application  of  heat. 

319.  Chlorine   is  not  altered  by  exposure  to 
very  high  temperatures.     When  it  is  suddenly 
and  greatly  condensed,  by  mechanical  pressure, 
heat  and  light  are  evolved.     Electricity  does  not 
alter  it.     When  a  burning  taper  is  introduced 
into  a  jar  of  chlorine,  the  flame  becomes  imme- 
diately red,  a  dense  smoke  is  emitted  from  it, 
and  it  is  soon  extinguished.     But  many  bodies, 
such  as  phosphorus,  and  even  several  of  the 
metals,  when  finely  powdered,  are  spontaneously 
ignited  upon  being  immersed  in  chlorine,  and 
burn  in  it  very  brilliantly.     The  combustion  in- 
deed of  phosphorus  in  this  gas  is  vehement. 

320.  Chlorine  is  heavier  than  common  air, 
100  cubic  inches  weigh  75'375  grains. 

321.  It  was  once  imagined,  as  may  be  inferred 
from  its  former  names,    to    be    composed   of 
oxygen  and  muriatic  acid.     It  is  now  treated  of 
as  a  simple  body  ;  and  the  fact  of  its  not  being 
changed  by  electricity  is  in  favor  of  this  sup- 
position. 

322.  Chlorine  and  oxygen  unite  so  as  to  form 
oxides  and  acids. 

323.  The  euchlorine  or  protoxide  of  chlorine 
was  discovered  by  Sir  H.  Davy ;  it  may  bo  ob- 
tained by  mixing  muriatic  acid  with  chlorate  of 
potass,  and  stirring  the  mixture  with  a  platinum 


CHEMISTRY. 


389 


knife ;  a  yellow  powder  will  be  the  result,  which 
:s  to  be  put  into  a  retort,  and  by  means  of  a 
water  bath,  the  temperature  of  150°  applied; 
the  oxide  will  pass  on0,  and  it  may  be  collected 
over  quicksilver. 

324.  Euchlorine  when  gently  heated  explodes, 
expands,  and  becomes  decomposed.  Five  parts 
in  volume  become  six,  consisting  of  a  mixture  of 
oxygen  and  chlorine  gases,  in  such  proportions 
that  euchlorine  must  be  composed  of  two  in 
volume  of  chlorine,  and  one  of  oxygen,  the 
latter  being  condensed  into  half  its  bulk,  or  by 
weight  of 


Chlorine 
Oxygen 


100 
22-79 


100. 


These  proportions  indicate  that  euchlorine  is 
constituted  of  one  atom  of  chlorine  —  36,  + 
one  atom  of  oxygen  —  8,  and  hence  its  atom 
must  weigh  44. — Henry. 

325.  Combustion   was   in   the    Lavoisierian 
school,  supposed  to  be  necessarily  attended  with 
a  condensation  of  the  bodies,  which  unke  du- 
ring the  process;  but  the  circumstances  attending 
the  decomposition  of  euchlorine  by  heat,  viz.  an 
expansion  of  the  elements,  prove  the  hypothesis 
not  to  be  well  founded. 

326.  What  has  been  called  deutoxide,  or  tri- 
toxide,  or  with  more  propriety  the  Peroxide  of 
Chlorine,  is  procured  by  triturating  fifty  or  sixty 
grains  of  the  powdered  chlorate  of  potass  with  a 
little  sulphuric  acid,  so  as  to  form  a  thick  paste, 
which  is  to  be  put  irtto  a  retort  and  heated,  but 
not  to  the  boiling  point.  The  gas  may  be  received 
over  mercury.     It  has  a  lively  yellow  color,  more 
brilliant  than  the   euchlorine,  and  it  is  more  ab- 
sorbable  by   water.     Its   saturated   solution    in 
water  is  of  a  deep  yellow  color,  imparts  an  astrin- 
gent taste,  and  it  may  be  kept  unchanged  in   the 
dark ;  the  rays  of  light,  however,  decompose  it 
and  form  from  it  chlorine  and  chloric  acid. 

327.  Chloric  acid. — Gay-Lussac,  was  the  dis- 
cover of  tliis compound  of  chlorine  and  oxygen; 
it  is  obtained  by  adding  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to 
the  chlorate  of  barytes  ;  but  this  is  a  compound 
that  exists  only  in  the  liquid  state;  and  Sir  H. 
Davy  has  even  disputed  the  simple  combination 
of  chlorine  and  oxygen ;  he  considers  the  liquid 
acid  of   Gay  Lussac  to  be  constituted   of  two 
proportions,  in  the  atomic  composition  of  hydro- 
gen, one  of  chlorine,  and  six  of  oxygen.     Under 
the  word  ACID  the  reader  will  find  it  stated,  that 
Dr.  Murray  has  argued  for  the  existence  of  hy- 
drogen as  an  acidifying  principle  generally,  and 
not  as  a   mere  constituent   of  the   water  with 
which  substances  are  combined;  and  this  state- 
ment of  Sir  H.  Davy,  in  reference  to  the  compo- 
sition of  the  chloric  acid,  in  some  measure  harmo- 
nises with  that  assumption. 

328.  Perchloric  acid. — In  the  process  of  ob- 
taining peroxide  of   chlorine  a  peculiar  salt  is 
formed,  which  was  first  noticed  by  count  Stadion ; 
its  taste  is  somewhat  like  the  common  muriate  of 
potass.      At  the  heat  of  412°  it  is  resolved  into 
oxygen  and  muriate  of  potass,  in  the  proportion 
of  46  of  the  former  to  56  of  the  latter.     From 
this  salt  sulphuric  acid  at  28°  disengages  the 


perchloric  acid,  which  consists  of  chlorine  and 
oxygen  ;  but  it  does  not  exist  independent  of 
water,  or  a  base.  See.  CHLORINE,  in  the  body 
of  the  work. 

329.  IODINE. — This   newly   discovered   sub- 
stance may   be  obtained  from  a  solution  of  kelp 
or  barilla,  or  from  the  ley  of  ashes  of  marine 
plants,  which  furnish  the  mineral  alkali.     The 
following  process  is  given.     Lixiviate  powdered 
kelp  with   cold  water,  evaporate   the   lixivium 
till  a  pellicle  forms  and  set  aside  to  crystallize- 
evaporate  the  mother  liquor  to  dryness,  and  pour 
upon  the  mass  half  the  weight  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Apply  a  gentle  heat  to  this  mixture  in  the  flask 
of  an  alembic,  and  fumes  of  a  white  color  will 
arise   and    become   condensed   in   the   form   of 
opaque  ciystals.     The  iodine  first  passes  into  the 
receiver  in  the  form  of  beautiful  violet  vapors. 
The  crystals  are  to  be  quickly  dried  upon  blot- 
ting paper. 

330.  Iodine  was  first  discovered  in  1812,  by 
M.  Courtois,  a  manufacturer  of  saltpetre  at  Pa- 
ris.    Vauquelin,  Gay  Lussac,  and  Davy,  have 
ably  and  fully  investigated  its  properties.     See 
Annales  de   Chemie,  90th,  91st,  and  93rd  vols. 
and  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1814. 

331.  Iodine,  like  chlorine,  is  electro-negative, 
and  therefore  introduced  here.     It  is  solid  at  the 
ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  but  ex- 
tremely volatile,  and  at  a  temperature  somewhat 
under  80°  emits  a  violet  vapor.      It  produces 
a  yellow  stain  upon  the  skin.     It  is  sparingly  so- 
luble in  water,  much  more  so  in  alcohol  and 
asther.     The  color  of  the  solution  is  yellow.     The 
color  of  iodine  is  of  a  bluish  black,  its  lustre  is 
metallic,  and  its  taste  acrid.     Its  name  is  from 
tuifojc,  violaceous,  on  account  of  its  vapor  being 
of  a  beautiful  violet  color.      Its  specific  gravity 
is  =4-946. 

332.  Iodine  combines  with  oxygen  and  with 
chlorine,  and  by  this  combination  produces  two 
acids  which  have  been  named  lodic  and  Chlori- 
odic. 

333.  lodic  or  Oiiodic  acid.—  This  compound 
of  oxygen  and  iodine  cannot  be  obtained  imme- 
diately, for   iodine   does   not    undergo    change 
by  being  merely  heated  with  oxygen,  or  even 
with  chlorate  of  potass.     It  is,  therefore  procured 
by   the   intervention  of  protoxide   of   chlorine. 
We  may  introduce  iodine  into  a  small  flask,  and 
disengage  the  chlorine  oxide  from  it  by  a  due  ad- 
mixture of  chlorate  of  potass ;  '  or  100  grains  of 
chlorate  of  potass   may   be   introduced  into  a 
small  retort  with  400  grains  of  liquid  muriatic 
acid  of  the  specific  gravity  1-105  ;  annex  to  the 
retort  a  small  globular  receiver  having  a  bent 
tube  issuing  from  it,  and  passing  to  the  bottom  of 
a  small  flask  containing  about  fifty  grains   of  io- 
dine ;  carefully  apply  the  heat  of  a  lamp  to  the 
retort,  by  which  oxide  of  chlorine  will  be  disen- 
gaged, and  which  will  be  decomposed  and  ab- 
sorbed by  the  iodine.  A  compound  is  then  formed, 
which  consists  of  chloriodic  and  oxiodic  acids. 
The  former  is  separable  by  a  gentle  heat,  the  lat- 
ter remains  as  a  white,  semitransparent,  sour,  and 
inodorous  body,  very  soluble  in  water.  It  consists 
of  1 17'7  iodine,  37'5  oxygen.     (Brande). 

334.  lodous  acid. — Sig.  Sementini  procured  a 
yellow  fluid  by  distilling  iodine  and  chlorate  of 


390 


CHEMISTRY. 


potass  together  in  equal  parts,  after  trituration 
in  a  porcelain  mortar.  This  fluid  has  an  acid, 
astringent  taste,  and  the  name  iodous  acid  has 
been  given  to  it ;  but  the  proportion  of  its  ele- 
ments has  not  been  ascertained.  Quarterly  Jour- 
nal of  Science  and  Art,  xvii.  381. 

335.  Chloriodic  acid,  or  as  it  is  called  by  Gay 
Lussac  chlorure  of  iodine,  is  obtained  by  the  di- 
rect action  of  chlorine  upon  iodine,  iodine  ab- 
sorbing less  than  one-third  of  its  weight  of  chlo- 
rine; the  union  produces  crystals    of  a   deep 
orange  color.     Gay  Lussac  states  indeed  that  two 
compounds  are  the  result  of  this  combination, 
the  one,  as  noticed,  of  a  deep  orange  color,  the 
other  an  orange  red,  the  largest  portion  of  chlo- 
rine being  contained  in  the  first. 

336.  Chloriodic  acid  precipitates  the  salts  of 
iron  and  other  metals. 

337.  Nature   of  Iodine  (From  Dr.  Henry's 
Elements).     Iodine,  from  all  that  we  yet  know 
respecting  it,  is  to  be  considered  as  a  simple  or 
elementary  body,  having  a  very  striking  analogy 
with  chlorine,  which  it  resembles,  firstly,  in  form- 
ing one  acid  by  uniting  with  hydrogen,  and  a 
different  acid   with   oxygen ;    secondly,   in   its 
effects  on  vegetable  colors;  thirdly, in  its  affording 
with  the  fixed  alkalis,  salts,  which  nearly  ap- 
proach in  character  to  chlorates ;  and  fourthly, 
in  its  electrical  habits.   Its  discovery  indeed  lends 
strong  support   to  that  theory  which  considers 
chlorine  as  a  simple  body,  and  muriatic  acid  as 
a  compound  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen.      In  the 
property  of  forming  an  acid,  whether  it  be  united 
with   hydrogen    or  oxygen,    iodine  bears    also 
an  analogy  to  sulphur ;  and  it  is  remarked  by 
Gay    Lussac   of  the  combinations  of  chlorine, 
iodine,  and  sulphur,  with  the  elements  of  water, 
that  while  the  acids  which  they  respectively  form 
with  oxygen  have  their  elements  strongly  con- 
densed, those  formed  with  hydrogen  have  their 
elements  very  feebly  united.    Sulphur  has  the 
strongest  affinity  for  oxygen,  then  iodine,  and 
lastly  chlorine.     But  for  hydrogen,  chlorine  has 
a  stronger  attraction  than  iodine,  and  iodine  than 
sulphur  ;  whence  it  appears  that  the  affinity  of 
each  of  those  bodies  for  oxygen  is  inversely  pro- 
portionate to  its  affinity  for  hydrogen. 

338.  The  source  of  iodine  in  nature  has  been 
investigated  by  M.  Gaultier  de  Claubry.     His 
first  experiments  were  directed  to  the  several 
varieties  of  fucus,  the  combustion  of  which  fur- 
nishes the  soda  of  sea-weeds.    Before  these  vege- 
tables are  destroyed  by  combustion  he  ascertained 
that  iodine  exists  in  them,  in  the  state  of  hydri- 
odate  of  potassa ;  and  that  calcination  only  de- 
stroys the  vegetable  matter  with  which  it  is  com- 
bined.     As  the  hydriodate  of  potassa  is  a  deli- 
quescent salt,  it  remains  in  the  mother  liquor 
after  separating  the  carbonate  of  soda,  and  most 
of   the   other   salts,  by  crystallisation. .  In  the 
course  of  these  experiments  M.  De  Claubry  found 
that  starch  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  tests  of  the 
presence  of  iodine,  and  if  added  to  any  liquid 
containing  it,  with  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid, 
iodine  is  indicated  by  a  blue  color  of  greater  or 
less  intensity.    In  this  way  he  detected  iodine  in 
the  decoction  of  several  varieties  of  fucus  ;  but 
he  was  unable  to  discover  the  slightest  trace  of 
it  in  sea-water.    The  fucus  saccharinus  yielded 


it  most  abundantly  ;  and,  in  order  to  obtain  it  by 
the  cheapest  and  easiest  process,  he  recommends 
that  we  should  submit  this  fucus,  dried  and  re 
duced  to  powder,  to  distillation  with  sulphuric 
acid. 

339.  In  the  Addenda  to  Dr.  Henry's  Elements, 
we  meet  with  the  following  additional  notification 
in  reference  to  the  source  &c.  of  iodine  :  '  The 
only  known  sources  of  iodine  were  certain  vege- 
tables and  some  marine  molluscae,  till  Vauquelin 
discovered  it  a  few  months  since  in  the  specimen 
of  a  mineral,  sent  from  Mexico,  under  the  name 
of  'Virgin  silver  from  Serpentine.'     The  best 
method  of  separating  the  iodine  from  this  sub- 
stance was  found  to  be  as  follows  :  Five  parts  of 
the  pulverised  mineral  were  heated  with  two 
parts   of  caustic  potassa,  and  a  little  water  to 
facilitate  the  mixture;  and  kept  some  time  in 
fusion.     The  mass  was  washed  with  water  till 
the  latter  ceased  to  become  alkaline ;  a  portion 
of  the  liquor  saturated  with  nitric  acid  has  the 
property  of  rendering  starch  blue,  when  a  few 
drops  of  solution  of  chlorine  had  been  previously 
added,     Of  the  portion  insoluble  by  water,  dilu- 
ted nitric  acid  dissolved  a  part  with  effervescence  ; 
but  there  remained  a  yellowish  substance  resem- 
blipg  chloride  of  silver,  which  became  orange 
colored  by  heat,  and  passed  to  a  greenish  yellow 
on  cooling.   This  substance  was  iodine  of  silver. 

340.  The  alkaline  liquor  afforded  hydriodate 
of  potassa,  by  saturating  the  alkali  with  sulphuric 
acid,  evaporating  to  dryness,  and  adding  alcohol, 
which  took  up  the  hydriodate  only,  leaving  the 
sulphate  of  potassa.    The  whole  iodine  thus  ex- 
tracted from  100  grains  of  the  ore,  Vauquelin 
calculates  at  1 8 J  grains ;  and  on  reviewing  the 
composition  of  the  ore,  the  other  ingredients  of 
which  were  sulphur,  lead  and  silver,  he  considers 
it  as  most  probable  that  all  the  iodine  contained 
in  the  native  mineral  was  united  with  the  latter 
metal.   It  is  probable  that  with  this  clue  to  more 
perfect  analysis,  iodine  will  be  found  in  othe- 
minerals,  and   especially  in  ores  of  silver,  foi 
which  metal  it  has  like  chlorine  a  strong  attrac- 
tion.    Ann.  de  Chym.  et  de  Phys.  xxix.  991. 

341.  FLUORINE.     This  is  a  principle  which 
has  not  hitherto  been  obtained  in  a  separate  state ; 
it  seems  to  be  united  with  hydrogen  in  the  fluoric 
acid;  this  acid,  like  the  muriatic,  appears  to  be 
composed   of  hydrogen,  and  a   peculiar  base, 
which  base  in  the  instance  before  us,  has  been 
denominated  fluorine  by  Sir  H.  Davy;  and  phtore 
from  $0op»oc,  destructive,  by  Ampere  :  it  possesses 
a  negative  electric  energy,  which  is  proved  by  its 
being  determined  to  the  positive  pole. 

342.  It  exists  in  the  fluor  spar,  a  mineral  found 
in  great  beauty  and  abundance  in  Derbyshire. 
This  spar  is  stated  to  be  composed   of  twenty 
calcium,  and  17'1  fluorine.     See  FLUORIC  ACID. 

343.  ELECTRO-POSITIVE  BODIES. — The  bodies 
which  fall  now  to  be  considered  have  been  usually 
classed  as  inflammable  or  combustible ;  to  this 
appellation,  Dr.  Henry  very  properly  states,  that 
the  same  objection  exists  as  to  that  of  supporters 
of  combustion.     Against  our  author's  own  clas- 
sification, it  may,  however,  be  objected  that  the 
title  of  electro-positive  includes  all  substances 
with  the  exception  of  the  few  just  noticed.     Dr. 
Henry,   indeed,  anticipates  this  objection,  and 


CHEMISTRY. 


391 


proposes  a  subordinate  division  of  elementary 
bodies,  that  is  of  those  bodies  which  have  not 
hitherto  been  resolved  into  a  more  simple 
state. 

344.  i.   Those    which   by   combining    with 
oxygen,  chlorine,  or  hydrogen,  are  capable  of  being 
converted  into  acids,  but  which  have  no  me- 
tallic properties. 

345.  ii.  Those  which  either  decidedly   rank 
as  metals,  or  are  so  nearly  allied  to  metals  in 
their  general  habitudes,  as  to  render  it  improper 
to  assign  to  them  any  other  place  in  a  chemical 
arrangement.      In  the  class  of   metals  will  be 
found  a  few  bodies  which  yield  acids  when  united 
with  oxygen  ;  and  one  or  two  which  are  even 
acidified  by  combination  with  hydrogen. 

346.  One  great  advantage,  as  it  appears  to  us, 
m  adopting  this  arrangement,  is,  as  above-inti- 
mated, that  it  preserves  in  the  student's  mind  a 
constant  recollection  of  the  great  principles  of 
electro-chemical  science,  and   of   the   immense 
benefit  these  new  views  have  already  conferred  on 
chemistry,  and  still  promise  to  confer. 

347.  In  Mr.  Brande's  Manual,  which  cannot  be 
too  highly  recommended  to  the  student,  the  fol- 
lowing substances  are  introduced  for  considera- 
tion in  his  division,  under  the  title  of  Simple 
Acidifiable   and  Inflammable  Substances ;    and 
he  prefaces  the  notice  of  them  by  stating  '  that  the 
bodies  belonging  to  this  class  are  electro-positive, 
and  consequently,  when  separated  from  their  com- 
binations with  the  substances  described  in  the  last 
chapter,  (oxygen,  chlorine,  iodine),  by  Voltaic 
electricity ;   they  are  attracted  by  the  negative 
surface.     With  very  few  exceptions  they  com- 
bine with  the   three  supporters  of  combustion 
already  described,  and  of  these  compounds  one 
or  more  are  acids.      They  are  six  in  number. 
1.  Hydrogen.  2.  Nitrogen.  3.  Sulphur.  4.  Phos- 
phorus.    5.  Carbon.     6.  Boron.    The  plan  that 
we  are  about  to  pursue  will  lead  to  the  investi- 
gation of  these  bodies  and  principles,  almost  in 
the  direct  order,  thus  adopted  by  Mr.  Brande. 
They  are  all  acidifiable,  but  not  all  in  strict  pro- 
priety combustible  or  inflammable  bodies. 

348.  HYDROGEN.      See   AIR,   p.    381.— Hy- 
drogen exists  in  a  state  of  gas,  or,  in  other  words, 
it  is  combined  with  caloric,  and  probably  with 
electricity  and  light,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  oc- 
casion   its  gaseous  constitution,  and  from  this 
combination  we  cannot   separate   it  any   other 
other  way  than  by  causing  it  to  combine  with 
some  other  substance.     This  gas  was  first  atten- 
tively examined  by  Mr.  Cavendish ;  it  was  for- 
merly termed  inflammable  air.  It  may  be  prepared 
by  the  action  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  upon  iron 
filings  or  upon  zinc.     The  gas  will  escape,  and 
may  be  collected  in  the  usual  manner.     Mr.  Do- 
novan has  proposed,  in  order  to  purify  the  gas 
from     admixture    with     sulphuretted    hydrogen 
and  carbonic,  that  we  should  first  agitate  common 
hydrogen  with  lime  water  during  a  few  minutes; 
next  with  a  little  nitrous  acid  ;  afterwards  with  a 
solution  of  green  sulphate  of  iron,   and    finally 
with  water.     Dr.  Henry,  in  alluding  to  this  pro- 
posal, says  it  appears  to  him  that  the  carbonic 
acid,  and    sulphuretted  hydrogen,  may  equally 
well  be  removed  by  the  simple  process  of  washing 
the  crude  gas,  either  with  lime-water  or  with  a 
solution  of  caustic  potassa. 


349.  For  the  properties  and  peculiarities  of 
hydrogen  gas,  we  refer  to  the  article  AIR;  but 
we  may  quote  in  this  place  an  illustration  which 
is  given  in  Dr.  Henry's  work,  of  the  fact  that 
elastic  fluids  or  gases  ptnetrate  each  other,  and 
become  thoroughly  mixed  under  all  circum- 
stances ;  in  this,  differing  from  common  or  in- 
elastic fluids  (liquids)  which  are  capable  of  a  re- 
maining in  contact  with  each  other  for  a  long- 
time without  admixture. 

320.  '  Provide  two  glass  vials,  each  of  the  ca- 
pacity of  about  an  ounce  measure,  and  also  a 
tube  open  at  both  ends,  ten  inches  long,  and 
l-20th  inch  bore.  At  each  end  the  tube  is  to  be 
passed  through  a  perforated  cork,  adapted  to  the 
necks  of  the  vials.  Fill  one  of  the  bottles  with 
hydrogen  gas,  and  the  otber  with  oxygen  gas ; 
place  the  latter  on  a  table  with  its  mouth  up- 
wards ;  and  into  this  insert  the  tube  secured  by 
its  cork.  Then  holding  the  hydrogen  bottle  with 
its  mouth  downwards,  fit  it  upon  the  cork  at  the 
top  of  the  tube.  The  two  bottles  thus  connected, 
are  to  be  suffered  to  remain  in  this  perpendicular 
position.  After  standing  two  or  three  hours, 
separate  the  vials  and  apply  a  lighted  taper  to 
their  mouths,  when  it  will  almost  certainly  oc- 
casion an  explosion  in  both.  The  hydrogen  gas, 
though  sixteen  times  lighter  than  the  oxygen, 
must,  therefore,  have  descended  through  the  tube 
from  the  upper  into  the  lower  vial;  and  the 
oxygen  gas,  contrary  to  what  might  have  been 
expected  from  its  greater  weight,  must  have  as- 
scended  through  the  tube,  and  displaced  the 
lighter  hydrogen.' 

351.  Hydrogen  and  Oxygen.  (Water.) — Mix 
two  volumes  of  hydrogen  gas  with  one  volume 
of  oxygen  gas,  and  inflame  the  mixture  by  the 
electric  spark  in  a  proper  apparatus ;  the  gases 
will  by  this  treatment  disappear  totally,  and  the 
inner  surface  of  the  vessel  will  be  moistened 
with  a  fluid  which  will  be  found  to  be  pure 
water,  and  equal  in  weight  to  the  gases  which 
have  disappeared. 

352.  Again,  expose  pure  water  to  the  action 
of  Voltaic  electricity,  and  you  resolve  it  into 
hydrogen,  which  will  be  disengaged  at  the  nega- 
tive pole,  and  oxygen  will  be  disengaged  at  the 
positive  pole;  the  hydrogen  will  be  two  volumes, 
the  oxygen  one,  so  that  water  is  demonstrated 
both  by  synthesis  and  analysis  to  be  formed  of 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  in  the  proportion  of  two 
volumes  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter. 

353.  Under  the  word  WATER,  in  the  body  of 
the  work,  we  shall  enter  into  a  disquisition  on  its 
properties  ;  it  may  be  here  generally  stated,  that 
in  its  ordinary  and  natural  state,  such  as  spring 
and  river  water,  it  always  contains  air,  and  that 
it  is  always  so  far  combined  with  foreign  sub- 
stances as  considerably  to  interfere  with  its  ab- 
stract existence.     The  water  immediately  from 
rain  is  purer,  but  even  this  always  contains  some 
of  the  atmospherical  elements,   and  also  some 
traces  of  vegetable    or    animal  matter.      Even 
after  water  has  been  distilled,  some  impurities  or 
particles  of  foreign  matter  remain  in  it,  and  to 
render  it  completely  free  from  these  impregna- 
tions, it  requires  to  be  slowly  and  carefully  re- 
distilled.     More  or  less  of  water  is  ever  con- 
tained in  the  air  of  the  atmosphere,  even  in  the 
dryest  weather,  and  many  bodies,  from  mere  ex- 


392 


CHEMISTRY. 


posure  to  the  atmosphere,  will  abstract  a  portion 
of  it,  or  in  other  words  of  its  moisture;  such 
are  the  deliquescent  salts  mentioned  under 
the  nead  of  crystallisation.  Whether  aqueous 
fluids  exist  in  the  atmosphere  chemically  com- 
bined, or  merely  mechanically  mixed,  has  been 
made  a  question  ;  or  rather,  it  has  been  debated 
whether  it  is  chemical  solution  or  mere  calorific 
influence  which  retains  that  portion  of  fluid  in 
the  air  which  is  capable  of  being  deposited  by 
an  alteration  of  circumstances ;  it  is  most  con- 
sistent with  the  general  analogy  of  material  ex- 
istence, perhaps,  to  suppose  the  latter  to  be  the 
case. 

354.  M.  Thenard  has  shown  that  an  additional 
quantity  of  oxygen  may  be  made  to  unite  with 
water,  so  as  to  constitute  a  very  different  pro- 
portion of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  composition, 
than  the  proportion  of  water.     This  combination 
is  effected  by  means  of  the  peroxide  of  barium, 
a  substance  afterwards  to  be  described.      See 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Science  and  Art,  vol.  viii. 
p.  114,  115. 

355.  Hydrogen  with  Chlorine,  Muriatic  Acid, 
or,  more  consistently  with  the  new  theory  and 
nomenclature,  Hydro-chloric  Acid. — Mix  equal 
quantities  of  hydrogen  and  chlorine,  and  expose 
them  to  the  action  of  a  lighted  taper,  or  even  to 
the  direct  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  an  explosion 
or  detonation  will  take  place;  the  same  effect 
will  be  produced  by  Voltaic  electricity,  showing, 
says  Mr.  Brande,  a   curious   analogy  between 
eleQtric  and  solar  light ;   for  ordinary  artificial 
light  does  not  accelerate  the  combination  (see 
Brande's  account  in  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions of  1820).     The  produce  of  the  union  of 
equal  parts  of  chlorine,  whether  effected  sud- 
denly and  with  explosion,  or  silently,  is  muriatic, 
or  more  properly  speaking,  hydrochloric  acid  gas. 

356.  This  acid  is  procurable  by  other  methods ; 
it  may  be  obtained  by  pouring  sulphuric  acid  on 
common  salt,  the  sulphuric  acid  unites  in  this 
case  with  the  base  of  the  salt,  and  the  muriatic 
acid  is  evolved  in  the  form  of  gas. 

357.  Muriatic  acid  gas  has  a  pungent  smell, 
it  is  caustic  in  its  action  upon  the  skin,  it  ex- 
tinguishes flame,  it  is  heavier  than  common  air. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  stated  by  Gay  Lussac  to 
be  1-278 ;   100  cubic  inches,  according  to  Mr. 
Brande,  weigh  38'8  grains.     It  is  very  rapidly 
absorbed  by  water,  and,  when  dissolved  in  that 
fluid,  it  forms  the  liquid  muriatic  acid,  for  the 
mode  of  preparing  which,  and  for  the  theory  of 
its  formation,  see  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID. 

358.  This  acid  in  a  liquid  state  manifests  the 
following     properties.       It     emits     suffocating 
whitish  fumes,  it  affords  muriatic  gas  by  being 
heated  with   heat.      When  diluted  with  water 
an  elevation  of  temperature  is  occasioned  ;   it 
combines  freely  with  the  alkalis  and  with  most 
of  the  earths,  both  in  their  caustic,  or  rather  pure, 
and  their  carbonated  states.     It  is  specifically 
heavier  than  water.     When  brought  into  contact 
with  any  substance  containing  oxygen  in  a  state 
of  loose  combination,  its  hydrogen  unites  with 
this  oxygen,  forming  water,  while  the  chlorine 
becomes  liberated  in  the  state  of  gas.     Indeed 
chlorine  is  procured  in  this  way,  but  it  is  usual 
not  to  employ  the  already  formed  liquid  acid 


for  the  purpose,  but  to  use  the  materials  that 
have  the  power  of  furnishing  the  acid  gas,  as  the 
chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  oxide  of 
manganese,  and  sulphuric  acid. 

359.  On  the  theories  which  have  prevailed 
respecting  Chlorine  and  Muriatic  Acid. — As 
these  have  an  important  bearing  upon  the  le- 
gitimacy of  the  new  electro-chemical  doctrines, 
we  shall  take  the  liberty  of  extracting  verbatim, 
the  account  of  them,  found  in  Dr.  Henry's 
volumes.  '  There  are  few  subjects,'  says 
Dr.  Henry,  '  respecting  which  the  opinions  of 
chemists  have  undergone  such  frequent  changes 
as  concerning  the  nature  of  chlorine  and  of 
muriatic  acid.  The  views  originally  taken  by 
Scheele,  the  illustrious  discoverer  of  the  former 
substance,  was  that  the  muriatic  acid  is  com- 
pounded of  a  certain  base,  and  an  imaginary 
principle  called  phlogiston  (see  part  1st.)  ;  and 
that  by  the  action  of  certain  bodies  it  became 
dephlogisticated,  or  deprived  of  that  supposed 
principle  of  inflammability.  It  was  afterwards 
found,  however,  that  all  bodies  which  are  capa- 
ble of  producing  this  change  in  muriatic  acid 
contain  oxygen,  and  that  their  portion  of  oxygen 
is  diminished  by  the  process.  It  appeared, 
therefore,  to  be  an  obvious  conclusion,  that  what, 
takes  place  in  the  action  of  metallic  'oxides  on 
muriatic  acid,  is  simply  the  transference  of 
oxygen  from  the  oxide  to  muriatic  acid;  and, 
conformably  with  this  theory,  the  resulting  gas 
received  the  name  of  oxygenated  muriatic,  or 
oxymuriatic  acid.  Sir  H.  Davy  was  led  by  his 
early  experiments  to  modify  in  some  degree  this 
view  of  the  theory  of  the  process  ;  and  to  con- 
sider the  muriatic  acid  as  a  compound  of  a  cer- 
tain basis  with  water ;  and  the  oxymuriatic  acid 
as  a  compound  of  the  same  basis  with  oxygen. 
This  modification  was  rendered  necessary  by  the 
fact,  that  when  a  metallic  body  is  heated  in  muriatic 
gas,  oxymuriatic  acid  is  obtained,  and  water  ap- 
pears in  a  separate  state.  It  was  evident,  there- 
fore, that  muriatic  acid  gas  must  either  contain 
water  ready  formed,  or  the  elements  of  water, 
or  hydrogen  capable  of  composing  water  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  oxide.  But  at  a  subsequent 
period,  the  same  distinguished  philosopher  was 
induced  by  the  experiments  of  Gay  Lussac  and 
Thenard,  as  well  as  by  his  own  researches,  to 
form  a  different  theory  on  the  subject.  Oxy- 
muriatic acid  he  now  considers  as  a  simple  or 
undecompounded  substance ;  and  muriatic  acid 
as  a  compound  of  that  simple  substance  with 
hydrogen.  To  convert  the  muriatic  acid  into 
chlorine  we  have  only,  according  to  this  view, 
to  abstract  hydrogen  from  the  muriatic  acid ;  and 
this,  it  is  believed,  is  all  that  is  effected  by  the 
action  of  those  oxides  which  are  adapted  to  the 
purpose.  Again,  to  convert  chlorine  into  mu- 
riatic acid,  we  have  only  to  combine  it  with 
hydrogen;  and  accordingly,  the  simple  mixture 
of  one  measure  of  each  of  these  gases,  when  ex- 
posed for  a  short  time  to  the  sun's  rays,  or  ex- 
ploded by  an  electric  spark,  affords  two  measures 
of  muriatic  acid  gas. 

360.  The  oxymuriatic  acid,  or  chlorine,  as  Sir 
H.  Davy  proposes  to  call  it,  in  order  to  avoid 
all  connexion  of  its  name  with  hypothetical 
views,  is  supposed  also  to  unite  at  once  with 


CHEMISTRY. 


393 


the  metals,  without  requiring,  like  the  sulphuric, 
nitric,  and  other  acids,  that  the  metals  should 
first  be  in  the  state  of  oxides.  In  proof  of  this 
theory  it  appears  to  be  sufficiently  established, 
that  no  oxygen  can  be  obtained  either  alone,  or 
in  a  state  of  combination  with  combustible 
bodies  added  for  the  purpose,  from  the  com- 
pounds of  chlorine  and  metals.  The  analyses, 
Jiowever,  of  the  metallic  muriates,  as  they  were 
formerly  considered,  remain  unimpeached  by 
ihis  change  of  theory.  All  that  is  necessary  to 
transmute  in  ideas  a  muriate,  into  a  compound  of 
chlorine,  is  to  deduct  the  oxygen  from  the  me- 
tallic oxide  ;  and  adding  to  it  the  muriatic  acid, 
to  consider  the  same  as  chlorine.  For  example, 
muriate  of  soda,  deprived  of  all  water,  con- 
sists, 
On  the  old  theory,  of  muriatic  acid  46'7  28 

Soda  composed  of   {  g^    lot] 


32 


100        60 

On  the  old  theory,  chloride  of  sodium  consists  of 
Sodium    ....     40     24 
Chlorine  ....     60     36 


100     60 

On  the  discarded  theory  of  oxymuriatic  acid, 
that  supposed  compound  was  stated  to  be  con- 
stituted of  three  volumes  of  muriatic  acid  gas,  -f- 
1  volume  of  oxygen  condensed  into  2  volumes, 
and  by  weight  of 

Oxygen       ....     22'22       8 
Muriatic  acid  .     ,     -     77-78     28 


100 


36 


361.  According  to  this  view,  the  atom  of  dry 
muriatic  acid  (hydrogen  being  unity,  and  oxygen 
8),  would  be  equivalent  to  28  ;  and  this  +  8 
(1  atom  of  oxygen),  would  give  36  for  the  atom 
of  oxymuriatic  acid.     The  latter   number,    in- 
deed, still  represents  the  atom  of  chlorine  as  de- 
duced from  the  fact,  that  it  unites  with  an  equal 
volume  of  hydrogen  gas,  and  is  36  times  speci- 
fically heavier  than  that  inflammable  gas.     We 
may  consider  then,  60  parts  of  common  salt  as 
composed,  according  to  the   old   view,   of   28 
parts   dry   muriatic  acid,  and  32  parts  of  soda, 
(~  24  sodium  and  8  oxygen),  or  of  24  sodium 
•4-  36  chlorine,  according  to  the  new  theory. 

362.  It  is  remarkable,  that  there  is  hardly  any 
fact   connected  with   the   chemical    history    of 
chlorine  and  muriatic  acid,  that  does  not  admit 
of  being  almost  as  well  explained  upon  the  hy- 
pothesis that  chlorine  is  compound,  as    upon 
that  of  its  being  a  simple  substance.     On  the 
whole,  however,  the  weight  of  evidence  is  very 
much  in  favor  of  the  new,  or  rather  the  revived 
opinion  of  its  elementary  nature,  especially  since 
the  discovery  of  iodine ;  and  I  have  little  scruple, 
therefore,  in  adopting  it,  as  affording  the  most 
simple  and  satisfactory  explanation  of  pheno- 
mena, as  well  as  the  best  ground-work  for  a 
conspicuous  arrangement  of  the  objects  of  che- 
mistry.    The  reader  who   wishes   to   examine 
fully  the  evidence  for  both  opinions,  is  referred 
to  the  controversy  between  Dr.  Murray  and  J. 


Davy,  in  the  34th  volume  of  Nicholson's  Jour 
nal;  to  Sir  II.  Davy's  paper,  in  the  Philoso- 
phical Transactions  for  1818,  p.  169 ;  to  the 
8th  vol.  of  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh;  the  Annals  of  Philosophy,  12th 
vol.  379,  and  xiii.  26,  285;  and  to  a  paper  by 
Mr.  R.  Phillips  in  the  new  series  of  that  work, 
vol.  1st,  p.  27,  on  the  action  of  chlorides  on 
water.'  Henry. 

363  Hydrogen  and  Iodine. — When  iodine  is- 
presented  to  nascent  hydrogen, a  union  is  produced 
and  a  gaseous  acid  is  the  result,  which  is  named 
hydriodic  acid.  This  gas  is  best  prepared  in 
any  quantity,  by  the  action  of  moistened  iodine, 
upon  phosphorus  It  is  received  over  mercury, 
but,  as  it  is  soon  decomposed  by  that  metal,  it 
should  be  transferred  as  soon  as  possible  into 
an  exhausted  vessel. 

364.  This  acid   is  colorless,  and  has  an  ex- 
tremely sour  taste ;  it  smells  like  muriatic  acid. 
Its  specific  gravity,  as  compared  with  hydrogen, 
is  given  as  59'3  to  1 ;  100  cubic  inches  weighing 
133-6  grains. 

365.  In  a  liquid  form  it  is  best  procured  by 
passing  sulphuretted  hydrogen  through  a  mix- 
ture of  iodine  and  water ;  sulphur  becomes  de- 
posited, and,  on  heating  and  filtering  the  liquor, 
we  obtain  a  pure  solution  of  hydriodic  acid. 

366.  This  liquid  acid  is  slowly  decomposed 
by  the  action  of  atmospheric  air,  its  hydrogen 
is  attracted  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  a  por- 
tion of  iodine   is  thereby  rendered  free,  which 
colors  the  liquor.     It  is  likewise  decomposed 
by  concentrated   sulphuric,  by  nitric  acid,  and 
by  chlorine.     Voltaic  electricity  rapidly  decom- 
poses the  liquid  acid,  iodine  appearing  at  the 
positive,  and   hydrogen   at   the   negative   pole. 
Although  the  acid  gas  so  powerfully  acts  upon 
mercury,   the    liquid   acid   does   not   affect   it. 
Those  bodies  called  oxides,  in  which  the  oxygen 
is    loosely    combined,    readily   decompose   the 
acid,  and  neutral  salts  are  obtained,  called  hy- 
driodates ;  a  process  of  preparing  the  hydriodate 
of  potass,  is  given  in  the  new  series  of  the  An- 
nals of  Philosophy,  vol.  vii.  p.  48.     We  men- 
tion this  on  account  of  the  salt  having  lately  been 
employed  as  an  important  article  in  medicine. 
See  MEDICINE. 

367.  Hydrogen     with     Fluorine     (Fluoric 
acid). — This  is  introduced  here  under  the  pre- 
sumption that  hydrogen  is  its  acidifying  princi- 
ple ;    'there  appears,'  says  Dr.  Henry,  'every 
reason  to  believe,  that  hydrogen  is  the  acidifying 
principle  of  fluoric  acid,  and  that,  in  the  same 
manner  as   hydrochloric  acid  is  constituted  of 
chlorine  united  with  hydrogen,  this  acid  also 
consists  of  a  peculiar  base,  belonging,  like  chlo- 
rine,   to  the   electro-negative   class  of   bodies, 
and  rendered  acid  by  combination  with  hydro- 
gen.'    To  this  basis,  though  not  yet  exhibited  in 
a  separate  state,  the  name  of  fluorine  has  been 
given,  and  the   acid  has  been  termed   hydro- 
fluoric. 

368.  This  acid  may  be  procured  in  a  liquid 
state,  by  distilling  the  powdered  fluor  spar,  with 
twice  its  weight  of  strong  sulphuric  acid.     Mr. 
Knight,  in  the  seventeenth  volume  of  the  Philo- 
sophical Magazine,   has    described    and   repre- 
sented an  ingenious  apparatus  for  the  purpose. 


394 


CHEMISTRY. 


369.  One  peculiarity  of  tne  fluoric  acid   is, 
that  it  acts  strongly  on  glass  ;  hence  it  has  been 
employed  for  etchings  on  glass.    This  peculia- 
rity makes  it  of  course  necessary  to  preserve  it 
in  bottles,  composed  of  materials  which  the  acid 
has  not  power  thus  to  corrode,  those  of  silver  or 
lead  may  be  used. 

370.  Fluorine,  it  will   be  recollected,  is  at 
present  rather  a  supposed  than  an  actually  de- 
monstrated base.     The  fluates  are  still  treated 
of  by  some  chemists  as  compounds  of  fluoric 
acid  with  metallic  oxides;    but  Sir  H.  Davy 
and  M.  Ampere,  as  we  have  already  stated,  con- 
sider them   as   compounds   of  metals,  with   a 
peculiar  principle  analogous  to  chlorides,  which 
has  been  called  fluorine  or  phtore.    '  Fluor  spar, 
for  example,  may  be  either  a  fluate  of  lime,  or 
a  fluoride  of  calcium.    And  in  the  same  manner 
that  we  convert,  in  imagination,  a  muriate  into 
a  chloride,  we  may  change  a  fluate  into  a  flu- 
oride.   Thus  fluor  spar    may   be    constituted 
either  of 


1  atom  of  fluoric  acid     .......     10 

,.  ,.         t  20  calcium  ) 
1  atom  of  lime   J  8  oxygen    J  ... 


28 


Weight  of  the  atom  of  anhydrous  > 

fluate  of  lime $ 

Or  it  may  consist  of 

1  atom  of  fluorine,  10  +  8 18 

1  atom  of  calcium 20 

Weight  of  the  atom  of  fluoride  of  calcium     38 

371.  It  should  be  added,  that  if  the  latter 
views  be  correct,  fluates,  like  muriates,  can  only 
be  capable  of  existing  either  in  solution,  or  in  a 
state  of  hydrous  salts.    The  actual  conversion 
of  a  fluoride  into  a  fluate  will  then  be  attended 
with  the  decomposition  of  an  atom  of  water ; 
and  1  of  hydrogen  by  weight  will  unite  with  18 
fluorine,  making  the  real  atomic  weight  of  fluoric 
acid  19,  while  8  of  oxygen  will  unite  with  the 
atom  of  metallic  base.    The  atomic  weight  of 
the  fluate  will,  in  that  case,  be  19  +  that  of  the 
alkaline,  or  earthy  base,  or  9  (~  to  an  atom  of 
water)  more  than  the  number  assigned  to  the 
anhydrous  compound.'  Henry. 

372.  NITROGEN,  OR  AZOTE  (seethe  article  AIR, 
p.  380,  No.  56, — Nitrogen,  or  azote,  (the  latter 
word  derived  from  the  Greek  <l  and  £w»/,on  account 
of  the  unfitness  of  the  gas  for  supporting  animal 
life),  was  first  recognised  as  a  distinct  aeriform 
fluid  in  1772.     In  addition  to  the  modes  of  pro- 
curing it,  as  stated  under  AIR,  we  may  give  the 
following :  fill  a  bottle  about  one-fourth  with  the 
solution  of  nitrous  gas,  in  liquid  sulphate  of 
iron,  or  with  liquid  sulphate  of  lime,  and  agitate 
it  with  the  air  that  fills  the  rest  of  the  bottle. 
During  the  agitation  the  thumb  must  be  firmly 
placed  over  the  mouth  of  the  bottle,  and  when 
removed  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  must  be  im- 
mersed in  a  cup-full  of  the  same  solution,  which 
will  supply  the  place  of  the  absorbed  air.    The 
agitation  and  admission  of  fluid  must  be   re- 
newed alternately,  so  long  as  any  absorption 
takes  place. 

^73.  Various  attempts  have  been  made,  but 


hitherto  without  success,  to  discover  the  ingre- 
dients of  which  nitrogen  is  composed,  supposing 
it  to  be  a  compound  body.  Sir  H.  Davy  ignited, 
by  means  of  intense  electricity,  potassium  in  ni- 
trogen gas,  and  hydrogen  appeared  as  the  result, 
some  nitrogen  being  at  the  same  time  found 
deficient.  Hence  it  was  supposed  that  the  ni- 
trogen had  suffered  some  decomposition,  but 
in  further  experiments  it  was  ascertained  that 
n  proportion  to  the  potassium  being  free  from 
a  coating  of  potassa,  which  contains  water,  in 
that  proportion,  was  less  hydrogen  found  to 
appear,  and  less  nitrogen  was  also  observed  to 
be  wanting. 

374.  Nitrogen  and  Oxygen. — Besides  the  pro- 
portion of  nitrogen  with  oxygen  that  forms  at 
mospheric  air,  and  for  an  account  of  which  we 
refer  to  the  article  AIR,  these  bodies  are  known 
to  unite  in  four  other  proportions,  and  constitute 
the  compounds  called, 

i.  Nitrous  oxide  of  Davy,  or  the  protoxide  of 
nitrogen. 

ii.  Nitric  oxide,  or  deutoxide  of  nitrogen, 
iii.  Nitrous  acid, 
iv.  Nitric  acid. 

375.  Nitrous  Oxide. — The  salt  called  nitrate 
of  ammonia  will  yield  this  gas,  by  being  heated 
in  a  retort  to  a  temperature  of  between  420  and 
430°.     It  may  be   collected  over  water.     The 
theory  of  its  formation  is  as  follows :  nitric  acid 
is  made  up  of  oxygen  and  nitrous  gas,  as  we 
shall  shortly  state;  the  component  parts  of  am- 
monia are  hydrogen  and  nitrogen.  By  an  increase 
of  temperature,  the  nitrous  gas  combines  with 
an  additional  dose  of  nitrogen,  and  thus  nitrous 
oxide  is  formed ;  the  oxygen  of  the  decomposed 
nitric  acid  unites  with  the  hydrogen  of  the  am- 
monia, and  forms  water. 

376.  Nitrous  oxide  gas  has  the  following  cha- 
racteristics :  it  is  heavier  than  common  air,  100 
cubic   inches   weighing,  according   to   Brande, 
46' 125    grains;    compared  with   hydrogen,    it? 
specific  gravity  is  20' 5  to  1.     Its  taste  is  sweet, 
and  its  smell  not  disagreeable.     It  is  easily  ab- 
sorbed by  water.     It  supports  combustion,  and 
a  taper  immersed  in  it  burns  brilliantly,  some- 
times with  a  crackling  noise.     Red-hot  charcoal 
burns  in  it  with  brilliancy,  and  consumes  some 
of  its   oxygen.     Many  of  the   metals  likewise 
decompose  it  at  a  high  temperature.     This  gas 
detonates  with  hydrogen,  and  '  the  best  analysis 
of  it  is  effected  in  this  manner  :  one  volume  of 
nitrous  oxide  requires  one  volume  of  hydrogen. 
This  mixture,  fired  by  the  electric  spark,  pro- 
duces water,  and  one  volume  of  nitrogen  remains. 
Now,  as  one  volume  of  hydrogen  takes  half  a 
volume  of  oxygen  to  form  water,  nitrous  oxide 
must  consist  of  two  volumes  of  nitrogen  and  one 
volume  of  oxygen  ;  these  three  volumes  being  so 
condensed,  in  consequence  of  chemical  union, 
as  only  to  fill  the  space  of  two  volumes.     The 
specific    gravity  of   nitrogen,    compared   with 
oxygen,  is  as  13  to  15.     Nitrous  oxide  therefore 
consists  of 

13      Nitrogen 
7-5  Oxygen 

Number  for  nitrous  oxide      '20-5 


CHEMISTRY. 


395 


r 


Or, 


Nitrogen 
13 


Oxygen 
7-5 


Nitrous 
Oxide 
20-5 


Brande. 

For  an  account  of  the  extraordinary  properties 
of  this  gas,  when  taken  into  the  lungs,  consult 
Researches,  Chemical  and  Philosophical,  chiefly 
concerning  nitrous  oxide,  extracts  of  which  will 
be  found  in  the  article  AIR,  in  this  Encyclo- 
paedia. 

377.  Nitric  Oxide,  Nitrous  Gas,  or  Deutoxide 
of   Nitrogen. — This   was  discovered  by  Hales 
(see  part  first),  but  its  properties  were  first  dis- 
tinctly investigated  by  Dr.  Priestley,  under  the 
denomination  of  nitrous  air.     Deutoxide  of  ni- 
trogen is  its  most  appropriate  appellation,  but  it 
is  now  very  generally  known  by  the  name  of  ni- 
trous gas. 

378.  This  gas  may  be  obtained  by  pouring 
nitric  acid  upon  copper  filings.     The  copper  is 
thus  made  to  unite  with  part  of  the  oxygen  of 
the  nitric  acid,  and  from  this  loss  the  nitric  acid 
is  converted  into  nitrous  gas,  which  has  the  fol- 
lowing properties. 

379.  It  is  heavier  than  common  air,  100  cubic 
inches   weighing,   according    to    Brande,   3T5 
grains.     When  well  washed  with  water  it  is  not 
acid,  and  will  not  be  found  to  redden  the  color 
of  litmus.     It  extinguishes  flame,  and  is  fatal  to 
animal  life.     If,  however,  phosphorus  and  char- 
coal be  introduced  into  it  in  a  state  of  ignition, 
they  continue  to  burn  with  vehemence.     It  does 
not  detonate  when  mixed  with  hydrogen.     Dr. 
Henry  has  shown,  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions for  1809,  that  when  mixed  with  ammonia 
an  electric  spark  produces  a  detonation. 

380.  Nitrous  gas  is    decomposed  by  almost 
all  bodies  that  attract  oxygen ;  and  some  bodies 
that  have  a  more  than  common  affinity  for  oxygen, 
reduce  the  gas  to  its  ultimate  elements. 

381.  Charcoal,  ignited  in  100  measures,  gives 
50  measures  of  nitrogen  gas  and  50  of  carbonic 
acid.     Arsenic,  zinc,  or  potassium,  when  heated 
in  it,  evolve  half  its  volume  of  nitrogen.     Gay 
Lussac   obtained,  as  the  mean  of  three  expe- 
riments, in  which  100  volumes  of  nitrous  gas 
were  decomposed,  in  two  by  sulphuret  of  barium, 
and  in  one  by  tin,  49-5  parts  of  nitrogen.     Ni- 
trous gas  should  consist,  therefore,  of  1  volume 
of  oxygen  -f-  1  volume  of   nitrogen,  neither  of 
which  elements  is  in  a  state  of  condensation. 
We  may  therefore  consider  nitrous  gas  as  con- 
stituted of  one  atom  of  nitrogen  —  14,  and  two 
atoms  of  oxygen  ~  16,  and  its  representative 
number  will  be  30.     It  composition  then  is 


Vols. 

Nitrogen  1 
Oxygen    1 


By  weight 

46-60     100 
53-40     114 


100 


214 


382.  No  distinct  information  is  obtained  res- 
pecting the  constitution  of  nitrous  gas  by  the 
long  continued  action  of  electricity.      One-half 
of  the  azote,  according  to  Mr.  Dalton,  is  liberated 
and  the  remainder  unites  with  the  evolved  oxy- 
gen and  composes  nitrous  acid. 

383.  Nitrons  gas,  and  chlorine,  when  both 
perfectly  dry  have  no  action  whatever  on  each 
other,  but  if  water  be  present,  there  is  an  im- 
mediate decomposition,  its  hydrogen  combining 
with  the  chlorine  to  form  muriatic  acid,  and  its 
oxygen  with  the  nitrous  gas,  to  form  nitrous 
acid. 

384.  Nitrous  gas  is  absorbed   by  the  green 
sulphate  and  muriate  of  iron  which  do  not  absorb 
nitrogen  gas.  To  ascertain,  therefore,  how  much 
nitrogen  gas  a  given  quantity  of  nitrous  gas  con- 
tains, let  it  be  agitated  in  a  graduated  tube  with 
one  of  these  solutions.     This  analysis  is  neces- 
sary previously  to  deducing,  from  its  effects  on  at- 
mospheric air,  the  proportions  of  oxygen  gas ;  for 
we  must  abstract  from  the  residuum  the  quantity 
of  nitrogen  introduced  by  the  nitrous  gas  (Henry). 
For  an  account  of  the  use  which  is  made  of 
nitrous  gas  in  eudiometrical  experiments  or  in 
ascertaining  the  purity  of  the  air  consult  the 
article  EUDIOMETER,  in  which  article  the  hypo- 
nitrous  acid  will  be  adverted  to,  the  per-nitrous 
acid  of  Gay  Lussac. 

385.  Nitrous   acid.—~Is    a    combination    of 
nitrous  gas  and  oxygen,  when  the  former  is  pre- 
sented to  the  •  latter  they  combine  and  a  gaseous 
compound  of  a  deep  yellow1  color  is  the  result ; 
two  measures  of  nitrous  gas  with  one  of  oxygen 
are  the  proportions  for  the  production  of  nitrou? 
acid  gas ;  the  admixture  occasions  a  condensation 
down  to  half,  or  according  to  Gay  Lussac  two- 
thirds  of  the  volume. 

386.  Nitrous  acid  gas  supports  the  combustion 
of  a  taper,  of  phosphorous,  and  of  charcoal ;  but 
it  extinguishes  sulphur.     It  is  freely  absorbed 
by  water,  and  the  solution  becomes  green.      Its 
specific  gravity  to  hydrogen  is  as  28-6  to  1.  100 
cubic  inches  weigh  64'5  grains. 

387.  To  form  the  liquid  acid  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  saturate  water  with  the  gas.    Dr.  Thom- 
son  states   that  it  may  be  procured   pure   by 
distilling  nitrate  of  lead,  but  the  product  of  this 
distillation  according   to  Gay  Lussac  is   hypo- 
nitrous  acid  this  last  chemist  states  that  the  ni- 
trous acid  is  decomposed  with  so  much  readiness 
when  it  comes  into  contact  with  solutions  of  al- 
kali, that  it  is  incapable  of  forming  a  distinct 
class  of  salts.     He  found  for  instance  that  with  a 
solution  of  potassa  it  afforded  hypo-nitrate,  and 
nitrate  of  potassa,  but  nothing  properly  entitled 
to  the  appellation  of  a  nitrite.    In  this  the  nitrous 
acid  differs  most  materially  from  the  substance 
next  to  be  noticed,  viz. 

388.  Nitric  acid. — Mr.  Cavendish  in  the  year 
1785  first  demonstrated  the  nature  of  this  acid. 
It  may  be  produced  by  passing  electric  sparks 
through  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  gases. 
The  following  method  is  given  for  effecting  this 
combination  : — Let  a  proper  tube  be  filled  with, 
and  inverted  in  mercury.  Pass  into  it  a  portion 
of  atmospheric  air,  or  an  artificial  mixture  of 
nitrogen  and  oxygen  gases,  in  the  proportion  of 
one  of  the  former  to  two  of  the  latter.  Let  an 


396 


CHEMISTRY. 


iron  wire,  lengtnened  out  with  one  of  platinum 
be  introduced  within  the  tube,  so  that  the  latter 
metal  only  may  be  in  contact  with  the  mixed 
gases  :  and  let  the  end  of  this  wire  be  distant 
about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  from  the  extremity 
of  the  upper  conducting  one.  When  the  appa- 
ratus is  thus  disposed,  pass  a  series  of  electric 
sparks  or  shocks  through  the  gases  for  several 
hours.  The  mixture  will  be  diminished  in  bulk ; 
will  redden  litmus  paper  when  enclosed  in  it ; 
and  will  exhibit  distinctly  the  smell  of  nitrous 
acid.  If  the  experiment  be  repeated  with  the 
addition  of  a  few  drops  of  solution  of  potassa  in 
contact  with  the  gases  we  shall  obtain  a  combi- 
nation of  nitric  acid  with  that  alkali.  The  pro- 
portions which  Mr.  Cavendish  found  necessary 
for  mutual  saturation  were  five  parts  of  oxygen 
gas  and  three  of  common  air,  or  seven  parts  of 
oxygen  gas  to  three  of  nitrogen  gas.  The  acid 
says  Dr.  H.,  from  whom  we  have  extracted  the 
above,  thus  obtained  being  constituted  of  100 
measures  of  nitrogen  +  233  oxygen,  appears 
therefore  to  have  been  intermediate  between 
nitrous  and  nitric  acid,  or  more  probably  consis- 
ted of  both  those  acids  in  a  state  of  mixture. 
No  evolution  either  of  light  or  heat  attends  this 
combination,  which  is  very  slowly  and  gradually 
effected. 

389.  Pure  nitric  acid  in  a  gaseous  state  is 
composed  according  to  Davy  of  29£  nitrogen  and 
70£  oxygen.     The  later  experiments  of  this  phi- 
losopher have  led  him  to  the  conclusion  that 
four  in  volume  of  nitrous  gas,   and  two  of  oxy- 
gen gas,  when  condensed  in  water,  absorb,  in 
becoming  nitric  acid,  one  in  volume  of  oxygen. 
Dr.  Wollaston  from  his  experiments  and  from 
those  of  Richter  and  Phillips  infers  that  nitric 
acid  contains  by  weight  50  of  oxygen  to  17-54  of 
nitrogen ;  in  volume  the  proportions  are  1  of 
nitrogen  and  2£  of  oxygen. 

390.  This  gas  may  be  decomposed  by  causing 
it  to  pass  through  a  porcelain  tube  heated  to  red- 
ness, and  by  this  treatment  it  is  resolved  into 
nitrous  acid  gas,  oxygen,  and  water. 

391.  For  preparing  the  liquid  nitric  acid  we 
are  directed,  in  the  last  edition  of  the  London 
Pharmacopoeia,  to  mix  two  pounds  of  nitrate  of 
potass  deprived  of  its  water  of  crystallisation  by 
heat  with  two  pounds  of  sulphuric  acid ;  a  glass 
retort  is  to  be  used  in  the  mixture  and  it  is  to  be 
distilled  in  a  sand-bath  until  a  red  vapor  rises. 
The  acid  in  the  receiver  is  to  be  mixed  with 
another  ounce  of  nitrate  of  potassa  and  again  to 
be  distilled.    This  rectification  Mr.  Philips  con- 
siders unnecessary. 

392.  The  muriatic  and  sulphuric  acids  that 
generally  contaminate  the  nitric  acid  of  commerce J 
may  be  separated  from  it  by  adding  nitrate  of 
baryta  to  precipitate  the  latter,  and  nitrate  of  sil- 
ver,  for   the  precipitation  of  the  muriatic  acid  : 
This  last  the  nitrate  of  silver  may  be  put  in  solu- 
tion, lo  the  suspected  acid,  first  and  continued  so 
longasitproduces  a  white  precipitate.    Whenthis 
ceases  pour  off  the  clear  liquor  and  add  in  the 
same  manner  the  nitrate  of  barytes ;    then  if 
the  acid  be  distilled  it  will  pass  off  perfectly 
pure. 

393.  Nitric  acid  is  without  color,  and  emits 
white  fumes  when  exposed  to  the  air,  it  is  ex- 


tremely corrosive ;  its  specific  gravity  is  modified 
by  the  water  it  contains.  At  about  40°  it  con- 
geals. It  absorbs  water  from  the  air,  increasing 
its  bulk,  and  lessening  its  specific  gravity.  A 
sudden  mixture  of  it  with  half  its  quantity  of 
water  occasions  the  evolution  of  heat.  It  re- 
tains its  oxygen  with  little  force ;  it  is  thus 
in  part  decomposed  by  the  sun's  rays,  which 
separates  oxygen  from  it,  and  all  combustible 
bodies  act  the  same  upon  it  with  more  or  less 
readiness,  in  proportion  to  their  affinity  for  oxygen. 
With  hydrogen,  at  as  high  temperature,  detona- 
tion is  occasioned,  essential  oils  are  inflamed  by 
nitric  acid  when  it  is  suddenly  poured  upon  them. 

394.  Nitro  Muriatic  Acid. — This  is  the  aqua 
regia  of  the  alchemists.     A  mixture  of  nitric 
and  muriatic  acids,  acquiring  the  power  of  dis- 
solving gold,  a  power  which  neither  of  the  acids 
possesses  separately.     The  mixture  of  these  two 
bodies  occasions  the  evolution  of  chlorine;   it 
would  appear  from  the  experiments   of  Sir  H. 
Davy,  that  a  mutual  decomposition  takes  place, 
the  hydrogen   of  the  muriatic   acid    abstracts 
oxygen  from  the  nitric,  and  in  consequence  the 
nitric  becomes  nitrous  acid,  water  is  formed, 
and,  as  we  have  said,  chlorine  evolves.     The 
mode  then  in  which  this  aqua  regia  affects  gold, 
is  by  causing  its  combination  with  chlorine. 

395.  Nitro-muriatic  salts  cannot  be  formed, 
for  when  this  combination  acts  upon  alkalis  or 
earths,  the  two  acids  as  far  as  they  combine  do 
so  separately  ;  and  metallic  bodies  dissolved  in 
aqua  regia  only  yield  muriates. 

396.  Nitrogen  and  Chlorine.     (Chlorine  of 
Nitrogen.) — We  are  recommended  by  Mr.Brande 
to  form  this  salt  by  filling  a  perfectly  clean  glass 
basin  with  a  solution  of  about  one  part  of  sal- 
ammoniac  in  twelve  of  water,  and  inverting  it 
in  a  tall  jar  of  chlorine.    The  saline  solution 
becomes  gradually  absorbed  and  rises  into  the 
jar,  a  film  forms  upon  the  surface,  and  it  ac- 
quires a  deep  yellow  color.     At  length  small 
globules,  looking  like  yellow  oil,  collect  upon 
its  surface,  and  successively  fall  into  the  basin 
beneath,  whence  they  are  most  conveniently  re- 
moved by  drawing  them  into  a  small  and  per- 
fectly clean  glass  syringe,  made  of  a  glass  tube 
drawn  to  a  pointed  orifice,  and  having  a  copper 
wire  with  a  little  tow  wrapped  round  it  for  a 
piston.     In  this  way  a  globule  may  be  drawn 
into    the  tube,  and    transferred    to    any  other 
vessel. 

397.  This  is  the  most  powerfully  explosive 
and  detonating  substance  that  is  known,  so  much 
so,  that  in  experiments  it  is  not  safe  to  employ 
a  quantity  larger  than  a  grain  of  mustard   seed. 
It  is  especially  thus  combustible  with  phosphorus 
and  the  fixed  oils.     Dulong,  who  discovered  the 
compound,  was  severely  wounded  in  his  first 
experiments  with  it,  and  Sir  H.  Davy  had  hi?  eye 
injured  by  it. 

398.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  fluid  Sir  H, 
Davy  has  determined  to  be .  1-653,  water  being 
1 .     It  is  not  congealed  even  by  a  very  high  de- 
gree of  cold,  it  is  said  not  to  become  solid  at 
16°.    There  are  some  bodies  termed  combustible 
with  which  it  seemed  to  unite  without  decom- 
position ;  nor  did  metals,  resins,  or  sugar,  cause 
it  to  explode. 


CHEMISTRY. 


397 


399.  It  is  best  analysed  by  heating  it  with 
mercury,  which  combines  with  the  chlorine,  and 
sets  the  nitrogen  free.     Sir  H.  Davy,  from  various 
experiments  of   this  kind,  concludes   that  the 
chlorine  of  nitrogen  is  composed  of  four  in  vo- 
lume of  chlorine  to  one  in  volume  of  nitrogen, 
or  of 

Chlorine     .     .     .     91-2 
Nitrogen     ...       8-8 

100-0 

We  are  told  by  Mr.  Brande,  that  it  yields  by 
decomposition  one  volume  of  nitrogen  and  four 
of  chlorine,  and  as  the  specific  gravity  of  nitrogen 
to  chlorine  is  as  13  to  33,5,  so  it  may  be  said  to 
consist  of  one  proportional  of  nitrogen,  +  4 
proportionals  of  chlorine,  or  1 3°  +  1 34«  by  weight, 
and  its  number  will  be  147. 

400.  Nitrogen  and  Iodine. — If  iodine  be  kept 
in  a  solution  of  ammonia  in  water,  hydriodic 
acid   is  produced,  and   besides  this,   a  brown 
powder  which  is  an   iodide   of  nitrogen,  and 
which   explodes  with  great  violence  upon  the 
slightest    touch.      This    compound    evaporates 
spontaneously  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 
When  it  detonates  it  gives  out  the  purple  fumes 
of  iodine  ;  but,  attempts  having  failed  to  collect 
the  products,  the  proportions  of  its  components 
have  not  been   ascertained.     Gay  Lussac  sup- 
poses it  to  consist  of  three  atoms  of  iodine,  and 
one  atom  of  nitrogen. 

CARBON. 

For  an  account  of  this  substance,  and  its  pro- 
duct carbonic  acid,  see  CARBON  and  CARBONIC 
ACID  in  the  present  work ;  see  also  the  word 
DIAMOND. 

401.  Carbonic    Oxide. — The  composition  of 
this  gas  was  first  made  known  by  Mr.  Cruick- 
shank  of  Woolwich,  an  account  of  which  will 
be  found  in  Nicholson's  Quarto  Journal,   the 
fifth  volume.     It  is  usually  obtained  by  subject- 
ing  carbonic  acid  to  the  action  of  substances 
which  abstract  from  the  acid  a  portion  of  its 
oxygen.     The  mixture  we  are  told  which  affords 
the  gas  in  its  purest  state,  is  formed  of  equal 
parts    of   carbonate  of   baryta   and  clean  iron 
filings;  these  should  be  introduced  into  a  small 
earthen  retort,  so  as  nearly  to  fill  it,  and  be  ex- 
posed to  a  red  heat. 

Whether  the  gas  be  obtained  by  this  or  any 
other  process,  it  must  be  washed  with  lime  or  a 
solution  of  potassa. 

402.  Carbonic  oxide  is  lighter  than  common 
air.     Its  specific  gravity  being  to  hydrogen'  as 
13'2  to   1,    100  cubic   inches  weighing   about 
thirty  grains.     It  is  destructive  of  animal  life. 
'  When  two  volumes  of  carbonic  oxide  and  one 
of  oxygen  are  acted  on  by  the  electric  spark, 
a    detonation     ensues,    and    two    volumes   of 
carbonic  acid  are  produced.     Whence  it  appears 
that  carbonic  acid  contains  just  twice  as  much 
oxygen  as  carbonic  oxide,  which,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  compouncfof  one  volume  of  oxygen 
and  one  volume  of  gaseous  carbon;  or  of  one 
proportional  of  carbon  .and  one  of  oxygen,  the 
latter  being  so  expanded  as  to  occupy  two  vo- 
lumes.    Brande. 

403.  Carbonic  oxide    is    inflammable,    and 


burns  with  a  blue  flame ;  but  when  mixed  with 
common  air  it  does  not  explode  as  do  other  in- 
flammable gases,  but  burns  silently.  A  mixture, 
however,  of  two  measures  of  it  with  one  of 
common  air,  forms  a  composition,  which  will 
explode  by  the  introduction  of  red  hot  iron,  or 
a  lighted  taper.  '  When  carbonic  oxide,  mingled 
with  an  equal  bulk  of  hydrogen  gas,  is  passed 
through  an  ignited  tube,  the  tube  becomes  lined 
with  charcoal.  In  this  temperature,  the  hydrogen 
attacks  oxygen  more  strongly  than  it  is  retained 
by  the  charcoal,  and  water  is  formed.  It  was 
found  also  by  Gay  Lussac  to  be  decomposed  by 
the  action  of  potassium,  which  combines  with 
the  oxygen,  and  precipitates  charcoal ;  and 
Dbbeireiner,  by  bringing  it  into  contact  with 
sulphureted  oxide  of  platinum,  converted  it 
into  half  its  volume  of  carbonic  acid.  Henry. 

404.  Carbon  with  chlorine.  When  carbureted 
hydrogen,  mixed  with  a  great  excess  of  chlorine, 
is  exposed  to  the  action  of  light,  a  white  crys- 
talline substance  is  formed,  which  Mr.  Faraday 
has  termed  perchloride  of  carbon.  This  sub- 
stance has  scarcely  any  taste  ;  it  resembles  cam- 
phor in  its  odor  ;  its  specific  gravity  is  about  2. 
It  does  not  conduct  electricity.  It  is  not  readily 
combustible,  but  burns  with  a  brilliant  light  in 
oxygen  gas.  It  is  not  soluble  in  water,  but  it 
freely  dissolves  in  ether  and  alcohol;  and  the 
solutions  deposit  arborescent  and  quadrangular 
crystals.  Volatile  and  fixed  oils  also  dissolve  it. 
It  is  not  acted  on  by  acids  nor  by  alkalis ;  but 
at  a  red  heat  most  of  the  metals  decompose  it. 
Chlorine  has  no  action  on  it.  Iodine  abstracts 
from  it  part  of  its  chlorine  when  applied  to  it  at 
a  high  temperature.  No  water  exists  in  it.  Hy- 
drogen gas  when  transmitted  along  with  it  through 
red  hot  tubes,  decomposes  it,  muriatic  acid  and 
charcoal  being  produced.  The  composition  of  the 
perchloride  seems  to  be  about  10  of  carbon,  and 
90  of  chlorine,  or  the  atomic  composition  is 
stated  as 

3  atoms  of  chlorine  ~  108 
2  atoms  of  carbon  ~     12 


Weight  of  its  atom  120 

405.  The  proto-chloride  of  carbon  is  a  fluid 
substance,  obtained  by  passing  perchloride  of 
carbon  through  a  heated  tube  containing  frag- 
ments of  rock  crystal.  This  is  a  limpid  colorless 
fluid,  a  non-conductor  of  electricity,  not  com- 
bustible except  when  held  in  the  flame  of  a  spirit 
lamp,  when  it  burns  with  a  yellow  light  and  emits 
much  smoke,  with  fumes  of  muriatic  acid  It 
does  not  become  solid  even  at  0°.  At  about  160, 
or  from  that  to  170,  it  rises  in  vapor. 

<406.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in 
alcohol,  ether,  and  the  oils.  Neither  alkalis  nor 
acids  produce  any  effect  upon  it.  It  dissolves 
chlorine,  iodine,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus.  The 
metals  when  treated  with  it  at  a  high  degree  of 
heat  absorb  its  chlorine,  and  set  free  the  carbon ; 
and  oxides,  in  the  measure  of  oxygen  they  con- 
tain, form  with  it  either  carbonic  acid  or  carbonic 
oxide.  Its  composition  is  stated  as  follows : — 
1  atom  of  chlorine  .  .  36 
1  atom  of  carbon  .  .  6 


42 


398 


CHEMISTRY. 


407.  Sub-chloride  of  carbon. — This  composition 
was  accidentally  discovered  during  the  distillation 
of  nitric  acid  from  crude  nitre  and  sulphate  of 
iron ;  only  a  few  grains  were  procured  at  each 
process.      Julin  (in  the  Ann.  of  Phil.  N.  S.  1st 
vol.  216)  states  its  properties  as  follows. — 

408.  It  is  white,  consists  of  small  soft  adhe- 
sive fibres,  sinks  slowly  in  water  ;  is  insoluble  in 
it  whether  hot  or  cold ;  is  tasteless ;  has  a  pecu- 
liar smell,  somewhat  resembling  spermaceti ;  is 
not  acted  on  by  concentrated  and  boiling  acids 
or  alkalis,  except  that  some  of  them  dissolve  a 
small  portion  of  sulphur ;  dissolves  in  hot  oil  of 
turpentine,  and  in  alcohol,  but  most  of  it  crystal- 
lises in  needles  on  cooling,  burns  in  the  flame  of 
a  lamp  with  a  greenish  blue  flame,  and  a  slight 
smell  of  chlorine ;  when  heated  melts,  boils,  and 
sublimes  between  350°,  and  450°  or  sublimes 
slowly  at  a  heat  of  250°,  forming  long  needles. 
Potassium  burns  with  a  vivid  flame  in  its  vapor, 
and  charcoal  is  deposited ;  and  a  solution  of  the 
residuum,  in  nitric  acid,  gives  a  copious  precipi- 
tate with  nitrate  of  silver. 

409.  Dr.  Henry  states  the  composition  of  this 
substance  as  follows  : — 


1  atom  of  chlorine 

2  atoms  of  carbon 


36 
12 

48 


He  proposes  to  name  it  provisionally,  the  sub- 
chloride  of  carbon. 

410.  Thus,  he   says,  we  have  three  distinct 
compounds  of  chlorine  and  carbon,  viz. 

At.  of  chlor.   At.  of  carb. 
The  pro-chloride ...     3       +       2 
The  proto-chloride    .     .     1       +       1 
The  sub-chloride  ...     1       -j-       2 

And  it  is  probable  that  another  chloride  of  car- 
bon will  hereafter  be  found,  consisting  of  two 
atoms  of  chlorine  and  one  of  carbon. 

411.  Carbon  with  chlorine  and  oxygen  (chlo- 
ro-carbonic  acid). — This  was  termed  by  its  dis- 
coverer, Dr.  John  Davy,  phosgene  gas,  from  its 
being  produced  through  the  agency  of  light.     It 
is  formed  by  mixing  equal  volumes  of  chlorine 
and  carbonic  acid  gases,  and  exposing  them  to 
the  sun's  rays ;  condensation  takes  place  to  half 
their  united  volumes,  and  a  gas  is  formed  of 
intolerably  pungent  odor.     Wiien  dissolved  in 
•water,  it  is  changed  into  carbonic  and  muriatic 
acid  gases.      Chloro-carbonic  acid  is  composed 
of  an  atom  of  carbon,  an  atom  of  oxygen,  and 
an  atom  of  chlorine.     It  condenses  four  times  its 
volume  of  ammoniacal  gas,  and  the  product  is  a 
peculiar  compound  of  a  white  color,  from  which 
the  more  powerful  acids  disengage  muriatic  and 
carbonic  acids,  but  it  is  dissolved  by  acetic  acid 
without   effervescence.      Several  of    the  metals 
decompose  it,  and  combine  with  the  chlorine, 
evolving  carbonic  oxide,  equivalent  in  volume  to 
the  original  gas.     Chloro-carbonic  acid  gas  af- 
fords then  an  example  of  an  acid  with  a  simple 
base,  and  two  acidifying  principles,  oxygen  and 
chlorine,  which  are  often  united  in  the  perfor- 
mance of  this  function.     Henry. 

412.  BORON. — This  substance  was  first  procu- 
red by  Sir  H.  Davy,  in  1808,  by  means  of  vol- 


taic electricity  on  boracic  acid.  It  was  subse- 
quently obtained  in  greater  abundance  and  with 
more  facility,  by  heating  equal  parts  of  potassium 
and  boracic  acid ;  in  this  experiment  of  Gay 
Lussac  and  Thenurd,  the  oxygen  of  the  boron  is 
taken  by  the  potassium  and  the  boron  is  thus  set 
free.  Berzelius  recommends  the  decomposition  of 
an  alkaline'boro  fluid  by  potassium,  as  the  best  me- 
thod of  obtaining  the  base.  Boron  appears  in  the 
form  of  a  brown  insoluble  powder,  burning  with 
brilliancy  when  heated  as  high  as  6000°,  the  com- 
bustion being  more  vivid  in  oxygen  gas,  or  if  the 
boron  be  mixed  with  substances  which  part 
freely  with  their  oxygen.  In  this  way  boracic 
acid  may  be  obtained ;  but  this  is  usually  procu- 
red by  dissolving  the  salt  called  borax  in  hot 
water,  and  adding  sulphuric  acid.  See  BORACIC 
ACID.  Boron  is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity. 

413.  The  experiments  upon  the  composition  of 
Boracic  acid,  says  Brande,  are  much  at  variance. 
Berzelius's   determination  probably   approaches 
nearest  the  truth ;  he  regards  it  as  containing  1  bo- 
ron -j-  3  oxygen.      If  therefore  we  consider  it  as 
consisting  of  1  proportional  of  boron  and  2  of 
oxygen,  the  number  representing  boron  will  be  5 
and  boracic  acid  will  consist  of 

5  Boron 
15  Oxygen 

20  Boracic  acid 

414.  Fluoboric  acid. — This  appears  to  be  a  com- 
pound of  fluorine  with  boron.     It  is  gaseous,  and 
may  be  obtained  by  distilling,  in  a  glass  retort, 
one  part  of  fused  boracic  acid,  two  of  fluor  spar, 
and  twelve  of  sulphuric  acid.     Sir  H.  Davy  and 
Gay  Lussac  procured  it  in  the  process  they  adop- 
ted in  order  to  obtain  fluoric  acid  gas  perfectly 
free  from  water,  viz.  that  of  distilling  perfectly 
dry  boracic  acid  with  fluate  of  lime.     Fluoboric 
acid  gas  seems  to  contain  no  water,  but  to  have 
so  strong  an   affinity  for  it  as  to  take  it  from 
other  gases  which  hold  it  in  combination.  Hence 
the  cloudiness  that  is  produced  by  mixing  this 
gas  with  atmospheric  air.     Water  copiously  dis- 
solves the  gas.     Its  specific  gravity  is  stated  to  be 
32'22  compared  with  hydrogen,  and  about  2-400 
with  atmospheric  air.     It  acts  energetically  on 
vegetable  and  animal  substances,  depriving  them 
of  moisture  and  hydrogen.  Potassium,  or  sodium, 
heated  in  it,  produces  fluate  of  potassa  or  soda, 
and  boron  is  separated. 

PHOSPHORUS. 

415.  This  is  obtained  by  distilling  concrete 
phosphoric   acid,  with  half  its  weight  of  char- 
coal at  a  red  heat.     The  mixture  is   put  into  a 
coated  earthen  retort  placed  in   a  small   porta- 
ble  furnace,  the   tube  of  the   retort  should  be 
immersed  about  half  an  inch  into  the  basin   of 
water.     A  great  quantity  of  gas  escapes,  some  of 
which  is  spontaneously  inflammable,  and,  when 
the  retort  has  obtained  a  bright  red  heat,  a  sub- 
stance  looking   like   wax,  of  a  reddish   color, 
passes  over :  this,  which  is  impure  phosphorus, 
may  be  rendered  pure  by  melting  ic  under  warm 
water,  and  squeezing  it  through  a  piece  of  fine 
shamoy  leather:  but  great  care  must  be  taken 
that  none  adheres  to  the  nails  and  fingers,  which 


CHEMISTRY. 


399 


would  inflame  on  taking  them  out  of  the  water, 
and  produce  a  painful  and  troublesome  burn, 
it  is  usually  formed  into  sticks,  by  pouring  it, 
when  fluid,  into  a  funnel  tube  under  water. 

416.  In  performing  this  distillation  a  high  tem- 
perature is  required,  so  that  the  furnace  should 
be  sufficiently  capacious  to  hold  a  body  of  char- 
coal piled  up  above  the  retort,  which,  as  earthen- 
ware becomes  permeable  to  the  vapor  of  phos- 
phorus at  a  red  heat,  must  be  coated  with  a 
mixture  of  slaked  lime  and  solution  of  borax.; 
this  mixture  may  be  laid  on  with  a  brush  in  two 
or  three  successive  coats,  and  forms  an  excellent 
verifiable  lute.     Brande. 

417.  Phosphorus  is  an  highly  inflammable  sub- 
stance :  its  specific  gravity  1-770.      When  ex- 
posed to  the  air  it  exhales  luminous  fumes  of  a 
peculiar  odor.     It  may  be  ignited  by  friction ; 
in  oxygen  gas  it  burns  very  brilliantly,  as  also  in 
nitrous  oxide,  nitrous  and  chlorine  gases.     Phos- 
phoric acid  is  the  product  of  a  rapid  combustion 
of  phosphorus  in  oxygen. 

418.  The  only  information  which  we  possess 
respecting  the  nature  of  phosphorus,  is  derived 
from  the  electro-chemical  researches  of  Sir  H. 
Davy.     When  acted  on  by  a  battery  of  500  pairs 
of  plates  in  the  same  manner  as  sulphur,  gas 
was  produced  in  considerable  quantities,  and  the 
phosphorus  became  of  a  deep  red  brown  color. 
The  gas  proved  to  be  phosphureted  hydrogen,  and 
was  equal  in  bulk  to  about  four  times  the  phos- 
phorus employed.      Hence  hydrogen  may  pro- 
bably be  one  of  its  components,  but  no  confirma- 
tion of  the  truth  of  this  view  is  derived  from  the 
recent   experiments   of   the   same    philosopher, 
which,   indeed,   are   rather   contradictory   to  it. 
Henry. 

419-  Phosphorus  is  capable  of  being  oxyge- 
nated in  various  ways.  Oxide  of  phosphorus  is 
formed  on  the  surface  of  the  material  when  it  is 
kept  for  some  time  under  water.  This  sub- 
stance is  inflammable,  but  not  so  volatile  or  fusible 
as  is  phosphorus  itself.  It  is  this  which  is  gene- 
rally employed  in  the  phosphoric  match  boxes, 
But  besides  this  oxide  there  are  three  acid  combi- 
nations of  phosphorus  and  oxygen,  which  have 
been  named  phosphorus,  hypophosphorus,  and 
phosphoric  acids. 

420.  Phosphorus  acid. — This  is  Dest  obtained 
by  subliming  phosphorus  through  corrosive  sub- 
limate (a  perchloride  of  murcury)  ;  then  mixing 
the   product  with  water,  and  heating  it  till  it 
becomes  of  the  consistence  of  a  syrup.     The  re- 
sulting liquid  is  a  compound  of  phosphorus  acid 
and  water,  and  it  has  therefore  been  named  hy- 
dro-phosphorus acid. 

421.  The  water  is  decomposed  in  the  opera- 
tion, its  hydrogen,  combining  with  the  chlorine, 
forms  muriatic  acid ;    and  its    oxygen,   uniting 
with  phosphorus,  forms  phosphorus  acid.     Heat 
expels  the  muriatic  acid  from  the  mixture. 

According  to  Davy,  100  grains  of  phosphorus 
acid  consists  of 

Phosphorus       .     .     .     59'7 
Oxygen 40'3 

100 

422.  Hypophosphorus  acid. — This  is  produced 
by  pouring  sulphuric  acid  upon  the  soluble  salt 


of  baryta,  resulting  from  the  action  of  phos- 
phuret  of  baryta  on  water.  The  acid  is  to 
be  added  in  just  sufficient  quantities  to  sepa- 
rate the  baryta,  and  the  solution  which  remains 
is  the  hypophosphorus  acid,  which,  when  evapo- 
rated to  a  certain  extent,  yields  a  sour  viscid 
liquid,  eagerly  attractive  of  oxygen,  and  unsus- 
ceptible of  crystallisation.  It  is  doubtful  whe- 
ther this  substance  may  not  be  a  hydracid,  or  a 
triple  compound  of  oxygen,  phosphorus,  and 
hydrogen ;  in  this  case,  as  Dr.  Henry  remarks, 
its  proper  appellation  would  be  hydro-phos- 
phorus acid. 

423.  Phosphoric  acid. — This  may  be  produced, 
of  course,  by  the  combustion  of  phosphorus  in 
oxygen,  or  in  atmospheric  air,  under  a  dry  bell 
glass ;  but  the  following  is  given  as  the  most 
economical  method. 

424.  On    20    pounds   of   bone,   calcined   to 
whiteness  and  finely  powdered,  pour  20  quarts 
of  boiling  water,  and  add  16£  pounds  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  diluted  with  an  equal  weight  of 
water  (in  general  much  less  of  sulphuric  acid 
is   employed).      Let  these   materials   be   well 
stirred  together,  and  be  kept  in  mixture  about 
24  hours.     Let  the  whole  mass  be  next  put  into 
a  conical  bag,  of  sufficiently  porous  and  strong 
linen,  in  order  to  separate  the  clear  liquor,  and  let 
it  be  washed  with  water,  till  the  water  ceases  to 
have  much  acidity  to  the  taste.     Evaporate  the 
strained  liquor  in  earthen  vessels,  placed  in  a  sand 
heat,  and  when  reduced  to  about  half  its  bulk,  let 
it  cool.   A  white  sediment  will  form  inconsider- 
able quantity,  which  must  be  allowed  to  sub- 
side ;  the  clear  solution  must  be  decanted  and 
boiled  to  dryness  in  a  glass  vessel.    A  white 
mass  will  remain,  which  is  the  dry  phosphoric 
acid.     This  may  be  fused  in  a  crucible,  and 
poured  out  on  a  clean  copper  dish.     A  transpa- 
rent glass  is  obtained,  which  is  the  phosphoric 
acid  in  a  glacial  state  ;  not,  however,  perfectly 
pure,  but  containing  sulphate  and  phosphate  of 
lime.     According  to  Fourcroy  and   Vauquelin, 
it  is,  in  fact,  a  super-phosphate  of  lime,  con- 
taining, in  100  parts,   only   30  of  uncombined 
phosphoric  acid,  and  70  of  neutral  phosphate  of 
lime ;  but,  when  prepared  with  the  full  propor- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid,  Mr.  Dalton  finds  only 
from  8  to  12   per  cent,  of  the  calcareous  phos- 
phates.     To  separate  the  latter,   Dr.  Higgins 
neutralised   the  acid    liquor,    obtained   by  the 
action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  bones,  with  carbo- 
nate of  ammonia,  '  the  neutral  liquor  was  de- 
canted and  evaporated,  till  a  portion  of  it  depo- 
sited crystals  on  cooling  ;  and  was  then  poured, 
while  hot,  into  a  thin  glass  balloon,  which  was 
placed  on  a  sand-bed  of  a  reverberatory  furnace. 
The  mouth  of  the  balloon  being  covered  with  an 
inverted  crucible,  the  fire  was  gradually  raised 
till  the  sand  pot  was  obscurely  red.      In  this 
way  the  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and   ammonia 
that  neutralised  the  phosphoric  acid,  were  both 
expelled,   and  the  phosphoric  acid  remained  in 
the  form  of  a  transparent  colorless  glass,  still 
retaining  a  minute  quantity  of  ammonia.     The 
glacial  acid  may  also  be  prepared  from  perfectly 
pure  phosphoric  acid,  which  has  been  made  by 
acting  on  phosphorus  with  nitric  acid.     It  is 
remarkable,  that,  according  to  the  experiments 


400 


CHEMISTRY. 


*f  Berthier,  it  contains  at  least  one-fourth  its 
weight  of  water,  a  proportion  which  could  scarcely 
4ave  been  expected  in  so  hard  a  substance.' 
Henry. 

425.  Phosphate  of  ammonia,  exposed  to  a  red 
Aeat  in  a  platinum  crucible,  affords  also  a  phos- 
phoric acid,  which  is  very  pure. 

426.  Phosphoric  acid  is  deliquescent  and  so- 
luble.    It  is  not  susceptible  of  decomposition 
by  the  action  of  heat  merely.     When  distilled  in 
an  earthern  retort,  with  about  half  its  weight  of 
charcoal  powdered,  the  glacial  acid  is  decom- 
posed ;  its  oxygen,  uniting  with  the  carbon,  forms 
carbonic  acid,  and  part  of  the  phosphorus  rises 
in  a  separate  state ;  another,  and  the  larger  part, 
escapes  in  combination  with  hydrogen.     In  this 
way  phosphorus  is  best  obtained. 

427.  Phosphorus   and   chlorine. — These    ele- 
ments combine  in  two  proportions,  constituting 
two  definite  compounds,  viz.  the  perchloride,  or 
bichloride,  and  the  chloride,  or  proto-chloride. 

428.  When  phosphorus  is  treated  with  chlo- 
rine, it  burns  with  a  pale  flame,  and  produces  a 
white  volatile  compound,  which  condenses  on 
the  sides  of  the  vessel.    This  is  the  perchloride 
of  phosphorus,  a  substance  which  was  for  some 
time  confounded  with  phosphoric  acid ;    but  its 
volatility  is  sufficient  to  mark  the   difference. 
It  rises  in  vapor  at  a  temperature  considerably 
below  212°.  It  acts  violently  on  water,  a  mutual 
decomposition    being    effected,    muriatic    and 
phosphoric  acids  being  the  result.    When  trans- 
mitted through  a  red  hot  porcelain  tube,  with 
oxygen,  phosphoric  acid  is  formed  and  chlorine 
evolved ;  this  fact  is  in  proof,  that  the  affinity  of 
oxygen  for  phosphorus,  is  stronger  than  chlo- 
rine. 

429.  The  chloride,  or  proto-chloride  of  phos- 
phorus.— Sir  H.  Davy  recommends  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  compound,  by  passing  the  vapor  of 
phosphorus   over  corrosive  sublimate,  which  is 
a  perchloride  of   mercury.       By   this   process 
calomel,  or  proto-chloride  of  mercury  is  formed, 
and  the  phosphorus  unites  with  one  proportional 
of  chlorine. 

430.  Chloride  of  phosphorus  is  a  liquid  of 
the  specific  gravity  1-45.     It  soon,  upon  stand- 
ing, deposits  a  portion  of  phosphorus,  and  be- 
comes limpid  and  without  color.    It  is  converted 
into  the   perchloride   by   chlorine.      Ammonia 
separates    phosphorus,    and  produces   a  triple 
compound. 

431.  It  acts  upon  water  with  much  energy, 
and  produces  muriatic  and  phosphorus  acids; 
while  the   perchloride    produces    muriatic  and 
phosphoric  acids,   '  for  as,   in  the  perchloride, 
there   are  two  proportionals  of  chlorine,  so  in 
acting   upon   water,   two   of  oxygen  must   be 
evolved,  which,  uniting  to  one  of  phosphorus, 
generate    phosphoric    acid.      The   chloride   of 
phosphorus,  on  the  contrary,  containing  only  one 
proportional  of  chlorine,  produces  muriatic  acid, 
and  phosphoric  acid,  when  it  decomposes  water. 
But  the  phosphorus  acid  thus  produced,  always 
contains  water,  which  it  throws  off  when  heated 
in  ammonia,  forming,  with  that  alkali,  a  dry 
phosphate.      This  experiment  shows   that   the 
hydro-phosphorus  acid  consists  of  two  propor- 
tionals of  phosphorus  acid,  zr  37  +  1  water 
=  8-5.' 


432.  Phosphorus  with  Iodine. — Iodide  of  phos- 
phorus is  formed  by  the  simple  combination  of 
iodine  with  phosphorus ;  the  compound  is  of  a 
reddish  brown  color,  and  if  the  components  be 
quite  dry  when  they  are  made  to  come  into  con- 
tact, their  combination  produces  no  evolution  of 
gas;  but  if  they  be  moistened,  then  hydriodic 
acid  is  formed  from  the  union  of  iodine  with  the 
hydrogen  of  the  water,  a  little  subphosphureted 
hydrogen  is  also  produced,  and  phosphorus  re- 
mains in  solution. 

SULPHUR. 

433.  Sulphur,  or  brimstone,  is  met  with  either 
as  a  compact  solid  body,  usually  in  the  shape  of 
long  rolls,  or  in  the  form  of  a  light  powder, 
called  flower  of  sulphur.     It  is  principally  a  mi- 
neral product.     The   sulphur   of  commerce  is 
generally  purer  than  that  which  is  met  with  in 
this  country,  which  is  usually  combined  with  a 
portion   of  the   metal   from  which  it  has  been 
separated. 

434.  Sulphur  volatilises   at  about   the   tem- 
perature of  180°,  if  the  heat  be  carried  up  to 
225°  it  liquifies ;  by  a  rapid  increase  of  tempe- 
rature up  to  from  350  to  400°,  it  becomes  viscid, 
and  of  a  deep  brown  color.    It  sublimes  at  600°, 
and  after  fusion  it  forms  a  crystalline  fibrous 
mass. 

435.  If  sulphur  be  converted  into  vapor  in 
close  vessels,  it  is  again  collected  in  a  solid  form ; 
what  remains  has  been  named  sulphur  vivum. 

436.  For  pharmaceutical  purposes  it  is  occa- 
sionally precipitated  from  its  alkaline  combina- 
tions by  an  acid,  and  is  then  the  milk  of  sulphur, 
or  precipitated   sulphur  of  the  pharmacopoeia. 
This  precipitated  sulphur  is  considered  by  Dr. 
Thomson  as  a  compound  of  sulphur  and  water. 

437.  We  may  judge  of  the  purity  of  sulphur 
by  heating  it  gradually  upon  a   piece   of  pla- 
tinum leaf;  when,  if  free  from  impurities,  it  will 
totally   evaporate.      Boiling   oil    of  turpentine 
will  also  dissolve  sulphur  completely,  if  it  be 
pure. 

438.  That    sulphur    contains   hydrogen  was 
proved  by  the  experiments  of  Sir  H.  Davy,  who 
produced   sulphureted    hydrogen    from    it    by 
powerful  voltaic  influence;   and  the  action  of 
potassium  upon  it  demonstrates  the  same  thing, 
these  two  bodies  enter  energetically  into  combi- 
nation, and  sulphureted  hydrogen  is  evolved  with 
intense  heat  and  light. 

439.  But  whether  hydrogen  be  an  incidental 
or  inherent  ingredient  of  sulphur  is  considered 
as  still  doubtful,  both  by  Davy  and  Berzelius ; 
the  latter  chemist  found,  upon  heating  oxide  of 
lead  with   sulphur,  that  the  quantity  of  water 
produced  was  not  sufficient  to  indicate  any  de- 
finite proportion  of  hydrogen  in  sulphur. 

440.  Sulphur  and  Oxygen. — Two  well-defined 
compounds  are  formed  by  the  combination  of 
sulphur  with  oxygen,  viz.  sulphurous  and  sul- 
phuric  acid.     The   first   may   be   obtained   by 
several  processes :    1 ,  By  burning    sulphur  in 
oxygen  gas.   2.  By  heating  mercurial  oxide  with 
sulphur.     3.  By  boiling  mercury  in  sulphuric 
acid;    and,  4.   By  burning  sulphur,  at  a   low 
temperature,    in  common   air,   under  a  glass 
bell. 


CHEMISTRY. 


401 


441.  Sulphurous  acid  has  a  suffocating  smell, 
resembling  that  which  attends  the  burning  of 
sulphur  itself.     It  is  more  than  twice  as  heavy 
as  atmospheric  air.     In  a  gaseous  state  it  extin- 
guishes burning  bodies ;  and  it  is  fatal  to  animal 
Jife  when  exclusively  respired. 

442.  Water  absorbs  about  thirty-three  times 
its  bulk,  or  one-eleventh  its  weight,  and  caloric 
is  evolved  by  the  union.     The  watery  solution 
does  not,  as  acids  in  general  do,  redden  an  in- 
fusion  of   litmus,  but  it    entirely  destroys   its 
color.     Hence  its  use  in   bleaching  several  sub- 
stances ;  it  is  employed  sometimes  to  check  fer- 
mentation in  wines. 

443.  Sulphurous  acid  maybe  converted  to  the 
state  of  sulphuric,  by  imparting  oxygen  to  it. 
If  water,  impregnated  with  sulphurous  acid,  be 
exposed  to  oxygen  gas,  the  oxygen  gradually 
becomes  absorbed,  and  thus  is  sulphuric  acid 
formed.     By  the  addition  of  a  little  oxide  of 
manganese  to  water  saturated  with  sulphurous 
acid  gas,  sulphuric  acid  will  be  produced.   This 
gas  is  likewise  formed  into  sulphuric  acid  by  ad- 
mixture with  chlorine,  if  the  gases  are  in  contact 
with  water ;  the  hydrogen  of  the  water  in  this 
case  combines  with  the  chlorine,  and  the  oxygen 
with  the  sulphurous  acid.     The  contact  of  water 
is  also  necessary  to  the  formation  of  the  sulphuric 
acid,  when  the  decompositions  are   effected  by 
means  of  nitrous  acid  gas. 

444.  Sulphurous  acid  gas  is  decomposed  by 
the  application  of  heat,  in  contact  with  some 
combustible  substances.  A  mixture  of  sulphurous 
acid  and  hydrogen  gases,  passed  through  a  red- 
hot  porcelain  tube,  will  be  attended  by  the  fol- 
lowing decomposition  and  result;  the  oxygen  of 
the  acid  will  combine  with  the  hydrogen,  and 
form  water,  while  sulphur  will  be  deposited  in  a 
separate  form. 

Sulphurous  acid,  we  are  told,  consists  of 

1  atom  of  sulphur       .     .     .     16 

2  atoms  of  oxygen       ...     16 

32 

the  relative  weight  of  the  atom  of  sulphur  being 
double  that  of  oxygen. 

In  volumes,  it  is  constituted  of 
1  vol.  of  vapor  of  sulphur  )         ,         ,.  , 
1  vol.  of  oxygen      .     .      j  condensed  into  1  vol. 

445.  Sulphuric  acid  was    formerly  obtained 
from  sulphate  of  iron  (green  vitriol)  by  distilla- 
tion.    It  is  now  generally  formed  by  burning  a 
mixture  of  about  eight  parts  of  sulphur  with  one  of 
nitre,  in  close  leaden  chambers,  containing  water. 
See  Parkes'  Chemical  Essays,  vol.  ii.      See  also 
the  first  part  of  the  present  essay. 

446.  Sulphuric  acid  is  a  limpid  and  colorless 
fluid  ;   it   is  oily  in  its  consistence,  hence  the 
vulgar  name  of  oil  of  vitriol.     A  very  consider- 
able heat  is  evolved  when  sulphuric  acid  and 
water    are   suddenly  mixed.     It   is   acrid   and 
caustic  ;  it  is  nearly  twice  as  heavy  as  water.    It 
may  be  frozen  by  a  sufficient  reduction  of  tem- 
perature;   and  when,  at  the  specific  gravity  of 
1-780,  it  requires  forits  congelation  even  a  less 
degree  of  cold  than  is  sufficient  to  freeze  water. 
All   combustible   matters  decompose  sulphuric 
acid,  it  is  therefore  necessary  in  preserving  it,  to 

VOL.  V. 


exclude  such  matters  of  every  kind,  and  to  keep 
it  in  bottles  with  well-fitting  glass  stoppers. 

447.  The  atomic  weights  of  sulphur  and  sul- 
phuric acid  are  stated  as  follows : 

Weight  of  the  atom  of  sulphur     ....     16 
Real  sulphuric  acid  —  1  atom  sulphur  -f-  3  > 

.oxygen        $ 

Liquid  sulphuric  acid  ~  1  real  acid  -J-  1  ) 

water $ 

448.  Sulphuric  acid  is  largely  consumed  in 
a  variety  of  manufactures.     It  is  used  by  the 
makers   of  nitric,  muriatic,   citric,  and   tartaric 
acids ;    by   bleachers,    dyers,  tin-plate  makers, 
brass-founders,  and  gilders.     For  these  purposes 
it  is  generally  sufficiently  pure  as  it  comes  from 
the  wholesale  manufacturer;   but  as  traces   of 
lead,  lime,  and  potassa  are  usually  found  in  it,  it 
often  requires  to  be  purified  by  distillation,  for 
the  use  of  the  experimental  chemist. 

449.  The  distillation  of  this  acid  in  glass  re- 
torts, requires  some  precaution,  in  consequence 
of  the  violent  jerks  which  the  production  of  its 
vapor  occasions,  and  which  often  break  the  vessel ; 
this   may  be  prevented  by  putting  some  strips 
of  platinum  into  the  acid  ;  it  then  boils  quietly, 
and  it  is  only  necessary  to  take  care  that  the  neck 
of  the  retort  and  receiver  are  not  broken,  in 
consequence  of  the  high  temperature  of  the  con- 
densing acid.     This  very  useful  contrivance,  says 
Mr.  Brande,  was  first  shown  me  by  Mr.  James 
Smith. 

450.  If  the  acid  of  commerce   contain  dis- 
solved sulphate  of  lead,  it  becomes  turbid,  on 
dilution,  so  that  its  remaining  clear  when  mixed 
with  water,  is  some  proof  of  its  purity,  as  far,  at 
least,  as  lead  is  concerned. 

451.  When  sulphuric  acid  was  procured  by 
the  distillation  of  green  vitriol  it  was  frequently 
observed  that  a  portion  concreted  into  a  white 
mass  of  racliated  crystals.     The  same  substance 
has  also  been  remarked  as  occasionally  formed 
in  the  acid  of  the  English  manufacturers.    It  has 
been  called  glacial  or  fuming  sulphuric  acid,  and 
is  by  Dr.  Thomson  considered  as   the  pure  or 
anhydrous  acid  ;  that  is  sulphuric  acid  free  from 
water,  it  appears  however  probable  that  it  consist? 
of  sulphuric  acid  combined  with  a  portion  o.p 
sulphurous  acid. 

452.  It  has  long  been  an  object  with  the  ma- 
nufacturer to  obtain  sulphuric  acid  without  the 
aid  of  nitre,  and  a  patent  has  been  obtained  for  a 
process  of  this  kind,  invented  by  Mr.  Hill.     It 
consists  in  submitting  coarsely  powdered  iron 
pyrites  (sulphuret  of  iron)  to  a  red  heat,  in  cy- 
linders communicating  with  a  leaden  chamber 
containing  water.     The  sulphur,  as  it  burns  out 
of  the  pyrites,  appears  at  once  to  pass  into  the 
state  of  sulphuric  acid.     Brande. 

453.  The  theory  of  the  formation  of  sulphuric 
acid,  when  it  is  procured  from  sulphur,  is  generally 
that  of  sulphur  acquiring  a  certain   quantity  of 
oxygen,  either  from  the  atmosphere  or  from  the 
bodies  with  which  the  sulphur  is  made  to  come 
in  contact ;  when  the  acid  is  formed  by  burning 
nitre  and  sulphur  together,  sulphurous  acid  is 
generated,  while  the  nitre  occasions  the  produc- 
tion of  nitric  oxide,  which  produces  nitrous  acid 
gas.     '  When  these  gases,  i.  e.  sulphurous  and 
nitrous  acids,  are  perfectly  dry  they  do  not  act 

2  D 


402 


CHEMISTRY. 


upon  each  other,  but  moisture  being  present  in 
small  quantities  they  form  a  white  solid,  which  is 
instantly  decomposed  when  put  into  water.  The 
nitrous  acid  reverts  to  the  state  of  nitrous  oxide, 
having  transferred  one  additional  proportional 
of  oxygen  to  the  sulphurous  acid,  and  with  water 
producing  the  sulphuric  acid  ;  while  the  nitric 
oxide  by  the  action  of  the  air  again  affords 
nitrous  acid,  which  plays  the  same  part  as 
before.' 

454.  Sulphuric  acid  is  susceptible  of  decom- 
position, by  being  treated  with  combustible  sub- 
stances at  high  temperatures.     Indeed  heat  alone 
will  decompose  it.       If  the  vapor  of  the  acid 
be  passed  through  a  red  hot  tube  of  glass  or 
porcelain  it  is  resolved  into  sulphurous  acid  gas 
and  oxygen  gas.    Platinum  wires,  communicating 
with  the  extremities  of  a  galvanic  pile,  will  also 
decompose  the  acid,  and  jt  will  be  found  that,  at 
the  end  of  the  negative  wire,  floculi  of  sulphur 
make  their  appearance,  while  at  the  positive  end 
oxygen  gas  is  evolved.      In  this  experiment  some 
sulphate  of  platinum  is  said  to  be  formed,  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  the  acid  upon  the  pla- 
tinum,   and   indicated   by   the   presence   of    a 
brownish  tinge. 

455.  The  hypo-sulphurous  acid  does  not  exist, 
as  do  the  two  acids  just  mentioned,  separable  from 
a  base  ;  nor  does  hypo-sulphuric  acid. 

456.  Sulphur  with  chlorine. — Chloride  of  sul- 
phur was  first  described  by  Dr.  Thomson,  in 
Nicholson's  Journal.  Upon  sulphur  being  heated 
with  chlorine  more  than  twice  its  weight  of  the 
gas  is  absorbed,  the  product  is  a  greenish  yellow 
fluid,  which  exhales  suffocating  fumes  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air ;  its  specific  gravity  is  1-6.      It 
is  volatile  below  200°  of  Fahrenheit.     It  does 
not  affect  vegetable  blues  when  they  are  in  a  dry 
state,  but  upon  water  being  added,  it  instantly 
reddens  them,  sulphur  becomes  deposited,  and 
sulphurous,  sulphuric,  and  muriatic  acids  are 
formed  from  the  decomposition  of  the  water,  its 
hydrogen  uniting  with  the  chlorine,  and  its  oxy- 
gen combining  with  a  portion  of  the  sulphur  to 
form  the  sulphuric  and  sulphurous  acids,  while 
another  portion  of  sulphur  is,  as  above  stated, 
thrown  down. 

457.  Sulphur  and  iodine  readily  combine  at  a 
gentle  heat  and  form  a  black  compound,  not  un- 
like the  sulphuret  of  antimony.     This  was  first 
described  by  Gay  Lussac  in  the  An.  de  China. 
91 .     Its  precise  composition  does  not  seem  to  be 
known. 

SELENIUM. 

458.  Berzelius  detected  this  substance  in  the 
sulphur  of  Fahlun  in  Sweden,  and  he  at  first 
supposed  it  to  be  tellurium.    The  process  jof 
extracting  it  is  described  in  the  13th  volume  of 
the  Annals  of  Philosophy.     This  material  has 
since  been  discovered  in  the  volcanic  rocks  of 
Lipari ;  and  more  recently  several  minerals  from 
the  east  have  been  found  to  contain  it  by  the 
analysis  of  Mr.  Henry  Rose  (See  An.  de  Chim. 
et  de  Phys.  xxix.  113.)      A  seleniuret  of  lead 
has  also  been  analysed  from  the  Lawrence  Mine 
at  Clausthal,  which  bore  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  galena,  and  from  "which  selenium  was 
sublimed  by  heating  the  material  in  a  glass  tube. 


459.  The  color  of  selenium  is   gray,  but  it 
varies  considerably ;  it  has  a  bright  metallic  lus- 
tre, and  by  most  chemists  is  arranged  among  the 
metals.     When  heated  before  a  blow-pipe  it  ex- 
hales fumes,  with  a  smell  like  that  of  horse-radish, 
which  is  so  powerful  that  it  is  said  a  fragment 
not  exceeding  l-50th  of  a  grain  is  sufficient  to 
impregnate  the  air  of  a  large  apartment. 

460.  Selenium  combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  when  heated.     The  selenic  oxide  gas  is  but 
sparingly  soluble  in  water.     It  does  not  unite 
with  liquid  alkalis.     It  seems  to  belong  to  the 
same  class  of  oxides  as  the  carbonic  oxide. 

461.  Selenic  Acid. — If  selenium  be  heated  to 
dryness  in  combination  with  nitric  acid,  a  volatile 
and  crystallisable  compound  is  formed,  which  is 
the  selenic  acid.     This  may  likewise  be  obtained 
by  dissolving  selenium  in  nitric  and  nitro-mu- 
riatic  acid,  and  evaporating  the  solution  in  a 
retort.     This  acid  unites  with  most  bases  in  two 
proportions,  forming  a  class  of  salts  called  sele- 
niates,  biselianates,  &c.      See  Annales  de  Chimie 
et    Physique,    torn.    vii.       Thomson's    Annals, 
ii.  and  xii. 

462.  Selenium    absorbs   chlorine   gas,   with 
which  it  forms  a  brown  liquid,  that  by  the  ad- 
dition of  more  chlorine  is  changed  into  a  white 
solid  mass.     Berzelius  states  this  to  be  a  com- 
pound of  muriatic  and  selenic  acids,  but  it  is 
probably  composed,  says  Dr.  Henry,  of  chloride 
of  selenium  and  the  latter  acid. 

After  treating  of  the  acidifiable  bodies  (not 
metallic),  and  their  combination  with  oxygen, 
chlorine,  iodine,  and  fluorine,  the  author,  whose 
arrangement  we  hitherto  adopt,  proceeds  to  con- 
sider their  combination  with  each  other. 

NITROGEN  AND  HYDROGEN.     (Ammonia). 

463.  Ammonia  in  a  gaseous  form  may  be  ob- 
tained by  mixing  equal  parts  of  muriate  of  am- 
monia and  dry  quicklime,  or  two  of  the  former 
and  one  of  the  latter ;  they  are  to  be  introduced 
into  a  small  glass  retort,  a  gentle  heat  applied, 
and  the  gas  that  is  evolved  collected  over  mer- 
cury. 

464.  This  gas  has  a  strong  pungent  smell ;  it 
has  a  specific  gravity  to  hydrogen  of  8  to  1,  100 
cubical  inches  weighing  a  little  more  than  18 
grains.  It  extinguishes  flame,  and  is  fatal  to  animal 
life  ;  it  converts  most  vegetable  blues  to  green, 
and  yellows  to  red;     thereby  establishing   its 
alkaline  properties,  and  it  has  obtained  the  vul- 
gar appellation  of  volatile  alkali.     It  is  readily 
absorbed  by  water,  and  when  the  liquid  is  sa- 
turated with  the  gas,  liquid  ammonia  is  produced ; 
which  may  be  formed  in  the  way  recommended 
by  Mr.  R.  Phillips.     Remarks  on  the  London 
Pharmacopeia,  for  an  account  of  this  process  see 
AMMONIA  and  PHARMACY. 

465.  Ammoniacal  gas  may  be  analysed  by 
applying  an  electric  spark  to  a  mixture  of  am- 
monia and  oxygen  gas,  which  inflames  it,  in  the 
same  way  that  the  electric  spark  fires  a  mixture 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  gases.     Dr.  Henry  first 
observed  this,  and  published  the  announcement 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1809. 

466.  To  obtain  accurate  results  we  are  directed 
to  '  use  less  oxygen  at  first  than  is  sufficient  to 
saturate  the  whole  hydrogen  of  the  alkali,  for  h* 


C  II  E  M  1  S  T  R  Y. 


403 


the  full  proportion  of  oxygen  be  employed,  part 
of  the  nitrogen  also  is  condensed  into  nitric  acid. 
In  the  first  combustion  of  100  volumes  of  am- 
monia, we  may  use  therefore  fifty  measures  of 
oxygen,  which  will  be  entirely  consumed.  To 
the  residue  we  may  add  3  oz.  or  35  measures 
more,  and  inflame  the  mixture  by  an  electric 
spark,  rioting  the  diminution.  Of  this  diminu- 
tion one-third  is  oxygen,  and,  adding  to  it  the 
oxygen  spent  in  the  first  combustion,  we  have 
the  whole  oxygen  consumed .  This  being  doubled, 
shows  the  volumes  of  hydrogen  in  100  of  am- 
monia, which  will  generally  prove  to  be  150. 
The  nitrogen  may  be  learned  by  deducting  from 
that  found  by  heat  in  the  residue,  the  quantity 
introduced  as  an  impurity  of  the  oxygen,  and  it 
will  be  found  that  when  the  process  has  been 
carefully  performed,  the  remainder  amounts  to 
fifty  volumes/  Henri/. 

467.  Ammonia  is  decomposed  by  passing  it 
through  a  red-hot  iron  tube ;  it  thus  becomes 
expanded,  and  is  resolved   into  hydrogen  and 
nitrogen  gases.     It  is  also  decomposed  by  pass- 
ing it  over  black  oxide  of  manganese,  heated 
red-hot  in  a  porcelain  tube ;  water  and  nitrous 
acid  gases  are  formed,  as  well  as  nitrate  of  am- 
monia. 

468.  The  decomposition  of  many  animal  sub- 
stances occasions  the  production  of  ammonia ; 
it  is  also  formed  during  the  violent  action  of 
nitric  acid  upon  some  of  the  metals,  and  by 
moistened  iron  filings  exposed  to  nitrogen  gas, 
in  which  last  case,   the   iron   decomposes   the 
water,  and  the  liberated  hydrogen  combines  with 
the  nitrogen  to  form  ammonia. 

469.  Ammonia  combines  with  the  acids,  form- 
ing a  class  of  salts  which  are  generally  soluble 
in  water,  and  whiph  are  for  the  most  part  dis- 
sipated, and  even  decomposed,  by  heat.     See 
AMMONIA  in  the  body  of  the  work. 

470.  Chlorine  and  Ammonia. — When  the  gases 
of  chlorine  and  ammonia  are  mixed,  a  partial 
decomposition  of  the  ammonia  is  occasioned, 
nitrogen  is  liberated,  and  muriate  of  ammonia 
formed. 

Ammoniacal  Salts. 

471.  Ammonia    and    chloric  acid. — Chlorate 
of  ammonia  is  formed  either  by  saturating  car- 
bonate of  ammonia  with  chloric  acid,  or  by  pre- 
cipitating the  solution  of  any  earthy  chlorate  by 
it.      It  exists  in  needle-shaped  crystals,  which 
are  exceedingly  soluble  in  water,  and  detonate 
when  thrown  upon  hot  coals  with  a  red  flame. 
The  exact  proportion  of  its  components  has  not 
been  demonstrated. 

472.  Ammonia  and    iodine. — Upon   the  ad- 
dition of  iodine  to  liquid  ammonia,  a  part  unites 
to  the  hydrogen  of  the  ammonia  and  becomes 
hydriodic  acid,  while  another  part  combines  with 
its  nitrogen,  and  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a 
black  powder.     This  compound  of  nitrogen  and 
iodine  detonates  with  extreme  readiness. 

473.  lodate  of  ammonia,  or  ammonia  saturated 
with  iodic  acid,  exists  in  small  crystals  of  an 
indeterminate  form  ;  when  heated  it  is  readily 
decomposed,  it  detonates,  and   iodine   escapes ; 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  water  are  also  formed. 

474.  Hydrivdate  of  Ammonia   is  formed   of 


equal  volumes  of  ammoniacal  and  hydroidic  acid 
gases.     It  crystallises  in  cubes. 

475.  Hydrochlorute  of  Ammonia,  Muriate  of 
Ammonia,  or  Sal-ammoniac. — Mix  equal  volumes 
of  ammoniacal  and  muriatic  acid  gases,  and  they 
will   become   entirely   condensed   into  a  white 
solid,  which  solid  is  sal-ammoniac,  as  it  is  com- 
monly called.      For  the  commercial  and  other 
modes  of  obtaining  it,  consult  the  article  AM- 
MOMAC,  SAL. 

476.  '  Muriate  of  ammonia  exhibits  the  fol- 
lowing properties. 

It  is  volatilised  without  being  liquified  or  de- 
composed, or,  in  other  words,  may  be  sublimed. 
Sir  H.  Davy  finds  that  it  may  even  be  passed 
without  alteration  through  glass  or  porcelain 
tubes,  heated  to  redness.  When,  however,  it  is 
transmitted  over  ignited  metals,  it  is  decomposed 
into  its  gaseous  elements.  It  is  readily  soluble  in 
water,  three  parts  and  a  half  of  which,  at  60°, 
take  up  one  of  the  salt.  During  its  solution 
much  caloric  is  absorbed.  In  boiling  water  it 
is  still  more  soluble ;  and  the  solution  in  cooling 
shoots  into  regular  crystals. — It  slightly  attracts 
moisture  from  the  air. — On  the  addition  of  a 
solution  of  pure  potassa,  or  pure  soda,  the 
alkali  is  disengaged,  as  is  evinced  by  the  pun- 
gent smell  that  arises  on  the  mixture  of  these 
two  bodies,  though  perfectly  inodorous  when 
separate. — Though  generally  considered  as  a 
neutral  salt,  yet  if  placed  on  litmus  papei,  and 
moistened,  Berzelius  observes,  that  the  paper  is 
reddened  after  some  moments,  as  it  would  be  by 
an  acid.  It  is  decomposed  by  strontia,  lime,  and 
magnesia.'  Henry. 

477.  '  Native  muriate  of  ammonia,  occurs  mas 
sive  and  crystallised  in  the  vicinity  of  volcanoes, 
and  in  the  cracks  and   pores  of  lava,  near  their 
craters.     It  has  thus  been  found  at  jEtna,  and  at 
Vesuvius,  in  the  Solfa-terra,  near  Naples,  and  in 
some  of  the  Tupcan  Lakes.     An  efflorescence  of 
native  sal-ammoniac,  is  sometimes  seen  upon  pit 
coal.     Its   color  varies  from  the  admixture   of 
foreign  matter,   and  it  is  frequently  yellow  from 
the  presence  of  sulphur.     It  is  said  that  con- 
siderable quantities  of  native  sal-ammoniac  are 
also  found  in  the  country  of  Bucharia,  where  it 
occurs  with  sulphur  in  rocks  of  indurated  clay. 
The  ancients  according  to  Pliny,  called  this  salt 
ammoniac,  because  it  was  found  near  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  Ammon  in  Africa.'     Brands. 

478.  Ammonia   and  nitric   acid.     Nitrate  of 
ammonia. — This  salt,  from  its  exploding  at  a  high 
temperature,  was  formerly  called  nitrum  flam- 
mans.     The  most  simple  and   direct  mode  of 
procuring  it,   is  by  saturating  dilute  nitric  acid 
with  carbonate  of  ammonia.     The  salt  takes  on 
a  different  form,  according   to   the   manner   iu 
which  its    solution  may  have  been  evaporated. 
If  the  liquor  be  evaporated  by  a  heat  under  100° 
its  crystals  are  six-sided  prisms,  terminated  by 
long  six-sided  pyramids.     If  the  heat  applied 
be  at  212°,  the  crystals  on  cooling  bect.-me  thin 
and  fibrous.     It  is  deliquescent  in  all  its  forms 
when  exposed  to   the  atmosphere,  but  it  is  less 
soluble  when  it  has  been  formed  in  the  regular 
mode  of  crystallisation,  than  when  boiled  down 
into  a  shapeless  mass. 

479.  The  most  important  property  of  nitrate 

2  D  -2 


404 


CHEMISTRY. 


of  ammonia,  is  that  it  yields,  as  already  stated, 
the  nitrous  oxide. 

480.  The  mode  of  its  preparation  influences 
its  composition  as  well  as  its  solubility ;  the 
variations  of  the  compound  are  stated  by  Sir  H. 
Davy  to  be  as  follows : 

Prismatic;  Fibrous.  Compact. 

69-5  72-5  74-5  Acid. 

18-4  19-3  19-8  Ammonia. 

12-1  8-2  5-7  Water. 


100- 


100- 


100- 


481.  Ammonia    with    carbonic    acid.  —  The 
ammonical  and  carbonic  acid  gases  readily  com- 
bine to  form  carbonate  of  ammonia.     One  vo- 
lume of  the  latter  and  two  of  the  former,  being 
mixed  in  a  glass  vessel  over  mercury,  undergo 
a  complete  condensation,  and  carbonate  of  am- 
monia is  the  result.     This  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  of  the  ammoniacal  compounds. 

482.  A  bi-carbonate  is  engendered  if  water 
be  present,  for  this  so  far  overcomes  the  elasticity 
of  the   gas  as  to  enable  the  salt  formed  to  take 
up  another  volume  of  carbonic  acid. 

483.  Carbonate  of  ammonia  is  generally  met 
with  in  cakes  which  are  broken  away  from  the 
vessel  in  which  the  salt  sublimes,  when  it  is 
made  by  treating  muriate  of  ammonia  with  car- 
bonate of  lime.     This  salt  ought  indeed  to  be 
called  hydrated  carbonate  of  ammonia,  since  the 
result  of  the  combination  is  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, water,  and  chloride  of  calcium,  the  two 
first  being  in  union ;  and,  even  supposing  the 
materials   of  the  compounds  to  be  dry,   water 
comes  to  be  formed  by  the  union  of  the  hydrogen 
abstracted    from    the    muriatic  acid,   with  the 
oxygen  taken  from  the  lime. 

484.  Under  the  name  of  the  sub-carbonate  of 
ammonia,  another  compound  is  met  with  in  the 
shops,  produced  by  mixing  one  part  of  muriate 
of  ammonia  with  one  and  a  half  of  dry  carbonate 
of  lime,  and  exposing  them  to  heat  in  a  proper 
apparatus. 

485.  This  Mr.  Phillips   says,   ought    to  be 
named   the  sesqui-carbonate   of  ammonia,  and 
it  should  thus  appear  that  ammonia  and  carbonic 
acid   combine  together  in  three  known  propor- 
tions, viz.  the  carbonate  composed  of  one  pro- 
portional acid  -f   1  base,  the  sesqui-carbonate 
composed  of  1-5  acid  -f-  1  base,  and  the  bi- 
carbonate of  2   acid  -f-  1  base.      The  odor  of 
the  sesqui-carbonate  is  pungent,  its  taste  is  pene- 
trating and  saline ;  it  renders  blues  green,  and 
reddens  turmeric.     A  pint  of  water  at  60°  dis- 


solves rather  less  than  four  ounces.  This  solution 
is  the  liquor  ammoniae  sub-car bonatis  of  the 
London  Pharmacopoeia. 

486.  Borate  of  ammonia  is  formed  by  satu- 
rating boracic  acid  with  ammonia ;  it  is  formed 
in  crystals.      Phosphate   of   ammonia  is   very 
soluble,  but  does  not  easily  crystallise.     Hypo- 
phosphite  of  ammonia.     Composition  unknown. 
Phosphate  of  ammonia  is  a  common  ingredient 
in  urine,  especially  of  the  carnivorous  animals. 
It  may  be  formed  by  saturating  the  superphos 
phate  of  lime,  which  results  from  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid  on  bones,  with  carbonate  of  am- 
monia ;  or  by  at  once  saturating  phosphoric  acid 
with   ammonia.      It    crystallises    in  four-sided 
pyramids  with  square  bases,  which  are  soluble 
in  twice  their  weight  of  water  at  6°.     Hyposi*l- 
phite  of  ammonia   is  strictly,  according  to   Mr. 
Herschell,  a  bi-salt.     It  may  be  formed  by  pass- 
ing sulphurous  acid  through  the  aqueous  solution 
of  the    sulphuret.      This   salt  does   not   freely 
crystallise.     Its  taste  is  exceedingly  bitter  and 
pungent.     Sulphate  of  ammonia  may  be  formed 
by  passing  ammonia  into  sulphuric  acid ;  but  it 
is  usually  prepared  by  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
with    the    sub-carbonate;    or  by   decomposing 
muriate  of  ammonia  by  sulphuric  acid.     This 
salt  crystallises  in  six-sided  prisms,  which  have 
a  bitter  and  pungent  taste ;   are  slightly  deli- 
quescent, and  are  soluble  in  an  equal  weight  of 
boiling  water.     Seleniates  of  ammonia  exist  in 
three  different  proportions,  forming  seleniates, 
biseleniates,  and  quadrisileniates. 

HYDROGEN  WITH  CARBON. 

487.  Carbon  and  hydrogen  combine  so  as  to 
form  carbureted  hydrogen  gas;    this   union  is 
effected  in  several  natural  processes,  especially 
those  of  putrefaction ;    it  cannot,  however,   be 
effected  by  heating  charcoal  at  once  in  hydrogen 
gas,  since  the  cohesive  attraction  existing  between 
the  particles  of  the  charcoal  prevents  the  free 
chemical    combination    between  the  two   sub- 
stances. 

488.  Another  combination  of  these  substances 
is  generally  known  by  the  name  of  olefiant  gas, 
which  was  first  noticed  by  the  chemists  of  Hol- 
land, and  termed  by  them  olefiant,  and   to  a 
third   combination  Mr.  Dalton  has    given  the 
provisional    name  of    super-olefiant ;   this  last, 
however,  has  never  been  exhibited  in  a  separate 
form. 

489.  We  extract  from  Dr.  Henry's  Chemistry 
the   following   table,  giving  a  general  view  of 
these  gases. 


Specific    Gravity. 

Proportions  by 
weight. 

Proportions  in 
Volume. 

7  Condensed  into  one 
£          volume. 

1.  Carbt.  Hydrogen 
2.  Olefiant     .     .     . 
3.  Super  Olefiant    . 

0.555 
0-972 
1-458 

6  carb.  2  hydr. 
12  carb.  2  hydr. 
18  carb.  3  hydr. 

1  carb.  2  hydr. 
2  carb.  2  hydr. 
3  carb.  3  hydr. 

490.  It  has  been  supposed,  from  the  variety 
of  specific  gravity  and  composition  of  gases 
obtained  by  the  combination  of  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen, that  they  are  capable  of  combination  in- 
definitely, that  is  in  every  proportion ;  but  this 
is  conceived  to  be  an  erroneous  supposition  by 
other  chemists,  and  it  is  thought  that  appearances 


favoring  that  inference,  are  attributable  to  the 
peculiarity,  that  the  combinations  differ  from 
each  other,  not  so  much  in  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  their  elements,  as  in  the  number  of 
atoms  or  volumes  condensed  into  a  given 
volume. 

491.  Carbureted  hydrogen  gas. — To  this  gas 


CHEMISTRY. 


405 


has  been  given  the  name  of  heavy  inflammable 
air,  gas  of  marshes,  hydrocarburet,  proto-carburet 
of  hydrogen ;  and  Dr.  Thomson  has  termed  it 
bi-hydroguret  of  carbon. 

492.  By  stirring  the  bottom  of  stagnant  water, 
we  may  generally  obtain  some  of  this  gas,  but  it 
is  in  this  instance  mixed  with  some  free  carbonic 
and  nitrogen  gas. 

493.  Carbureted  hydrogen  is   inflammable,  it 
burns  with  a  bright  yellow  flame,  and  gives  out 
much  more  light  in  its  combustion  than  does 
hydrogen  gas.     To  burn  it  completely,  in  oxygen 
gas,  it  is  necessary  to  use  more  than   twice  its 
volume  of  the  latter.     '  Now  we  know  that  in 
carbonic  acid  gas  there  exists  exactly  its  volume 
of  oxygen ;  and  hence  one  volume  of  the  oxygen 
spent  is  found  in  that  compound,  and  the  other 
volume  has   formed   water  with  the  hydrogen, 
which  last  element  must  have  existed  in  quantity 
equivalent  to  twice  the  bulk  of  the  inflammable 
gas. 

494.  Bi-hydroguret  of  carbon,  it  is  said  above, 
has  been  applied  to  this  gas  as  more  designative  of 
its  proportional  composition ;  and  this  name,  pro- 
posed by  Dr.  Thomson,  is  allowed  by  Dr.  Henry 
to  be  more  appropriate  than  carbureted  hydrogen, 
which  is  only  therefore  retained  upon  the  ground 
of  its  being  objectionable  to  lay  aside  appella- 
tions which  long  custom  has  sanctioned. 

495.  Olefiant  gas  is  also  called  by  Dr.  Thom- 
son hydroguret  of  carbon ;  and  Mr.  Brande  tells 
us  that  he  is  induced  to  consider  this  as  the  only 
definite  compound  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  the 
gas  just  mentioned  being  in  his  opinion  a  mixture 
of  carbureted  hydrogen  and  hydrogen. 

496.  Olefiant  gas  may  be  obtained  by  distilling 
in  a  glass  retort,  with  a  gentle  heat,  three  or 
four  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  with  one  of  alcohol. 
It  may  be  collected  over  water,  and  freed  from 
carbonic  acid  by  washing  it  with  liquid  potassa. 

497.  When  pure  this  gas  has  very  little  odor ; 
when  set  on  fire  it  burns  with  a  dense  and  bright 
flame  ;  and  when  mixed  with  oxygen  gas  it  de- 
tonates loudly. 

498.  Upon  mixing  together  chlorine  and  ole- 
fiant gases  in  equal  quantities,  an  immediate  di- 
minution follows,  one  half  of  which  diminution 
is  due  to  the  olefiant,  and  one  to  the  chlorine 
gas  ;  these  gases  having  been  found  to  saturate 
each  other  in  equal  quantities.     If  the  gas  be 
mixed  with  eight  or  nine  times  its  bulk  of  chlo- 
rine, and   exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  an 
hydro-chloride   of    carbon    is   formed,     which, 
upon  being  still  continued  to  be  subjected  to  light, 
changes  into  the  crystalline  compound  already 
mentioned  as   having   been  discovered  by  Mr. 
Faraday,  and  which  is  the  perchloride  of  carbon. 

499.  A  hydriodide  of  carbon,  or  hydro-car- 
buret of  iodine,  is  formed  by  mixing  the  percar- 
bureted  hydrogen  with  iodine,   and  likewise  ex- 
posing them  to  the  sun's  rays.     This  compound 
was  first  discovered  by  Mr.  Faraday,  also  in  the 
laboratory  of  the  Royal  Institution ;  it  assumes  the 
form  of  a  crystalline  salt,  and  appears  according 
to  the  analysis  of  Mr.  Faraday  to  consist  of  1 
atom  of  iodine  +  2  olefiant  gas. 

500.  A  super  olefiant  gas  is  mentioned  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions  of  1821,  by  Dr.  Henry, 
as  having  been  discovered  by  Mr.  Dalton ;  but 


it  has  not  yet  been   exhibited    in   a  separate 
form. 

501.  Of  the  mixed  combustible  gases  from  moist 
charcoal,  alcohol,  ether,  coal,  oil-tallow,  and  wax. 
And  on  thejlre  damp  of  coal  mines  ;  and  the  con- 
struction and  principle  of  the  safety  lamp  of  Sir 
H.  Davy. — As  the  consideration  of  the  several 
particulars   mentioned  above,  involves  a   good 
deal  of  very  interesting  matter,  not  only  in  a 
philosophic,  but  in  a  practical  point  of  view  ; 
and,  as  we  have  found  nothing  in  our  researches 
respecting  them  more  satisfactorily  concise  than 
the  disquisition  of  Dr.  Henry,  we  shall  take  the 
liberty    of  extracting   from   his    Elements   the 
whole  section  which  relates  to  these  topics. 

502.  The  three  gases,  says  Dr.  Henry,  which 
have  been  just  described   under   the   names  of 
carbureted  hydrogen,  olefiant,  and  super  olefiant 
gases,  appear  to  me  to  be  the  only  compounds  of 
those  elements  that  have  as  yet  been  proved  to  be 
distinct  and  well  characterized  species.     It  is  of 
mixtures  of  two  or  more  of  those  three  gases, 
with  occasionally  a  proportion  of  carbonic  oxide, 
and  a  few  other  gases,  that  the  almost  infinite 
variety  of   aeriform   products    are    constituted, 
which  are  obtainable  by  the  exposure  of  mois- 
tened charcoal,  of  alcohol,  or  ether,  of  oil,  tallow, 
wax,  or  coal,  to  a  heat  a  little  above  ignition. 
This  view  of  the  subject  at  least  appears  to  me 
to  be  much  more  probable  than  that  they  are  so 
many  distinct  compounds  of   carbon  and  hy- 
drogen, which,  on  this  theory,  would  be  capable 
of  uniting  in  all  possible  proportions  with  each 
other. 

503.  Of  these  aeriform  compounds,  the  gases 
from  coal  and  from  oil  are  of  most  importance, 
from  their  widely  extensive  use  in  artifical  illu- 
mination. 

504.  Coal  gas. — By  submitting  coal  to  distil- 
lation in  an  iron  retort,  besides  a  portion  of  tar, 
and  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  which 
condense  in  a  liquid  form,  a  large  quantity  of 
permanent  gas   is  evolved.     This    gas    I    have 
shown    (Philosophical   Transactions    1808  and 
1820)  is  extremely  variable  in  composition  and 
properties,  not  only  when  prepared  from  different 
coals,  but  from  the  same  kind  of  coal  under  dif- 
ferent circumstances.     Within  certain  limits,  the 
more  quickly  the   heat  is  applied  the  greater  is 
the  quantity,  and  the  better  the  quality,  of  the 
gas  obtained  from  coal ;  for  too  slow  a  heat  ex- 
pels the  inflammable  matter  in  the  form  of  tar. 
The   earliest   products  of  the  gas  are  also  the 
heaviest  and  most  combustible,  and  there  is  a 
gradual  decline  in  quality  towards  the  close  of 
the  dis'tillation,  insomuch,  that  the  last  products 
are  inferior  by  more  than  one-half  to  the  first. 
Thft  general  name  of  coal  gas  is  therefore  quite 
indefinite,    it  is  in  fact  a  mixture  of  the  two 
varieties  of  carbureted  hydrogen,  with  a  third 
which  remains  to  be  more  fully  investigated,  as 
well  as  with  hydrogen  gas,  carbonic  oxide,  car- 
bonic acid,  nitrogen  and  sulphureted  hydrogen 
gases    in   ever   varying    proportions.      For  the 
methods   of  separating  these   gases  from  each 
other,  Dr.  Henry  refers  to  papers  which  he  has 
published  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions   for 
1808,  1820,  and   1824,  and  in  the  third  vol.  of 
the  second  series    of   the  Manchester  Society's 


406 


CHEMISTRY. 


Memoirs,  or  the  fifteenth  vol.  of  Annals  of  Phi- 
losophy. 

505.  '  Coal  gas, '  he  continues,  '  as  generally 
produced,  has  a  very  disagreable  odor,  arising 
from  sulphureted  hydrogen,  and  perhaps  a  little 
sulphuret  of  carbon ;  but  both  these  may  be  wash- 
ed out  of  it  by  cream  of  lime  with  very  little  loss 
of  illuminating  power,  and  with  an  entire  removal 
of  all  unpleasant  smell  either  before  or  during 
burning.     The  best  gas  has  the  specific  gravity 
•650  or  upwards;   and  each  volume  consumes 
about  2  J  volumes  of  oxygen  and  gives  1£  volume 
of  carbonic  acid;  the  last  portions  have  a  specific 
gravity  as  low  as  -340,  and  each  volume  con- 
sumes about  8-10ths  of  a  volume  of  oxygen  and 
gives  about  3-10ths  of  a  volume  of  carbonic  acid. 
In  the  best  gas,  chlorine,  properly  applied,  detects 
from  thirteen  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  olefiant  gas, 
and   the  remainder  is  almost  pure  carbureted 
hydrogen ;  but  the  last  products  contain  little  or 
no  olefiant  gas,  much  less  carbureted   hydrogen, 
and  instead  of  these  a  large  proportion  of  hydro- 
gen and  carbonic  oxide,  both  of  which  afford 
very  little  light  by  their  combustion.' 

506.  It   is   scarcely   possible    to    assign    the 
quantity  of  gas  which  ought  to  be  obtained  from 
a  given  weight  of  coal,  but  it  may  be  considered 
as  an  approach  to  a  general  average  to  state  that 
112  Ibs.  of  good  coal  are  capable  of  giving  from 
450  to  500  cubic  feet  of  gas,  of  such  quality  that 
half  a  cubic  foot  per  hour  is  equivalent  to  a 
mould  candle  of  six  to  the  pound,  burning  during 
the  same  space  of  time. 

507.  Oil  gas  —  'In   Nicholson's    Journal    I 
have,'  says   Dr.  Henry,  'given  an  account  of 
some  experiments  on  the  gas  obtained   by  the 
destructive  distillation  of  spermaceti  oil>  which 
showed   that   of  all   the   artificial    gases,    this, 
next  to  olefiant  gas,   consumes   most  oxygen, 
and    is   the   best   adapted   to    afford    light." — 
Since   that   time,   an    apparatus   has   been   in- 
vented, by  Messrs  Taylor   of  London,   which 
has   greatly   facilitated   the   preparation    of  oil 
gas    on    a   large   scale,   and    this   gas   is   now 
much  used  as  a  source  of  artificial  light.     The 
process  consists  in  letting  whale  oil  (the  purity 
of  which   is   not   essential,    since    inferior    oil 
answers  the  purpose, )  fall  by  drops  into  an  iron 
cylinder,  placed  horizontally  in  a  furnace,  and 
ignited  to  a  cherry  redness.      From  each  wine 
gallon  of  oil  about  100  cubic  feet  of  gas  may 
with  care  be  obtained,  of  the  specific  gravity  of 
more  than  900,  containing  upwards  of  forty  per 
cent,   of  gas  condensable  by  chlorine,  and  of 
which   100  volumes   consume  260  volumes  of 
oxygen  and  yield  158  of  carbonic  acid.     But  of 
gas  from  Wigan  cannel,  when  the  whole  product 
is  mingled  together,  100  measures  do  not  saturate 
more  than  155  of  oxygen,  and  give  88  measures 
of  carbonic  acid.     Oil  gas,  therefore,  from  this 
document,  may  be  inferred  to  contain,  in  a  given 
volume,  twice  the  quantity  of  combustible  mat- 
ter that  is  present  in  the  average  of  gas  from 
cannel  coal ;  and  its  illuminating  power  will  be 
as  2  to  1.     The  experiments  of  Mr.  Brande  led 
him  to  conclude  that  to  produce  the  light  of  ten 
wax  candles  for  one  hour,  there  were  required  : 

2600  cubical  inches  of  olefiant  gas 
4875  oil  gas 

13120  coal  £as. 


But  it  seems  probable  that  the  coal  gas  em- 
ployed in  his  experiments  was  below  the  general 
standard,  and  that  it  is  a  fair  average  to  consider 
one  volume  of  oil  gas  as  equivalent  to  two  or  at 
most  to  two  and  a  half  of  gas  from  coal  of  good 
quality.  This  estimate  agrees  with  the  experi- 
ence of  the  late  Mr.  Creighton  of  Glasgow,  author 
of  the  excellent  article  Gas  Lights,  in  the  Sup- 
plement to  the  Encyclopaedia  Britahnica.  Oil 
gas  he  considers  as  superior,  in  an  equal  volume, 
to  good  average  coal  gas,  in  the  proportion  of 
only  two  to  one;  and  he  has  given  the  following 
table  of  the  comparative  expense  of  lighting  with 
these  two  gases,  and  ".vith  oil  and  tallow  : — 

Valuing  the  quantity  of  light  given  by  1  Ib.  s.  d. 

of  tallow  in  candles  at 10 

An  equal  quantity  of  light-from  sperm  oil, 
consumed  in  an  Argand's  lamp,  will 

cost 0  6£ 

Ditto  from  whale  oil  gas 0  4£- 

Ditto  from  coal  gas        0  2| 

Twenty  cubic  feet  of  coal  gas,  or  ten  of  oil 
gas,  he  considers  as  equivalent  to  a  pound  of  tal- 
low, and  5000  grains  of  good  sperm  oil  to  7000 
of  tallow,  or  1  Ib  avoirdupois. 

508.  The  advantages  of  oil  gas  over  gas  from, 
coal   are,  that  smaller  distilling  vessels  are  re- 
quired ;  that  gasometers  and  conduit  pipes  of 
half  the  capacity  are  sufficient ;  that  no  washing 
apparatus  is   necessary ;    that  the  trouble  and 
expense  of  removing  waste  materials  is  avoided ; 
and  that  the  gas  affords  a  much  brighter  light 
with  a  smaller  production  of  heat,  and  also  of 
water.     When  only  a  moderate  quantity  of  light 
is  required,  when  it  is  an  object  to  save  room  or 
labor,  and  in  countries  where  coal  is  dear,  oil  gas 
is  entitled  to  a  decided  preference ;  but  it  cannot 
be  brought  into  competition  with  coal  gas  where 
coal  is  cheap,  or  where  the  establishments  to  be 
lighted  are  of  very  considerable  magnitude,  and 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  allow  of  their  being  freely 
ventilated. 

509.  Of  the  comparative  value  of  different 
compounds  of  hydrogen  and  charcoal,  for  the 
purposes  of  illumination,  it  still  appears  to  me 
that  the  only  accurate  test  is  the  one  which  I 
proposed  in  Nicholson's  Journal  for  1805,  viz. 
the  quantities  of  oxygen  gas  required  to  saturate 
equal  volumes.    In  other  words,  the  illuminating 
powers  of  different  gases  will  be  proportioned  to 
the  numbers  of  volumes  of  gaseous  carbon  con- 
densed into  one  volume  of  gas ;  and  of  these  the 
oxygen  consumed,  and  the  carbonic  acid  pro- 
duced, afford  an  accurate  measure.     If  100  vol- 
umes, for  instance,  of  one  gas  require  for  perfect 
combustion   100  volumes  of  oxygen,  and   100 
volumes  of  another  gas  take  200  of  oxygen,  the 
value  of  the  second  will  be  double  that  of  the 
first.     Specific  gravity,  though  a  guide  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  is  not  a  sufficient  one ;  for  the  weight 
of  a  gas  may  be  owing  to  a  large  proportion  of 
carbonic  oxide,  which  is  capable  of  giving  out 
only  a  very  small  quantity  of  light.     Photomet- 
rical  experiments  also  appear  to  require  greater 
perfection  in  the  instruments  that  have  been  in- 
vented for  that  purpose,  before  we  can  imp^citly 
trust  to  results  obtained  by  their  means ;    but 
there  can  be  no  fallacy  in  the  combustion  of  these 
gases  by  oxygen,  if  conducted  with  ordinary  rare, 


CHEMISTRY. 


407 


and  especially  if,  in  each  instance,  an  average  be 
taken  of  two  or  three  trials,  which  need  not  oc- 
cupy more  than  a  few  minutes.  Nor  can  it 
admit  of  a  doubt  that,  other  circumstances  being 
equal,  the  brilliancy  of  light  evolved  by  the  com- 
bustion of  gases  which  are  constituted  of  purely 
inflammable  matter,  will  bear  a  proportion  to 
their  densities,  perhaps  even  a  greater  propor- 
tion than  one  strictly  arithmetical;  because  while 
by  the  combustion' of  denser  gases  a  higher  tem- 
perature is  produced,  the  cooling  agencies  re- 
main the  same.  It  is  probable,  therefore, 
that,  of  two  gases  composed  of  the  same  ingre- 
dients, that  which  has  a  double  density  will 
afford  somewhat  more  than  a  double  quantity  of 
light. 

510.  Thejire  damp  of  coal  mines  (we  continue 
to  extract  from  Dr.  Henry),  by  an  analysis  of  it 
which  I  published  in  1806  (Nicholson's  Journal 
xix.  149),  was  shown  to  be  identical  in  composi- 
tion with  carbureted  hydrogen.     This  conclusion 
coincides  with  the  subsequent  results  of  Sir  H. 
Davy,  who  has  enlarged  our  knowledge  of  the 
chemical  history  of  the  fire  damp  by  several  im- 
portant facts  (Philosophical  Transactions,  1816>; 
and  has  been  led  by  an  ingenious  and  happy 
chain  of  reasoning  to  a  discovery  most  important 
to  the  interest  of  humanity.     The  most  readily 
explosive  mixture  of  fire  damp  with  common  air 
he  found  to  be  one  measure  of  the  inflammable 
gas,  to  seven  or  eight  of  air.     The  mixture  was 
not  capable  of  being  set  on  fire  by  charcoal  in  a 
state  of  active  combustion,  nor  by  iron  ignited  to 
a  red,  nor  even  to  a  white  heat,  except  when  in  a 
state  of  brilliant  combustion :  in  which  respect 
the  fire   damp   differs   from,  other   combustible 
gases. 

511.  It  was  in  attempting  to  measure  the  ex- 
pansion occasioned  by  the  combustion  of  a  mix- 
ture of  fire  damp  and  air,  that  Sir  H.  Davy  dis- 
covered a  fact  which  afterwards  led  him   to  the 
most  novel  and  important  results.    An  explosive 
mixture  could  not,  he  ascertained,  be  kindled  in 
a  glass  tube  so  narrow  as  one-seventh  of  an  inch 
diameter;  and  when  two  separate  reservoirs  of 
an  explosive  mixture  were  connected  by  a  me- 
tallic tube  one-fifth  of  an  inch  diameter,  and  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  length ;  and  one  of  the  por- 
tions of  gas  was  set  on  fire,  the  explosion  did  not 
extend  to  the  other.     Fine  wire  sieves  or  wire 
gauze,  interposed  between  two  separate  quanti- 
ties of  an  explosive  mixture,  were  also  found  to 
prevent   the   combustion   of   one   portion  from 
spreading  to  the  other.     A  mixture  of  fire  damp 
and  air,  in  explosive  proportions,  was  deprived 
of  its  power  of  exploding  by  the  addition   of 
about  one-seventh  its  bulk  of  carbonic  acid,  or 
nitrogen  gas. 

512.  Reflection  on   these   facts  suggested  to 
Sir  H.  Davy,  the  possibility  of  constructing  a 
lamp,  in  which  the  flame,  by  being  supplied  with 
only  a  limited  quantity  of  air,   might  produce 
carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen  in  such  proportion 
as   to   destroy  the   combustibility  of  explosive 
mixtures  ;  and  which  might  also,  by  the  nature 
of  its  apertures  for  giving  admittance  and  exit  to 
the  air,  be  rendered  incapable  of  spreading  com- 
bustion to  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  supposing 
this  to  be  an  inflammable  one.     This  most  desi- 


rable object  was  accomplished  by  the  use  of  air- 
tight lanterns  supplied  with  air  through  tubes  or 
canals  of  small  diameter,  or  through  apertures 
covered  with  wire  gauze  below  the  flame,  and 
having  a  chimney  at  the  upper  part,  on  a  similar 
system,  for  carrying  off  the  foul  air.  The  appara- 
tus was  afterwards  simplified  by  covering  or  sur- 
rounding the  flame  of  a  lamp  or  a  candle  with  a 
cylindrical  wire  sieve,  having  at  least  625  aper- 
tures in  a  square  inch.  Within  this  cylinder, 
when  the  fire  damp  encompassing  it  is  to  the  air 
as  1  to  12,  the  flame  of  the  wick  is  seen  sur- 
rounded by  the  feeble  blue  flame  of  the  gas.  When 
the  proportion  is  as  1  to  5,  6,  or  7,  the  cylinder 
is  filled  with  the  flame  of  the  fire  damp;  but 
though  the  wire  gauze  becomes  red  hot,  the  exte- 
rior air,  even  when  explosive,  is  not  kindled.  The 
lamp  is  therefore  safe  in  the  most  dangerous 
atmospheres,  and  has  been  used  most  extensively 
in  the  mines  of  Whitehaven,  Newcastle,  and 
other  places,  without  the  occurrence  of  a  single 
failure  or  accident. 

513.  The  effect  of  the  safety  lamp  depends  on 
the  cooling  agency  of  the  wire  gauze,  exerted  on 
the  portion  of  gas  burning  within  the  cylinder. 
Hence  a  lamp  may  be  secure  where  there  is  no 
current  of  an  explosive  mixture  to  occasion  it 
being  strongly  heated ;  and  yet  not  safe  when  the 
current   passes   through  it  with  great  rapidity. 
But  any  atmosphere,  however  explosive,  may  be 
rendered  harmless  by  increasing  the  cooling  sur- 
face ;  which  may  be  done  either  by  diminishing 
the  size  of  the  apertures,  or  by  increasing  their 
depth,  both   of  which  are   perfectly  within  the 
power  of  the  manufacturer  of  the  wire  gauze. 

514.  When  a  small  coil  of  platinum  wire  is 
hung  above  the  wick  of  the  lamp,  within  the 
wire  gauze  cylinder,  the  metal  continues  to  glow 
long  after  the  lamp  is  extinguished,  and  affords 
light  enough  to  guide  the  miner  in  what  other- 
wise would  be  impenetrable  darkness.   In  this  case 
the  combustion  of  the  fire  damp  is  continued  so 
slowly,  and  at  so  low  a  temperature,  as  not  to  be 
adequate  to  that  ignition  of  gaseous  matter  which 
constitutes  flame,  though  it  excites  a  temperature 
sufficient  to  render  platinum  wire  luminous.     A 
similar  ignition  of  platinum  wire,  it   has  been 
found,  may  be  supported  for  many  hours,  by 
surrounding  the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp  with  small 
coils  of  that  metal,  not  exceeding  ^  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.     Twelve  coils  of  this  wire  twisted 
spirally  round  the  tube  of  a  tobacco-pipe,  or 
round  anything  that  will  render  the  coils  about 
^  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  are  to  surround,  six  the 
wick  of  the  lamp,  and  six  to  remain  elevated 
above  the  wick.     The  wick  should  be  small  and 
quite  loose  in  the  burner  of  the  lamp ;  and  the 
fibres  of  the  cotton  surrounded  by  the  coil  should 
be  laid  as  straight  as  possible.     When  the  lamp, 
after  being  lighted  for  a  few  moments,  is  blown 
out,  the  platinum  wire  continues  to  glow  for  seve- 
ral hours,  as  long  as  there  is  a  supply  of  spirit  of 
wine,  and  to  give  light  enough  to  read  by  ;    and 
sometimes  the  heat  produced  is  sufficient  to  re- 
kindle the  lamp  spontaneously. 

515.  Mr.  Faraday  has  recently  published  an 
account  of  other  combinations  of  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen, the  one  a  bicarburet  of  hydrogen,  con- 
sisting of  two  proportionals  of  carbon  and  one 


408 


CHEMISTRY. 


hydrogen;  and  the  other  a  new  gas  or  vapor 
•with  the  same  elements  both  in  kind  and  propor- 
tion as  those  of  oletiant  gas,  yet  in  a  different 
state  of  combination.  See  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions, 1825. 

HYDROGEN  WITH  PHOSPHORUS. 

516.  Sir  H.  Davy  gave  the  name  of   hydro- 
phosphoric  gas  to  the  compound  of  phosphorus 
and  hydrogen,  which  is  obtained  by  heating  the 
solid  phosphorus  acid  without  the  contact  of  air. 
Dr.  Thomson  proposed  that  it  should  be  called 
the  bi-hydroguret  of  phosphorus.      This  gas  has 
an  unpleasant  smell,  but  not  so  offensive  as  the 
phosphureted  hydrogen.      It  is  not  inflammable 
spontaneously,  but  when  it  is  heated  with  oxygen 
it  explodes.  In  chlorine  it  inflames  spontaneously, 
and  explodes  with  a  white  flame.     Its  specific 
gravity  to  hydrogen  is  as  12  or  13  to  1.     100  cu- 
bical inches  weigh'29'25  grains.     It  is  constituted 
we  are  told  of  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  and  one 
of  phosphorus ;  the  hydrogen,  however,  is  con- 
densed into  half  its  bulk.     The  theory  of  its  for- 
mation appears  to  be,  that  the  water  is  decom- 
posed, the  oxygen  of  it  going  with  a  portion  of 
the  phosphorus  acid  to  form  phosphoric  acid, 
•while  the  hydrogen  with  the  phosphorus  existing 
in  another  portion  of  the  phosphorus  acid  form 
together  the  gas. 

517.  Phosphureted  hydrogen  gas,  or  the  hy- 
droguret  of  Thomson. — There  are  several  ways  of 
obtaining  this  composition.     We  are  directed  by 
Dr.  Thomson  to  fill  a  small  retort  with  water 
acidulated  with  muriatic  acid,  and  then  throw  in 
a  few  lumps  of  phosphuret  of  lime  ;  the  mere 
action  of  the  phosphuret  upon  water  will  indeed 
be  sufficient  to  disengage  the  gas ;  the  water  be- 
coming decomposed,  its  oxygen  combining  with 
part  of  the  phosphorus  forming  phosphoric  acid, 
this  unites  with  the  lime,  and,  the  hydrogen  dis- 
solving, another  portion  of  phosphorus  passes  off 
as  the  gas  in  question ;  which  may  also  be  ob- 
tained by  putting  into  five  parts  of  water  half  a 
part  of  phosphorus,  cut  into  very  small  pieces, 
with  one  of  finely  granulated  zinc,  and  adding 
three  parts  of  strong  sulphuric  acid.  This  affords 
an  amusing  experiment.      The  gas  is  disengaged 
in  small  bubbles  which  cover  the  whole  surface  of 
the  fluid,  and  take  fire  on  reaching  the  air,  these 
are  succeeded  by  others  and  a  well  of  fire  is 
produced. 

518.  Phosphureted  hydrogen  gas  is  colorless,  it 
has  a  nauseous  smell  like  onions,  it  inflames 
spontaneously  upon  coming  into  contact  with  air, 
and  when  mixed  suddenly  with  oxygen  detonates. 
It  burns  also  with  chlorine,  and  with  nitrous 
oxide,  forming,  in  the  first  case,  muriatic  acid  and 
perchloride  of  phosphorus.  There  is  a  mutual 
decomposition  upon  mixing  sulphureous  acid  gas 
and  phosphureted  hydrogen.  The  gas  is  decom- 
posed by  electricity.  It  deposits  phosphorus  on 
standing,  without  any  diminution  of  volume.  It 
may  be  regarded  as  containing  one  proportional  of 
phosphorus,  and  one  of  hydrogen. 

519.  Subphosphureted  Hydrogen  gas.  We  have 
said  above  that  phosphureted  hydrogen  deposits 
phosphorus  upon  standing,  and  it  has  been  stated 
that  three  aeriform  compounds  of  hydrogen  and 
phosphorus  exist,  the  bi-hydroguret  of  phospho- 


rus, containing  2  proportionals  of  hydrogen  to  1 
of  phosphorus,  the  phosphureted  hydrogen  1-  to  1, 
and  the  subphosphureted  hydrogen  with  1.  0-75 
520.  The  existence  of  varieties  of  phosphu- 
reted hydrogen  has  been  questioned  by  Mr 
Dalton,  who  conceives  that  the  apparent  diversi- 
ties of  composition  in  these  gases  are  referrible 
to  the  admixture  of  various  proportions  of  free 
hydrogen  in  them. 

HYDROGEN  WITH  SULPHUR. 

521.  Sulphureted  hydrogen  gas. — This  gas 
may  be  obtained  by  subliming  sulphur  in  hydro- 
gen gas,  or  presenting  sulphur  to  nascent  hydro- 
gen, which  is  done  when  sulphuret  of  iron  is 
acted  on  by  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  But  the  best 
mode  of  obtaining  it  seems  to  be,  that  of  mixing 
bruised  sulphuret  of  antimony  (the  crude  anti- 
mony of  commerce),  with  muriatic  acid,  by  which 
admixture  and  the  proper  application  of  heat 
the  sulphureted  hydrogen  will  be  disengaged  in 
large  quantity. 

522.  It  has  the  following  properties,  a  smell  like 
that  of  rotten  eggs,  a  specific  gravity  to  hydrogen 
16  to  1.     100  cubic  inches  weighing  36  grains. 
It  is  quickly  fatal  to  animal  life  when  respired. 
It  is  inflammable,  and  during  its  combustion  water 
and  sulphurous  acid  are  formed.      It  tarnishes 
polished  metals.      It  is  absorbed  by  water,  and 
this  fluid  saturated  with  the  gas  reddens  the  infu- 
sion of  litmus.     It  is  decomposed  by  chlorine, 
and  when  subjected  to  a  succession  of  electric 
explosions,  sulphur  is  thrown  down  from  it  with- 
out any   alteration   in   the  volume   of  the   gas. 
Sulphureted  hydrogen  is  copiously  absorbed  by 
the  alkalis  and  by  all  the  earths,  excepting  alu- 
mina and  zirconia.       It  unites  with  ammonia  in 
equal  volumes.  When  acted  upon  by  potassium  or 
sodium  a  brilliant  combustion  is  the  consequence ; 
a  quantity  of  hydrogen  gas  is  evolved  precisely 
equivalent  to  that  which  the  same  weight  of  me- 
tal would  have  separated  from  water,  the  metal 
loses  its  lustre,  and   becomes  grayish,  or  amber 
colored,  or  reddish  ;  and  by  the  action  of  diluted 
muriatic  acid  the  whole  of  the  sulphureted  hy- 
drogen  is  recovered.     This  experiment  proves 
that    sulphureted  hydrogen,   and    consequently 
sulphur,  contains  no  oxygen,  for  in  that  case  the 
potassium  having  had  its  affinity  for  oxygen  partly 
satisfied,  would  not,  after  being  acted  on  by  the 
gas,  evolve  the  original  quantity  of  sulphureted 
hydrogen  from  water.      All  that  appears  to  take 
place  during  the  combustion,  is  the  combination 
of  the  metal  with  sulphur,  the  liberation  of  hy- 
drogen, and  the  formation  of  a  sulphuret  of  po- 
tassium or  sodium,  which  disengages  from  water 
exactly  as  much  hydrogen  as  would  have  been 
evolved  by  the  metal  in  its  separate  state,  and 
this, hydrogen,  while  in  a  nascent  state  redissolves 
the  sulphur. 

523.  The  bi-sulphureted  hydrogen  is  obtained 
by  mixing  muriatic  acid  with  the  hydro-sulphuret 
of  potassa,  its  proportionals  are  stated  as  two 
of  sulphur  with  one  of  hydrogen. 

HYDROGEN  WITH  SELENIUM. 

524.  Seleniureted  Hydrogen    Gas. — This  gas 
is  obtained  by  acting  on  a  compound  of  sele- 
nium and  potassium  with  diluted  muriatic  acid ; 


CHEMISTRY. 


it  is  colorless,  resembles  in  smell  the  sulphureted 
hydrogen,  and  produces  a  very  irritating  effect 
on  the  nostrils.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  reddens 
vegetable  blues,  and  precipitates  metallic  solu- 
tions. Its  atomic  composition  is  one  of  selenium 
and  one  of  hydrogen. 

NITROGEN  AND  CARBON. 

525.  Carluiet  of  nitrogen  (cyanogen).     This 
gaseous  compound  may  be  obtained  by  heating 
dry  cyanuret  of  mercury.     It  must  be  collected 
over  mercury.     Cyanogen   is   a  gaseous   fluid, 
with  a  strong  penetrating   smell.      Its  specific 
gravity  to  hydrogen  is  24'4,  100  cubic  inches 
weighing   from    fifty-four    to   fifty-five    grains. 
Gay  Lussac  states  its  proportional  to  be  two  vo- 
lumes of  gaseous  carbon,  and  one  of  nitrogen, 
condensed  into  one. 

526.  The    aqueous    solution    reddens   vege- 
table blues  ;  but  this  property  seems  consequent 
upon  the  decomposition,  and  mutual  re-action, 
of    the   elements   of    cyanogen  upon   those  of 
water.     Viuquelin   states   that  it  is   gradually 
changed  into  carbonic  and  hydro-cyanic  acids, 
ammonia,  a  peculiar  acid  (cyanic),  and  a  brown 
matter,  containing  carbon.     See  Annals  of  Phil. 
vol.xiii.  p.  430,  and  Annales  de  Chim.  Oct.  1818. 

527.  Prussic  acid    (hydro-cyanic),    cyanogen 
and    hydrogen. — This     compound   may  be    ob- 
tained  by  distilling  cyanuret  of  mercury  with 
muriatic   acid.     But  Vauquelin  finding  the  pro- 
duct small  from  this  process,  passed  a  current  of 
sulphureted  hydrogen   gas  through  cyanide    of 
mercury,  the  tube  of  the  glass  which  contained 
it,  ending  in  a  receiver,  kept  cool  by  a  mixture 
of  salt  and  snow.     For  the  mode  in  which  the 
London  College  order  its  preparation  for  medical 
use,  see  the  article  PHARMACY. 

528.  This  acid  has  a  great  tendency  to  de- 
compose by  keeping.     When  in  a  gaseous  form, 
it  is  absorbed  by  water  and  by  alcohol.     It  acts, 
if  given  in  any  quantity,  as  a  speedy  poison,  and 
the  gas,  when  received  into  the  lungs,  proves 
quickly  fatal.     The  specific  gravity  of  the  gas, 
compared  with  hydrogen,  is  stated  to  be  12-7, 
100  cubic  inches  weighing  28'575  grains.     At  a 
temperature  under  95°  of  Fahrenheit,  it  forms, 
with   oxygen  gas,  a    mixture   which  detonates 
when  an  electric  spark  is  passed  through  it.    For 
its  use  in  medicine,  see  MEDICINE. 

529.  Chloro-prussic  ( chloro-cyanic )  acid. — M. 
Berthollet  discovered  that  when  hydro-cyanic  acid 
is  mixed  with  chlorine,  it  acquires  new  properties. 
Under  the  notion  that  the  compound  thus  formed 
had  acquired  oxygen,  the  name  oxyprussic  acid 
was  applied  to  it.     But  Gay  Lussac  found   that 
it  is  formed  of  equal  volumes  of  chlorine  and 
cyanogen,  and,  on  this  account,  he  proposed  the 
name  of  chloro-cyanic  acid  to  designate  it.     To 
prepare  this  compound  he  passed  a  current  of 
chlorine  gas  through  a  solution  of  hydro-cyanic 
acid,  till  it  destroyed  the  color  of  sulphate  of 
indigo.     He  further  deprived  it  of  its  excess  of 
chlorine,  by  agitating  the  liquid  with  mercury  ; 
and  then  distillation,  with  a  gentle  heat,  gave  the 
gas,  which  was  as  just  stated,  called  oxyprussic 
acid.     This  is  not,  however,  pure  chloro-cyanic 
acid,  but  a  mixture  of  it  with  carbonic  acid. 

530.  The  acid  thus  obtained  is  colorless,  vo- 
latile,  and  penetrating;    it  reddens  litmus,    is 


not  inflammable,  and  does  not  detonate  when 
mixed  with  twice  its  bulk  of  oxygen  Gi  iiy- 
drogen. 

531 .  Gay  Lussac  gives  the  constituents  of  this 
acid  as  follows : — 

1  vol.  of  gaseous  carbon^ 

i  a  vol.  of  nitrogen        >  condensed  into  1  vol. 

£  a  vol.  of  chlorine       j 

532.  Cyanide  of  iodine  is   a   pungent   com- 
pound, perfectly  white,  and  in  the  form  of  long 
needles ;  it  is  obtained  by  heating  a  mixture  of 
one  part  iodine  and  two  parts  cyanide  of  mer- 
cury; both  the  substances  must  be  quite  dry. 
It  is  soluble  in  water,  and  more  readily  so  in 
alcohol ;  unlike  the  compound  of  cyanogen  with 
chlorine,  the  solution  of  cyanide  of  iodine  does 
not  manifest  acid  properties.      It  is  resolved  by 
muriatic  acid  into  hydro-cyanic  acid  and  iodine. 

533.  Sulphuro-prussic  (sulpha-cyanic)  acid. — 
To  this  acid  Mr.  Porrett  gave  the  name  of  sul- 
phureted   chyazic   acid.       Dr.  Ure    gives    the 
following  directions  for  its  formation :  dissolve 
in  water  one  part  of  sulphuret  of  potassa,  and 
boil  it  for  a  considerable  time  with  three  or  four 
parts  of  powdered  Prussian  blue  (ferro-cyanite 
of  potassa),  added  at  intervals.     Sulphuret  of 
iron  is  formed,  and  a  colorless  liquid,  containing 
the  new  acid,  combined  with  potassa,  mixed  with 
hydro-sulphate  and  sulphate  of  potassa.   Render 
this  liquid  sensibly  sour  by  the  addition  of  sul- 
phuric acid.     Continue  the  boiling  for  a  little, 
and  when  it  cools  add  a  little  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese, in  fine  powder,  which  will  give  the  liquid 
a  fine  crimson  color.     To  the  filtered  liquid  add 
a   solution,  containing  per-sulphate  of   copper 
and  proto-sulphate  of  iron,  in  the  proportion  of 
two  of  the  former  salt  to  three  of  the  latter, 
until  the  crimson  color  disappears.     Sulphuro- 
prussiate  of  copper  falls.     Boil  this  with  a  so- 
lution of  potassa,  which  will  separate  the  copper. 
Distil  the  liquid  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  in  a 
glass   retort,   and  the   peculiar  acid  will  come 
over.     By  saturation  with  carbonate  of  baryta, 
and  then  throwing  down  this  by  the  equivalent 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  the  sulphuro-prussic 
acid  is  obtained  pure. 

534.  Sulpho-cyanic  acid  is  a  transparent  and 
colorless  liquid ;    its   odor  somewhat  resembles 
the  acetic  acid.    Its  specific  gravity  is  1-022.    At 
a  boiling  heat  it  dissolves  a  little  sulphur,  and 
then  precipitates  oxide  of  silver  from  the  nitrate 
of  a  dark  color.     When  the  pure  acid  is  em- 
ployed the  precipitate  is  white. 

535.  Mr.  Porrett  infers  from   his  trials   that 
sulpho-cyanic   acid   consists    of    one-third    by 
weight  of  the  elements  of  hydro-cyanic  acid, 
and  two-thirds  of  sulphur. 

The  salts  formed  of  this  acid  and  different 
bases  have  been  examined  by  Mr.  Porrett,  and 
an  account  of  them  will  be  found  in  the  fifth 
volume  of  the  Annals  of  Philosophy. 

536.  Ferro-cyanic  Acid  (fcrrochyazic  of  Por- 
rett.)— This  acid  is  ordered  to  be  obtained  by 
adding   to  a  solution  of  the  salt  called  triple- 
prussiate,  or  ferro-cyanate  of  baryta,  sulphuric 
acid  in  just  sufficient  quantity  to  throw  down 
the  baryta. 

537.  This    acid    is    of    a  pale  yellow  color. 
without  smell,  is  decomposed  by  heat,  and  can 


410 


CHEMISTRY. 


uever  therefore  be  obtained  by  distillation ;  for 
subjected  to  this  process  hydro-cyanic  acid,  and 
hydro-cyanate  of  iron,  would  be  formed,  which, 
by  exposure  to  light,  becomes  blue.  The  salts 
called  triple  phosphates,  are  formed  by  combining 
the  acid  in  question  with  alkalis,  earths,  and  the 
metallic  oxides. 

538.  '  We  are  indebted,'  says  Dr.  Henry,  '  to 
Mr.  Porrett  for  the  view  which  is  most  commonly 
taken  of  the  nature  of  the  acid  entering  into  the 
composition  of  the  salts  formerly  called  prussiates, 
or  triple  prussiates.     It  had  generally  been  sup- 
posed that  the  protoxide  of  iron,  which  is  always 
present  in  these  salts,  acted  the  part  of  a  base, 
with  which,  as  well  as  with  an  alkali  or  earth, 
the  prussic  acid  was  supposed  to  be  united  in 
the  triple  compounds.     Mr.  Porrett,  however, 
has  rendered  it  more  probable  that  the  oxide  is 
really  an  element  of  the  acid,  and  not  a  base ; 
for   he  finds  that  when  the  triple  prussiate  of 
soda  in  solution  is  exposed  to  galvanic  electricity, 
the  oxide  of  iron  is  carried  along  with  the  ele- 
ments of  the  prussic  acid  to  the  positive  pole, 
whereas  if  it  had  existed  as  a  base,  it  would 
have  been  determined  to  Ihe  negative  pole.    He 
proposed  for  it  the  name  of  ferruretted  chyazic 
acid  ;  but  I  prefer  that  of  ferro-cyanic,  which 
not  necessarily  excluding  hydrogen  from  its  com- 
position, is  still  consistent  with  the  view  arising 
out  of  Mr.  Porrett's  researches.     This  view  ex- 
plains why  the  iron  in  triple  prussiates  (ferro- 
cyanates)  is  not  discoverable  by  the  most  delicate 
tests,  for  it  can  no  more  be  affected  by  them  than 
sulphur  can  be  indicated  by  its  appropriate  tests, 
when  existing  in  sulphuric  acid.' 

For  further  remarks  on  the  composition  and 
the  theory  of  ferro-prussic  formation,  see  PRUSSIC 
ACID  in  the  body  of  the  work. 

539.  The  radical  of  the  acid  in  question  is 
stated  to  be  formed  of  one  atom  of  iron  and 
three  atoms  of  cyanogen. 

540.  Nitrogen  and  phosphorus  do  not  appear 
to  produce  any  definite  compound ;  but,  in  some 
instances  of  animal  decomposition,  the  azote  or 
nitrogen  that  is  evolved  seems  to  hold  phosphorus 
in  solution. 

COMPOUNDS  OF  PHOSPHORUS. 

541.  Phosphuret  of  sulphur. — If  one  atom  or 
proportional   of    sulphur  be   united  to   one   of 
sulphur  by  fusion  (16  +  12)  sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen will  be  evolved,  and  the  compound  will 
be  a  phosphuret  of  sulphur,  which  is  much  more 
fusible  than   is   phosphurus  itself,  and  indeed 
exists  in  a  liquid   state  at  the  common  tem- 
perature of  the  atmosphere.    At  a  heat  below 
50°  it  is  crystallisable. 

542.  Phosphuret  of  selenium  has  not  been  sa- 
tisfactorily analysed. 

COMPOUNDS  OF  SULPHUR. 

543.  Bitulphuret  of  carbon  is  a  liquid  pro- 
cured by  passing  sulphur  over  charcoal  that  is 
heated  to  redness ;  or  by  distilling  a  mixture  of 
charcoal  with  native  bisulphuret  of  iron. 

544.  This  liquid  is  colorless ;  it  has  a  peculiar 
feted  odor,  is  exceedingly  volatile,  and  has  a 
pungent  taste.     Its  specific  gravity  is  1-272.    It 
boils   at   106°   and    does   not   congeal   at   60° 
below  0.      It   possesses   a   very    extraordinary 
power  of  engendering  cold  during  evaporation, 


the  cold  being  intense.  It  is  inflammable,  and 
when  burned  with  oxygen  produces  sulphureous 
and  carbonic  acids.  Chlorine  decomposes  it 
and  produces  chloride  of  sulphur.  The  alkalis 
act  upon  it  slowly ;  the  acids  do  not  appear  to 
affect  it. 

545.  Its  atomic  proportionals  are  two  of  sulphur 
to  one  of  carbon.  It  was  called  byLampadius,  its 
discoverer,  alcohol  of  sulphur. 

546.  An  acid  is  obtained  by  a  mixture  of  the 
sulphuret  of  carbon  with  pure  potassa,  which  acid 
contains  sulphur,  carbon,  and  hydrogen ;  it  was 
named  by  Zuse  of  Copenhagen  hydroxanlhic, 
on  account  of  the  yellow  color  of  its  compounds. 
That  this  acid  contains  hydrogen  was  proved  by 
iodine  when  treated  with  it  producing  hydriodic 
acid. 

547.  Ammonia  treated  with  the  sulphuret  of 
carbon   undergoes  decomposition,  and  the  sul- 
phuret itself  likewise  becomes  decomposed,  the 
result  of  the  combination  is  the  production  of 
two  new  salts,  the  one  stated  to  be  a  new  acid, 
which  may  be  considered  as  a  compound  of  sul- 
pho-cyanic,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  the  other 
containing  a  double  sulphuret  of  hydrogen  and 
carbon.      See  Ann.  de  Chem.  et  de  Phys.  xxvi. 
66,   113,  and  Quarterly  Journal  of  Science  Sac. 
xviii.  149. 

548.  A  Sulphuret  of  selenium  may  be  formed  by 
mixing  and  melting  one  part  of  selenium  with 
100  parts  of  sulphur ;  or  better  by  precipitating 
a  solution  of  selenic  acid  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
gas,  washing  the  product  with  a  small  quantity 
of  muriatic  acid. 

549.  A  sulphuret  of  boron  may  be  obtained  by 
burning  boron  in  the  vapor  of  sulphur. 

PART  IV. 

METALS. 

550.  These  constitute  a  most  important  class 
of  bodies,  as  well  in  relation  to  the  arts  and 
luxuries  of   life  generally,  as  in  reference  to 
their  chemical  circumstances  or  susceptibilities ; 
and  in  this  last  point  of  view  modern  science  has 
unfolded  particulars  of  which  the  philosophy  of 
former  times  was  entirely  ignorant ;  indeed  the 
number  of  substances  which  go  under  the  name 
of  metals  has  been  lately  much  increased,  many 
of  them  being  of  very  recent  discovery,  and  the 
discovery  itself  being   the   result   of  scientific 
research,  rather  than  of  incidental  observation. 

551.  Some  of  the  bodies  however  at  present 
acknowledged    as    metals   have    scarcely  been 
exhibited  in  a  separate  form,  and  are  classed 
among  the  metals  merely  upon  analogical  prin- 
ciples, and  because  the  earths  in  which  they  have 
been  discovered  exhibit  a  manifest  resemblance 
to  the  oxides  of  those  metals  that  have  been 
detected  in  an  abstract  and  independent  form. 

552.  We  shall  first  treat  of  the  general  proper- 
ties of  metals.'  We  shall  then  give  from  the  best 
authorities,and  as  far  as  they  are  known,  the  dates, 
order  and  times,  in  which  respective  metals  were 
discovered,  with  the  names  of  the  discoverers  ; 
and  afterwards  proceed  to  treat  individually  of 
each  of  them. 

553.  Metals  are  characterised  in  general  by  a 
peculiar  lustre,  indeed  the  metallic  lustre  is  pro- 
verbial. Of  this  property,  however,  they  are  pos- 
sessed in  strikingly  different  degrees. 


CHEMISTRY. 


411 


554.  They  are  conductors  both  of  caloric  and 
electricity,    '  when    their   surface   is   extensive 
enough   to   convey  away  the  electricity  which 
seeks  a  passage  no  change  is  produced  in  them, 
but  when  insufficient  the  electric  fluid  penetrates 
into  them,  heats  them,  and  sometimes  fuses  and 
even  volatilises  them.       In  this  state  of  vapor 
they  burn  more  or  less  vividly,  and  with  differ- 
ently colored  flames,   zinc  with  a  white  flame 
mixed  with  blue  and  red;  tin  bluish  white  ;  lead 
bluish  or  purple ;  and  silver  green.' 

555.  They  are  fusible  :  but  this  quality  they 
likewise  possess  in  very  different  measures.  Even 
in  the  common  temperature  of  our  climate  mer- 
cury exists  in  a  fluid  state,  but  it  is  the  only 
known  metal  that  is  possessed  of  this  degree  of 
fusibility.     Some  indeed  are  infusible  by  very 
high  heats. 

556.  Many  but  not  all  of  them  are  malleable, 
that  is  are  susceptible  of  extension  or  expansion 
over  a  surface  by  the  blows  of  a  hammer.    Gold 
is  the  most  malleable  of  metals.      Five  grains  of 
it  may  be  beaten  out  so  as  to  cover  a  surface  of 
272  square  inches.      Those  metals  which  were 
formerly  considered  as  insusceptible  of  this  ex- 
tension were  called  semi-metals,  but  this  dis- 
tinction is  not  observed  in  scientific  classification, 
and  indeed  there  is  no  precise  line  of  distinction 
to  be  drawn  between  the  non-malleable  and  the 
malleable    metals ;    the    quality    progressively 
diminishing  in  one  direction,  and  increasing  in 
another. 

557.  Ductility  is  another  quality  of  metals,  by 
which  is  understood  their  capacity  of  being  drawn 
out  into  wire.     It  has  been  asserted  that  a  grain 
of  gold  may  be  extended   to  the  length  of  500 
feet  '  but  even  this  has  been  surpassed  by  Dr. 
Wollaston,  for,  by  surrounding  the  gold  with  sil- 
ver, he  has  been  able  to  extend  it  so   that  700 
feet  weighed  only  one  grain,  which  gives  a  thick- 
ness of  only  3^55  of  an  inch.     The  coating  of 
silver  was   afterwards  removed  by  nitric  acid 
which  has  no  action  on  gold.' 

558.  Some  metals  are  exceedingly  elastic,  in 
this  respect  iron,  and  the  modification  of  it  called 
steel,  are  particularly  conspicuous,  hence  the  use 
of  steel  in  springs.    Such  metals  as  are  elastic  and 
hard,  are  likewise  sonorous,  or  are  in  other  words 
capable  from  their  construction  of  exciting  and 
conveying  sound.     Bell-metal  is  an  alloy  of  tin 
and  copper,  and  it  is  much  more  sonorous  than 
either  of  its  constituents  abstractedly. 

559.  Many  of  the  metals  are  crystalline,  that 
is  capable  of  assuming  by  particular  management 
the  form  of  crystals  ;  and  indeed  the  structure  of 
some  of  them  is  naturally  crystalline  and  lamel- 
lated.      Bismuth   and   antimony   are   conspicu- 
ously so. 

560.  Of  those  metals  which  are  exhibited  to 
us   in  saline   combinations,  their  metallic  part, 
when  heated  with  voltaic  electricity,  separates  at 
the  negative  pole. 

561 .  Metals  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  oxy- 
gen, chlorine,  or  iodine  at  an  elevated  temperature, 
enter  into  combination  with  one  or  other  of  these 
elements  in  definite  proportions;  and  the  conse- 
quence of  the  combination  is  the  formation  of 
bodies  which  have  lost  most  of  the  peculiar  cha- 
racters  of  the   metals  themselves.     They  were 
formerly  indeed,  in  reference  to  the  susceptibility 


now  adverted  to,  considered  as  composed  of  a 
combustible  base  united  with  a  principle  of  in- 
flammability, named  phlogiston,  which  they  lost 
by  exposure  to  air  at  a  high  temperature,  the  air 
becoming  thereby  phlogisticated,  incapable  of  ab- 
stracting again  the  principle,  and  therefore  unfit 
for  burning  other  metals,  or  other  portions  of  the 
same  metal  not  yet  acted  on.  In  the  article  AIK, 
and  in  the  first  part  of  the  present  treatise,  the 
reader  will  find  an  account  of  the  change  which 
has  recently  taken  place  in  reference  to  the  ratio- 
nale or  mode  of  explaining  these  circumstances 
of  change ;  suffice  it  to  say  here,  that  the  increase 
of  weight  which  the  burnt  metal  undergoes,  and 
moreover  that  weight  being  proved  equivalent  to 
what  the  air  had  lost,  was  shown  in  the  Lavoisie- 
rian  theory  to  be  totally  inconsistent  with  the 
principle  of  inflammability  as  a  something  con- 
tained in  the  metal  operated  upon  and  extricated 
by  the  operation. 

562.  It  is  now  indeed  admitted  as  a  demonstra- 
ted  principle  that  the  reverse  effect  has  place, 
that  the  metals,  at  a  high  temperature,  are  made  to 
abstract  the  oxygenous  portion  of  the  atmosphere 
in  which  they  are  enveloped,  and  it  is  in  conse- 
quence of  their  union  with  this  substance  that 
the  variety  of  change  is  operated  upon  them; 
variety  of  change  we  say,  for  different  metals  re- 
quire different  temperatures  for  the  union  of  which 
we  are  speaking,  and   they  are   susceptible   of 
being  acted  on  some  with  less  and  some  with 
more  facility. 

563.  It  should  seem,  however,  that  the  law  of 
multiples  or  definite  proportions  takes  place  in 
these  instances  of  combination,  and  that  the  pro- 
portions in  which  metals  unite  with  oxygen  are 
so  regulated  that  the  oxygen  of  the  greater  pro- 
portion is  a  simple  multiple  of  that  in  the  less. 

564.  Metals  unite,  as  above  stated,  with  chlo- 
rine, and  when  they  are  exposed  at  a  high  tem- 
perature to  this  gas  the  results  are  compounds  of 
chlorine  with  the  respective  metals  acted  on ;  and 
indeed  the  chlorine  displays  an  exceedingly  pow- 
erful affinity  for  the  metal,  being  capable  of  ex- 
pelling the  whole  oxygen  from  a  metallic  oxide, 
and  taking  its  place.     In  this  case,  too,  the  law  of 
proportionals  still  holds. 

565.  Iodine  too,  we  have  remarked,  enters  into 
composition   with    the    metals,     and    produces 
iodides,  as  oxygen  occasions  oxides,  and  chlorine 
chlorides ;  but  this  substance  is  not  capable  of 
disengaging  oxygen  from  the  greater  number  of 
oxides,  as  is  the  case  with  chlorine. 

566.  Metals  are  for  the  most  part  susceptible 
of   combination   with   each  other;  but  for  this 
purpose  fusion  or  melting  is  required.     When 
thus  combined  metals  are  called  alloys,  and  they 
maintain,  for  the  most  part,  their  characteristic 
lustre.     See  the  word  ALLOY. 

567.  They   combine   with  hydrogen,  but  the 
combinations   with   this    substance   are   neither 
large  in  number,  nor  of  much  importance. 

568.  Those  metals  which  are  speedily  acted  on  by 
common  air  and  oxygen  are  also  generally  suscep- 
tible of  decomposing  water ;  some  of  them  rapid- 
ly, others  slowly.     There  are  some  metals  which 
are  not  acted  on  by  air  deprived  of  moisture, 
nor  by  water  deprived  of  air ;  but  moist  air,  or 
water  containing  air,  effect    their  oxidisement; 
tins  appears  to  be  the  case  with  iron.     (Dr.  Mar- 


412 


CHEMISTRY. 


shall  Hall,  Quarterly  Journal,  vii.  55).  Water 
combines  with  some  of  the  metallic  oxides  and 
produces  oxides  or  metallic  hydrates.  In  these 
the  relative  proportion  of  water  is  definite.  Some 
are  easily  decomposed  by  heat,  as  hydrate  of 
copper,  others  retain  water,  even  when  heated  to 
redness.  Brande. 

569.  With  sulphur  their  combinations  are 
much  more  numerous,  complicated,  and  impor- 
tant ;  some  of  the  native  metals  are  found  in  this 
combination,  and  the  sulphurets  have  generally  a 
semi-metallic  appearance. 


570.  Phosphorus  combines  with  the  metals  and 
produces  phosphurets. 

571.  And  there  is  one  instance  especially  of 
carbon  uniting  with  a  metal  (iron)  in  which  the 
compound  possesses  peculiar  and  characteristic 
properties  according  to  the  proportion  of  either 
ingredient.      Other  carburets  are  not  of  much 
importance. 

572.  The  metals,  including  those  which  have  not 
hitherto  been  found  in  an  un combined  form,  are 
forty-two  in  number  ;  of  these   seven  have  been 
known  from  the  remotest  times  ;  these  seven  are : 


01 


Known  from  remote 
antiquity. 


1.  Gold,  the  ancient  symbol  of  which  was  the  Sun 

2.  Silver  .         .         .         ...         Moon 

3.  Mercury      .         .         .       ..-••,•        .         Mercury 

4.  Copper        ......         Venus 

5.  Iron    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         Mars 

6.  Tin      .......         Jupiter 

7.  Lead Saturn 

8.  Zinc. — The  word  zinc  is  first  found  in  the  writings  of  Paracelsus,  although 

it  is  supposed  that  the  ancients  were  acquainted  with  some  of  its  ores      .     1541 

9.  Bismuth,  mentioned  by  Agricola      ........     1530 

10.  Antimony.     See  part  1  (Valentine)  ....          Fifteenth  century. 

12'  Cobdt0'  \    Discovered  by  Brandt 1733 

13.  Platinum.     Wood  first  recognised  it  as  a  peculiar  body  (Phil.  Trans.  44)  .     1741 

14.  Nickel.     First  shown  distinctively  by  Cronstedt  (Stockholm  Trans.)  .     1751 

15.  Manganese  was  obtained  by  Gahn  in 1774 

16.  Tungsten,  discovered  by  M.  M.  Delhuyart       .  ...     1781 


17.  Tellurium 

18.  Molybdenum 

19.  Titanium 

20.  Uranium 

21.  Chromium 

22.  Columbium 

23.  Palladium 

24.  Rhodium 

25.  Iridium   ) 

26.  Osmium  J 

27.  Cerium 

28.  Potassium -\ 

29.  Sodium     / 
30!  Barium      \ 

31.  Strontium! 

32.  Calcium    J 

33.  Lithium 

34.  Cadmium 

35.  Magnesium^) 

36.  Glucinum 

37.  Yttrium 

38.  Aluminum 

39.  Thorinum 

40.  Zirconium 

41.  Silicium 

42.  Selenium? 


Muller 

Muller  and  Hulm        .... 

Gregor        ...... 

Klaproth 

Vauquelin  (Annales  de  Chimie,  vol.  xxv.) 

Hatchett  (Phil.  Trans.) 

Wollaston  (Phil.  Trans.)     . 


1782 
1782 
1781 
1789 
1797 
1802 

1803 


Tennant  (Phil.  Trans.) 1803 

Hisinger  and  Berzelius 1804 


Sir  H.  Davy 

Arfwedsdon 
Stromeyer 


All  very  recently  discovered. 


1807 


1818 
1819 


The  last  eight  are  those  which  have  already 
been  alluded  to  as  not  having  been  yet  seen  in  a 
separate  form,  and  for  the  discovery  of  which 
chemistry  has  been  mainly  indebted  to  the  experi- 
ments and  researches  of  Sir  H.  Davy  ;  the  last  in- 
deed, selenium,  has  already  been  treated  of  under 
another  head,  and  has  at  best  but  an  equivocal 
title  to  be  considered  as  a  metal. 

573.  Chemical  authors  h^ve  adopted  various 


excepting  inasmuch  as  some  are  possessed  of 
those  qualities  in  a  more  marked  degree,which  have 
been  considered  their  prominent  characteristics. 

574.  '  I  have  not  (says  Dr.  Ure  in  his  excel- 
lent dictionary)  seen  any  arrangement  to  which 
important  objections  may  not  be  offered ;  nor  do 
1  hope  to  present  one  which  shall  be  exempt  from 
criticism.  The  main  purposes  of  a  methodical 
distribution,  are  to  facilitate  the  acquirement, 


classifications  of  metals ;  -but  all  of  them  seem  retention,  and  application  of  knowledge.     With 

to   be   more  or  less  arbitrary  or  hypothetical ;  regard  to  metals  in  general,   I   conceive  these 

since  '  their  relations  to  the  various  objects  of  purposes  may  be  to  a  considerable  extent  at- 

cheraistry  are  so  complex  and  diversified,'  and  tained,  by  beginning  with  those  which  are  most 

because  there  is  no  natural  order  of  these  bodies,  eminently  endowed  with  the  characters  of  the 


CHEMISTRY. 


413 


genus,  which  most  distinctly  possess  the  proper- 
ties that  constitute  their  value  in  common  life, 
and  which  caused  the  early  inhabitants  of  the 
earth  to  give  to  the  first  metallurgists  a  place  in 
mythology.  Happy  had  their  idolatry  been 
always  confined  to  such  real  benefactors. 

Inventas  aut  qui  vitarn  excoluere  per  artes, 
Quique  sui  memores,  alios  fecere  merendo. 

By  arranging  metals  according  to  the  degree 
in  which  they  possess  the  obvious  qualities  of 
unalterability  by  common  agents — tenacity,  and 
lustre,  we  also  conciliate  their  most  important 
chemical  relations,  namely  those  to  oxygen, 
chlorine,  and  iodine ;  since  their  metallic  pre- 
eminence is,  popularly  speaking,  inversely  as 
their  affinities  for  their  dissolvents.  In  a  strictly 
scientific  view,  these  habitudes  with  oxygen 
should  perhaps  be  less  regarded  in  their  classi- 
fication, than  with  chlorine,  for  this  element  has 
the  most  energetic  attraction  for  the  metals.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  oxygen  which  forms  one-fifth 


of  the  atmospheric  volume,  and  eight-ninths  of 
the  aqueous  mass,  operates  to  a  much  greater 
extent  among  metallic  bodies,  and  incessantly 
modifies  their  form  both  in  nature  and  art.  Now 
the  order  we  propose  to  follow  will  indicate  very 
nearly  their  relations  to  oxygen,  which  we  may 
observe  is  the  principal  of  arrangement  pursued, 
but  in  the  reverse  way,  by  Brande  and  others. 
'  As  we  progressively  descend  the  influences  of 
that  beautiful  element  progressively  increase. 
Among  the  bodies  near  the  head,  its  powers  are 
subjected  by  the  metallic  constitution ;  but  among 
those  near  the  bottom,  it  exercises  an  almost 
despotic  sway,  which  Volta's  magical  pile,  di- 
rected by  the  genius  of  Davy,  can  only  suspend 
for  a  season.  The  emancipated  metal  soon  re- 
lapses under  the  dominion  of  oxygen.' 

575.  After  this  introduction,  Dr.  Ure  presents 
his  readers  with  a  table  of  the  metals,  which  we 
shall  take  the  liberty  of  transcribing  into  our 
pages ;  and  then  treat  of  them  at  large  in  the 
succession  which  this  tabular  view  indicates. 


General  Table  of  the  Metals. 


NAMES. 

Sp  .  gr. 

Precipitanti. 

Colour  of  precipitate!  by 

Ferro-prussiate 
of  potash. 

infusion  of  galls. 

Hydro-sulphuret>. 

Sulphuretted 
hydrogen. 

1  Platinum 

21-47 

Mur.  ammon. 

0 

0 

Slack  met  pow. 

2  Gold 

19-30 

(  Sulph.  iron 
(  Nitr.  mercury 

Yellowish-white 

3reen;  met 

Yellow 

3  Silver 

10-45 

Jommon  salt 

White 

Yellow-brown 

Slack 

Slack 

4  Palladium 
5  Mercury 

11-8 
13-6 

Prus.  mercury 
$  Common  salt 
?Heat 

Deep  orange 
White  passing 
to  yellow 

3range-yellow 

Slackish-brown 
Srownish-black 

Slack-brown 
Black 

6  Copper 

89 

Iron 

Red-brown 

Srown 

Black 

Do. 

T 

77 

$  Sucrin.  soda 

Blue,   or   white 

^rotox.  0 

7  Jron 

I      with  perox. 

passing  to  blue 

?erox.  black 

Slack 

0 

8  Tin 

7-29 

Dorr,  sublim. 

White 

0 

3rotox.  black 

Srown 

9  Lead 

11-35 

Sulph.  soda 

Do. 

White 

Black 

Black 

,0  Nickel 

8-4 

>!ulph.  potash? 

Do. 

jray-white 

Do. 

Do 

.11  Cadmium 
12  Zinc 

8-6 
6-9 

Zinc 
\lk.  carbonates 

Do. 
Do. 

0 
0 

)range-yellow 

)range-yellow 
Yellowish-  white 

13  Bismuth 

9-88 

Water 

Do. 

Yellow 

Slack-brown 

Black-brown 

14  Antimony 

670 

5  Water 
(Zinc 

With  dilute  so- 
lutions white 

*Vhite  from  wa- 
ter 

)range 

Grange 

15  Manganese 

8- 

Tart.  pot. 

White 

0 

White 

Milkiness 

16  Cobalt 

8-6 

\lk.  carbonates 

Brown  -yellow 

Yellow-white 

Black 

0 

17  Tellurium 

6-115 

<  Water 
£  Antimony 

0 

Yellow 

Blackish 

18  Arsenic 

$  8-35? 
I  576? 

Nitr.  lead 

White 

Yellow 

Yellow 

1  19  Chromium 

5-90 

Do. 

Green 

Brown 

3reen 

120  Molybdenum 
|21  Tungsten 

8-6 
17-4 

Do.? 
VInr.  lime  ? 

Brown 
Dilute  acids 

Deep-brown 

Brown 

[22  Columbinm 

5-6? 

Zinc  or  inf.  galls 

Olive 

Orange 

Chocolate 

23  Selenium 

4-3? 

$  Iron 
I  Sulphite  ainni. 

24  Osmium 

? 

Mercury 

Purple  passing 
to  deep  blue 

25  Rhodium 

10-65 

Zinc? 

0 

0 

|26  Indium 

18-68 

Do? 

0 

t27  Uranium 

9'0 

Ferro-pr.  pot. 

Brown-red 

Chocolate 

Brown  Yellow 

0 

28  Titanium 

? 

Inf.  galls. 

Grass-  green 

Red-brown 

Grass  -green 

0 

29  Cerium 

9 

Oxal.  aiiim. 

Milk-white 

0 

White 

0 

30  Potassium 

0-865 

J  Mur.  plat. 
(_  Tart,  acid 

0 

0 

0 

31  Sodium 

0-972 

32  Lithium        ; 

33  Calcium 

34  Barium 

35  Strontium 

36  Magnesium 

37  Yttrium 

38  Gluciuum 

i 

39  Aluminum 

i 

40  Thorinum 

i 

41  Zirconium 

1 

142  Silicium 

| 

414 


CHEMISTRY. 


576.  The  first  twelve  are  malleable,  and  so  are 
the  30th,  31st,  and  32nd  in  their  congealed  state. 

577.  The  firs*  vjUeen  yield  oxides,  which  are 
neutral  salifiable  oases. 

578.  The  metals  17,  18,  19,  20,  21,  22,  and 
23,  are  acidifiable  by  combination  with  oxygen. 
Of  the  oxides  of  the"  rest,  up  to  the  30th,  little  is 
known.     The  remaining  metals  form,  with  oxy- 
gen, the  alkaline  and  earthy  bases. 

579.  We  propose  in  the  following  pages,  as 
above  intimated,  to  adopt  the  arrangement  of  Dr. 
Ure ;  but,  before  we  commence  the  separate  con- 
sideration of  the  substances  now  to  be  noticed, 
it  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  state  the  order  in 
which  Mr.  Brande,  Dr.  Henry,  and  Dr.  Murray 
treat  of  them. 

580.  '  Various  classifications  of  the  metals,' 
says  the  first  of  these  writers, '  have  been  adopted 
by  chemical  authors  ;  some  dependent  upon  their 
physical,  others  upon  their  chemical  properties. 
The  former  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  adapted 
to  chemical  enquiry,  and  the  latter  involve  nume- 
rous difficulties  in  consequence  of  the  gradual 
transition  of  metals  of  one  class  into  those  of 
another.     I  shall  consider  the  metals  in  the  order 
in  which  they  are  set  down  in  the  following  table, 
and  which  is  nearly  that  of  their  respective  at- 
tractions for  oxygen. 


1.  Potassium 

2.  Sodium 

3.  Lithium 

4.  Calcium 

5.  Barium 

6.  Strontium 

7.  Magnesium 

8.  Manganese 

9.  Iron 

10.  Zinc 

11.  Tin 

12.  Cadmium 


23.  Arsenic 

24.  Molybdenum 

25.  Chromium 

26.  Tungsten 

27.  Columbium 


metallic  state.  The  last  six  metals  are  placed  in 
the  list  from  analogy ;  they  are  only  known  in 
the  state  of  oxides,  which  have  not  hitherto  been 
reduced.'  Brande. 

582. '  From  a  comparison  of  the  resemblances 
among  metals,'  says  Dr.  Henry, '  both  as  to  phy- 
sical and  chemical  properties,  several  arrange- 
ments of  them  have  been  formed  into  smaller 
classes.  The  circumstance  on  which  a  subordi- 
nate division  of  the  metals  is  perhaps  best  foun- 
ded, is  the  nature  of  their  relation  to  oxygen. 
Without  creating  more  of  these  divisions  than 
are  absolutely  necessary,  it  appears  to  me  that 
they  may  be  conveniently  arranged  under  the 
following  heads : — 

Class  I.  Metals  that  afford  oxides  whicli  can- 
not be  reduced  to  a  metallic  form  without  the 
addition  of  combustible  matter. 

Class  II.  Metals,  the  oxides  of  which  are  de- 
composed by  heat  only. 

i.  The  first  class,  which  have  been  termed 
base  metals  to  distinguish  them  from  the  noble 
or  perfect,  may  be  again  subdivided  as  follows  : 

583.  1.  Metals  that  are  either  known  from  ex- 
periment, or  believed  from  analogy,  to  absorb 
oxygen  at  high  degrees  of  heat,  and  to  decompose 
water  at  common  temperatures.  The  metals  that 
have  been  actually  ascertained  to  produce  these 
effects  are  six,  viz. 


13.  Copper 

14.  Lead 

15.  Antimony 

16.  Bismuth 

17.  Cobalt 

18.  Uranium 

19.  Titanium 

20.  Cerium 

21.  Tellurium 

22.  Selenium 


28.  Nickel 

29.  Mercury 

30.  Osmium 

31.  Iridium 

32.  Rhodium 

33.  Palladium 

34.  Silver 

35.  Gold 

36.  Platinum 


37.  Silicium 

38.  Aluminum 

39.  Zirconium 

40.  Glucinum 

41.  Yttrium 

42.  Thorinum. 


Potassium 

Sodium 

Lithium 


Calcinum 
Barium  and 

Strontium. 


581.  Of  these  metals,  the  first  seven  produce 
alkaline  oxides,  which  are  very  difficult  of  reduc- 
tion ;  and  they  readily  decompose  water  at  all 
temperatures,  a  character  which  announces  their 
*  powerful  attraction  for  oxygen ;  the  next  five  de- 
compose water,  when  their  temperature  is  raised 
to  redness ;  the  ten  following  do  not  decompose 
water  at  a  red  heat ;  nor  do  the  next  five,  which 
produce  acids  by  uniting  to  oxygen.  The  oxides 
of  these  twenty-seven  metals  are  not  reducible  by 
heat  alone,  though  some -of  them  when  heated 
give  out  a  portion  of  oxygen.  The  nine  metals 
which  next  follow,  osmium  excepted,  have  a  com- 
paratively feeble  attraction  for  oxygen,  and,  when 
their  oxides  are  heated,  they  are  reduced  to  the 


584.  There  is  a  striking  resemblance  also  be- 
tween the  properties  of  the  oxides  of  these  metals^ 
Those  of  potassium,  sodium,  and  lithium  are 
readily  soluble  in  water ;  have  a  peculiar  acrid 
taste ;  change  certain  blue  vegetable  colors  to 
green,  and  some  yellow  ones  to  brown ;   neutra- 
lise acids,  forming  salts,  which,  for  the  most  part, 
are  easily  soluble ;  and  from  these  similarities 
have  been  classed  together  under  the  name  of 
alkalis.     With  these  oxides,  those  of  calcium, 
barium,  and  strontium  agree  so  nearly,  that  they 
also   might  without  any  impropriety  be  called 
alkalis ;  but  being  themselves,  as  well  as  several 
of  their  neutral  compounds  with  acids,  less  rea- 
dily soluble  in  water,  they  have  been  termed, 
perhaps  without  sufficient  reason,  alkaline  earths. 

585.  The  metals  belonging  to  this  subdivision, 
which  are  as  yet  distinctly  known  to  us  only  when 
in  combination  ;  but  which  are  presumed  from 
analogy  to  have  a  similar  relation  to  oxygen  and 
water  with  those  already  enumerated  ;  are  the 
seven  following : — 


Magnesium 
Glucinum 
Yttrium 
Aluminum 


Thorinum 
Zirconium  and 
Silicium. 


586.  The  oxides  of  these  seven  metals  are 
sparingly  soluble  in  water;  have  little  or  no  taste ; 
do  not  afford  solutions  in  water  which  are  capable 
of  acting  on  vegetable  blue  or  brown  colors  ;  but 
(silica  excepted)  unite  with  acids,  and  form 
neutral  salts.  They  have  been  hitherto  termed 
earths,  or  earths  proper ;  though  the  grounds  of 
their  distinction  from  other  metallic  oxides  are 
constantly  becoming  more  limited.  It  has  been 


CHEMISTRY. 


415 


questioned  whether  one  of  these  bodies,  silica, 
does  not,  as  to  its  powers  of  combination,  exhibit 
rather  the  qualities  of  an  acid;  and  whether  its 
base,  which  some  writers  have  called  silicon,  can 
properly  be  arranged  among  metals. 

587.  2.  The  second  subdivision  includes  those 
metals  which  absorb  oxygen  from  atmospheric 
air  at  high  temperatures ;  and  decompose  water, 
but  only  at  increased  temperatures.     They  are 
five  in  number,  viz. 

Manganese  Tin  and 

Zinc  Cadmium 

Iron 

The  last  of  these  is  associated  with  the  others 
from  the  agreement  of  its  general  properties  with 
those  of  tin. 

588.  3.  Metals  of  the  third  subdivision,  are 
capable  like  the  foregoing,  of  absorbing  oxygen 
at  high  temperatures,  but  not  of  decomposing 
water  at  any  temperature.   There  are  no  less  than 
fourteen  which  answer  to  this  description  ;  viz. 

Arsenic  Cerium 

Molybdenum  Cobalt 

Chromium  Titanium 

Tungsten  Bismuth 

Columbium  Copper 

Antimony  Tellurium  and 

Uranium  Lead. 

Of  these  metals,  the  first  five  are  distinctly  acidi- 
fiable ;  and  the  nine  others  are  oxidisable  only. 

589.  ii.  The  second  class  of  metals,  the  oxides 
of  which  are  reducible  by  heat,  without  the  ad- 
dition of  combustible  matter,  are  nine  in  number, 
viz. 


Mercury 

Silver 

Gold 

Platinum 

Palladium 


Rhodium 
Indium 
Osmium  and 
Nickel. 


The  first  three  have  long  been  classed  together 
under  the  name  of  noble  or  perfect  metals,  and  the 
remaining  ones  have  been  associated  with  them  as 
they  have  been  respectively  discovered.  Nickel, 
which  was  for  some  time  placed  among  the  im- 
perfect metals,  was  removed  a  few  years  since 
into  this  class,  after  a  more  accurate  investigation 
of  its  relation  to  oxygen.' 

590.  Dr.  Murray  introduces  his  account  of 
individual  metals  in  the  following  words  :  '  The 
class  of  metals  has  been  subdivided  into  orders, 
under  which  the  individual  metals  are  arranged. 
Gold,  silver,  and  platina,  preserving  their  lustre 
on  exposure  to  the  air,  possessing  a  high  degree 
of  ductility  and  malleability,  and  not  being  oxi- 
dated when  exposed  to  a  high  heat,  have  been 
placed  in  one  order,  under  the  appellation  of 
perfect  or  noble  metals.  Quicksilver,  copper, 
iron,  tin,  and  lead,  possessing  ductility  and  mal- 
leability, but  being  oxidated  by  heat,  have  been 
placed  together  under  the  name  of  imperfect 
metals.  The  others,  zinc,  antimony,  bismuth, 
cobalt,  nickel,  manganese,  arsenic,  (and  the 
greater  number  of  the  newly-discovered  metals, 
may  be  added  to  this  order),  having  little  duc- 
tility or  malleability,  were  termed  semi-metals. 
This  was  the  old  division,  others  have  been  in- 


troduced; but  any  classification  of  this  kind  is 
inaccurate ;  no  advantage  is  gained  by  forming 
such  orders,  and  they  are  altogether  artificial 
each  metal  forms  a  species,  and  they  may  be 
considered  individually  in  that  order  in  which 
the  transition  is  most  natural,  beginning  with 
those  which  have  the  characteristic  metallic 
properties,  tenacity  and  specific  gra\ity,  in  the 
highest  degree.  Those  of  recent  discovery,  and 
which  are  only  imperfectly  investigated,  may  be 
placed  after  the  others.' 

591.  It  will  be  obvious  to  the  reader  upon 
what  principle  we  have  thus  laid  before  him 
the  remarks  of  some  of  our  best  authors,  on  the 
subject  of  metallic  classification ;  the  very  dis- 
cussion involves  matter  of  much  interest,  inas- 
much as,  if  duly  attended  to  information  will  be 
found  in  it  respecting  the  nabits  of  the  several 
metals,  in  reference  to  combustibility,  acidifia- 
bility,  if  we  may  so  express  it,  and  other  par- 
ticulars. We  now  proceed,  as  it  was  above 
intimated  we  should,  to  follow  the  order  of  Dr. 
Ure,  on  account  of  its  appearing  to  us  to  unite 
in  some  measure  the  natural  with  the  chemical 
schemes  of  arrangement ;  and  therefore  to  effect 
the  purpose  of  assisting  the  conception  and  the 
recognition  of  modern  discoveries,  without  vio- 
lating the  order  in  which  it  was  the  custom  to 
treat  of  metallic  substances,  prior  to  the  important 
revolutions  in  the  doctrines  and  principles  of 
chemistry. 

592.  It  is  right  to  say,  that,  in  many  instances 
at  least,  the  habits,  &c.  of  the  metals  will  be 
discussed  less  in  detail  than  might  be  expected 
in  a  treatise  on  chemistry,  on  account  of  notices 
which  it  is  found  necessary  to  take  of  them  in 
the  alphabetical  arrangement  of  our  work. 

PLATINUM. 

593.  This  is  a  metal  of  modern  discovery.    It 
is  met  with  in  South  America ;  but  is  mixed 
with  several  other  substances  when  it  reaches 
this  country ;  the  pure  metal  may  be  obtained 
by  dissolving   the   ore   in  nitro-muriatic    acid, 
and  then  adding  a  solution  of  muriate  of  am- 
monia. 

594.  Platinum  is  white,  somewhat  resembling 
silver  in  color,  but  heavier  by  far ;  and  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly ductile,  tenacious,  and  malleable.     It 
is  extremely   difficult  of   fusion.     Under  the 
blow-pipe,  however,  with  oxygen  gas,  it  may  be 
melted.     It  is  a  very  slow  conductor  of  heat ; 
its  expansibility  by  heat  is  less  than  that  of  steel. 
Like  iron   it  may  be  welded.     Its   oxides  are 
only  procurable  by  a  circuitous  process ;  it  is 
said  to  be  oxidifiable  in  three  proportions,  viz. 
about  8,  12,  and  16  to  100  of  the  metal.     But 
the  subject,  says  Dr.  Henry,  requires  more  ac- 
curate  investigation  before  we  can  assign  with 
any  confidence  its  equivalent  number. 

595.  The  metal  is  acted  on  by  nitro-muriatic 
acid,  as  above  stated,  and  by  chlorine.  Chloride 
of  platinum  is  to  be  obtained  by  evaporating  the 
solution  in  the  nitro-muriatic  acid ;  then  heating 
the  product  to  whiteness,  by  which  process  chlo-' 
rine  gas  will  be  evolved.     The  dry  compound  is 
a  chloride  of  platinum,  which  may  be  crystallised 
by  careful  management ;  it  has  the  property  of 
being  precipitated  by  a  solution  of  muriate  of 


416 


CHEMISTRY. 


ammonia,  which  is  almost  peculiar  to,  or  charac- 
teristic of,  platinum.  The  chloride  of  platinum 
is,  however,  decomposed  by  ether. 

596.  Sulphuret    of  platinum. — This  may  be 
obtained  by  decomposing  the  chloride  with  sul- 
phureted  hydrogen,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  ascertain 
the  precise  composition  of  the  sulphuret,  since 
the  sulphur  of  it  is  so  soon  converted  into  sul- 
phuric acid.     There  are,  according  to  Mr.  Ed- 
mund  Davy,  two   other  ways  of  forming  the 
sulphuret:    first,   by  heating  the  metal   finely 
divided  with  sulphur  ;  and  the  second  by  heating 
three  parts  of  the  ammonia  muriate  of  platinum 
with  two  of  sulphur. 

597.  The   sulphate  of  platinum  is  best  pro- 
cured by  acting   on  the  sulphuret  with  nitric 
acid.     '  The  action  of  alcohol  on  this  substance 
(the  sulphate)  occasions  the  formation  of  a  sub- 
stance which  is  possessed  of  very  singular  pro- 
perties (Philosophical  Transactions,  1820).  Equal 
volumes  of  a  strong  aqueous  solution  of  this 
sulphate  and  of  alcohol,  heated  together,  deposit 
a  black  powder,  which,  after  being  well  edul- 
corated, and  dried  at  a  very  gentle  heat,  exhibits 
the  following  properties  : — 

598.  It  is  black,  and  in  small  lumps,  which 
are  soft  to  the  touch,  and  easily  reduced  to  an 
impalpable  powder.     This  powder  is  tasteless, 
and  insoluble  in  water,  either  hot  or  cold.  When 
gently  heated  on  a  slip  of  platinum,  a  feeble  ex- 
plosion takes  place,  accompanied  with  a  hissing 
noise,  and  a  flash  of  red  light,  and  the  platinum 
is  reduced.     Brought  into  contact  with  ammo- 
niacal  gas,  it  becomes  red-hot  and  scintillates. 
It  is  instantly  decomposed  by  alcohol,  as  is  shown 
in  a  very  striking  manner,  by  moistening  paper, 
sand,  cork,  or  sponge,  with  that  fluid,  and  placing 
the  smallest  particle  of  the  powder  on  them.     It 
hisses,  and  becomes  red-hot;  and  Mr.  E.  Davy, 
to  whom  we  owe  its  discovery,  proposes  it  as  an 
excellent  means  of  kindling  a  match.    It  appears 
to  consist  of  96  J  per  cent,  platinum,  with  nitrous 
acid,  a  little  oxygen,  and  a  very  minute  propor- 
tion of  carbon.     The  nitrous  acid  is  accounted 
for  by  the  peculiar  way  in  which  the  sulphate 
had  been  formed.     Henry. 

599.  Phosphuret  of  platinum  is  to  be  formed 
either  by  passing  phosphureted  hydrogen  into  a 
solution  of  the  metal,  or  by  heating  phosphorus 
with  it  in  exhausted  tubes.     Phosphuret  of  pla- 
tinum is  a  powder  of  a  grayish  blue  appearance ; 
it  is  infusible,  and  is  said  to  contain  17  to  the 
100  of  phosphurus. 

600.  A  fulminating  platinum  may  be  formed 
by  precipitating  a  solution  of  platinum  with  a 
slight  excess  of  pure  ammonia.    The  precipitate 
is  to  be  boiled  in  potassa  nearly  to  dryness,  and 
when  well  washed  and  dried  is  the  fulminating 
platinum ;   it  seems  to  be  a  compound  of  oxide 
of  platinum,  ammonia,  and  water.     It  explodes 
at  about  420°  with  a  very  loud  report.  Percussion 
will  not  cause  it  to  explode. 

601.  The  alloys  of  platinum  have  not  been 


applied  to  use.  Roll  up  together  a  piece  of 
platinum  foil  with  a  piece  of  lead  foil  of  equal 
dimensions,  and  cautiously  direct  the  flame  of  a 
candle  by  a  blow-pipe  towards  the  edges  of  this 
roll,  and  you  will  occasion  an  explosive  combi- 
nation of  the  two  metals,  the  ignited  particles 
emitting  light  in  great  quantities,  and  with  a  beau- 
tiful appearance.  The  same  effect  will  be  pro- 
duced by  a  small  piece  of  tin  or  antimony,  or 
zinc  rolled  in  platina  leaf,  and  heated  in  the 
same  manner.  '  By  combining  seven  parts  of 
platinum  with  sixteen  of  copper,  and  of  zinc,  Mr. 
Cooper  obtained  a  mixture  much  resembling 
gold.'  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  iii.  p. 
119. 

For  the  specific  gravity  of  this  and  of  all  the 
metals  the  table  may  be  consulted. 

GOLD. 

602.  This  metal  is  found  in  a  native  state, 
mixed  with  a  little  silver  or  copper.     Its  color  is 
various  shades  of  yellow  ;  its  forms  are  massive, 
ramose,  and  crystallised  in  cubes  and  octahedra. 
The  veins  of  gold  are  confined  to  primitive  coun- 
tries, but  large  quantities  of  this  metal  are  col- 
lected in  alluvial  soils  and  in  the  beds  of  certain 
rivers,  more  especially  those  of  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  and  of  Peru,   Brasil,  and   Mexico.     In 
Europe   the  streams  of  Hungary  and  Transyl- 
vania have  afforded  a  respectable   quantity  of 
gold ;  it  has  been  found  also  in  the  Rhine,  the 
Rhone,  and  the  Danube.     Small  quantities  have 
been  collected  in  Cornwall,  and  in  the  county  of 
Wicklow  in  Ireland.     Brande. 

603.  To  obtain  it  in  a  state  of  purity  standard 
gold  must  be  dissolved  in  nitro-muriatic  acid  ; 
one  part  by  weight  of  the  metal  to  three  of  the 
acid  ;  the  solution  must  be  evaporated  to  dry- 
ness  by  a  gentle  heat,  the  dry  mass  re-dissolved 
in  distilled  water,   and  a  solution  then   added 
to  it  of  green  sulphate  of  iron,  which  will  pre- 
cipitate the  gold  in  a  state  of  fine  powder,  which, 
after  being  washed  with  diluted  nitric  acid,  and 
then  with  distilled  water,  may  be  fused. 

604.  Pure  gold  is  of  a  deep  yellow  color.     It 
has  very  considerable  lustre  ;  it  may  be  melted 
at  a  moderate  heat,  and  after  fusion  it  crystallises. 
Its  malleability  and  ductility  have  already  been 
remarked  upon.     See  the  general  characters  of 
metals. 

605.  It  is  not  oxidifiable  by  mere  exposure  to 
heat;  but  a  powerful  electric  or  galvanic  impulse 
will  bring  it  to  the  condition  of  a  purple  oxide. 

606.  the  solvents  of  this  metal  are  the  nitro- 
muriatic  acid,  and  chlorine.     When  gold,  in   a 
state  of  minute  division,  is  heated  in  chlorine  a 
compound  of  a  deep  yellow  color  results,  which 
is  said  to  consist  of  97  gold  +  33'5  chlorine, 
When  acted  upon  by  water  a  muriate  of  gold  is 
produced.     Brande. 

607.  According  to  Pelletier  there   are  two 
chlorides  of  gold. 

Metal. 


'The  proto-chloride  or  sub-chloride  =  100  +  14-715 
The    per-chloride      ^soluble)       =  100  +  44-145 


C  H  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y. 


417 


It  is  in  the  state  of  perchloride  that  gold  ex- 
ists when  dissolved  by  aqua  regia.     Henry. 

608.  Iodide  of  gold  may  be  obtained  by  mix- 
ing muriate  or  chloride  of  the  metal  with  hydri- 
odate  of  potash,  or  by  acting  on  oxide  of  gold 
with  hydriodic  acid.      The  precipitate  must  be 
washed   and  dried.      Pelletier   (see    Quarterly 
Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  10.  page  121),  states 
the  iodide  of  gold  to  consist  of 

Iodine 34 

Gold 66 

609.  If  this,  says  Mr.  Brande,  be  considered  a 
compoundofone  proportional  gold  and  one  iodine, 
the  number  228  must  be  adopted  as  the  represen- 
tative of  gold,  for  34  ;  66;:  117-7  :  228-3;  anum- 
ber  so  much  at  variance  with  that  deduced  from 
other  experiments,  as  to  show  the  necessity  of 
further  enquiries,  before  either  be  adopted. 

610.  Oxides  of  this  metal  may  be  obtained  by 
precipitating  chloride  of   gold  with  magnesia, 
or  potash. 

611.  From  a  solution  of  the  metal  in  nitro- 
muriatic  acid,  a  solution  of  pure  ammonia  also 
precipitates  an  oxide  of  gold,  and  a  portion  of  the 
ammonia  combining  with  the  oxide  forms  fulmi- 
nating gold.    .This  upon  being  heated  detonates 
violently,  the  ammonia  of  it  being  decomposed 
by  the  increased  temperature,   its  hydrogen  uni- 
ting with  the  oxygen  of  the  oxide,  and  nitrogen 
gas  being  liberated  in  a  state  of  high  expansion. 
The  gold  by  this  process  is  reduced  to   its  me- 
tallic state. 

612.  Several  combustible  bodies  will  decom- 
pose chloride  of  gold  in  solution,  and  the  metal 
in  this  case  also  is  reduced  to  its  metallic  state ; 
here  the   combustible  materials  seem  to  act  by 
furnishing  hydrogen  to  the  chlorine. 

613.  Gold  is  precipitated  from  its  solvent  b  y 
ether,  but  the  oxide  of  gold  is  instantly  re-dissol- 
ved by  the  ether,  and  forms  the  etherial  solution 
of  gold.    This  solution  is  advantageously  applied 
to  the  gilding  of  steel,  scissars,    lancets,  and 
other  instruments  which  it  protects  from  rust 
with  a  very  small  expenditure  of  gold.    Henry. 

614.  Gold  will  unite  with  sulphur  into  a  sul- 
phuret,  by  passing  a  current  of  sulphureted  hy- 
drogen through  an  aqueous  solution  of  muriate  of 
gold.     The  sulphuret  falls  down  in  the  form  of 
a  black  precipitate. 

615.  With  phosphorus,  also,  gold   will  com- 
bine intoaphosphuret,  by  heating  gold  leaf  with 
phosphorus  in  a  tube  deprived  of  air.     This  has 
a  gray  color,  and  a  metallic  lustre. 

616.  For   the  methods  of  purifying  gold   by 
the  operations  of  cupelling  and  quartation,  the 
reader  may  consult  Aikin'f  Chemical  Dictionary, 
article  Gold. 

617.  Gold,  which  is  too  soft  in  its  pure  state 
for  many  purposes,  has  its  hardness  greatly  in- 
creased by  being  melted  or  alloyed  with  a  small 
proportion  of  copper.      It  is  a  singular  fact  that 
some  kinds  of  copper,  which  do  not  themselves 
appear  defective  in  any  respect,  totally  destroy 
the  ductility  of  gold.     This  appears  to  be  owing 
to  the  contamination  of  the  copper  with  a  very 
small  quantity  of  lead  and  antimony,   of  either 
of  which  metals  only  about  ^th   in    weight 
is   sufficient   to   produce   this   injurious   effect. 
Henry. 

VOL.  V. 


618.  Mercury  and  gold  combine  with  great 
ease,  and  produce  a  white  amalgam  much  used  in 
gilding.    For  this  purpose  the  amalgam  is  applied 
to  the  surface  of  the  silver,  the  mercury  is  then 
driven  off  by  heat,  and  the  gold  remains  adhering 
to  the  silver,  and  is  burnished.      This  process  is 
called  water  gilding. 

619.  In  gilding  porcelain,  gold  powder  is  ge- 
nerally employed,  obtained  by  the  decomposition 
of  the  muriate;  it  is  applied  with  a  pencil,  and 
burnished  after  it  has  been  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
the  porcelain  furnace. 

Many  curious  facts  relating  to  the  properties 
of  gold  and  its  uses  in  the  arts,  will  be  found  in 
Dr.  Lewis's  Philosophical  Commerce  of  the  Artt. 

SILVER. 

620.  Silver  is  found  native,  but  in  this  state  it 
is  seldom  pure,  being  mixed  with  small  portions 
of  other  metals.      This  metal  has  been  found  in 
Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  and  mines  of  it  exist 
in  some  parts  of  the  European  continent,  but  the 
richest  known  mines  of  this  metal  are  those  of 
Peru  and  Mexico. 

621.  To  obtain  it  in  a  state  of  purity,  we  are 
ordered  to  dissolve  the  standard  silver  of  commerce 
in  pure  nitric  acid,  diluted  with  an  equal  measure 
of  water,  and  to  immerse  a  plate  of  clean  cop- 
per into  the  solution,  which  soon   occasions   a 
precipitate  of  metallic  silver.      This  precipitate 
is  to  be  well  washed  with  distilled  water,  and 
then  boiled  for  a  short  time  in  solution  of  pure 
ammonia. 

622.  Silver  is   of  a  pure  white  color,  and  of 
very  brilliant  lustre  ;  it  exceeds  in  malleability, 
and  ductility,  all  the  metals,  with  the  exception  of 
gold  ;  it  may  be  drawn  into  a  wire  finer  than  hu- 
man hair.     It  is  fusible  at  a  bright  red  heat,  and 
when  in  fusion  is  exceedingly  brilliant. 

623.  It  is  not  oxidised  readily,  even  at  a  high 
temperature.  The  tarnish  on  silver  is  not  merely 
oxidation,  but,  as  shown  by  Proust,  is  occasioned 
by  sulphureous  vapors,  and  pure  silver  is  not 
nearly  so  susceptible  of  it  as  that  alloy  of  it  with 
copper  which  is  used  for  plate.      An  oxide  of 
silver  is  produced  by  treating  the  metal  with  a 
powerful  voltaic  or  electric  influence.   Pure  water 
does  not  act  upon  the  metal,  but,  when  water  is 
impregnated  with  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  a 
slight  blackening  of  its  surface  takes  place,  owing 
to  the  presence  of  sulphur. 

624.  By  adding  lime  water,  or  a  solution  of 
baryta,  to  a  solution  of   nitrate  of  silver,  and 
afterwards  washing  the  precipitate,  an  oxide  of 
the  metal  is  obtained.      This  is  of  a  dark  olive 
color,  and,  is  composed  according  to  Sir  H.  Davy 
of  100  parts  of  silver  united  with   7-3  oxygen. 
Mr.  Faraday  has  made  it  probable  that  another 
combination  of  oxygen  with  silver  exists  in  which 
the  oxygen  is  in  an  inferior  proportion ;  but  this 
oxide  does  not  seem  capable  of  combining  with 
acids. 

625.  Fulminating  silver  may  be  procured  by 
treating  the  oxide  of  the  metal  with  ammonia; 
and  a  detonating  silver  is  formed  by  adding  alco- 
hol to  a  heated  solution  of  silver  in  nitric  acid. 
The  first  of  these  compounds  detonates  with  a  very 
gentle  heat,  and  even  by  friction  of  the  slightes* 

2  E 


418 


CHEMISTRY. 


kind.   The  second  requires  a  smart  blow,  or  long 
continued  friction,  to  occasion  its  detonation. 

626.  Silver  combines  with  chlorine  and  forms 
a  chloride  of  silver,  which  may  be  most  easily 
obtained  by  adding  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
to  one  of  common  salt,  (muriate  of  soda,  or  chlo- 
ride of  sodium ;)  a  precipitate  falls  of  a  white 
color,    which,   upon   exposure   to   the  air,  be- 
comes brown,  and  ultimately  black.     When  this 
chloride  of  silver  is  heated  to  dull  redness,  in  a 
silver  crucible,  it  fuses,  and  upon  cooling  con- 
cretes into  a  semi-transparent  grayish  substance, 
which  is  called  luna-cornea,  or  horn  silver. 

627.  Chloride  of  silver  is  very  soluble  in  liquid 
ammonia ;  it   also  dissolves  in  hyposulphurous 
acid,  and  is  decomposed  by  hydrogen  gas ;  but 
hydrogen  freed  from  all  impurities,  and  directed 
upon  moistened  chloride  of  silver  in  the  dark 
effects  no  change.     Faraday,  Journal  of  Science, 
viii.  p.  375. 

Chloride  of  silver  is  found  native  in  some  of 
the  mines. 

628.  Iodide  of  silver  may  be  formed  by  adding 
hydriodic  acid  to  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver. 
This  is  of  a  greenish-yellow  color,  and  is  not  only 
insoluble  in  water,  but  also  in  liquid  ammonia. 

629.  Sulphuret  of  silver. — The  common  tarnish 
of  silver,  as  above  intimated,  is  the  formation  of 
a  sulphuret  upon  its  surface.     The  sulphurets  of 
the  alkalis,  and  sulphureted  hydrogen  gas,  preci- 
pitate silver  from  its  solutions,  and  form  sul- 
phurets.   Native  sulphuret,  or  vitreous  silver  ore, 
occurs  in  various  forms. 

630.  With  phosphorus,  silver  forms  a  white 
brittle  compound — a  phosphuret  of  the  metal. 

631.  Salts  of  silver.     Chlorate  of  silver  is  ob- 
tained by  digesting  oxide  of  silver  in  chloric  acid. 
It  assumes  the  form  of  rhomboid al  crystals. 

632.  lodate  of  silver  is  precipitated  in  the  form 
of  a  white  powder,  by  adding  iodic  acid  to  the 
nitrate  in  solution.     This  is  soluble  in  ammonia. 

633.  Sulphate  of  silver  is  formed  by  mixing 
nitrate  of  silver  with  sulphate  of  soda.      It  may 
be  also  procured  by  boiling  silver  in  sulphuric 
acid.     This  salt  appears  in  the  form  of  needle- 
shaped  prismatic  crystals. 

634.  Hypo-sulphite  of  silver  may  be  formed  by 
dropping  a  weak  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  into 
a  weak  solution  of  hypo-sulphate  of  soda.    The 
flavor  of  this  salt  is  highly  sweet,  though  com- 
posed of  bitter  ingredients. 

635.  Nitrate    of  silver. — Nitric  acid  diluted 
with  about  three  parts  of  water  dissolves  silver 
readily,  and  nitric  oxide  gas  is  disengaged.     If 
the  silver  used  be  pure,  the  solution  will  be  color- 
less ;  if  there  be  any  mixture  of  copper,  it  will 
assume  a  greenish  cast. 

636.  This  solution  when  evaporated  deposits 
large  regular   crystals,  of  a  white  color,  which 
however  blacken  when  exposed  to  the  light.     A 
solution  of  the  salt  stains  animal   substances  a 
deep  black  ;  and,  what  is  very  curious,  the  salt 
itself    when   taken  into  the  stomach  in  small 
quantities,  as  employed  medicinally,  occasionally 
produces  a  grayish  tinge  over  the  whole  skin, 
which  remains  for  a  great  length  of  time. 

637.  If  the  salt  be  heated  in  a  silver  crucible 
it  fuses,  and  then,  when  cast  into  small  cylinders, 
forms  the  lapis  infernalis  or  lunar  caustic  of  the 


shops  ;    the  argenti  nitras  of  the  London  Phar- 
macopoeia. 

638.  When  mercury  is  introduced  into  the 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  a  beautiful  crystalline 
deposit  is  produced,  which  is  called  arbor  Dianae. 
Beaume"  directs  the  following  process  in  order  to 
be  successful  with  this  experiment : — '  Mix  toge- 
ther six  parts  of  a  solution  of  silver  in  nitric  acid, 
and  four  of  a  solution  of  mercury  in  the  same 
acid,  both  completely  saturated.     Add  a  small 
quantity  of  distilled  water ;  and  put  the  mixture 
into  a  conical  glass,  containing  six  parts  of  an 
amalgam  made  with  seven  parts  of  mercury  and 
one  of  silver.      At  the  end  of  some  hours  there 
appears  on  the  surface  of  the  amalgam  a  precipi- 
tate in  the  form  of  a  vegetation.'      Proust,  how- 
ever, tells  us  that  nothing  more  is  necessary  to 
produce  the  arborisation,  as  beautiful  as  may  be, 
than  to  throw  mercury  into  nitrate  of  silver  very 
considerably  diluted. 

639.  Nitrate  of  silver  is  employed  for  writing 
upon  linen,  under  the  name  of  marking  ink. 

640.  Phosphate  of  silver  is  formed  by  dropping 
a  solution  of  phosphate  of  soda  into  nitrate  of 
silver.     This   compound  is   used  in  preparing 
chloric  acid. 

641.  Silver  is  capable  of  combining  with  most 
of  the  other  metals.     The  standard  silver  of  this 
country  is  an  alloy  with  copper,  in  the  proportion 
of  0-90  to  11-10.  See  Aikin's  Chemical  Dictionary, 
and  Children's  Translation  of  Thenard  on  Che- 
mical Analysis. 

PALLADIUM. 

642.  Dr.  Wollaston  directs  the  following  pro- 
cess for  obtaining  palladium.      Digest  the  ore 
of  platinum  in  nitro-muriatic  acid,  neutralised 
by  soda ;  separate  the  platinum  by  muriate  of 
ammonia  and  filter.     Then  to  the  filtered  liquor 
let  a  solution  of  cyanuret  of  mercury  be  added. 
A    flocculent   precipitate   is   gradually  formed, 
which   is   prussiate   of    palladium,   and   which 
yields  palladium  upon  exposure  to  heat. 

643.  Palladium  is  of  a  dull  white  color,  it  is 
malleable  and  ductile.     It  requires  for  its  fusion 
a  temperature  above  that  required  for  the  fusion 
of  gold.     Muriatic  acid,  by  being  boiled  upon 
this  metal,  acquires  a  beautiful  red  color.     With 
sulphuric  acid  a  blue  color  is  produced.     Nitric 
acid  acts  with  more  energy  upon  it,  than  either 
the  sulphuric  or  muriatic  ;  but  its  best  solvent  is 
the  nitro-muriatic  acid  ;  and  from  all  the  solu- 
tions of  the  metal  in  the  acids,  alkalis  and  earths 
will  produce  precipitates.     Palladium  combines 
with  sulphur,  with  potassa,  and  with  the  other 
metals.     Like  platinum,  palladium  destroys  the 
coloi  of  gold,  even  when  mixed  with  it  in  very 
small  proportions.     Dr.  Wollaston  has  furnished 
an  alloy  of  gold  and  palladium  for  the  gradua- 
tion of  the  magnificent  circular  instrument,  con- 
structed by  Mr.  Troughton  for  the  Greenwich 
observatory.     It  has  the  appearance  of  platinum, 
and  a  degree  of  hardness  which  peculiarly  fits  it 
for  receiving  the  graduations.     Henry. 

MERCURY. 

644.  This,  as  we  have  before  stated,  is  the 
only  known  metal  that  is  fluid  at  the  ordinary 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  ;  and  it  requires 
for  its  solidity  that  the  temperature  be  reduced  to 


CHEMISTRY. 


419 


about  40°  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit.     At  about 
660°  it  boils  and  is  converted  into  vapor. 

645.  This  metal  has  been  known   from  a  very 
early  period.     It  was  named  quicksilver  from  its 
semi-fluidity,  joined  with  its  white  silvery   ap- 
pearance.    It  is  occasionally   adulterated  by  a 
mixture  of  lead  or  bismuth  ;  but  it  is  not  then  so 
fluid  as  when  pure.     The  native  metal  occurs  in 
small  fluid  globules,  in  most  of  the  mines  which 
produce  the  ores  of  this  metal. 

646.  Oxides  of  mercury. — Oxygen  combines 
with   mercury   in  two  proportions,  forming  the 
black  oxide  or  protoxide  of  the  metal,  which 
may  be  obtained  by  long  agitation  of  it  in  con- 
tact with  oxygen,   or  by  washing  calomel  with 
hct  lime  water,  or  by  boiling  calomel  with  strong 
solutions  of  potassa  or  soda.     This  was  named 
by  Boerhaave,  Ethiops  per  se.     It  exists  in  the 
pilula  hydrargyri,  and  in  the  mercurial  ointment 
of  the  Pharmacopoeia. 

647.  The  other  or  red  oxide  or  peroxide  of 
mercury  is  produced  by  exposing  the  fluid  metal, 
at  a  high  temperature,  for  several  days  to  the  action 
of  oxygen.     This  oxide  was  formerly  called  pre- 
cipitate per  se,  or  calcined  mercury,  and  is  the 
hydrargyri  oxidum   rubrum   of    the   Pharmaco- 
poeia.     This  is   said  to   be   composed   of   100 
metal,  and  8  of  oxygen,  while  the  black  oxide 
contains  just  half  the  proportion  of  oxygen. 

648.  Peroxide  of  mercury  is  decomposed  if 
exposed  to  the  light  for  a  length  of  time.     It  is 
soluble  in  water,  and  with  ammonia  forms  an 
ammoniuret,  which  is  decomposed  by  heat. 


649.  Mercury  and  chlorine. — These  combine 
in  two  proportions,  forming  the  chlorine  or  bi- 
chloride, and  the  proto-chloride  (calomel).  These 
compounds  are  usually  named  corrosive  subli- 
mate, and  calomel.  As  these  salts  are  preparations 
of  much  interest  and  importance,  we  shall  take 
the   liberty    of  extracting  from   Mr.    Brandes' 
Manual,  his  remarks  on  their  formation  and  pro- 
perties. 

650.  Corrosive  sublimate,  or  bi-chloride,  or, 
as  Mr.  Brande  calls  it,  perchloride,  may  be  ob- 
tained, says  he,  by  a  variety  of  processes. 

651.  When  mercury  is  heated  in  chlorine,  it 
burns  with  a  pale  flame ;  the  gas  is  absorbed, 
and  a  white  volatile  substance  rises,  which  is  the 
perchloride. 

652.  It  may  also  be  obtained  by  dissolving 
peroxide  of  mercury  in  muriatic  acid,  evapora- 
ting to  dryness,  re-dissolving  in  water,  and  crys- 
tallising. 

653.  The  ordinary  process  for  making  corro- 
sive sublimate,  consists  in  exposing  a  mixture  of 
chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  and  per-sul- 
phate  of  mercury,  to  heat 'in  a  flask,  or  other 
proper  subliming  vessel,  a  mutual  decomposition 
ensues.     The  chlorine  of  the  common  salt  unites 
to  the  mercury  of  the  sulphate,  and  forms   bi- 
chloride of  mercury.    The  oxygen  of  the  oxide  of 
mercury   converts   the  sodium  of  the  salt  into 
soda,  which,  with  the   sulphuric  acid,  produces 
sulphate  of  soda.  This  decomposition  is  exhibited 
in  the  following  diagram  : — 


1  proportional  of  perchloride  of  mercury  =  257. 


f                                                                                                                      -N 

Chlorine  67                 Mercury  190 

2  proportionals 
of  common  salt     < 
=  111  consist 
of. 

Sulphuric  acid 
75 

1  proportional  of 
.,      per-sulphate    of 
mercury  =  230 
consist  of. 

Sodium  44                    Oxygen  15 

2  proportionals  of  sulphate  of  soda  =  134. 


Mr.  Brande  after  this  statement  presents  his 
readers  with  an  account  of  the  methods  fol- 
lowed, both  in  the  London  Pharmacopoeia,  and 
at  Apothecaries'  Hall,  for  the  composition  of  the 
corrosive  sublimate ;  but,  as  we  shall  have  to 
give  these  in  the  article  PUARMACY,  we  here 
omit  them. 

654.  Perchloride  of  mercury  is  usually  seen 
in  the  form  of  a  perfectly  white,  semi-transparent 
mass,  exhibiting  the  appearance  of  imperfect 
crystallisation.  It  is  sometimes  procured  in 
quadrangular  prisms.  Its  taste  is  acrid  and 
nauseous,  and  leaves  a  peculiar  metallic  and 
astringent  flavor  upon  the  tongue.  It  dissolves 
in  twenty  parts  of  water  at  60°,  and  in  about 
half  its  weight  at  212°.  It  is  more  soluble  in 
alcohol  than  in  water.  When  heated  it  readily 
sublimes  in  the  form  of  a  dense  white  vapor, 
strongly  affecting  the  nose  and  mouth.  It  dis- 
solves without  decomposition  in  muriatic,  nitric, 
and  sulphuric  acids ;  the  alkalis  and  several  of 
the  metals  decompose  it.  It  produces,  with 
muriate  of  ammonia,  a  very  soluble  compound  ; 
hence  a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac  is  used  with 


advantage  in  washing  calomel,  to  free  it  from 
corrosive  sublimate. 

655.  The  compound  commonly  termed  calomel 
(proto-chloride  of  mercury),  was  first  mentioned 
by  Crollius,  early  in  the  seventeenth    century. 
The  first  directions  for  its  preparation  are  given 
by  Beguin  in  the  Tyrocinium  Chemicum,  pub- 
lished in  1608.      He  calls  it  draco  mitigatus. 
Several  other  fanciful  names  have  been  applied 
to  it,  such  as  aquila  mitigata,  manna  metallorum, 
panchymagogum  minerale,  sublimatum    dulce, 
mercurius  dulcis,  &c. 

656.  The  most  usual  mode  of  preparing  ca- 
lomel consists  in  triturating  two  parts  of  corro- 
sive sublimate  with  one  of  mercury,  until   the 
globules  disappear,  and  the  whole  assumes  the 
appearance   of   an    homogenous  gray  powder, 
which  is  introduced  into  a  matrass,  placed  in  a 
sand  heat,  and  gradually  raised  to  redness.    The 
calomel  sublimes,  mixed  with  a  little  corrosive 
sublimate,  the  greater  part  of  which,  however, 
being  more  volatile  than  the  calomel,  rises  higher 
in  the  matrass  ;  that  which  adheres  to  the  calomel 
may  be  separated  by  reducing  the  whole  to  a 

2E  2 


420 


CHEMISTRY. 


fine  powder,  and  washing  in  large  quantities  of 
hot  distilled  water.  Pure  calomel  in  the  form 
of  a  yellowish  white  insipid  powder  remains. 

657.  It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  submit 
calomel  to  very  numerous  sublimations,  under 
the  idea  of  rendering  it  mild ;  but  these  often 
tend  to  the  production  of  corrosive  sublimate ; 
and  the  calomel  of  the  first  sublimation,  espe- 
cially if  a  little  excess  of  mercury  be  found  in 
it,  is  often  more  pure  than  that  afforded  by  sub- 
sequent operations. 

658.  Here  follows  the  method  directed  in  the 
Pharmocopceia,  for  the  production  of  calomel, 
which  for  the  reasons  given  above  we  also  omit. 

659.  It  will  be  observed,  continues  Mr.  B., 
that  in  these  processes  the  operation  consists  in 
reducing  the  perchloride  to  the  state  of  proto- 
chloride,  by  the  addition  of  mercury.     Various 
modes   have,    however,   been    adopted  for  the 
direct  formation  of  calomel;  two  of  these  may 
here  be  noticed,  of  which  the  first  is   in  the 
humid  way,  as  devised  by  Scheele  and  Chenevix. 
It  is  as  follows  : — 

660.  Form  a  nitrate  of  mercury,  by  dissolving 
as  much  mercury  as  possible  in  hot  nitric  acid ; 
then  dissolve  in  boiling  water  a  quantity  of  com- 
mon salt,  equal  to  half  the  weight  of  the  mercury 
used,  and  render  the  solution  sensibly  sour  by 
muriatic  acid,  and  pour  the  hot  nitrate  of  mer- 
cury into  it     Wash  and  dry  the  precipitate. 

661.  If  this  process  be  carefully  performed, 
and  the  precipitate  thoroughly  edulcorated,  the 
calomel  is  sufficiently  pure. 

662.  The  second  process,  however,  or  that  by 
which  calomel  is  directly  formed  in  the  dry  way, 
appears  on  the  whole  the  least   exceptionable 
for  the  production  of  this  very  important  article 
of  pharmacy.    It  is  the  method  followed  at  Apo- 
thecaries' Hall,  sanction  having  been  obtained 
for  its  adoption  from  the  Royal  College  of  Phy- 
sicians.   I  ifty  pounds  of  mercury  are  boiled  with 
seventy  pounds  of  sulphuric  acidtodryness,  in  a 
cast-iron  vessel :  sixty-two  pounds  of  the  dry  salt 
are  triturated  with  forty  pounds  and  a  half  of  mer- 
cury, until  the  globules  disappear,  and  thirty-four 
pounds  of  common  salt  are  then  added.  This  mix- 
ture is  submitted  to  heat  in  earthen  vessels,  and 
from  ninety-five  to  100  Ibs.  of  calomel  are  the 
result.     It  is  to  be  washed  in  large  quantities  of 
distilled  water,  after  having  been  ground  to  fine 
and  impalpable  powder. 

663.  Protochloride    of  mercury    is  usually 
seen  in  the  form  of  a  white  mass  of  a  crystalline 
texture ;    and,  when  very  slowly  sublimed,  it 
often  presents  regular  four-sided  prisms,  perfectly 
transparent  and  colorless.     Its  specific  gravity 
is  7*2.     It  is  tasteless,  and  very  nearly  insoluble 
in  water.     It  can  scarcely  be  called  poisonous, 
since  in  considerable  doses  it  only  proves  purga- 
tive.    By  exposure  to  light  it  becomes  brown 
upon  its  surface.     If  scratched  it  gives  a  yellow 
streak  which  is  very  characteristic,  and  does  not 
belong  to  the  perchloride.     When  very  finely 
levigated  it  becomes  of  a  buff  color. 

664.  It  consists  of  one  proportional  of  mer- 
cury, 190  +  one  proportional  of  chlorine  33 -5, 
and  its  representative  number  is  223'5. 

665.  Native  chloride  of  mercury,  or  mercurial 
horn  ore,  has  been  found  in  Germany,  France, 


and  Spain,  usually  crystallised,  and  sometimes 
incrusting  and  massive.     Brande. 

666.  Iodine  and  mercury  unite  in  two  pro- 
portions, forming  the  protiodide,  which  is  a  yel- 
low compound,  and   the  priodide  or  the  deut- 
iodide  which  is   red.     They  are   insoluble   in 
water. 

667.  Salts    of    mercury. — Protosulphate   of 
mercury  is  formed  by  boiling  mercury  in  equal 
or  double  its  weight  of  sulphuric  acid.     This 
salt  requires  500  parts  of  water  for  its  solution. 
If  heated  for  some  time  to  a  pretty  high  tempera- 
ture, part  of  its  acid  is  expelled,  and  a  hard  gray 
mass  is  formed.     When  this  is  removed  from 
the  fire,  and  hot  water  is  poured  upon  it,  a 
yellowish-colored   substance  is  formed,    which 
was  formerly  called  turpeth  or  turbith  mineral, 
it  is  a  super-sulphate  of  mercury,  and  a  biper- 
sulphate  remains  in  solution. 

668.  Chlorate  of  mercury. — Both  the  oxides 
of  mercury  dissolve  in  chloric  acid.     Both  the 
salts,  when  heated,  give  out   oxygen,  and  are 
converted   into   per-oxide  and   per-chloride   of 
mercury.     An.  de  Chim.  95,  103. 

669.  Cyanide    of  mercury. — This    may    be 
formed  by  boiling  one  part  of  finely  powdered 
red  oxide  of  mercury,  with  two  of  Prussian  blue, 
in  eight  parts  of  water.     In  this  way  a  solution 
is  obtained,  which,  if  filtered  while  hot,  deposits 
yellowish  white  crystals  which  are  the  cyanide. 

670.  Nitrates  of  mercury. — These    are  the 
prolo-nitrate  and  per-nitrate.     The  first  is  formed 
by  dissolving  mercury  in  nitric  acid,  without  the 
assistance  of  heat ;  this  solution  yields  by  eva- 
poration the  salt  in  question.      The  second  is 
procured  by  using  heat  in  the  solution,  and  the 
metal  thereby  becomes  more  highly  oxidated. 

671.  The    substance    commonly  called    red 
precipitate,  is  produced  by  exposing  the  nitrates 
to  a  heat  gradually  raised  to  upwards  of  600°, 
nitric  acid  is  given  off,  and  a  brilliant  red  sub- 
stance remains,  which  is  properly  a  nitro-oxide 
of  mercury,  and  is  thus  designated  in  the  Phar- 
macopoeia. 

672.  Fulminating  mercury. — The  account  of 
this  preparation  we  extract  verbatim  from  Dr. 
Henry's  elements.     '  Mercury  is  the  base  of  a 
fulminating  compound,  discovered  by  the  late 
Mr.  E.  Howard.    To  prepare  this  powder  100 
grains  (or  a  greater  proportional  quantity,  not 
exceeding  500),  are  to  be  dissolved  with  heat 
in  a  measured  ounce  and  half  of  nitric  acid. 
The  solution  being  poured  cold  upon  two  measur- 
ed ounces  of  alcohol,  previously  introduced  into 
any  convenient  glass  vessel,  a  moderate  heat  is 
to  be  applied  till  effervescence  is  excited.    A 
white  fume  then  begins  to  undulate  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  liquor,  and  the  powder  will  be  gra- 
dually precipitated  on  the  cessation  of  action 
and   re-action.     The   precipitate  is  to  be  im- 
mediately collected  on  a  filter,  well  washed  with 
distilled  water,  and  cautiously  dried  in  a  heat 
not  exceeding  that  of  a  water  bath.    The  imme- 
diate washing  of  the  powder  is  material,  because 
it  is  liable  to  the  re-action  of  the  nitric-acid ; 
and,  while  any  of  that  acid  adheres  to  it,  it  is 
very  subject  to  be  decomposed  by  the  action  of 
light.     From  100  grains  of  mercury  about  120 
or  130  of  the  powder  arc  obtained   (see  Phi- 


CHEMISTRY. 


421 


losophical  Transactions,  1800).  This  powder 
lias  the  property  of  detonating  loudly  in  a  gentle 
heat,  or  by  slight  friction.  Hence  it  has  been 
proposed  as  a  means  of  firing  ordnance.  But 
an  accident  described  by  professor  Silliman,  as 
having  happened  in  his  laboratory,  shows  that 
this  fulminating  compound  explodes  from  such 
trifling  causes  as  not  to  be  kept  without  danger, 
even  when  secured  from  friction  or  heat.  It  has 
been  shown  from  the  experiments  of  Liebeg  and 
Gay  Lussac  (Au.  de  Ch.  et  de  Phys.  24  and  25), 
that  fulminating  mercury  owes  its  properties  to 
a  peculiar  acid  united  with  oxide  of  mercury, 
which  may  be  transferred  from  it  to  alkaline  and 
other  bases,  but  is  not  obtainable  in  a  separate 
state.  To  this  acid  they  have  given  the  name  of 
fulminic. 

673.  Sulphurets   of  mercury  are  two,  the  one 
formerly  called  ./Ethiop's  mineral,  and  the  other 
cinnabar.     The  first  is  obtained  by  triturating 
for  a  length  of  time  one  part  of  mercury  with 
three  of  sulphur,  or  by  pouring  at  once  mercury 
into  melted  sulphur.     If  the  black  sulphuret  or 
jEthiops  be  fused  together  and  sublimed,  the 
red,  or  vermillion  sulphuret  is  procured,  which 
is  the  cinnabar  of  former  times.    Native  cinnabar 
furnishes  most  of  the  mercury  which  is  employed 
in  commerce,  this  compound  being  distilled  with 
iron  filings.     ./Ethiop's  mineral  is  a  proto-sul- 
phuret  or  sulphuret;  cinnabar  is  abisulphuret  of 
mercury. 

674.  With  most  of  the  metals  mercury  com- 
bines, and  forms  a  class  of  compounds  called 
amalgams ;   in  the  case  of   these  combinations 
mercury  loses  its  fluidity.     It  is  a  curious  fact, 
that  a  solid  amalgam  of  lead,  mixed  with  one  of 
bismuth,  instantly  becomes  fluid. 

675.  Combination  with  mercury  gives  to  some 
metals  a  facility  of  uniting  with  oxygen.    See  the 
word  AMALGAM. 

COPPER. 

676.  Copper  is  found  native,  and  in  various 
states  of  combination  ;  the  copper  of  commerce, 
too,   is   occasionally    contaminated   with   other 
metals,  as   antimony,   lead,  and   arsenic;    and 
Berzelius  states,  that  a  small  quantity  of  charcoal 
and  sulphur  are  always  found  in  it.  Philosophical 
Mag.  xlvii.  206.     To  be  rendered  perfectly  pure 
it  must  be  dissolved  in  muriatic  acid,  and  into 
the  solution  a  polished  plate  of  iron  is  to  be 
immersed,  upon  which  the  pure  copper  is  pre- 
cipitated.    When  the  metal  has  thus  been  pu- 
rified, it  is  to  be  washed  with  dilute  sulphuric, 
or  muriatic  acid,  and  it  may  be  fused,  or  kept  in 
a  divided  form. 

677.  Copper  has  great  malleability,  ductility, 
and  tenacity.     It  fuses  at  a  dull  white  heat,  and, 
if  the  heat  be  urged  on,  it  evaporates  in  visible 
fumes. 

678.  The  native  copper  is  met  with  in  different 
forms,  massive,  granular,  and  in  crystals.     It  is 
found  in  Cornwall,  Saxony,  Siberia,  Sweden,  &c. 
It  is  also  met  with  in  America. 

679.  Oxides  of  copper. — This  metal  is  sus- 
ceptible of  two  degrees  of  oxidisement;  the  one 
combination  constituting  the  protoxide,  the  other 
the  peroxide  of  the  metal.     The  first,  or  lowest 
stase   of  oxidisement,  forms  a  red  substance; 
and  the  second,  or  maximum,  is  black. 


680.  The  protoxide  occurs  native.     It  may  be 
produced  artificially,  by  mixing  metallic  copper 
and  peroxide  of  copper  in  muriatic  acid.     If 
potassa  be  added  to   this  solution,  a  hydrated 
protoxide  is  obtained,  which  falls  to  the  bottom, 
which  is  of  an  orange  color ;  if  quickly  dried, 
without  being  subjected   to  oxygen,  it  becomes 
red. 

681.  The  black,  or  peroxide,  is  procured  by 
precipitating  nitrate  of  copper  with  carbonate  of 
potass.     A  simple  ignition  of  the  nitrate  will 
produce  it. 

682.  Chlorine  with  copper. — Copper  is  acted 
on  forcibly  by  gaseous  chlorine,  and,  when  these 
materials  are  treated  together,  two  compounds 
are  simultaneously  produced,  the  proto-chloride 
and  per-chloride  of  copper.    The  first  of  these 
compounds  was  called  resin  of  copper  by  Boyle. 
It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  muriatic 
acid ;  the  color  of  it  is  dark  brown,  but  it  ac- 
quires a  green  hue  by  exposure  to  the  air.   This 
substance  remains  in  the  retort  after  the  distil- 
lation of  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  corrosive 
sublimate  (bi-chloride  of  mercury)  and  one  of 
copper  filings. 

683.  The  per-chloride  may  be  produced  by 
dissolving  peroxide  of  copper  in  muriatic  acid, 
and  evaporating  to  dryness  at  a  heat  below  400°. 
This  compound  is  of  a  yellow  color,  but  dissolved 
in  water  it  becomes  eventually  green. 

684.  An  iodide  of  copper  may  be  precipitated 
from  solutions  of  the  metal,  by  hydriodic  acid. 
This  substance  is  brown  and  insoluble. 

685.  Salts  of  copper. — Muriatic  acid  does  not 
act  readily  on  metallic  copper;   but  it  freely 
dissolves  the  peroxide,  and  thus  forms  the  per- 
muriate.     A  proto-muriate  is  also  obtained  by 
digesting  copper  filings  with  the  peroxide  of  the 
metal  in  muriatic  acid.     A  native  submuriate  of 
copper  is  found  in  Chili  and  Peru  ;  and  '  it  is  a 
submuriate  of  copper  that  is  formed  by  the  de- 
structive action  of  sea-water  upon  the  copper 
sheathing  of  ships,  the  oxygen  necessary  to  the 
formation  of  the  muriate  being  derived  from  the 
air  of  the  atmosphere.     Now,  according  to  the 
views  of  Sir  H.  Davy,  copper  can  only  act  upon 
sea-water  when  in  a  positive  state,  and  that  phi- 
losopher was  therefore  led  to  conceive,  that  if 
the  electric  state  of  the  copper  were  reversed,  by 
bringing  it  into  contact  with  some  metal  of  more 
energetic  electrical  power,  the  action  of  the  sea- 
water  would  cease.    Philosophical  Transactions, 
1824.     This  led  him  to  a  discovery  which  pro- 
mises to  be  most  important  in  its  practical  con- 
sequences, viz.  that  extensive  surfaces  of  copper 
may  be  completely  protected  from  the  corroding 
effects   of   sea-water,  by  placing  comparatively 
small  quantities  of  malleable  or  cast  iron,  in 
contact  with  the  copper  sheathing  of  a  ship ;  and 
it  has  been  found  that  the  covering  of  vessels  so 
protected  is  uninjured,  even  by  long  voyages,  in 
tropical  countries.     This  discovery  has  been  ap- 
plied by  Dr.  Bostock  to  the  protection  of  utensils 
employed  for  culinary  purposes.'  An.  of  Philos. 
viii.  p.  76.     Henry. 

686.  Chlorate  of  copper  is  formed  by  dissolving 
peroxide  of  copper  in  chloric  acid.     This  salt  is 
of  a  bluish-green  color,  not  easily  crytallised,, 
and  is  deliquescent, 


422 


CHEMISTRY. 


687.  lodate  of  copper  is  procured  by  precipi- 
tation from  solutions  of  copper,  by  means  of  the 
iodate  of  potassa  or  other  alkaline  iodates. 

688.  Nitrate  of  copper  is  obtained  by  direct 
solution  of  the  metal  in  dilute  nitric  acid ;  and 
a  sub-nitrate  is  obtainable  by  adding  a  small 
portion  of  alkali  to  the  solution  of  the  nitrate. 
1  There  appears  to  be  no  proto-nitrate  of  copper, 
for  protoxide  of  copper,  digested  in  very  dilute 
nitric  acid,  is  resolved  into  peroxide,  which  dis- 
solves, and  into  metallic  copper.     Potassa  forms 
in  solution  a  bulky  blue  precipitate  of  hydrated 
peroxide  of  copper,  which,  when  boiled  in  potassa 
or  soda,  becomes  black  from  the  loss  of  its  com- 
bined water.     Brande. 

689.  If  peroxide  of  copper  be  dissolved  in 
ammonia,  a  bright  blue  liquid  will  be  produced, 
from  which  blue   crystals  may  be  procured  by 
evaporation,  and  these  constitute  the  ammoniaret 
of  copper,  or  cuprate  of  ammonia. 

690.  Sulphates  of  copper. — The  blue  salt  which 
is  formed   by  digesting   strong   sulphuric  acid 
with  copper  is  a  sulphate;  but  it  is  better  to 
use  the  oxide  of  the  metal  for  the  preparation, 
otherwise,  part  of  the  sulphuric  acid  being  de- 
composed, and  furnishing  oxygen  to  the  metal, 
it  is  dissolved.     The  sulphate,  or  persulphate  of 
copper,  is  a  regularly  crystallised  salt,  which  has 
been   called   blue    vitriol,    or   Roman    vitriol. 
Upon  a  large  scale  this  salt  is  formed  by  ex- 
posing to  the  air  and  moisture  a  sulphuret  of 
copper.   This  preparation  is  the  salt  of  Venus  of 
the  alchemists. 

691.  A  sub-sulphate  of  copper  may  be  formed 
by  adding  potassa  or  ammonia  carefully  to  a  so- 
lution of  the  sulphate ;  and  Dr.  Thomson  has 
recently  described  a  quadri-sulphate,  consisting 
of  1  atom  of  base  +  4  atoms  of  acid. 

692.  Sulphite  of  copper  may  be  obtained  by 
passing  sulphurous  acid  gas  into  a  vessel  con- 
taining water  and  oxide  of  copper.     See  An.  de 
Chim.  83. 

693.  Phosphoric  acid  unites  with  the  oxide  of 
copper  in  two  proportions,  viz.  into  a  bi-phos- 
phate  and  phosphate.     The  latter  has  been  found 
in  a  native  state  near  Cologne. 

694.  Carbonate  of  copper  is  formed  by  ex- 
posing the  metal  to  a  damp  air  ;  and  it  may  be 
produced  by  adding  alkalis,  in  their  carbonated 
state,  to  solutions  of  copper.     There  is  a  fine 
blue  preparation  of  copper,  which  is  called  ver- 
diter,  and  principally  used  by  silver-refiners ;  this 
is  formed  by  adding  carbonate  of  lime  to  the 
nitrate  of  copper. 

695.  Native  carbonate  of  copper  is  met  with  of 
a  green  and  of  a  blue  color ;  the  first  (mala- 
chite) is  found  in  Siberia,  it  has  been  met  with 
in  Cornwall.     The  blue  carbonate  is  found  in 
Bohemia,  and  near  Lyons,  &c.     One  variety  of 
this  is  sometimes  called  the  mountain  blue. 

696.  Verdigris  is  an  acetate  of  copper ;  by  the 
solution  of  this  substance  in  distilled  vinegar,  a 
binacetate  is  formed.   A  sub-ac  Jtate  is  procurable 
by  acting  on  verdigris  with  water.     Berzelius 
speaks  of  other  proportionals  of  acetic  acid  with 
oxide  of  copper,  An.  of  Phil.  N.  S.  8.  188. 

697.  A  ferro-cyanate  of  copj>er  is  obtained  by 
adding  ferro-cyanate  of  potassa  to  a  dilute  solu- 
tion of  sulphate  or  nitrate  of  copper,  or  to  the 


muriate  of  the  metal.  This  substance  has  been 
recommended  by  Mr.  Hatchett  to  be  used  as  a 
brown  pigment. 

698.  Sulphuret  of  copper  exists  native  in  two 
forms ;  the  one  is  black  and  is  capable  of  being 
artificially  formed  by  melting  in  a  glass  tube  three 
parts  of  iron   filings  with  one  part  of  sulphur. 
The  other  is  a  bi-sulphuret,  which  forms  the  ore 
of  copper  called  pyrites. 

699.  Phosphorus  and  copper  unite  by  fusion, 
and  form  a  phosphuret  which  is  of  a  grayish- 
white  color. 

700.  On  the  alloys  of  copper,  as  some  of  them 
are  important,  we  shall  extract  some  paragraphs 
from  Mr.  Brande's  Manual.     With  gold  it  forms 
a  fine  yellow  ductile  compound,  used  for  coin 
and  ornamental  work.     Sterling  or  standard  gold 
consists  of  11  gold  +  1  copper.     The  specific 
gravity  of  this  alloy  is  17-157.     With   silver  it 
forms  a  white  compound,  used  for  plate  and  coin. 
Lead  and  copper  require  a  high  red  heat  for 
union ;  the  alloy  is  gray  and  brittle. 

701.  Brass  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc.  The 
metals  are  usually  united  by  mixing  granulated 
copper  with  calamine  and  charcoal ;  the  mixture 
is  exposed  to  heat  sufficient  to  reduce  the  cala- 
mine and  melt  the  alloy,  which  is  then  cast  into 
plates.    The  relative  proportion  of  the  two  metals 
varies  in  the  different  kinds  of  brass ;  there  is  usu- 
ally from  twelve  to  eighteen  percent,  of  zinc.  Brass 
is  very  malleable  and  ductile  when  cold;  and  its 
color,  and  little  liability  to  rust,  recommend   it 
in  preference  to  copper  for  many  purposes  of  the 
arts.     According  to  M.  Sage  a  very  beautiful 
brass  may  be  made  by  mixing  fifty  grains  of  oxide 
of  copper,  100  of  calamine,  400  of  black  flux,  and 
thirty  of  charcoal  powder ;  melt  these  in  a  cru- 
cible till  the  blue  flame  is  no  longer  seen  round 
the  cover,  and,  when  cold,  a  button  of  brass 
is  found  at  the  bottom,  of  a  golden  color  and 
weighing  one-sixth  more  than  the  pure  copper, 
obtained  from  the  above  quantity  of  oxide. 

702.  The  analysis  of  brass  may  be  performed 
by  solution  in  nitric  acid ;  add  considerable  ex- 
cess of  solution  of  potass  and  boil,  which  will 
dissolve  the  oxide  of  zinc  and  leave  that  of  cop- 
per, wash  the  latter,  and  dry,  and  heat  to  redness ; 
125  parts  indicate  100  of  copper.    The  zinc  in 
the  filtered  alkaline  solution  may  be  precipitated 
by  carbonate  of  soda,  having  previously  added 
a  small  excess  of  muriatic  acid  ;  wash  this  pre- 
cipitate, dry  it,  and  expose  it  to  a  red  heat ;  it  is 
then  oxide  of  zinc,  123  parts  of  which,  indicate 
100  of  the  metal. 

703.  Tutaneg  is  said  to  be  an  alloy  of  copper, 
zinc,  and  a  little  iron  ;  and  tombac,  Dutch  gold, 
similor,  Prince  Rupert's  metal,  and  pinchback 
are  alloys,  containing  more  copper  than  exists 
in  brass,  and  consequently  made  by  fusing  va- 
rious proportions  of  copper  with  brass.      Accor- 
ding to  Wiegleb,  manheim  gold  consists  of  three 
parts  of  copper,  and  one  of  zinc.     A  little  tin  is 
sometimes  added,  which,  though  it  may  improve 
the  color,  impairs  the  malleability  of  the  alloy. 

704.  Speculum  metal  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and 
tin,  with  a  little  arsenic;  about  6  copper,  2  tin,  1 
arsenic.     On  this  subject  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Mr.  Edwards'  experiments  (Nicholson's  Journal 
4to.  iii.)     Bell-metal  and  bronze  are  alloys  of 


CHEMISTRY. 


423 


copper  and  tin ;  they  are  harder,  and  more  fusible, 
but  less  malleable  than  copper;  the  former  consist 
of  three  parts  of  copper  and  one  of  tin;  the  latter 
from  eight  to  twelve  of  tin  with  100  of  copper. 
A  little  zinc  is  added  to  small  shrill  bells. 

705.  Vessels  of  copper  used  for  culinary  pur- 
poses are  usually  coated  with  tin,  to  prevent  the 
food  from  being  contaminated  with  copper.  Their 
interior  surface  is  first  cleaned,  then  rubbed  over 
with  sal-ammoniac.   The  vessel  is  then  heated,  a 
little  pitch  spread  over  the  surface,  and  a  bit  of 
tin  rubbed  over  it,  which  instantly  unites  with  and 
covers  the  copper.     Brande. 

706.  Respecting  the  alloys  <ff  copper  much 
valuable  information  may  be  found   in  the  4th 
volume  of  Bishop  Watson's  Chemical   Essays, 
and   in  Aikin's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  article 
BRASS  8cc.     From  a  recent  investigation  of  them 
Mr.  Dalton  finds  that  in  all  alloys  of  copper 
which  are  characterised  by  useful  properties,  the 
ingredients  enter  in  atomic  proportions ;  and  it 
is  probable  that  by  attention  to  these  proportions, 
the  manufacture  of  the  artificial  alloys  may  be 
greatly  improved. 

707.  Most  of  the  copper  of  commerce  is  ob- 
tained from  copper  pyrites,  or  yellow  copper  ore, 
which  is  a  compound  of  sulphur,  iron,  and  copper, 
in  such  proportions,  as  render  it  probable  that  it 
is  composed  of  two  atoms  of  proto-sulphuret  of 
iron,  and  one  atom  of  per-sulphuret  of  copper, 
with  a  little  arsenic  and  earthy  matter    (An.  of 
Philos.  N.  S.  Ixxxiii.  p.  301).     The  sulphur  and 
arsenic  are  separated   by  roasting,  and  the  cop- 
per  is   obtained   by   repeated    fusions,  in    one 
of    which    an   addition   of    charcoal   is    made. 
Henry. 

IRON. 

708.  Iron,  although  not  so  malleable  as  gold 
and  silver,  is  still  more  ductile  than  either  of  them. 
This  metal  exists  in  such  abundance  that  few 
fossils  are  entirely  free  from  it.     Iron  is  of  a 
bluish-white  color,  and  is   susceptible   of  very 
high  polish.     It  is  considered  by  many  as  of 
meteoric  origin,   and  indeed,   masses  of  native 
iron   have   been  seen  to    fall  from  the  atmos- 
phere.    It  is  one  of  the  most  infusible  of  the 
metals. 

709.  Iron  and  oxygen. — The  rusting  of  iron 
from  exposure  to  a  moist  atmosphere,  is,  in  fact, 
the  combination  of  it  with  oxygen.     It  combines 
with  this  principle   in  at   least  two  proportions, 
forming  protoxide  and  peroxide.     The  protoxide 
may  be  artificially  made  by  precipitating  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphate  of  iron  with  potassa,  washing  and 
evaporating  it.  It  is  black  ;  Gay  Lussac  has  sup- 
posed that  in  drying,  an  additional  proportion  of 
oxygen  is  absorbed,  and  thus  that  a  deutoxide 
of  the  metal  is  formed.     Mr.  Brande  says  there 
is   some  reason  to  doubt  the  accuracy  of  this 
conclusion. 

710.  Protoxide  of  iron  may  be   obtained  by 
burning  iron  in  oxygen  gas ;  this  process  forms  a 
beautiful  experiment,  it  was  first  described  by  Dr. 
Ingenhous. 

711.  When  this  protoxide  is  boiled  in  nitric 
acid,  and  precipitated  by  ammonia,  then  washed 
dried  and  calcined,  it  is  converted  into  a  red- 
dish or  brown  oxide.     This  is  the  peroxide  of  the  * 
metal. 


712.  Corresponding  with  these  two  oxides  of 
iron,  there  appear  to  be  two  hydrates,  or  hydro- 
oxides,  obtainable  by  precipitating  the  acid  solu- 
tions by  a  fixed  alkali.     It  is,  however,  difficult 
to  obtain  a  pure   hydrate  of  iron,  on  account  ol 
the  facility  with  which  it  parts  with  water. 

713.  The  native   oxides  of   iron,    says   Mr 
Brande,  constitute  a  very  extensive  and  important 
class  of  metallic  ores.        They  vary  in  color,  de- 
pending upon  mere  texture   in  some  cases ;  in 
others  upon  the  degree  of  oxidisement.     Some 
varieties  are  magnetic,  and  those  which  contain 
the  least  oxygen  are  attracted  by  the  magnet. 

714.  Magnetic  iron  ore  is  generally  black,  with 
a  slight  metallic  lustre.     It  occurs  massive  and 
octahedral.     It  is  often  sufficiently  magnetic  to 
take  up  a  needle.     It  occurs  chiefly  in  primitive 
countries,  and  is  very  abundant  at  Itoslagen  in 
Sweden,  where  it  is  manufactured  into  a  bar-iron 
particularly  esteemed  for  making  steel. 

715.  Another  variety  of  oxide  of  iron  is  called 
iron  glance,  and  micaceous  iron  ore.     It  is  found 
crystallised,  of  singular  beauty,  in  the  isle  of  Elba, 
and  occasionally  among  the  volcanic  products  of 
Vesuvius,  and  the  Lipari  islands. 

716.  A  third  variety  is  haematite  or  red  iron 
stone;  it  occurs  in  globular  and  stalactitic  masses, 
having  a  fibrous  and  diverging  structure.     In 
this  country  it  abounds  near  Ulverstone  in  Lan- 
cashire ;  and  most  of  our  iron  plate  and  wire  is 
made  from  it.     Sometimes  it  is  of  a    brown, 
black,  or  ochraceous  color. 

717.  A   fourth  variety  of  oxide  of   iron   is 
known  under  the  name  of  clay  iron  stone,  on 
account  of  the   quantity  of  argillaceous  earth 
with  which  it  is  contaminated.     It  is  found  in 
masses  of  different  shapes  and  sizes,  and  some- 
times in  small  round  nodules  like  peas.     Some 
of  the  globular   masses   are   called  aetites.      It 
is  abundant  in  the  coal  formations  of   Shrop- 
shire, South  Wales,  Staffordshire,  and  Scotland. 

718.  Though  this  is  far  from  being  the  purest 
iron  ore  found  in  this  country,  it  is  the  chief 
source  of  the  cast  and  bar  iron  in  ordinary  use. 
Its  employment  is  chiefly  referrible   to  the  coal 
which  accompanies  it. 

719.  The  essential   part  of  the  process  by 
which  these  ores  of  iron  are  reduced,  consists  in 
decomposing  them  by  the  action  of  charcoal  at 
high  temperatures.      The  argillaceous    iron    of 
Wales,  Shropshire,  &c.  is  first  roasted  and  then 
smelted  with  lime-stone  and  coke ;  the  use  of  the 
former  being  to  produce  a  fusible  compound 
with  the  clay  of  the  ore,  by  which  the  latter  is 
enabled  to  act  upon  the  oxide,  and  to  reduce  it 
to  the  metallic  state.     Brande. 

720.  Chlorine  and  iron  unite    in  two  propor- 
tions, forming  the  proto-chloride,  and  the  per- 
chloride  ;  these  products  have  not  been  much 
examined. 

721.  Iodine  also  unites  with  iron  into  a  brown 
fusible  compound,  which  is  an   iodide  of  the 
metal,  and  which,  when   acted  upon  by  water, 
becomes  a  hydriodate  of  a  green  color. 

722.  Sulphur  and  iron.— There  is  a  proto-sul- 
phuret and  a  bi-sulphuret  of  iron,  the  latter  of 
which  is  exclusively  a  natural  product,   and  is 
found  abundantly  ;  it  is  called  iron-pyrites.   The 
former  may  be  prepared   by  melting  iron  filings 


424 


CHEMISTRY. 


and  sulphur  together,  this  is  also  found  native, 
but  it  is  distinguishable  from  the  bi-sulphuret  by 
its  black  color  and  by  its  being  magnetic,  it  is 
called  indeed  magnetic  pyrites,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  common  pyrite  or  yellow  sulphuret. 
The  magnetic  pyrite  is  found  to  contain  just 
half  the  sulphur  which  exists  in  the  other. 

723.  Carbon  and  iron. — With   carbon,   iron 
smites  in  various  proportions,  and  a  great  dif- 
ference is  found  in  the  properties  of  these  com- 
pounds, according  to  the  proportion  of  their  ingre- 
dients.    On  these  varieties,  indeed,  together  with 
an  occasional  union  of  a  small  quantity  of  oxygen, 
depend  the  different  kinds  and  qualities  of  the 
metal  found  in  commerce,  and  employed  in  the 
arts. 

724.  There  can  scarcely,   says   Dr.  Henry, 
be  a  more  striking  exampleof  essential  differences 
in  external  and  physical  characters  being  pro- 
duced by  slight  differences  in  chemical  com- 
position, than  in  the  carburets  of  iron,  for  steel 
owes  its  properties  to  not  more  than  from  ^5  to 
T^th  its  weight  of  carbon.     This  appears  to  be 
the  only  addition  necessary  to  convert  iron  into 
steel ;  for,  though  it  is  proved  that  the  best  steel 
is  made  from  iron  which   has   been  procured 
from  ores  containing  manganese,  yet  careful  and 
skilful  analysis  discovers  no  manganese  in  steel. 
An.  de  Chim.  et  de  Phys.  torn.  32. 

725.  Steel  is  a  compound,  then,  of  iron  and 
carbon,  the  proportions  being  variable ;  and  the 
latter     metal  is  converted  into  the  former  by  a 
process  which  is  called  cementing,  and  which 
consists   of   heating  bar-iron   in   contact   with 
charcoal.    We  should  say  that  what  is  called 
cast  or  crude  iron  contains  oxygen  and  the  base 
of  silica,  besides  incidental  admixtures  ;  of  this 
there  are  two  species,  the  one  containing  more, 
the  other  less  of  carbon.     By  the  process  of 
puddling,  as  it  is  called  (for  an  account  of  which 
see  the  eighty-first  volume  of  the  Philosophical 
Transactions),     cast    iron    becomes    converted 
into  malleable,  in  other  words  it  is  made  purer ; 
and  it  is  now  called  bar-iron,  which  is  used,  as 
we  have  just  stated,  for  the  formation  of  steel. 
By  combining  a  still  larger  quantity  of  carbon 
with  the  bar  iron,  the  fine  cast-steel  is  procured; 
so  that  steel,  though,  like  cast-iron,  it  is  combined 
with  carbon,  most  essentially  differs  from  iron, 
by  being  without  oxygen,  silex,  and  other  matters. 

726.  Plumbago  is  another  carburet  of  iron; 
this  is  used  for  black  lead  pencils,  and  for  cover- 
ing iron  in  order  to  prevent  rust.     Iron  unites 
with  various  metals  in  alloy. 

727.  Salts  of  iron. — Copperas,  or  green  vitriol 
as  it  has  been  called,  is  a  sulphate  of  iron.     It  is 
usually  formed  by  dissolving  iron  filings  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid.      When    in   solution   this   salt 
absorbs  nitric  oxide  gas,  and  acquires  a  brown 
color:  it  also  unites  with  chlorine,  muriatic  acid 
becomes  formed,  and  in  this  case  the  water  of 
solution  becomes  decomposed. 

728.  By  exposure  to  air,  or  if  treated  with 
nitric  acid,  it  is  converted  from  a  proto-sulphate 
into  a  per-sulphate.     Sulphuric  acid  used  to  be 
formed  from  this  salt  by  expelling  it  with  heat; 
and  when  thus   treated  a  peroxide  of  iron  re- 
mained in  the  vessel.     This  residue  was  known 


under  the  appellation  of  colcothar  or  caput  mor 
tuum  vitrioli. 

729.  This  salt  (the  green  vitriol)  occurs  native 
in  several  of  the  coal  mines  of  this  country ;  it 
is  usually  combined  with  pyrites. 

730.  Muriate  of  iron  is  formed  by  dissolving 
iron  filings  in  muriatic  acid.     The  proto-muriate 
is  in  crystals  of  a  green  color,  the  per-muriate 
is  of  a  reddish  brown.     It  is  this  last  which  is 
used  in  the  preparation  of  the  Pharmacopoeia 
called  tinctura  ferri  muriatis. 

731.  Nitrate  of  iron — The  nitric  acid  acting 
upon  iron  produces  also  the  green  or  proto-nitrate, 
in  which  the  oxide  is  at  the  minimum  of  oxida- 
tion, and  the  red  or  per-nitrate,  in  which  it  is  at 
the  maximum. 

732.  Carbonic  acid  unites  with  the  protoxide 
of  iron,  aud  forms  a  proto-carbonate 

733.  Ferro-cyanate  of  iron  or  Prussian  blue.— 
We  shall  give  an  account  of  this  substance  in  a 
distinct  article.     Here  we  shall  confine  ourselves 
to  extracting  the  following  remarks  from  Dr. 
Henry,  respecting  its  nature  and  properties  : — 

734.  *  Respecting  the  nature  of  Prussian  blue 
a  variety  of  opinions  have  been  entertained,  and 
it  is  still  a  subject  on  which  chemists  are  by  no 
means  agreed.      No  theory  respecting  it  can  be 
entitled  to  notice  that  was  anterior  to  Gay  Lus- 
sac's  discovery  of  cyanogen.     His  researches  led 
him  to  believe  that  Prussian  blue  is  a  compound 
of  cyanogen  with  metallic  iron,  and  it  is  there- 
fore not  a  prussiate  but  a  cyanide ;   but  Vau- 
quelin,  having  directed  his  attention  to  this  part 
of  the  subject,  was  still  induced  to   regard  it 
as  a  true  prussiate.     According  to  Mr.  Porrett's 
view,  it  is  a  compound  of  ferro-cyanic  acid  with 
peroxide  of  iron.      Berzelius,  not  admitting  the 
existence  of  any  such  acid  as  the  ferro-cyanic, 
regards  Prussian  blue  as  a  compound  of  hydro- 
cyanate  of  protoxide  of  iron  with  peroxide  of  iron, 
in  proportions  admitting  of  some  variations  (An. 
of  Phil.  N.  S.  1.  444).      Robiquet,  on  the  other 
hand,  considers  it  as  a  cyanide  of  iron  combined 
with  a  ferro-cyanate  of  the  peroxide  and  with 
water  (An.  de  Chim.  et  Phys.  12  and  17).     The 
subject,  in  its  present  state,  appears  to  me  very 
obscure,  and  I  refer  the  reader,  who  is  disposed 
to  examine  it,  to  the  papers  of  Berzelius  and 
Robiquet  already  quoted.' 

For  an  account  of  the  combination  of  iron  with 
the  gallic  acid  and  tan,  see  the  article  INK  in  this 
Encyclopaedia. 

735.  Acetate  of  iron. — This  combination  may 
also,  like  the  other  salts  of  the  metal,  exist  in 
two  different  states ;  it  is  a  per-acetate  of  iron, 
which  is  much  used  in  dyeing  and  calico-printing, 
see  DYEING. 

736.  Proto-phosphate  of  iron  may  be  formed 
by  adding  solution  of  phosphate  of  soda  to  the 
proto-sulphate  of  iron ;  and  the  per-phosphate  by 
adding  the  same  solution  to  the  per-sulphate  of 
iron. 

737.  The  proto-phosphate  is  found  native,  both 
in  the  form  of  a  blue  powder  and  in  prismatic 
crystals.     It  has  been  improperly  named  native 
Prussian  blue. 

738.  Iron  unites  with  many  other  metals  in  the 
way  of  alloy. 


CHEMISTRY. 


425 


TIN. 


739.  The  principal  ore  of  this  metal  is  the 
native  oxide.     The  pure  metal  is  obtained  by 
heating  this  ore  with  charcoal.      Tin,  in  its  me- 
tallic state,  has  a  silvery  white  color  :    it  is  mal- 
leable, though  not  very  ductile.     At  a  tempera- 
ture of  442°  it  melts,  and  becomes  gradually 
converted  into  a  grayish  powder.      Several  va- 
rieties of  tin  are  met   with   in  commerce,  for 
the  discrimination  of  which,  and  the  means  of 
judging  their  purity,  Vauquelin  has  given  useful 
instructions  in  the  77th  volume  of  the  Annales 
de  Chimie ;  and  an  interesting  account  of  the 
ores  of  tin,  and  of  the  processes  for  extracting  the 
metal  in  Cornwall,  has  been  given  by  Mr.  Tay- 
lor, in  the  5th  volume  of  the  Geological  Society's 
Transactions. 

740.  Tin  and  oxygen. — Two  oxides  of  tin  are 
procurable — the  protoxide  and  the  peroxide;  the 
first  being  obtained  by  precipitating  protomuriate 
of  tin  by  ammonia;  and  the  peroxide  is  formed 
by  treating  the  metal  with  nitric  acid;  it  may 
also  be  procured  by  throwing  nitre,  in  sufficient 
quantities,  upon  red-hot  tin,  or  heating  tin  filings 
with  red  oxide  of  mercury. 

741.  The  oxides  of  tin  dissolve  in  the  alkalis; 
they  have  indeed,  in  a  certain  degree,  the  proper- 
ties of  acids. 

742.  Native  oxide  of  tin  is  met  with  in  Corn- 
wall, in  Spain,  and  in  Saxony.     It  has  also  been 
found   in  France,  in  the  Indies,  and  in  South 
America. 

743.  Chloride  of  tin  may  be  formed  by  heat- 
ing together  an  amalgam  of  tin  and  chlorine,  or 
by  distilling  a  mixture  of  eight  ounces  of  pow- 
dered tin  and  twenty-four  ounces  of  the  chloride 
of  mercury ;  in  this  last  way  a  perchloride  of  tin 
is  formed,  while  the  first  process  produces  the 
proto-chloride. 

744.  Iodide  of  tin  may  either  be  formed  by 
the  direct  combination  of  iodine  with  the  metal, 
or  by  adding  hydriodic  acid  to  a  solution  of  the 
muriate.     The  proportion  of  its  elements  has  not 
been  ascertained. 

745.  Sulphuret  of  tin. — There  are  two  of  these 
compounds— the  sulphuret  and  the  bi-sulphuret; 
the  first  obtainable  by  directly  heating  the  metal 
with  sulphur,  the  second,  which  has  been  named 
aurum  musivum,  formed  by  heating  the  oxide 
often  with  an  equal  weight  of  sulphur. 

746.  Phosphuret  of  tin  may  be  obtained  by 
dropping  phosphorus  into  the  melted  metal. 

SALTS  OF  TIN. 

747.  Sulphate  of  tin  is  formed  by  boiling  the 
metal  in  sulphuric  acid ;   the  solution  deposits 
the  salt   in   the   form   of  white    needle-shaped 
crystals. 

748.  Nitrate  of  tin  maybe  procured  by  acting 
upon  the  metal  by  diluted  nitric  acid  ;    it  is  ne- 
cessary that  the  acid  be  diluted,  and, in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  compound,  part  of  the  water,  as  well 
as  of  the  acid,  is  decomposed, 

749.  Muriate  of  tin. — We  have  a  proto-muri- 
Hie  and  a  permuriate  of  this  metal ;    the  first 
obtained  by  heating  one  part  of  tin  with  two  of 
muriatic  acid.      This  constitutes  the  sal  Jovis  of 
the  ancient  chemists.     The  permuriate  may  be 


procured  by  dissolving  the  metal  in  nitro-mui*- 
atic  acid. 

750.  Chlorate  of  tin  has  not  hitherto  been 
subjected   to   examination.       Neither    has    the 
iodate. 

751.  Acetate  of  tin  is  formed  by  digesting  tin 
filings  with  the  acetic  acid :   this  salt  is  decom- 
posed by  mere  exposure  to  the  air. 

752.  Phosphate   of  tin   may  be   formed    by 
adding  phosphate  of  soda  to  the  solutions  of  the 
metal. 

753.  Carbonate  of  tin  is  procured  by  adding 
carbonate  of  potass  to  the  proto-muriate  of  the 
metal. 

754.  Tin  forms  alleys  with  many  of  the  me- 
tals.    Pewter  is  an  alloy  of  this  metal  with  anti- 
mony, copper,  and  bismuth  ;  the  less  pure  form 
of  pewter  has  a  considerable  admixture  of  lead. 
Equal  parts  of  tin  and  lead  formed  into  an  alloy 
constitutes  the  plumbers'  solder.     Into  the  com- 
position of  bronze,  and  bell-metal,  tin  also  enters. 
An  amalgam  of  tin  and  mercury  is  employed  for 
the  backs  of  looking-glasses.     Iron  plates  are 
coated  by  tin,  by  dipping  them  into  the  melted 
metal. 

LEAD. 

755.  The  pure  metal  is  principally  obtained 
from  the  native  sulphuret,  but  its  natural  com- 
pounds are  very  numerous. 

756.  Lead,  when  freed  from  its  admixture, 
is  of  a  bluish-white  color ;  at  first  it  has  consid- 
erable lustre,  but  it  soon  tarnishes,  especially 
when  exposed  to  a  very  moist  atmosphere.     It  is 
considerably  malleable,  but  has  much  less  tenacity 
than  several  other  metals.      Its  melting  point  is 
about   600°,  and  when  ignited  with  oxygen  it 
throws  off  yellowish  fumes,  which  are  an  oxide  of 
the  metal. 

757.  Lead  and    oxygen.  —  There   are   three 
oxides  of  lead — the  protoxide,  the  deutoxide,  and 
the  peroxide.     The  first  may  be   obtained  by 
heating  nitrate  of  lead,  or  by  decomposing  it  with 
carbonate  of  soda.     This  oxide  is  insipid,  and 
insoluble  in  water :  it  is  of  a  pale  yellow  color. 
It  is  known  in  commerce  by  the  name  of  massi- 
cot, and  when  vitrified  it  forms  the  litharge  of  the 
shops.     The  deutoxide  is  known  by  the  name  of 
minium  or  red  lead.     It  is  obtained  by  exposing 
the  protoxide  to  heat  and  oxygen  ;  and  the  per- 
oxide is  procured  by  subjecting  the  deutoxide  to 
nitric  acid  in  the  way  of  digestion ;  the  product 
being  one  part  protoxide  and  the  other  the  per- 
oxide, which  is  a  brown  insoluble  substance, 
and  when  heated  is  converted,  by  parting  with 
oxygen,  into  the  yellow  oxide.     This  last,  when 
precipitated  by  the  alkalis,  forms  a  hydrate  of 
lead. 

758.  The  oxides  of  lead  give  up  part  of  their 
oxygen  on  the  application  of  heat.      When  dis- 
tilled in  an  earthen  retort  they  afford  oxygen  gas ; 
and  still  more  readily  when  distilled  with  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid.      They  are  completely 
reduced    by   being    ignited    with    combustible 
matter.     Thus,  when  a  mixture  of  red  oxide  of 
lead  and   charcoal  is  ignited  in  a  crucible,   a 
button  of  metallic  lead  will  be  found  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  vessel.     Mere  trituration  of  the  per- 
oxide in  a  mortar  with  a  little  sulphur,  and  the 


426 


CHEMISTRY. 


subsequent  addition  of  a  small  bit  of  phosphorus, 
occasions  a  violent  explosion.  Thomsons  An- 
nuls, ix.  31. 

759.  Pure  water  bas  no  action  on  lead,  but  it 
takes  up  a  small  portion  of  the  oxide  of  that 
metal.     When  left  in  contact  with  water,  with 
the  access  of  atmospherical  air,  lead  soon  be- 
comes oxidised  and  dissolved,  especially  if  agita- 
tion be  used.     Hence  the  danger  of  leaden  pipes 
and  vessels  for  containing  water  which  is  intended 
to  be  drunk.      Water  appears  also  to  act  more 
readily  on  lead  when  impregnated  with  the  neu- 
tral salts  that  are  occasionally  present  in  spring 
waters.     Henry. 

760.  Lead  and  Chlorine. — Chloride  of  lead 
may  be  obtained  either  by  heating  the  metal  in 
chlorine  gas,  or  by  precipitating  the  nitrate  of 
lead  by  the  addition  of  muriatic  acid  or  common 
salt.     Chloride  of  lead  is  a  white  and  fusible 
substance,  and  after  fusion  the  dried  substance 
is  named  plumbum  corneum,  which  is  volatised 
by  the  application  of  a  very  high  heat.     This  is 
the  only  direct  compound  of  lead  with  chlorine 
that  is  known. 

761.  There  is  a  substance  named  mineral  or 
patent  yellow,  which  is  a  sub-chloride  of  lead,  or 
rather,  perhaps,  a  compound  of  oxide  and  chlo- 
ride of  the  metal.     It  is  formed  by  making  into 
a  paste  two  parts  of  the  deutoxide  with  one  of 
common  salt.      This  substance,  when  subjected 
to  the  action  of  nitric  acid,  forms  nitrate  of  lead; 
a  portion  of  chloride  is  disengaged. 

762.  A  native  chloride  of  lead  has  been  found 
in  Derbyshire,  in  a  crystallised  form. 

763.  Iodide  of  lead  may  be  formed  either  by 
the  direct  combination  of  the  lead  with  iodine, 
the  mixture  being  subjected  properly  to  heat,  or 
by  adding  either  hydriodic  acid  or  hydriodate 
of  potassa  to  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  lead. 

764.  Sulphuret  of  lead. — This,  in  its   native 
state,  is  called  galena,   from  which,  as  above 
stated,  almost  all  the  lead  of  commerce  is  pro- 
cured.    It  may  be  formed  by  decomposing  the 
solution  of  the  metal  by  sulphureted  hydrogen. 
'All  the  solutions  of  lead  are  decomposed  by 
sulphureted   hydrogen   and  by  alkaline  hydro- 
sulphurets,   and    a   hydro-sulphureted  oxide   is 
thrown  down.     Hence  these  compounds  are  ex- 
cellent tests  of  the  presence  of  lead  in  wine  or 
any  other  liquor,  discovering  it  by  a  dark-colored 
precipitate.      Hence  also  characters  traced  with 
a  solution  of  acetate  of  lead  become  legible  when 
exposed   to  sulphureted   hydrogen    gas.      The 
same  property  explains,  too,  the  effects  of  alkaline 
hydro-sulphurets  in  blackening  the  glass  bottles 
in  which  their  solutions  are  kept.      The  effect  is 
owing  to  the  action  of  the  sulphureted  hydrogen 
on  the  oxide  of  lead,  which  all  glass  contains.' 
Henry. 

SALTS  OF  LEAD. 

765.  Sulphate   of  lead  may   be   formed   by 
boiling  metallic  lead  in  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid,  or  by  adding  this  acid  or  sulphate  of  soda 
to  any  other  of  the  salts  of  lead.   This  substance 
is  insoluble  in  water  and  in  alcohol  and  in  nitric 
acid  :  it  is  notf  when  artificially  formed,  crystal- 
line, but  it  is  found   native  in  some  parts  of 
Britain  in  prismatic  crystals.      Sulphite  of  lead 


may  be  procured  by  digesting  the  yellow  oxide 
of  the  metal  in  sulphurous  acid,  or  by  mixing 
solutions  of  nitrate  of  lead  with  sulphite  of  potass. 
This  salt  is  white,  insipid,  and  insoluble ;  and, 
when  subjected  to  heat,  parts  with  sulphurous 
acid. 

766.  Nitrate   of  lead. — Nitric   acid   diluted 
dissolves  lead,  extricates  nitrous  gas,  and  a  crys- 
talline salt  is  formed,  which  is  whiti,  transparent, 
and  caustic.    A  sub-nitrate  is  formed  by  heating 
together  a  mixture  of  equal  portions  of  nitrate  and 
protoxide  of  the  metal;  or,  if  the  acid  used  for  the 
solution  of  lead  be  in  smaller  quantity  than  ne- 
cessary to  the  formation  of  the  nitrate,  a  sub-nitrate 
is  likewise  formed. 

767.  Chevreuil  and  Berzelius  have  described 
three  nitrites  of  lead,  viz.  the  nitrite,  the  sub- 
nitrite  and  the  hypo-nitrite  ;  of  which  a  detailed 
account  will  be  found  in  the  second  volume  of 
Dr.  Thomson's  System  of  Chemistry ;  but  there 
seem  doubts  about  the  correctness  of  the  results. 
See  Dr.  Thomson's  System  of  Chemistry,  vol.  ii. 
578. 

768.  Acetate  of  lead. — A  substance  which 
has  long  been  known  under  the  name  of  sugar  of 
lead,  and  which  is  obtained  by  dissolving  tne 
carbonate  of  the  metal  in  distilled  vinegar,  is  an 
acetate  of  lead.     It  is  in  the  form  of  shining 
needle-shaped  crystals,  which  are  soluble  in  hot 
water,  and  almost  equally  so  in  cold.      The  so- 
lution, however,  becomes  decomposed  merely  by 
exposing  it  to  the  air ;   the  carbonates  and  sul- 
phates of  the  alkalis  also  decompose  it.    By  being 
boiled  in  water  with  litharge  the  acetate  passes  to 
the  sub-acetate.    This  salt  is  not  so  soluble  as  the 
acetate,  and  it  crystallises  in  plates. 

769.  Phosphate  of  lead  is  formed  by  mixing 
alkaline  phosphates  with  nitrate  or  acetate  of  lead. 
The  salt  thus  formed  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  of 
a  yellowish-white  color. 

A  sub-phosphate,  a  super-phosphate,  and  a 
nitro-phosphate  have  been  described  by  Berze- 
lius (Ann.  de  Chim.  et  Phys.  2^.  Dr.  Thom- 
son also  speaks  of  a  di-phosphate,  with  one 
proportional  of  the  acid  and  two  of  the  pro- 
toxide. 

Native  phosphate  of  lead  is  found  in  several  of 
the  mines  in  the  north  of  England,  and  in  Scot- 
land. It  is  brittle,  semi-transparent,  and  appears 
in  six-sided  prisms. 

770.  Carbonate  of  lead  may  be  produced  by 
adding   an    alkaline   carbonate   to   the   nitrate. 
This  is  the  white  lead,  or  ceruse,  of  commerce  ; 
it  is  usually  manufactured  by  long  continued 
exposure  of  thin  sheets  of  lead  to   the  vapor 
of  vinegar.      See   Aikins  Dictionary.     Article 
Lead. 

771.  Native  carbonate  of  lead  is  one   of  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  metallic  ores ;    it  occurs 
crystallised,  and  fibrous,  the  former  transparent, 
the  latter  generally  opaque.     It  is  soft  and  brit- 
tle, and  occasionally  tinged  green  with  carbonate 
of  copper,  or  gray  by  sulphuret  of  lead.     The 
octahedron  is  its  primitive  form ;   it  also  occurs 
prismatic  and  tabular.      It  has  been  found  in 
Cumberland  and  Durham,  and  the  acicular  variety, 
of  great  beauty,  in  Cornwall.     Brande. 

772.  A  Chromate  of  lead  is  also  found  native 
in  orange-colored  prisms. 


C  H'E  M  I  S  T  R  Y. 


427 


NICKEL. 

773.  This  metal,  in  an  impure  state,  is  sold 
under  the  name  of  speiss,  which  is  principally  a 
compound  of  arsenic  and  nickel.     The  metal  is 
brought  to  a  state  of  purity  by  the  following 
process  : — Reduce  the  speiss  to  powder,  pour 
upon  it  a  quantity  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and 
add  the  quantity  of  nitric  acid  which  is  necessary 
to  dissolve  it.     Let  the  green  liquid,  thus  pro- 
cured, be  decanted  and  evaporated  till  it  is  suffi- 
ciently concentrated  to  crystallise ;  the  fine  green 
crystals  thus  procured   will  be  a  sulphate  of 
nickel.      Let  these  be  dissolved  in  water  and 
again  crystallised.     These  last  crystals  are  again 
to  be  dissolved,  and  decomposed  by  carbonate  of 
soda,  by  which  process  a  carbonate  of  nickel  is 
obtained,  which  is  to  be  made  up  into  balls,  or 
paste,  with  oil,  and  subjected  to  a  great  heat  in 
a  crucible  surrounded  with  powdered  charcoal. 
By  this  process  a  button  of  pure  nickel  will  be 
obtained. 

774.  Nickel  is  a  white  metal,  intermediate  be- 
tween silver  and  tin.     It  admits  of  a  fine  polish. 
It  is  perfectly  malleable  and  very  ductile.     It 
has  a  great  power  of  conducting  heat ;  is  diffi- 
cultly fusible,  but  absorbs  oxygen  readily  when 
brought  to  a  red  heat. 

775.  Nickel  is  found  native,  in  combination 
with  arsenic,  and  with  arsenic  acid. 

776.  Oxides   of   nickel. — Of    this    metal   we 
have  a  protoxide  and  a  peroxide.     By  adding 
potassa  to  a  solution  of  the  nitrate  we  obtain  the 
former;  and  the  latter  is  procured,  according  to 
Thenard,  by  passing  a  current  of  chlorine  gas 
through  water  in  which  the  hydrate  of  the  metal 
is  suspended.     The  first  of  these  oxides  is  of 
a  gray  color,  the  other  is  extremely  black,  and 
has  a  good  deal  of  analogy  with  oxide  of  man- 
ganese, 

777.  Salts  of  nickel. — This  metal  is  not  much 
acted  on  by  either  the  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid, 
but  the  former,  as  above  intimated,  is  made  a 
solvent  of  it  by  the  addition  of  nitric  acid,  and 
thus  a  sulphate  of  nickel  may  be  formed;   this 
salt,  which  is  of  a  beautiful  green  color,  may  also 
be  obtained  by  digesting  the  oxide  of  the  metal 
in  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

778.  The  nitric  solution  of  nickel  is  of  a  beau- 
tiful grass  green  color ;  by  evaporation  it  affords 
crystals  of  a  rhomboid  form,  which  are  nitrate  of 
nickel.     These  salts  are  deliquescent,  and,  when 
acted  on  by  ammonia,  an    ammonio-nitrate  of 
nickel  is  obtained,  which  is  exceedingly  change- 
able in  its  color.     Indeed   the  salts  of  nickel 
generally,  which  afibrd  with  ammonia  a  green 
precipitate,  assume  a  blue  color  when  the  ammo- 
nia is  in  excess.      'The  yellow-green  precipitate 
afforded  by  hydriodate  of  potass  is  very  charac- 
teristic  of   nickel;    but   the   nicest   test   of  its 
presence  is  the  ferro-cyanate  of  potassa,  which 
produces   a  pale  gray,  or  greenish-white   pre- 
cipitate, in  all  the  solutions  of  the  metal.' 

779.  Chloride  of  nickel  is  obtained  by  heating 
the  metal  in  chlorine  gas.      By  heating  the  mu- 
riate of  nickel  in  a  glass  tube  a  chloride  is  also 
obtained.      These  salts  have  not  been  accurately 
examined. 

780.  Iodide  of  nickel  may  likewise  be  formed 
by  adding  hydriodate  of  potass  to  the  solutions 


of  the  metal  in  the  acids.    This  salt  is  insoluble, 
and  of  a  greenish-yellow  color. 

781.  Sulphuret  of  nickel — The  metal  may  be 
directly  combined  with  sulphur  by  fusion,  and 
by   this   combination    a   grayish   compound   is 
formed,  which  is  of  metallic  lustre  and  is  brittle 
in  its  texture. 

782.  Carburet  of  nickel — '  Nickel  is  suscepti- 
ble of  uniting  with  carbon,  and  is  apt  indeed  to 
form  this  union  when  reduced  from  its  salts  by 
carbonaceous  matter.     According  to  Mr.  Rose, 
it  composes  a  substance  resembling  iodine  or 
micaceous  iron  ore.'     Ann.  of  P kilos.  N.  I.  262 
149  and  3201. 

783.  Of  the  alloys  of  nickel,  says  Mr.  Brande, 
there  is  one  which  requires  particular  notice, 
namely  that  with  iron,  which  forms  the  principal 
metallic   ingredient  in  those  lapideous  masses 
which,  in  different  countries,  have  fallen  upon 
our  globe,  and  which  have  been  termed  aerolites 
or   meteoric  stones.     Though  we   really   know 
nothing  of  the  source  or  origin  of  these  bodies, 
it  has  been  ascertained,  upon  the  most  satisfac- 
tory evidence,  that  they  are  not  of  terrestrial 
formation,  and  consequently,  since  men  began  to 
think  and  reason  correctly,  their  visits  to  our 
planet   have  awakened   much  speculation   and 
some  experimental  research. 

784.  In  the  first  place  it  deserves  to  be  re- 
marked that  we  have  very  distinct  evidence  of  the 
falling  of  stony  bodies  from  the  atmosphere,  in 
various  countries,  and   at  very  remote  periods. 
For,  to  say  nothing  of  the  fabulous   relations 
which  encumber  the  annals  of  ancient  Rome,  or 
the  extended  catalogue  of  wonders  flowing  from 
the  lively  imagination  of  oriental  writers,  such 
events  are  recorded  in  holy  writ,  and  have  been 
set  down  by  the  most  accredited  of  the  early 
historians;  and  although  philosophical  scepticism 
long  contended  against  the  admission  of  the  fact, 
it  has  in  modern  times  received  such  unanswer- 
able proofs,  as  to  be  allowed  by  all  who  have 
candidly  considered  the  evidence;    and  is   only 
rejected  by  the  really  ignorant,  or  by  those  who, 
for  the  sake  of  singularity,  affect  disbelief. 

785.  Mr.  Brande  goes  on  to  present  instances 
of  these  visitations,  and  to  speculate  on   their 
probable  origin,  but  we  must  refer  to  the  article 
METEOROLOGY  for  a  further  notice  of  this  sub- 
ject, and  shall  here  merely  say  that  nickel  enters 
into  the  composition  of  meteoric  iron  in  various 
proportions.     In  a  specimen  from  the  arctic  re- 
gions, Mr.  Brande  found  the  proportion  of  nickel 
to  the  amount  of  three  per  cent,  and  Mr.  Children 
found  nearly  ten  per  cent,  in  a  mass  of  the  same 
material  brought  from  Siberia. 

CADMIUM. 

786.  Cadmium  is  a  metal  of  very  recent  dis- 
covery.    It  is  contained  in  certain  ores  of  zinc, 
and  may  be  procured  by  digesting  the  ore  in 
muriatic  acid,  by  which  we  obtain  a  combination 
of  muriate  of  zinc,  and  cadmium.     This  should 
be  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  re-dissolved  in 
water.      If  cadmium  be  present,   the  solution 
when  treated  with  sulphureted  hydrogen  thro%vs 
down  a  yellow  precipitate,  and,  if  we  immerse  a 
plate  of  zinc  into  it,  metallic  cadmium  is  precipi- 
tated, or  the  ore  may  be  dissolved  in  sulphuric 


428 


CHEMISTRY. 


acid  ;  and  through  the  solution  a  current  of  sul- 
phureted  hydrogen  gas  be  directed.  The  pre- 
cipitate must  be  well  washed,  dissolved  in 
concentrated  muriatic  acid,  and  the  excess  of 
acid  dissipated  by  evaporation.  What  remains 
must  be  dissolved  in  water  and  precipitated  by 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  which  must  be  supplied 
in  excess.  In  this  way  we  obtain  a  carbonate 
of  the  metal,  and  the  carbonic  acid  may  be 
expelled  from  it,  by  a  proper  application  of 
heat. 

787.  Cadmium  closely  resembles  tin,  both  in 
its  appearance  and  properties ;    it  however  sur- 
passes it  in  tenacity,  and  is  somewhat  harder.  It 
is  very  ductile.     It  is  not  more  readily  acted  on 
by  simple  exposure  to  air  than  is  tin,  but  when 
heated  it  forms  an  orange-colored  oxide,  which  is 
easily  reducible. 

788.  Oxide   of  cadmium  is  soluble  in  pure 
ammonia,  but  not  in  its  carbonates ;  with  sulphu- 
reted  hydrogen  a  yellow  precipitate  is  formed 
from  its  solutions,  and  zinc  will  throw  down  from 
it  metallic  cadmium. 

789.  Sulphate,  nitrate,  chloride,  iodide,  carbo- 
nate, and  phosphate  of   cadmium  have  all  been 
found,   but   have   not  hitherto   been  examined 
in    such  sort  as   to   make  them  be  considered 
as  accurate  results,  or  compounds  of  much  in- 
terest. 

790.  The  metal  too  unites  with  sulphur  so 
as  to  form  a  sulphuret,  and  with  phosphorus  to 
constitute  a  phosphuret. 

ZINC. 

791.  The  zinc  of  commerce  is  never  pure,  but 
contains  sulphur,  charcoal,  lead,  and  sometimes 
copper,  iron,  and  a  small  portion  of  arsenic  and 
manganese.     The  common  zinc  of  commerce  is 
called  speltre.     The  metal  may  be  purified  by 
dissolving  this  speltre  in  diluted  sulphuric  acid, 
and  immersing  a  plate  of  zinc  into  the  solution, 
which  throws  down  the  other  metals  that  the  so- 
lution contains;  the  clear  solution  must  then  be 
decomposed  by  sub-carbonate  of  potass,  and  the 
precipitate,  after  being  well  washed,  ignited  with 
charcoal. 

792.  Zinc  is  of  a  white  color,  with  a  tincture 
of  blue.     It  is  malleable  under  a  due  degree 
of  heat  (see  Philos.  Mag.  23).     It  is  also  some- 
what ductile.    It  is  fusible  at  about  680°  and 
the   mass   upon   cooling  assumes  a  crystalline 
form. 

793.  Oxide  of  zinc. — This  is  obtained  by  heat- 
ing the  metal  in  air.      At  a  red  heat  it  burns 
with  a  bright  flame,  and  is  converted  into  what 
has  been  called  flowers  of  zinc,  which  is  an  oxide, 
white,  insipid,  and  soluble  in  the  alkalis.     If  in 
this  state  it  be  again  subjected  to  a  violent  heat 
it  fuses  into  a  glass.      The  same  oxide  may  be 
obtained,  and  in  a  greater  degree  of  purity,  by  ad- 
ding ammonia  to  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc, 
the  precipitate  being  washed  and  dried.     This  is 
the  only  known  oxide  of  zinc,  however  it  may  be 
procured.     See  Thomson's  Annals,  p.  33.    Zinc 
may  be  oxidised  by  being  boiled  with  pure  alka- 
line solutions  ;  and  from  all  the  salts  of  zinc  the 
alkalis  precipitate  a  hydrated  oxide. 

794.  Chloride  of  sine  is  obtained  either  by 
evaporating  the  muriate  of  the  metal  or  by  heat- 


ing leaf  zinc  in  chlorine.  There  is  only  one 
known  combination  of  zinc  with  chlorine;  it  was 
formerly  called  butter  of  zinc;  it  is  a  fusible 
compound,  and  by  the  action  of  water  produces 
a  muriate  of  zinc.  It  should  be  observed  that 
the  attraction  of  zinc  for  chlorine  is  very  power- 
ful. 

795.  Iodine  likewise  combines  with  zinc,  and 
produces  a  fusible  and  volatile  compound,  de- 
liquescent when  exposed  to  the  air,  and  crys- 
talline.    This  iodide  of  zinc  becomes  when  it 
deliquesces  a  hydriodate. 

796.  Zinc  and  sulphur. — Sulphuret  of  zinc  is 
formed  by  heating  the  oxide  of  the  metal  with 
sulphur.    This  composition  exists  native  under 
the  name  of  blende.      When  formed  artificially 
sulphuret  of  zinc  is  a  yellowish-brown  mass,  but 
blende  is  a  brittle  soft  mineral,  differently  shaded 
with  brown  and  black.    It  is  called  by  the  miners 
black-jack. 

797.  Water  impregnated  with  sulphureted  hy- 
drogen decomposes  after  some  time  the  solution* 
of  zinc,  and  forms  a  yellowish-white  precipitate, 
which  is  probably  a  hydro-sulphuret. 

798.  Phosphureted  zinc  is  a  whitish  or  lead  co- 
lor compound,  and  has  a  metallic  lustre  some- 
whatlikelead.     It  is  in  some  measure  malleable. 
When  subjected  to  a  very  high  temperature  it 
burns  like  zinc. 

Salts. of  Zinc. 

799.  Sulphate  of  zinc. — Diluted  sulphuric  acid 
readily  oxidises  and  eventually  dissolves  the  me- 
tal, giving  off  hydrogen,  and  leaving  a  sulphate  of 
zinc,  which  shoots  into  regular  crystals.     The 
white  vitriol  of  commerce  is  a  sulphate  of  zinc^ 
which  is  either  procured  by  a  further  evaporation 
than  is  necessary  for  the  crystalline  formation,  or 
prepared  from  the  native  sulphuret.     This  salt  is- 
found  native  at  Holywell  in  Flintshire. 

800.  Sulphite  of  zinc  is  obtained  by  dissolving 
the  metal  in  sulphurous  acid.    And  hypo-sulphite 
is  procured  with  the  same  acid  by  digestion,  and 
after  evaporation  dissolving  the  produce  in  alco- 
hol and  re-crystallising  it. 

801.  Nitrate  of  zinc    is  a  veiy  deliquescent 
salt;  it  crystallises  from  solution  of  the  metal  in 
nitric  acid. 

802.  The  muriate  of  zinc,  formed  in  the  same 
manner  with  muriatic  acid,  does  not  crystallise. 
During  the  solution  hydrogen  gas  of  great  purity 
is  evolved.  Indeed  this  is  a  common  form  of  pro- 
curing hydrogen.     When  the  muriate  is  heated 
in  the  air  it  loses  muriatic  acid  and  becomes  mere 
oxide  of  zinc  ;  in  a  close  vessel  it  parts  with  wa- 
ter and  the  residue  is  a  chloride  of  zinc. 

803.  lodate  of  zinc  is  formed  by  adding  iodate 
of  potassa  to  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc. 

804.  Hydriodate  of  zinc  is  formed  by  iodide  of 
zinc  attracting  moisture  from  the  air. 

805.  Phosphate  of  zinc  may  be  obtained  by 
dissolving  zinc  in   phosphoric   acid,  or  by  de- 
composing sulphate  of   zinc  with  phosphate  of 
soda.     Dr.  Thomson  formed  a  bi-phosphate  of 
this  metal. 

806.  Carbonate  of  zinc,  in  its  native  form,  con- 
stitutes  the   principal   portion   of   the   mineral 
called   calamine.      Artificially   the  carbonate  i* 


CHEMISTRY. 


429 


procured,  by  adding  carbonate  of  potassa  to  sul- 
phate of  zinc. 

807.  Acetate  of  zinc  may  either  be  formed  by 
dissolving  the  white  oxide  in  acetic  acid,   or  by 
mixing  the  solutions  of  acetate  of  lead  and  sul- 
phate of  zinc.     This  by  evaporation  affords  beau- 
tiful crystals. 

808.  Ferro-cyanate  of  zinc  is  a  yellowish-white 
precipitate,  produced  by  adding  ferro-cyanite  of 
potassa  to  sulphate  of  zinc. 

809.  Zinc  forms  alloys  with  most  of  the  other 
metals. 

BISMUTH. 

810.  Native  bismuth  has  been  met  with  in  the 
western  extremity  of  Britain,  and   also  in  Ger- 
many,  France,  and  Sweden.       It   is   a   brittle 
white   metal   with   a   tint   of  red ;   it   fuses   at 
476°,   and  by  slow  cooling  forms  very  distinct 
crystals. 

811.  The  metal  may  be  obtained  pure  by  dissol- 
ving the  bismuth  of  commerce  in  nitric  acid,  then 
decomposing  the  nitrate  by  water,  which  separates 
an  oxide  of  bismuth,  that  may  be  reduced  to  a 
metallic  state  by  heating  it  with  black  flux. 

812.  Oxide  of  bismuth  is  to  be  obtained  by 
exposing  the  metal  to   heat  and  air,   a  fusible 
white  oxide  is   thus  formed,  which  burns  with 
brilliancy ;  if  the  heat  be  increased  under  free  ex- 
posure to  air,   an  abundance  of  yellow  smoke  is 
thus  produced,  which  when  subjected  to  a  lower 
temperature  condenses  in  the  form  of  a  yellowish- 
white  sublimate. 

813.  This  oxide  of  bismuth  has  been  found 
native,  but  it  occurs  rarely. 

814.  Chloride  of  bismuth  is  procured  by  in- 
troducing  the   metal  very  finely  divided    into 
chlorine  gas,  or  by  evaporating  the  muriate  of 
bismuth  to   dryness ;    the   salt   thus   obtained, 
after  sublimation,  deliquesces  into    a   material 
which  was  formerly  called  butter  of  bismuth. 

815.  Iodide  of  bismuth  is  obtained  by  heating 
iodine  with  the  metal.     This  product  is  of  an 
orange   color,  and  insoluble  in  water.     If  hy- 
driodic  acid,  or  hydriodate  of  potassa  be  added 
to  nitrate  of  bismuth,  a  precipitate  is  procured 
of  a  chocolate-brown  color. 

816.  Sulphuret  of  bismuth  is  of  a  bluish-gray 
color,  with  a  metallic  lustre.     It  is  produced  by 
the  direct  combination  of  sulphur  with  the  metal, 
but  it  is  found,  though  rarely,  native. 

817.  Salts  of  bismuth. — The  sulphate  is  a  white 
compound,  formed  by  the  action  of  sulphuric 
acid  on  the  metal ;  it  is  not  soluble  in,  but  is 
decomposed  by,  water,  from  the  action  of  which 
it   is  changed   into  a  sub-sulphate   and  super- 
sulphate. 

818.  Nitrate  of  bismuth. — This  salt  is  formed 
by  dissolving  the  metal  in  two  parts  of  nitric 
acid  and  one  of  water,  by  which  nitric  oxide  is 
evolved.     If  water  be  made  to  decompose  this 
solution,   a   white   substance  is  thrown   down, 
which  has  been  called  pearl  white,  or  magistery 
of  bismuth.     This  substance  has  been  introduced 
into  the  Pharmacopoeia  under  the  name  of  sub- 
in'trate  of  bismuth,  and  is  an  excellent  medicine 
in  some  morbid  conditions  of  the  stomach.    See 
MEDICINE. 

819.  An  acetate  of  bismuth  may  be  used  as  a 
white  sympathetic  ink;  the  nitrate  will  answer 


the  same  purpose  on  this  as  corrosive.  Cha- 
racters thus  written  are  invisible  when  dry,  but 
become  legible  on  being  immersed  in  water; 
exposure  of  them  to  sulphureted  hydrogen  turns 
them  black. 

820.  The  principal  use   of  bismuth   in    the 
arts  is  in  the  formation  of  soft  solders,  which 
are  fusible  alloys  with   other  metals.     Gold  is 
deprived  of  its  ductility  when  combined  with 
bismuth,  even  in  very  small  quantities ;  it  also 
occasions  silver  and  platinum  to  be  brittle. 

ANTIMONY. 

821.  The  principal  ore  of  this  metal  is  its 
sulphuret.     For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  it  in 
its  metallic  state,  the  native  sulphuret  is  to  be 
mixed,  in  the  proportion  of  three  parts  to  two, 
with  crude  tartar  (the  bi-tartrate  of  potass) ;  to 
this  may  be  added  one-third  of  nitrate  of  potass, 
and  the  mixture  is  to  be  thrown  by  spoonfuls 
into  a  red-hot  crucible  ;  at  the  bottom  of  the 
crucible  the  metal  will  form ;  in  this  state  it  is 
met  with  in  commerce,  and  it  is  nearly  pure ; 
but  for  its  complete  purification  it  is  to  be  dis- 
solved  in  nitro-muriatic  acid,  and  the  solution 
poured  into  water ;  a  white  powder  will  now  be 
precipitated,  which  must  be  washed,  mixed  with 
double  its  weight  of  tartar,  and  exposed  to  a  dull 
red  heat  in  a  crucible,  the  product  is  the  pure 
metal. 

822.  Another  method  of  reducing  the  ore  of 
antimony  is  to  fuse  it  in  a  covered  vessel,  with 
half  its  weight  of  iron-filings,  adding,  when  the 
mass  has  been  brought  to  a  state  of  fusion,  a 
fourth  part  of  nitrate  of  potassa. 

823.  Antimony  is  of  a  silvery-white  color  ;  it 
is  very  brittle,  and   in  its  ordinary  texture  it  is 
crystalline.     Its  fusible  point  is  about  810°,  and 
at  a  high  heat  it  is  volatile. 

824.  Antimony  and  oxygen. — Mere  exposure 
to  the  air  causes  but  little  change  in  antimony  at 
the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  but 
when  the  heat  is  raised  so  as  to  fuse  the  metal, 
white  fumes  are  emitted,  which  is  the  metal  in 
combination  with  oxygen. 

825.  Proust  says  that  all  the  oxides  of  anti- 
mony may  be  reduced  to  two,  as  far  as  their 
atomic  proportions  are  concerned ;  butBerzelius 
has  contended  for  at  least  three  definite  com- 
pounds of  this  metal  with  oxygen.     The  first  is 
to  be  obtained  by  pouring  muriate  of  antimony 
into  water ;  washing  the  precipitate  with  a  weak 
solution  of  potassa,  and  afterwards  with  water ; 
then  drying  it ;  or  by  boiling  to  dryness  200 
parts  of  sulphuric  acid  with  fifty  parts  of  pow- 
dered metallic  antimony,  the  residue  being  washed 
first  in  a  weak  solution  of  carbonate  of  potassa, 
and  then  with  water.     This  forms  the  protoxide 
of  antimony,  and  it  appears,  says  Dr.  Henry,  to 
be  the  only  oxide  of  antimony  which  is  capable 
of  acting  as  a  true  base  with  acids,  and  is  that 
which  gives  activity  to  the  principal  medicinal 
preparations  of  that  metal. 

826.  For  the  mode  of  preparing  this  oxide,  as 
directed  in  the  Pharmacopoeia,  we  refer  to  the 
article  PHARMACY. 

827.  Berzelius  directs  for  the  formation  of  the 
second  or  white  oxide,  that  metallic  antimony 
be  dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  and  the  product  be 
subjected  to  heat;  or  that  the  metal  be  dissolved 


430 


CHEMISTRY. 


in  nitro-muriatic  acid,  decomposed  by  water, 
and  the  precipitate  first  washed,  and  then  cal- 
cined in  a  platinum  crucible. 

828.  The  third  or  yellow  oxide  is  to  be  ob- 
tained by  mixing  nitre  and  metallic  antimony, 
or  the   protoxide   of  the    metal,    and    fusing 
them.     The  residue  afterwards  being  mixed  with 
nitric  acid,  a  white  precipitate  is  formed  which 
becomes  yellow  upon  being  heated.     This  is  the 
peroxide  of   the  metal ;    which  is  precipitated 
from  its  combinations  in  the  form  of  a  white 
hydrate. 

829.  The  white  and  yellow  oxides  are,  strictly 
speaking,  acids,  and  they  have  been  called  an- 
timonious  and  antimonic  acids ;  or  by  Berzelius, 
the  stibions  and  stibic  acids,  from  the  Latin  ap- 
pellative of  the  metal,  stibium. 

830.  Chloride  of  antimony. — This  was  for- 
merly known  under  the  name  of  butter  of  an- 
timony.    It  may  be  formed  by  distilling  together 
one  part  of  powdered  antimony  with  two  and  a 
half  of  corrosive  sublimate.     This  composition 
is  a  soft  solid  under  the  ordinary  temperature 
of  the  air,  but  it  becomes  liquid  on  being  ex- 
posed to  a  high  heat,  and  in  cooling  crystallises. 
If  water  be  added  to  the  chloride  of  antimony, 
a  hydrated  protoxide  of  antimony  is  formed 
(this   used  to  be  called  Algaroth    powder,  or 
mercurius  vitae),  with  this  also  muriatic  acid  is 
generated,  which  may  be  taken  up  by  potassa, 
and  the  oxide  remains  pure. 

831.  Iodide  of  antimony   is   of  a   dark   red 
color ;  when  acted  on  by  water  hydriodic  acid  and 
oxide    of   the    metal   are    produced.      In    the 
Quarterly  Journal,  xviii.  page  397,  a  compound 
of  antimony,  iodine,  and  sulphur,  is  mentioned, 
containing  a  proportional  of  each  ingredient. 

832.  Sulphuret  of  antimony  is   easily  formed 
by  combining  the  metal  with  sulphur.      The  ar- 
tificial very  closely  resembles  the  natural  sul- 
phuret.     When  this  is  exposed  to  a  dull  red  heat 
oxygen  is  gradually  absorbed,  and  the  metal  be- 
comes converted  into  a  gray  oxide.     If  to  this  a 
strong  heat  be  applied,  the  substance  fuses  into 
a  glassy  matter  which  was  formerly  called  glass 
of  antimony,  which  is  a  compound  of  protoxide 
with  about  10  or  15  per  cent,  of  sulphuret:  toge- 
ther with  these  ingredients  there  is  usually  also  a 
little  silex.     If  the  sulphuret  have  its  proportion 
to  the  oxide  increased,  an  opaque  compound  is 
formed,  of  a  reddish  or  yellowish  color,  which  has 
been  named  saffron  of  antimony.     With  a  still 
larger  proportion  of  the  sulphuret  we  obtain  the 
liver  of  antimony. 

833.  Hydro-sulpkureted  oxide  of  antimony.  This 
compound  is  usually  prepared  by  fusing  equal 
parts  of  sulphuret  of  antimony  and  potassa ;  it 
was  long  known  under  the  name  of  Kermes  mi- 
neral.    The  liquor  is  to  be  filtered  while  hot,  and 
it  is  during  the  cooling  that  the  kermes  is  depo- 
sited.     If  to  the  solution  when  cold,  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  be  added,  a  red  precipitate  falls  down, 
which,  when  washed  and  dried,  is  the  golden  sul- 
phur of  antimony  of  former  times,  now  called  in 
the  London  Pharmacopoeia  the  precipitated  sul- 
phuret of  antimony.     This  only  differs  from  the 
kermes  in  containing  a  larger  quantity  of  surphu- 
reted  hydrogen,  it  is  a  sulphureted  hydro-sul- 
phuret. 


834.  Salts  of  antimony. — When  antimony  is 
heated  with  sulphuric  acid,  the  acid  is  decom- 
posed, the  metal  is  oxidised,  and  a  sub-sulphate 
is  produced. 

835.  Nitric  acid  acts  with  much  power  on  an-  . 
timony,  even  to  the  extent,  under  some  circum- 
stances, of  inflammation.     In  this  case  ammonia 
is  produced  by  the  vehement  decomposition  of 
the   acid,  and  the  metal  becomes  peroxidised. 
'The  most  convenient  solvent  of  antimony  is  the 
nitro-muriatic  acid,  which  acts  upon  the  metal 
both  in  a  separate  state  and  as  it  exists  in  the 
black  sulphuret.      Muriatic  acid  acts  on  the  lat- 
ter compound,  and  evolves  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen gas  in  abundance  and  of  great  purity,  and 
muriate  of  ammonia  is  also  formed,  and  remains 
in  solution  along  with  the  muriate  of  antimony.' 
Berzelius,  Ann.  de  Chim.  et  de  Phys.  xvi. 

836.  The  celebrated  preparation  called  James's 
Powder,  according  to  the  analysis  of  Dr.  Pear- 
son (Phil.  Trans.   1791),  consists  of  43  parts 
phosphate  of  lime  and  57  protoxide  of  antimony; 
but  of  this,  and  its  imitation  by  the  London  Col- 
lege of  Physicians,  in  the  Pulvis  Antimonialis,  as 
well  as  the  Tartarised  Antimony  or  Tartar  emetic, 
which  is  a  compound  of  protoxide  of  antimony, 
potassa,  and  tartaric  acid,  we  shall  have  to  enlarge 
in  the  article  PHARMACY. 

837.  Antimony  forms  an  alloy  with  most  of 
the  other  metals ;  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  alloys  of  antimony  is   that  which  it  forms 
with  lead.     The  metal  for  printers'  types  is  a  com- 
pound of  antimony  and  lead,  in  the  proportion  of 
one  part  of  the  former  to  sixteen  of  the  latter. 


MANGANESE. 


838.  Native  manganese  is  not  the  metal  in  its 
metallic  state,  but  is  an  impure  oxide  of  it.      It 
may  be  obtained  pure    (that  is  the  oxide)  by 
heating  the  black  peroxide  with  muriate  of  am- 
monia. Chlorine  is  disengaged  from  this  mixture ; 
this  chlorine  attaches  itself  to  the  manganese,  and 
when  water  is  added  a  pure  solution  of  muriate 
of  manganese  is  obtained  by  filter.     From  this 
solution   bi-carbonate  of  potassa  precipitates  a 
pure  carbonate,  from  which  the  carbonic  acid  may 
be  expelled  by  heat  (Quarterly  Journal  vi.  358). 
Mr.  Hatchet  has  shown  that  if  iron  be  present  in 
solution  with   muriatic  acid,  it  may  easily  be 
thrown  down  by  ammonia.   The  oxide  thus  pro- 
duced may  be  resolved  into  a  metallic  state  by 
heating  it  with  charcoal. 

839.  Manganese  is  of  a  dusky  white  color,  it 
is  very  brittle,  and  when  broken  has  a  bright 
shining  appearance.     It  is  very  difficult  of  fusion, 
and  soon  becomes  an  oxide  by  exposure  to  air. 

840.  Oxides  of  manganese. — A  green,  a  brown, 
and  a  black  oxide  of  this  metal  have  been  des- 
cribed.    Berzelius,  indeed,  speaks  of  five  distinct 
oxides  of  manganese,  but  Gay  Lussac  can  only 
satisfy  himself  of  the  existence  of  three,  viz. 
1st.  the  protoxide  obtained  by  dissolving  man- 
ganese in  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  and  precipita- 
ting it  by  a  pure  alkali  out  of  the  contact  ot  air, 
2d.  the  deutoxide  which  remains  after  calcining 
the  peroxide,  or  the  greater  part  of  the  salts  of 
manganese ;  and  3d.  the  peroxide,  or  native  black 
oxide. 

841.  When  a  solution  of  the  first  of  these,  the 


CHEMISTRY. 


431 


protoxide,  is  treated  with  the  alkalis,  a  white  pre- 
cipitate is  produced,  which  is  ahydratedoxide  of 
the  metal. 

842.  There  seems,  however,  to  be  much  diffe- 
rence of  opinion  with  respect  to  the  modes  and 
degrees  in  which  oxygen  unites  with  manganese, 
and  we  refer  the  reader  for  a  full  statement  of 
these  differences  to  the  last  edition  of  Dr.  Hen- 
ry's Elements. 

843.  The  peroxide  of  manganese  is  black ;  it 
is  insoluble  in  acids,  and,  as  we  have  observed, 
is  found  native  in  abundance.     The  color  of  the 
deutoxide  is  either  brownish-black,  or  shining 
black,  according  to  the  mode  of  its  preparation. 
The  protoxide  is  at  first  of  a  brown  color,  but 
eventually  changes  to  a  beautiful  light  green. 
Exposure,    however,    to    the    air    soon    again 
changes  it. 

844.  Manganese  and  chlorine. — Chloride  of  man- 
ganese may  be  formed  by  evaporating  the  muriate 
to  dryness,  and  exposing  the  residue  to  a  red  heat, 
without  the  contact  of  air.  It  is  a  semi-transpa- 
rent pink-colored  substance ;  this,  when  dissolved 
in  water,  produces  again  a  muriate  of  the  metal. 
The  action  of  iodine  on  manganese  has  not  been 
examined. 

845.  Manganese  and  sulphur  do  not  appear 
very  susceptible  of  combination;  in  its  metallic 
state,  indeed,  manganese  will  not  unite  with  sul- 
phur, but  a  sulphuret  of  manganese  was  formed 
by  Berthier,  by  heating  the  proto-sulphate  of  the 
metal  in  a  charcoal  crucible.     '  The  black  oxide 
of  manganese  heated  with  sulphur  forms  a  green- 
ish compound,  and    abundance   of   sulphurous 
acid  is  evolved;  is  this  a  sulphuret  (enquires  Mr. 
Brande)  or  a  sulphureted  oxide  of  manganese  ?' 

846.  Salts  of  manganese. — The  sulphate  may 
be  formed  by  dissolving  the  metal  in  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid,  hydrogen  gas  becomes  abundantly 
evolved,  and  the  solution  throws  down  crystals 
which  are  the  sulphate  of  manganese;  or  this  salt 
may  be  formed  by  dissolving  the  protoxide  and  the 
proto-carbonate  in  strong  sulphuric  acid.     When 
sulphate  of  manganese  is  decomposed  by  the  hy- 
po-sulphite of  lime,  a  hypo-sulphite  of  manganese 
is  formed. 

847.  The   nitrate. — Protoxide  of  manganese 
is  readily  dissolved  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  and  by 
this  solution  is  formed  a  salt  which  is  a  proto- 
nitrate.      The  solution  of  this  salt  if  exposed  to 
the  light  throws  down  a  peroxide  of  the  metal. 

848.  Muriate  of  manganese,  as  above  stated, 
may  be  formed    by  dissolving  the  chloride  in 
water.     It  may  also  be  readily  produced  by  satu- 
rating muriatic  acid  with  the  carbonate. 

849.  Chlorate  of  manganese  has  not  been  in- 
vestigated. 

850.  Carbonate  of  manganese   is  precipitated 
by  the  carbonates  of  the  alkalis  from  the  proto- 
muriate,  or  proto-sulphate  of  the  metal. 

851.  Phosphate   of  manganese  is  produced  by 
adding  phosphate  of  soda  to  the  muriate  of  the 
metal. 

852.  We  have  not  hitherto  noticed  the  com- 
pound called  chameleon  mineral,  so  called  from 
the  change  of  color  which  its  aqueous  solution 
undergoes ;  this  compound  is  formed  by  mixing 
together  equc.1  parts  of  the  black  oxide  of  man- 
ganese and  nitre,  and  exposing  them  to  a  red 


heat ;  thus  is  formed  a  highly  oxidised  mangan- 
ese with  potassa ;  the  same  compound  is  like- 
wise procurable  by  fusing  together  one  part  of 
the  oxide  with  five  or  six  of  solid  potass.  When 
to  this  salt  a  small  quantity  of  water  is  added,  a 
green  solution  is  formed  ;  an  additional  quantity 
of  water  occasions  the  solution  to  be  blue,  a  still 
further  addition  causes  a  purple  color,  which  is 
heightened  by  a  still  greater  quantity  of  water. 

853.  The  properties  of  this  singular  substance 
have  been  lately  investigated  by  Chevreul.     To 
exclude  the  presence  of  iron,  on  which  Scheele 
suspected  its  green  color  to  depend,  he  prepared 
it  by  infusing,  in  a  platinum  crucible,  one  part  of 
pure  oxide  of  manganese  with  eight  of  potassa, 
prepared  with  alcohol.     The  color  of  the  solu- 
tion was  still  green,  and  by  the  addition  either  of 
more  water,  or  of  carbonic  acid,  or  an  alkaline 
carbonate,  became  successively  blue,  violet,  indi- 
go purple,  and  red.  The  green  solution  Chevreul 
supposes  is  a  combination  of  caustic  potassa  with 
oxide  of  manganese,  and  the  red  of  potassa,  ox- 
ide of  manganese,  and  carbonic  acid.  The  inter- 
mediate colors   result  from  the  combination  of 
these  in  different  proportions,  as  may  be  proved 
by  the  direct  mixture  of  a  green  with  a  red  solu- 
tion.   The  agency  of  water,  even  when  carefully 
deprived  of  carbonic  acid,  in  effecting  the  same 
change,  shows,  however,  that  the  theory  does  not 
account  for  all  the  phenomena.    This  fact  Chev- 
reul explains  by  the  action  of  water  in  diminish- 
ing the  attraction  between  the  potassa  and  oxide 
of  manganese ;   in  which  way,  he  apprehends 
that  carbonic  acid  produces  its  effect.  The  oxide, 
both  in  the  green  and  red  compounds,  he  asserts 
is    at   the  same  degree  of  oxidation,  a  degree 
probably  inferior  to  that  of  the  native  oxide. 

854.  Messrs.    Chevillot   and   Edouard   have 
ascertained  that  the  colors  of  the  chameleon  mine- 
ral is  owing  to  manganese,  and  not  to  any  other 
metal ;  that  the  contact  of  oxygen  gas  with  the 
fused  materials  is  essential  to  its  formation,  during 
which  oxygen  is  absorbed ;  and  that  the  chame- 
leon compound  is  a  neutral  salt,  susceptible  of 
assuming  a  regular  chrystallised  form. 

855.  When  these  crystals  are  heated  in  con- 
tact with  hydrogen  gas,  they  cause  it  to  inflame. 
They  detonate  violently  with  phosphorus ;  and 
set  fire  to  sulphur,  arsenic,  and  antimony,  and 
indeed  to  all  combustible  bodies  hitherto  tried. 
'The  red  compound  was  supposed  to  be  a  neutral 
manganesiate  of  potassa,  and  the  green  a  subman- 
ganesiate ;  but  it  seems  more  probable,  from  the 
experiments  of  Forchammer,  that  the  difference 
between  the  red  and  green  compounds  depends 
not  on  the  quantity  of  potassa  combined  with  the 
oxide  of  manganese,  but  on  the  proportion  of 
oxygen  united  with  the  manganese  itself.     (An- 
nals of  Philosophy,  xvi.   130).      Conformably 
with  this  view  he  found  that  adding  alcohol  or 
carbonate   of  manganese  to  the  red  compound 
changed  it  to  green  by  abstracting  oxygen.   The 
manganese  in  the  latter  compound  he  considers 
as  forming  an  acid  with  a  minimum  of  oyygen  ; 
the  proportions  being  100  metal,  and  96-847 
metal  oxygen,  constituting  manganesious  acid ; 
the  green  salt  therefore  is  a  manganesiate  of  po- 
tassa. The  red  compound  contains  an  acid  which 
may  be  called  the  manganesic,  and  its  compounds 


432 


CHEMISTRY. 


manganesiates.  In  this  acid  100  of  metal  are 
united  with  132  of  oxygen,  proportions  which 
do  not,  any  more  than  those  of  the  manganesious 
acid,  agree  with  any  atomic  constitution ;  the  one 
indicating  between  three  and  four,  and  the  other 
between  four  and  five  atoms  of  oxygen  to  each 
atom  of  metal.  Though  it  appears  therefore  that 
manganese  is  capable  of  forming  one  or  more 
true  acids  with  oxygen,  yet  the  proportions  of 
the  elements  of  these  acids  may  be  considered  as 
still  undetermined.  The  probability  is,  that  man- 
ganesious acid  consists  of  one  atom  of  metal, 
and  three  atoms  of  oxygen,  and  the  manganesic, 
of  one  atom  of  base,  and  four  of  oxygen.  Man- 
ganese then  is  capable  of  uniting  with  oxygen  in 
six  different  proportions,  besides  the  compound 
oxide  formed  by  the  union  of  two  other  oxides. 
Henry. 

COBALT. 

856.  This  metal  is  found  in  its  native  state  in 
the  form  of  oxide,  and  mixed  with  other  metals ; 
Saxony  is  said  to  produce  the  finest  specimens  of 
some  of  the  ores  of  cobalt. 

857.  In  order  to  obtain  the  metal  pure,  the 
cobalt  of  commerce  (zaffre),  is  to  be  calcined 
with  nitre  and  charcoal,  to  be  reduced  by  means 
of  black  flux;  and  then  the  metal,  having  in  this 
way  been  procured,  is  to  be  detonated  with  three 
times  its  weight  of  dried  nitre,  which  produces 
an  oxide,  which  is  to  be  first  cleared  of  its  admix- 
tures, and  then  again  reduced  by  the  black  flux. 
In  the  Manual  of  Chemistry  by  Mr.  Brande,  we 
met  with  the  following  directions  for  obtaining 
and  purifying  cobalt : — '  The  cobalt  of  commerce, 
in  fine  powder,  may  be  calcined  with  four  parts 
of  nitre  and  washed  in  hot  water,   by  which 
arsenic  is  separated ;  then  digest  in  dilute  nitric 
acid,  and  immerse  a  plate  of  iron,  which  will 
separate  the  copper ;  filter  and  evaporate  to  dry- 
ness;  digest  the  dry  mass  in  liquid  ammonia 
and  filter :  expel  the  excess  of  ammonia  from  the 
filtered  liquor  by  heat,  taking  care  not  to  pro- 
duce  a   precipitate,  and  then  add  solution   of 
potassa,  which  throws  down  oxide  of  nickel; 
filter  immediately  and  boil,  which  will  occasion 
the  separation  of  oxide  of  cobalt,   and  which 
ignited  with  charcoal  furnishes  the  pure  metal. 
In  this  process  the  first  calcination  with  nitre 
often  requires  two  or  three  repetitions,  in  order 
to  get  rid  of  the  whole  of  the  arsenic,  which  ad- 
heres to  cobalt  with  much  obstinacy.' 

858.  Cobalt  is  of  a  reddish-gray  color ;  it  is 
easily   reduced   to   powder,  but  for   its  fusion 
requires  136°  of    Wedgwood.       It  crystallises 
after  fusion  if  slowly  cooled,  and  it  is  magnetic. 

859.  Oxygen  and  cobalt. — Cobalt  unites  with 
oxygen  in  two  proportions,  forming  the  protoxide, 
or  dark  blue  oxide;  and  the  peroxide,  or  black 
oxide  of  cobalt. 

860.  The  first  may  be  procured  by  precipita- 
ting the  nitrate  of  cobalt  with  potassa,  or  by  sub- 
jecting the  metal  to  a  strong  heat  for  a  length  of 
time  under  exposure  to  the  air.     This  oxide,  if 
treated  with  muriatic  acid,  gives  chlorine  gas, 
and  a  red  solution  is  obtained;  it  becomes  a  red 
hydrate  also  by  being  left  in  contact  with  water ; 
if  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  for  any  length  of 
time,  a  gradual  absorption  of  an  additional  quan- 


tity of  oxygen  is  the  consequence,  and  the  oxide 
assumes  an  olive-green  appearance;  this  Sir 
H.  Davy  supposes  to  be  a  mixture  of  hydrate 
and  oxide  of  the  metal,  rather  than  a  peculiar 
metal. 

861.  The  black  peroxide  is  obtained  by  heat- 
ing the  protoxide  in  the  open  air;  and  in  this 
way  the  metal  receives  its  maximum  quantity  of 
oxygen ;  this  is  soluble  in  muriatic  acid,  and  a 
copious   disengagement  of  chlorine  is  effected 
during  the  solution. 

862.  Chlorine  and  cobalt. — When  heated  in 
chlorine,  the  chloride  of  cobalt  is  formed ;  but 
this  compound  has  not  been  investigated. 

863.  Chlorine  and  sulphur. — The  sulphuret  of 
cobalt  is  formed  by  heating  the  oxide  of  the 
metal  with  sulphur;  a  yellowish-white  compound 
is  the  result,  which  does  not  seem  to  possess  any 
interesting  properties.     The  same  may  be  said  of 
the  phosphuret  of  cobalt,  which  is  also  a  white 
compound. 

864.  Salts  of  cobalt. — Sulphate  of  cobalt  may 
be   obtained   by  dissolving  'the   newly  formed 
protoxide  in  sulphuric  acid.     The  salt  somewhat 
resembles  in  its  appearance  the  sulphate  of  iron; 
its  reddish  crystals,  when  dried  with  a  high  heat, 
fall  into  a  blue  powder,  which  is  the  anhydrous 
sulphate  of  cobalt. 

865. — Nitro-muriate  of  cobalt. — In  order  to 
form  this,  we  are  directed  to  digest  one  part  of 
cobalt,  or  still  better  of  zaffre,  in  a  sand  heat, 
for  some  hours,  with  four  parts  of  nitric  acid. 
To  this  solution  add  one  part  of  muriate  of  soda, 
and  dilute  with  four  parts  of  water.  Characters 
written  with  this  solution  are  illegible  when 
cold;  but  when  a  gentle  heat  is  applied  they 
assume  a  beautiful  color,  which  is  invariably  blue 
if  the  cobalt  has  been  pure,  or  green  if  it  con- 
tained iron  or  copper  (see  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions, 1796).  This  experiment  is  rendered 
more  amusing  by  drawing  the  trunk  and  branches 
of  a  tree  in  the  ordinary  manner,  and  tracing  the 
leaves  with  a  solution  of  cobalt.  The  tree  ap- 
pears leafless  till  the  paper  is  heated,  when  it 
suddenly  becomes  covered  with  beautiful  foliage. 
Henry. 

866.  Nitrate  of  cobalt  is  a  red  deliquescent 
salt,  which,  by  being  treated  with  liquid  potassa, 
becomes  a  hydrate. 

867.  Carbonate  of  cobalt  may  be  produced  by 
adding  the  carbonates  of  the  alkalis  to  the  sul- 
phate, nitrate,  or  muriate,  of  the  metal ;  it  is  pre- 
cipitated in  the  form  of  a  reddish-blue  powder. 

868.  Neither  the  chlorate  nor  the  iodate  of 
cobalt  has  been  examined. 

869.  The  phosphate  is  formed  by  adding  phos- 
phate of  soda  to  muriate  of  cobalt,  or  by  dis- 
solving the  carbonate  in  muriatic  acid.     It  is  of 
a  lilac  color,  and  insoluble,  and  if  mixed  with 
eight  parts  of  precipitated  alumina,  and  subjected 
to  heat,  it  dries  into  a  beautiful  blue,  which  The- 
nard  states  may  be  substituted  for  ultramarine. 

870.  The  alloys  of  cobalt  are  not  very  impor- 
tant.    The  principal  value  of  the  mineral  is  de- 
rived from  its  color.     If  zaffre,  which  is  mostly 
brought   from   Germany,  be   fused  with   glass, 
smalt  and  azure  blue  are  formed.     Cobalt  is  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  colored  porcelain, 
earthenware,  and  glass. 


C  H  E  M  I  S   f  R  Y. 


433 


TELLURIUM. 

8T1.  The  ores  of  this  metal  have  been  found  in 
the  mines  of  Transylvania,  and  in  Siberia.  One 
hundred  parts  of  an  ore  of  gold,  discovered  by 
Klaproth,  yielded  above  ninety  of  tellurium. 

872.  From    the  ores  the  metal  is  to  be  ex- 
tracted, by  adding  potassa  to  a  solution  of  the 
ore  in  nitro-muriatic  acid.     This  addition  pre- 
cipitates all  the  metallic  matter  that  may  have 
been  in  the  solution,  and  when  added  in  excess 
again  takes  up  a  precipitate  that  the  alkali  had 
at  first  occasioned.    When  muriatic  acid  is  added 
to  this  alkaline  solution,  a  precipitate  again  takes 
place,  and  this  treated  with  charcoal  affords  the 
metal. 

873.  Tellurium  is  of  a  whitish-gray  color,  with 
considerable  lustre.     It  is  brittle,  easily  fused, 
and  is  exceedingly  volatile. 

874.  0-xygen  and  tellurium. — Tellurium  rea- 
dily burns  when  exposed  to  heat  in  contact  with 
air;  in  its  combustion  it  exhales  a  very  peculiar 
odor,    and  exhibits  a   bluish  flame  with  green 
edges ;  a  yellowish-white  oxide  is  the  result  of 
the  combustion. 

875.  Chlorine  and  tellurium. — By  heating  the 
metal  in  chlorine  a  white  compound  is  formed, 
which  is  a  chloride,  and  which  is  decomposed  by 
water. 

876.  Iodine  and  tellurium. — Iodine  also  com- 
bines with  the  metal  into  an  iodide,  which  forms 
an  hydriodate  when  dissolved  in  water. 

877.  Hydi'Ogen  and  tellurium. — The  metal  is 
stated  to  form  two  distinct  compounds  with  hy- 
drogen :  '1st,  By  making  tellurium  the  negative 
surface  in  water ;  in  the  galvanic  circuit  a  brown 
powder  is  formed,  which  is  a  solid  hydruret  of 
tellurium.    2dly,  By  acting  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  upon  the  alloy  of  tellurium  and  potassium 
(which  may  be  obtained  by  heating  a  mixture  of 
solid  hydrate  of  potassa,  tellurium,  and  charcoal), 
we  obtain  a  peculiar  gas.     This  gas  has  a  smell 
resembling  that  of  sulphureted  hydrogen.     It  is 
absorbed  by  water,  and  a  claret-colored  solution 
results,  which,  by  exposure  to  the  air,  becomes 
brown,   and    deposits    tellurium.     After    being 
washed  with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  it  does 
not  affect  vegetable  blue  colors.     It  burns  with 
a  bluish   flame,  depositing  oxide  of  tellurium. 
It  unites  with  the  alkalis,  precipitates  most  me- 
tallic solutions,  and  is  instantly  decomposed  by 
chlorine.     It  may  be  called  tellureted  hydrogen 
gas.'     Henri/. 

ARSENIC. 

878.  The    substance   which   is   found  in  the 
shops  under  the  name  of  arsenic  is  not  the  metal 
itself  in  its  abstract  or  pure  state,  but  a  white 
oxide  of  it,  from  which  metallic  arsenic  is  to  be 
obtained  by  the  following   process : — Mix  two 
parts  of  the  white  oxide  with  one  of  black  flux 
(prepared  by  deflagrating  in  a  crucible  one  part 
of  nitre  with  two  of  powdered  tartar),  and  intro- 
ducing this  mixture  into  a  crucible,  invert  over  this 
crucible  another,  and  let  the  two  be  luted  toge- 
ther     A  red  heat  is  to  be  applied  to  the  lower 
one,  while  the  upper  one  is  to  be  kept  cool.     In 
this  way  the  arsenic  will  be  reduced,  and  will  be 
found  lining  the  interior  of  the  upper  crucible. 

879.  Arsenic,  in  its  native  state,  has  been  met 
VOL.  V. 


with  in  Cornwall,  and  in  some  parts  of  Europe; 
it  is  not  unfrequently  connected  with  cobalt, 
lead,  silver,  and  nickel  ores.  It  is  of  a  steel  blue 
color,  very  brittle,  and  easily  fusible ;  its  vapor 
having  a  strong  garlicky  smell,  by  which  its  pre- 
sence is  often  detected.  It  burns,  when  thrown 
on  a  red  hot  iron,  with  a  blue  flame,  and  a  white 
smoke.  If  exposed  to  moisture,  an  imperfect 
oxide  is  formed  on  the  surface,  which  manifests 
itself  by  a  gray  incrustation. 

880.  Arsenic  and  oxygen. — Two  definite  com- 
pounds have  been  procured  of  arsenic  and  oxy- 
gen, and   both  of  these  are  rather  acids  than 
oxides ;  the  one  is  indeed  called  generally  arse- 
nious  and  the  other  arsenic  acid,  and  the  salts 
they  form  are  named  arsenites  and  arseniates. 

881.  The  arsenious  acid,  or  as  it  is  usually 
termed   white   arsenic,    is  the  most  commonly 
occurring  compound  of  this  metal.     It  is  white, 
semi-transparent  and  brittle.     It  is  volatile  at 
380°.     It  has  a  very  acrid  taste ;  is  sparingly 
soluble   in  water,   and   by  slow   evaporation  it 
forms  tetrahedral  crystals. 

882.  Arsenic  acid. — Distillation  of  arsenious 
acid,  or  metallic  arsenic  with  nitric  acid,  even- 
tually converts  the  arsenious  into  arsenic  acid  ; 
but  we  are  directed,  for  effecting  this  conversion, 
to. mix  four  parts  of  muriatic  acid,  twenty-four 
of  nitric,  and  eight  parts  of  arsenious  acid  toge- 
ther, gradually  raising  the  heat  of  the  retort  in 
which  they  are  mixed. 

883.  Arsenic  acid  is  a  white  substance  ;  it  has 
a  sour,  and  at  the  same  time  a  metallic  taste ;  it 
is  deliquescent,  and  does  not  crystallise. 

884.  Arsenic  and  chlorine. — Chloride  of  arse- 
nic may  be  formed  by  throwing  the  metal,  finely 
powdered  into  chlorine;  or  by  distilling  six  parts 
of  corrosive  sublimate  with  one  part  of  powdered 
arsenic.     In  this  way  the  substance  is  formed, 
which  used  to  be  called  butter  of  arsenic.     Wa- 
ter decomposes  the  chloride,  white  oxide  of  arse- 
nic or  arsenious  acid,  being  formed,  and  muriatic 
acid  at  the  same  time  produced. 

885.  Iodine  and  arsenic. — An  Iodide  is  obtained 
by  heating  the-metal  with  excess  of  iodine  ;  it  is 
of  a  deep  red  color,  is  volatile ;  and  this,  when 
acted  on  by  water,  affords  arsenic  and  hydriodic 
acids. 

886.  Arsenic    and  hydrogen.      (Ar&enureltd 
hydrogen  gas). — This  may  be  obtained   by  dis- 
solving tin  in  liquid  arsenic  acid,  or  by  adding  a 
portion  of  metallic  arsenic,  or  of  the  white  oxide 
to  that  mixture  of  zinc  filings,  with  dilute  sul- 
phuric  acid,  which  is  commonly  employed  to 
produce  hydrogen  ;    or  the  compound  may  be 
produced  by  presenting  arsenic  at  once  to  nas- 
cent hydrogen. 

887.  This  gas  (arsenureted  hydrogen),   is  a 
permanently  elastic  and  invisible  fluid  ;  it  has  a 
fetid  garlicky  smell,  it  extinguishes  a  taper,  and 
burns  when  ignited,  with  a  blue  flame ;  if  the  ig- 
nition be  in  oxygen  gas,  the  flame  is  exceedingly 
brilliant ;  during  its  burning  it  deposits  arsenic 
and  oxide  of  arsenic.     If  the  gas  be  detonated 
with  four  volumes  of  oxygen,  the  result  is  arse- 
nious acid  and  water.     A  very  strong  attraction 
appears  to  exist  between  hydrogen  and  arsenic. 
'  If  bubbles  of  chlorine  be  passed  up  into  a  jar 
of  arsenureted    hydrogen,   standing  over  warm 


434 


CHEMISTRY. 


water,  flame  and  explosion  are  often  produced, 
muriatic  acid  is  formed,  and  a  brown  hydru- 
ret  is  deposited;  but  if  the  gas  be  passed  in 
the  same  way  by  successive  bubbles  into  chlorine, 
no  inflammation  results,  absorption  takes  place, 
and  muriatic  acid  and  chloride  of  arsenic  are 
formed.  If  the  chlorine  be  not  very  pure,  and 
•when  the  gases  are  cold,  inflammation  seldom 
follows  their  mixture.'  Brande. 

888.  Arsenic  and  sulphur. — There  are  two  sul- 


tallic  chromates  may  be  formed  in  the  same  way, 
and  their  colors,  which  are  various  and  beautiful, 
often  enable  us  to  judge  of  the  nature  of  the 
metal  present.  This  chromate  of  soda  forms 
insoluble  precipitates  in  solution  of  silver,  mer- 
cury, lead,  copper,  iron,  and  uranium;  the  co- 
lors are  crimson,  red,  orange  or  yellow,  apple- 
green,  brown,  and  yellow.  It  forms  no  precipi- 
tate in  solutions  of  nickel,  zinc,  tin,  cobalt,  gold, 
or  platinum,  whence,  perhaps,  it  may  be  in- 


phurets  of  arsenic ;  one  a  red  compound,  which    ferred  that  the  chromates  of  the  latter  metals  are 


is  commonly  known  under  the  name  of  realgar, 
•which  is  found  native  in  some  parts  of  Germany 
and  Switzerland,  and  which  may  be  artificially 
K>rmed  by  heating  arsenic  and  sulphur  together. 
See  DYEING. 

889.  The  other  is  of  a  bright  yellow  color,  and 
is  named  orpiment.     This  is  also  met  with  na- 


soluble. 

897.  The  chromates  are  decomposed  by  mu- 
riatic, nitric,  and  sulphuric  acids.  Muriatic 
acid,  heated  with  the  chromates,  evolves  chlorine, 
the  chromic  acid  being  reduced  to  the  state  of 
oxide.  The  most  correct  details  respecting  the 
chromates  that  have  been  published,  are  to  be 


tive  in  Europe,  in  China,  and  in  South  America ;  it    found  in  Vauquelin's  Essay,  Annales  de  Chimie, 
may  be  obtained  by  dissolving  arsenic  in  muria-    70 
tic  acid,  and  adding  to  the  solution  hydrosulphuret 
of  ammonia.     It  is  used  in  calico  printing. 

890.  Salts  of  arsenic. — These  are  not  of  much 
importance;  'they  are  found  to  resemble  the 
phosphates  '  in  this,  as  in  other  respects,  that 
though  carefully  neutralised  when  in  solution, 
yet  when  concentrated  by  evaporation,  they  crys- 
tallise with  an  excess  of  base.' 

The  binarseniate  of  potassa  is  used  in  medi- 
cine. See  PHARMACY  and  MEDICINE. 


898.  The  green  oxide  of  chromium  is  occa- 
sionally used  in  porcelain  and  enamel  painting, 
and  the  artificial  chromate  of  lead  forms  a  rich 
and  durable  yellow. 

899.  The  remaining  compounds  of  chromium 
are  as  yet  unexamined. — Brande. 

MOLYBDENUM. 
900.    The    most    commonly    found    native 


CHROMIUM. 

891.  This  metal  was  discovered  in  1797,  by 
Vauquelin.  It  is  to  be  obtained  in  a  metallic  state 


form  of  this  metal  is  that  of  a  sulphuret,  which 
was  long  supposed  to  be  a  carburet  of  iron.  And, 
in  order  to  procure  the  metal  itself,  this  native 
sulphuret  is  to  be  exposed  to  a  red  heat  till  a 
gray  powder  is  formed,  which  is  to  be  dissolved 


by  heating  its  acidified  oxide  with  charcoal.  The    in   ammonia,   and  evaporated  to  dryness.    The 


color  of  chromium  resembles  iron, 
and  not  easily  fused. 


It  is  brittle, 


residuum  is  to  be  treated  with  nitric  acid,   and 
again  evaporated  to  dryness  ;  a  white  oxide  of 


obtained,  which  is  easily  soluble  in  acids. 

893.  This  protoxide  has  been  found  native  in 
France,  it  is  the  matter  which  gives  color  to  the 
emerald. 

894.  A  brown  deutoxide  of  the  metal  is  ob- 


892.  Chromium  and  oxygen. — When  the  metal  is    the  metal  is  thus  procured,  which  may  be  reduced 
subjected  to  heat  in  the  air,  a  green  protoxide  is    to  a  metallic  state  by  heating  it  violently  either 

with  charcoal  or  oil. 

901.  Molybdenum  is  of  a  whitish-yellow,  and 
internally  gray  color ;   it  is  exceedingly  difficult 
of  fusion  ;  it  appears  in  the  form  of  small  grains. 

902.  Molybdenum  and  oxygen. — The  metal  be- 
tainable  by  exposing  its  nitrate  to  a  red  heat,     comes  acidified  by  exposure  to  heat  and  oxygen; 
This  is  not  soluble  in  the  acids,  but  when  put  into    molybdic  and  molybdous  acids  being  formed  ac- 
muriatic  acid,  and  the  mixture  is  exposed  to  heat,    cording  to  the  quantity  of  combined  oxygen  ;  the 
there  is  an  evolution  of  chlorine,  and  a  muriate    first  is  a  white  crystalline  substance,  which  is 
is  formed.                                                                    converted  into  the  second   acid  by  mixing  with 

895.   The  protoxide  of  chromium,  or  chromic    two  parts  of  it  one  part  of  powdered  molybdenum, 
acid,  may  be  procured  with  most  facility  by  boil-    triturating  them  in  boiling  water,  filtering  and 
ing  the  lead  ore  of  the  metal  in  a  solution  of  po- 
tassa.    We  thus  form  an  orange  colored  solution, 
which  is  made  up  of  potassa  and  chromic  acid  ; 
then,  if  we  add  sulphuric  acid  and  evaporate, 
crystals  of  chromic  acid  will  make  their  appear- 
ance, in  connexion  with  the  sulphate  of  potassa. 


In  the  general  way  chromate  of  iron  is  made  use 
of,  in  conjunction  with  nitre,  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  the  acid,  this  being  a  more  common,  and 


therefore  a  cheaper  mineral  than  the  chromate  of    perties  of  these  salts. 


evaporating.  This  is  a  fine  blue  substance,  and 
is  more  soluble  in  water  than  the  molybdic  acid. 
Dr.  Thomson  states,  that,  besides  these  com- 
pounds of  oxygen  and  molybdenum,  a  dark 
brown  oxide  may  be  obtained  by  heating  the 
molybdic  acid  with  charcoal. 

903.  Salts  of  molybdenum. — Both  the  acids 
unite  with  bases,  and  form  saline  compounds, 
but  very  little  is  known  of  the  habits  and  pro- 


lead. 

896.  Salts,  Sfc.  of  chromium. — The  chromates 
of  ammonia,  potassa,  soda,  lime,  and  magnesia, 


TUNGSTEN. 
904.  The  substance,  which  is  vulgarly  called 


are  soluble  and  crystallisable,   and  of  an  orange  tungsten,  consists  of  the  tungsCic  acid  combined 

color.     The  chromates  of  baryta  and   strontia,  with  lime,  and  the  metal  tungsten  may  either  be 

are  difficultly  soluble,   and  may  be  formed  by  procured  from  this  substance,  or  from  the  material 

adding  chromate  of  potassa  or  soda  to  their  so-  called  wolfram,  which  is  composed  of  the  same 

luble  saline  compounds.  The  other  insoluble  me-  acid  in  union  with  iron  and  manganese      If  the 


CHEMISTRY. 


435 


former  substance  be  employed,  we  are  directed 
to  fuse  together  one  part  of  it  with  four  of  car- 
bonate of  potassa,  and  then  dissolve  the  mass  in 
twelve  parts  of  boiling  water:  add  to  this  nitric 
acid,  which  precipitates  tungstic  acid  by  uniting 
with  the  potassa.  The  metal  is  to  be  procured 
by  exposing  the  acid  to  charcoal  with  a  strong 
heat.  The  experiment,  it  is  said,  frequently  fails 
of  success. 

905.  Tungsten,  in  color,  resembles  iron ;  it  is 
brittle,  and  exceedingly  dense  and  hard ;  it  re- 
quires a  high  heat  for  fusion  ;  it  i?  oxidised  by 
the  combined  action   of  heat  and  air ;  its  first 
oxide  is  brown,  which  by  heat  is  converted  into 
the  peroxide  or  acid,  which  is  without  taste,  in- 
soluble in  water,  and,  by  being  exposed  to  very 
high  temperatures,  becomes  successively  green, 
yellow,  and  gray.     It  is  deficient  in  some  of  the 
properties  by  which  acids  are  usually  character- 
ised ;  and  on  this  account  Vauquelin  proposes  its 
being  classed  as  an  oxide. 

906.  It  is  considered  as  consisting  of  three 
proportionals  of  oxygen  and  one  of  metal.      It 
is  remarkable,  that  when  tuugstic  acid,  which  is 
not  free  from  a  fixed  alkali,  is  heated  in  contact 
with  hydrogen  gas,  the  product  is  not  oxide  of 
tungsten,  but  tungsten  in  a  completely  metallic 
state.     The  neutral  tungstate  of  soda  undergoes 
no  change  when  ignited  in  hydrogen  gas  ;  but 
the  acid  tungstate  of  that  base  is  converted  into 
a  compound  of  soda  and  oxide  of  tungsten,  which, 
when  a  portion  of  the  neutral  salt  is  washed  off 
by  water,  assumes  a  bright  gold  color,   and  is 
capable  of  crystallising  in   regular   cubes.      It 
consists  in  1 00  parts,  of  86'2  oxide  of  tungsten, 
4- 13'8  soda.     Wohler   believes   that  there  are 
three  chlorides  of  tungsten,  but  he  has  determined 
the  composition  of  two  only.     The  first  is  formed 
by  heating  the  black  oxide  of  tungsten  in  chlo- 
rine gas.     The  combination  takes  place  with  a 
disengagement  of  heat  and  light,  and  a  smoke 
arises,  which  is  condensed  into  scales  of  a  yellow- 
ish-white, resembling  native  boracic  acid.     By 
the  action  of  water  this  substance  is  converted 
into  muriatic  and  tungstic  acids.     It  is  therefore 
a   chloride   with  the    maximum   proportion   of 
chlorine.     The  second  chloride  is  formed  almost 
exclusively  when  we  heat  metallic   tungsten  in 
chlorine  gas ;  the  metal  burns,  and  the  chloride 
appears   either  in   fine  needles  of  a  deep  led 
color,  or  in  a  compact  fused  mass  of  the  same 
color,  and  having  nearly  the  brilliant  fracture  of 
cinnabar.     It  easily  melts,  and  enters  into  ebulli- 
tion   before  being  volatilised.     Its   composition 
seems  to  be  analogous  to  that  of  the  oxide ;  the 
chlorine  in  the  former  being  equivalent  to  the 
oxygen  in  the  latter.     Of  the  third  chloride  little 
is  known,  and  in  one  of  the  modes  of  its  pro- 
duction (viz.  by  the  action  of  chlorine  on  sul- 
phuret  of  tungsten)  it  is  probable  that  chloride 
of  sulphur  must  at  the  same  time  be  formed,  and 
be  mixed  with  the   resulting  compound. — Ann. 
deChim.et  de  Phys.  xxix.  43.     From  the   Ad- 
denda to  Henry's  Elements. 

907.  The  tungstates  are  as  yet  but  very  im- 
perfectly known. 

COLUMBIUM. 

908.  This  metal  was  first  discovered  by  Mr. 
Hatchctt,  in  a  mineral  belonging  to  the  British 


Museum,  and  supposed  to  have  been  brought 
from  Massachusetts  in  North  America;  an  ana- 
lagous,  and  according  to  Dr.  Wollaston's  inves- 
tigation absolutely  the  same,  metal,  was  discovered 
by  a  Swedish  chemist  of  the  name  of  Ekeberg,  in 
the  minerals  called  tantalite  and  yttro-tantalite, 
and  he  gave  the  name  of  tantalum  to  it. 

909.  Columbium  has   recently  been   reduced 
into  a  metallic  form  by  Berzelius,  by  treating  it 
with  charcoal ;  and  by  acting  with  potassium  on 
the  fluo-tantalate  of   potassa,  fluate  of  potassa 
becomes  formed,  and  the  tantalum  or  columbium 
is  revived.     It  is  described  as  of  a  dark  gray 
color,  of  an  irony   appearance,  having  metallic 
lustre  when  scratched  with  a  knife,  as  an  exceed- 
ingly bad  conductor  of  electricity,  and  as  being 
convertible  into  an  acid  when  strongly  heated. 

910.  This  acid,   the  columbic,  Mr.  Hatchett 
found  to  combine  very  readily  with  potassa.  The 
properties  of  columbium  remain  for  further  in- 
vestigation. 

SELENIUM.     (See  458) 
OSMIUM,  IRIDTUM,  AND  RHODIUM. 

911.  We  arrange  these  three  metals  under  one 
head,  because  they  are  all  found  in  the  ore  of 
platinum. 

912.  Osmium  and  Iridium  were   discovered 
by  Mr.  Tennant  in  1803  ;  and  in  the  same  year 
were  rhodium  and  palladium  discovered  by" Dr. 
Wollaston. 

913.  Osmium  is  to  be  separated  from  the  pla- 
tinum ore  by  digesting  the  ore  in  mtro-muriatic 
acid,  which  dissolves  the  greater  portion  of  it; 
the  black  powder  which   remains,  when  fused 
with  potassa  or  soda,  furnishes  a  brownish-yellow 
solution  of  oxide  of  osmium  alkalised.     Saturate 
the  alkali  with  a  mineral  acid,  and  distil,  and  a 
colorless  solution  of  the  oxide  of  osmium  passes 
from  the  retort  into  the  receiver,  which  has  a 
sweetish  taste,  and  a  smell  somewhat  resembling 
chlorine  gas.     Or  the  oxide  may  be  directly  ob- 
tained by  distilling   the  original   black  powder 
with  nitre  or  potassa. 

914.  When  this  oxide  is  shaken  with  mercury 
its  peculiar  smell  is  lost;  and  the  metal  combin- 
ing with  the  mercury  forms  an  amalgam,  which 
may  be  decomposed  by  distillation,  leaving  the 
osmium  in  a  metallic  form. 

915.  Osmium  becomes  oxidised  with  much  fa- 
cility; it  is  insoluble  in  the  acids,  but  soluble  in 
potassa ;    its  oxide,  as  above  remarked,   has  a 
very  peculiar  smell,  and  is  exceedingly  volatile. 
See  for  other  methods  of  extracting  osmium,  &c. 
from   the    ore  of  platinum,   Quarterly  Journal, 
xii.  247. 

916.  As  osmium  is  obtained  from  the  alkaline 
solution  of  the  black  powder  above  mentioned,  so 
is  indium  from  the  acid  solution  of  the  same  ma- 
terial, or  rather  from  that  part  of  it  which  the 
acids  take  up.     This  was  named  iridium,  from 
the  circumstance  of  the  solution  undergoing  se- 
veral changes  in  color. 

917.  Iridium  may  be  obtained  in   its  metallic 
state  by  immersing  a  plate  of  zinc  into  a  solution 
of  the  muriate  of  the  metal,  or  by  subjecting  to 
a  violent  heat  the  crystals  of  the  muriate.     It  Is 
of  a  whitish  color,  and  only  fusible  by  intent 
galvanic  influence. 

2  V2 


436 


CHEMISTRY. 


918.  Rhodium   may   be   obtained   from   the 
platinum  ore  by  the  following  process : — Digest 
it  in   a  small   quantity   of  nitro-muriatic  acid, 
when  the  solution  is  saturated,  pour  it  into  a  so- 
lution of  muriate  of  ammonia,  which  will  occa- 
sion a  precipitate  of  the  greater  proportion  of  the 
platinum.     Let  the  clear  liquor  be  decanted,  and 
a  plate  of  zinc  immersed  in  it,  which  will  thus 
become  coated  with  a  black  powder.     Let  this 
be  separated   from  the  zinc,  and  washed  with 
dilute  nitric  acid,  which  will  take  up  the  copper 
and  the   lead    contained  in  the  black  powder. 
Then  digest  the  remainder  in  dilute  nitro-muriatic 
acid,  to  which  add  a  small  quantity  of  muriate 
of  soda ;  now  evaporate  to  dryness,  and  let  the 
dry  mass  be  repeatedly  washed  with  alcohol ;  the 
alcohol  will  take  up  the   soda,  muriate  of  pla- 
tinum, palladium,  and  rhodium,  and  leave  a  red 
substance ;  which,  when  dissolved,  throws  down 
a  black  powder,  if  zinc  be  put  into  the  solution. 
This   may   be  strongly  heated   with  borax,  by 
which  process  the  substance  will  acquire  a  white 
metallic  lustre ;  and  this  metal  is  rhodium. 

919.  Rhodium  is  extremely  difficult  effusion; 
it  unites  with  the  other  metals  (all  that  have  been 
tried  with  it,  except  mercury,)   in  alloy.     The 
alloy  of  it  with  lead,  when  dissolved  in  nitro- 
muriatic  acid,  and  evaporated,  forms  an  insolu- 
ble chloride  ;  the  rose  color  of  which  originated 
the  name  of  the  metal. 

920.  Three  oxides  of  rhodium  have  been  de- 
scribed by  Berzelius,  the  protoxide,  the  deutoxide, 
and   the  peroxide ;  and  Dr.  Thomson's  experi- 
ments  have  led  to  the  verification  of  the  pro- 
toxide and  the  peroxide  ;  the  former  a  black,  the 
latter  a  yellow  substance. 

For  an  account  of  PALLADIUM,  see  642. 

URANIUM. 

921.  This  metal  may  be  obtained  from  the 
mineral  called  pechblende,  which  was  formerly 
considered  an  ore  of  zinc,  but  is  now  ascertained 
to  be  a  native  sulphuret  of  uranium.     The  mi- 
neral called  uranite,  contains  a  pretty  pure  oxide 
of  uranium  ;  but  it  is  scarce,  and  therefore  not 
employed  for  the  reduction  of  the  metal. 

922.  The  pechblende  is  to  be  finely  powdered 
and  digested  with  heat  in  nitro-muriatic  acid ; 
ammonia  in  excess  is  to  be  added,  the  precipitate 
to   be   collected,   washed,  and  dried  with  con- 
siderable heat.     By  subjecting  this  dried  mass  to 
a  very  high  temperature  with  charcoal,  metallic 
uranium  may  be  obtained. 

923.  Uranium   is  of  a  gray  or   liver-brown 
color,   it   is  brittle,   and   with   great    difficulty 
fused . 

924.  Uranium  with  oxygen. — A  protoxide  and 
peroxide  of  the  metal  have  been  described  ;  but 
iie  protoxides  have  so  strong  a  tendency  to  pass 
tito   the  state  of  peroxides  and  the  peroxides 
combine   with   other   combinations  of  oxygen, 
and  so  few  satisfactory  experiments  have  hitherto 
been  made  on  the  subject,  that  less  is  known 
respecting  it,  than  that  of  most  other  metals. 

925.  The  salts  too  of  uranium  from  the  same 
cause  are  subject  to  changes. 

TITANIUM. 

926.  Titanite,  and  menachanite  are  the  two 


minerals  from  which  titanium  is  obtained.  The 
first  is  an  almost  pure  oxide  of  the  metal  ;  and 
the  metal  may  be  procured  from  it  by  first  fusing 
it  with  double  its  weight  of  potassa ;  then  dis- 
solving the  fused  mass  in  muriatic  acid,  and 
adding  to  the  solution  oxalic  acid.  In  this  way 
a  pure  oxalate  of  the  metal  is  fonned,  which  is 
to  be  intensely  heated  with  charcoal,  for  its  re- 
duction to  the  metallic  state  ;  which  is  a  result, 
however,  obtained  with  some  difficulty,  and  the 
evidence  of  its  accomplishment  was  hardly 
satisfactory,  till  some  very  recent  observations  of 
Dr.  Wollaston  with  respect  to  the  existence  of 
the  metal  in  a  native  state. 

927.  Titanium  has  a  copper  color.     It  is  said 
to  be  capable  of  uniting  with  oxygen  in  two 
proportions,  the  one,  the  protoxide,  forming  a 
blue  compound,  while  the  peroxide  or  titanic 
acid  is  white. 

928.  It   has  been  stated  that  no  satisfactory 
compounds  exist,  '  in  which  titanium  can  be  con- 
sidered as  a  base.' 

929.  Chlorides,   however,   and  sulphurets  of 
the  metal  have  been  described. 

930.  '  The  solutions  of  titanium  are  colorless, 
and  afford  white  precipitates  with  the  alkalis  ; 
ferro-cyanate  of  potassa  gives  a  green  precipitate, 
and  infusion  of  galls  a  red  one.     Hydro-sulphu- 
ret  of  ammonia  occasions  a  green  precipitate.' 

T>  J 

Hranae. 

CERIUM. 

931.  Berzelius  and  Hisinger  first  obtained  the 
metal  from  a  mineral  which   has  been  named 
cerite,  on  account  of  the  metal  which  exists  in  it 
being   named    cerium,   from    having   been  dis- 
covered about  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the 
planet  Ceres.     This  metal  is  also  contained  in  & 
mineral  from  Greenland,   called  allanite,  from 
Mr.  Allan  of  Edinburgh  having  been  the  first 
to  recognise  it  as  a  peculiar  species. 

932.  Oxide  of  cerium  is  obtained  from  this 
ore,  by  reducing  the  ore  to  a  fine  powder,  calcin- 
ing it,  and  then  digesting  it  in  nitro-muriatic  acid. 
When  this  solution  has  been  filtered,  it  must  be 
saturated  by  potassa,  and  then  precipitated  by  tar- 
trate  of  potassa  or  oxalic  acid.     The  precipitate 
is  the  oxide  of  the  metal,  which,  however,  is  ex- 
ceedingly  difficult  of    reduction.      Vauquelin's 
attempts   succeeded  only  to  the    extent  of  ob- 
taining a   very  small    metallic   globule.      This 
globule  was  slowly  dissolved  even  in  nitro-mu- 
riatic acid. 

933.  Cerium  has  been  found  to  combine  with 
oxygen  in  two  proportions.     The  protoxide  is  a 
white  compound,  and  the  peroxide  is  of  a  red- 
dish-brown color. 

934.  Salts  of  cerium. — The  sulphuric  and  the 
muriatic  acids  dissolve  the  peroxide,  and  produce 
yellow  or   orange  colored  crystals.     Sulphuric 
acid  also  acts  on  the  protoxide,  and  gives  crys- 
tals which  are  white,  and  have  a  saccharine  taste. 

POTASSIUM. 

935.  The  reader  will  have  observed  that  in 
very  many  cases,  especially  when  the  subject  to 
be  treated  of  has  involved  the  consideration  oi 
novel  doctrines  and   principles,    we  have  pre- 
ferred announcing  those  principles  in  the  lan- 
guage of  able  and  experienced  chemists,  to  making 


C  II  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y. 


437 


use  of  our  own  words :  in  conformity  with  this 
rule  we  shall  in  the  present  instance  extract  ver- 
batim from  Dr.  Henry,  the  account  which  he 
gives  of  the  discovery  of  the  material  now  to  be 
noticed. 

936.  This  metal,  says  Dr.  Henry,  was  dis- 
covered by  Sir  H .  Davy  in  1 807,  and  was  obtained 
from  a  substance  which  will  be  described  in  this 
section,   under   the  name  of  potassa.     To  this 
discovery,  and  many  others  of  a  similar  kind,  that 
distinguished   philosopher  was  led  by  a  train  of 
inductive  reasoning,  which  is  not  surpassed  by 
any  investigation  in  the  history  of  the  physical 
sciences. 

937.  From  the  facts  which  have  been  stated 
in   a  former  section,  respecting  the  powers  of 
electrical   decomposition,    it  appeared  to  be  a 
natural  inference,  that  the  same  powers,  applied 
in  a  state  of  the  highest  possible  intensity,  might 
disunite  the  elements  of  some  bodies  which  had 
resisted   all    other   instruments  of  analysis.     If 
potassa,  for  example,  were  an  oxide  composed  of 
oxygen,  united  to  an  inflammable  base,  it  seemed 
probable,  that,  when  subjected  to  the  action  of 
opposite  electricities,  the  oxygen  would  be  at- 
tracted by  the  positive  wire,   and   repelled  by 
the  negative.     At  the  same  time  the  reverse  pro- 
cess might  be  expected  to  take  place,  with  res- 
pect to  the  combustible  base,  the  appearance  of 
which  might  be  looked  for  at  the  negative  pole. 

938.  In  his  first  experiments  suggested  by  these 
views,  Sir  H.  Davy  failed  to  effect  the  decom- 
position of  potassa,  owing  to  his  employing  the 
alkali  in  a  state  of  aqueous  solution,  and  to  the 
consequent  expenditure  of  the  electrical  energy 
in   the  mere  decomposition  of  water.     In   his 
next  trials  the  alkali  was  liquefied  by  heat  in  a  pla- 
tinum dish,  the  outer  surface  of  which,  immediately 
under  the  alkali,  was  connected  with  the  zinc  or 
positive  end  of  a  battery,  consisting  of  100  pairs 
of  plates,   each  six  inches  square.     In  this  state 
the  potassa  was  touched  with  a  platinum  wire, 
proceeding  from  the  copper  or  negative  end   of 
the  battery ;  when  instantly  a  most  intense  light 
was  exhibited  at  the  negative  wire,  and  a  column 
of  flame  arose  from  the  point  of  contact,  evidently 
owing  to  the  development  of  combustible   mat- 
ter.    The  results  of  the  experiment  could  not, 
however,  be  collected,   but  were  consumed  im- 
mediately on  being  formed 

939.  The  chief  difficulty  in  subjecting  potassa 
to  electrical  action  is,  that  in  a  perfectly  dry 
state  it  is  a  complete  non-conductor  of  electricity. 
\Vhen   rendered,  however,  in  the  least  degree 
moist  by  breathing  on  it,   it  readily   undergoes 
fusion  and  decomposition,  by  the  application  of 
strong   electrical  powers.     For  this  purpose  a 
piece  of  potassa  weighing  from  sixty  to  seventy 
grains,  may  be  placed  on  a  small  insulated  plate 
of  platinum,  and  may  be  connected,  in  the  way 
already  described,  with  the  opposite  end  of  a 
powerful  electrical  battery,  containing  not  less 
than   100  pairs  of  six  inch  plates.     On  estab- 
lishing the  connexion,  the  potas  -a  will  fuse  at 
both  places,  where  it  is  in  contact  with  the  plati- 
num.    A  violent  effervescence  wil»  be  seen  at  the 
upper  surface,  arising,  as  Sir  H.  Davy  has  ascer- 
tained, from  the  escape  of  oxygen  gas.     At  the 
lower  or  negative  surface,  no  gas  will  be  libera- 


ted ;  but  small  bubbles  will  appear,  having  a 
high  metallic  lustre,  and  being  precisely  similar 
in  visible  characters  to  quicksilver.  Some  of 
these  globules  burn  with  an  explosion  and  bright 
flame,  while  others  are  merely  tarnished,  and  are 
protected  from  farther  change  by  a  white  film 
which  forms  on  their  surface. 

940.  This  production  of  metallic  globules  is 
entirely  independent  of  the  action  of  the  atmos- 
phere ;  for  Sir  II.  Davy  found  that  they  may  be 
produced  in  vacuo. 

941. -To  preserve  this  new  substance,  it  is 
necessary  to  immerse  it  immediately  in  pure  naph- 
tha. If  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  it  is  rapidly 
converted  back  again  into  the  state  of  pure 
potassa.  To  prevent  its  oxidation  still  more 
effectually,  Mr.  Pepys  has  proposed  to  produce 
it  under  naphtha;  and  has  contrived  an  ingenious 
apparatus  for  this  purpose,  which  is  described  in 
the  31st  volume  of  the  Philosophical  Magazine, 
p.  241. 

942.  Nothing  then  can  be  more  satisfactory 
than  the  evidence  furnished  by  these  experiments 
of  the  nature  of  one  of  the  fixed  alkalis.     By  the 
powerful  agency  of  opposite  electricities,  it  is 
resolved  into  oxygen  and  a  peculiar  base.     This 
base,  like  other  combustible  bodies,  is  repelled  by 
positively  electrified  surfaces    and  attracted  by 
negative  ones ;  and  hence  its  own  natural  state 
of  electricity  must  necessarily  be  positive.  Again, 
by  uniting  with  oxygen,  it  is  once  more  changed 
into  alkali,  either  slowly  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
or  with  heat  and  light  at  high  temperatures.  We 
have  the  evidence  therefore  both  of  analysis  and 
synthesis,  that  potassa  is  a  compound  of  oxygen 
with  a  peculiar  inflammable  base. 

943.  In  assigning  to   this  newly   discovered 
substance  a  fit  place  among  the  objects  of  che- 
mistry,  Sir  II.   Davy  was  induced  to  class  it 
among  the  metals,  because  it  agrees  with  them 
in  opacity,  lustre,  malleability,  conducting  pow- 
ers as  to  heat  and  electricity,  and  its  qualities  of 
chemical  combination.   The  only  property  which 
can  be  urged  against  this  arrangement  is  its  ex- 
treme levity,  which  even  exceeds  that  of  water. 
But,  when  we  compare  the  differences  which  ex- 
ist among  the  metals  themselves,  this  will  scarcely 
be  considered  as  a  valid  objection.     Tellurium, 
for  example,  which  no  chemist  hesitates  to  con- 
sider as  a  metal,  is  only  about  six  times  heavier 
than  the  base  of  potassa,  while  it  is  four  times 
lighter  than   platinum ;  thus  forming  a  sort  of 
link  between  the  old  metals  and  the  bases  of  the 
alkalis. 

944.  In  giving  names  therefore  to  the  alkaline 
bases,  Sir  H.  Davy  has  adopted  that  termination 
which  by  common  consent  has  been  applied  to 
other  newly  discovered  metals,  and  which,  though 
originally  Latin,  is  now  naturalised  in  our  lan- 
guage.    The  base  of  potassa  he  has  called  potas- 
sium, and  the  base  of  soda,  sodium ;  and  these 
names  have  met  with  universal  acceptation  among 
chemical  philosophers.     Henry. 

945.  The  decomposition  of  the  alkalis  has 
however  been  effected  by  other  means  than  elec- 
trical agency.     Gay  Lussac  and  Thenard,  soon 
after  the  announcement  of  Sir  H.  Davy's  disco- 
veries,  set  about  decomposing  both  the   fixed 
alkalis  by  bringing  them  into  contact  with  in- 


438 


CHEMISTRY. 


tensely  heated  iron,  which  substance  at  a  very 
high  temperature  attracts  oxygen  from  the  alkalis 
with  more  force  than  the  base  otherwise  retains 
it ;  and  Mr.  Brunnerhas  subsequently  found  that 
the  decomposition  of  the  alkali  is  effected  with 
much  more  facility  by  the  employment  of  char- 
coal along  with  the  iron.  See  Thenard's  Traite 
de  Chimie,  and  Quarterly  Journal,  xv.  279. 

946.  Potassium  is  a  white  metal,  existing  in 
small  globules  like  quicksilver,  at  70°.    At  150° 
it  is  perfectly  fused,  and  at  32°  it  is  a  hard  and 
brittle  solid,  and  at  50°  it  is  soft  and  malleable, 
having  the  appearance  of  silver.     It  is  a  perfect 
conductor  of  electricity  and  heat. 

947.  Potassium  and  oxygen. — This  metal  at- 
tracts oxygen  even  at  the  common  temperature 
of  the  atmosphere ;   and  when  it  is  thrown  into 
water  it  instantly  inflames,  attracting  the  oxygen 
of  the  water,  it  becomes  an  oxide,  which  is  dis- 
solved, and  hydrogen  gas  is  evolved.     It  is  sus- 
ceptible, however,  of  different  degrees  of  oxi- 
disement.     If  it  be  heated  either  in  common  air 
or  oxygen  gas  below  the  point  necessary  for  its 
inflammation,  or  merely  confined  for  a  few  days 
in  a  phial  loosely  corked,  a  grayish  substance  is 
formed,  which  appears  to  be  a  mixture  of  pro- 
toxide of  the  metal  with  the  metal  itself. 

948.  The  protoxide  of  potassium  is  best  obtained 
by  treating  the  metal  as  above  stated  with  water, 
and  a  peroxide  of  the  metal  is  obtained  by  pas- 
sing oxygen  over  potassa  heated  to  redness,  or 
heating  potassium  itself  in  a  considerable  excess 
of  oxygen.     This  peroxide  of  potassium  is  of 
an  orange  color,  when  put  into  water  it  effer- 
vesces, oxygen  gas  being  given  off,  and  a  solution 
of  the  hydrated  protoxide  obtained. 

949.  This  hydrated  pro'toxide,  or  hydrate  of 
potassa,  or  caustic  potash,  may  be  procured  by  de- 
composing the   carbonate  of  potassa  by  lime. 
This  is  the  potassa  fusa  of  the  Pharmacopoeia, 
and  is  used  by  surgeons  as  a  caustic.     When 
purified,  hydrate  of  potassa  is  white,  exceedingly 
acrid  and  corrosive  ;  it  rapidly  absorbs  moisture 
and   carbonic  acid  from  the  air;  it  neutralises 
acids,  has  a  saponaceous  feel,  renders  oil  miscible 
with  water,  and  proves  a  solvent  to  resins.     It 
was  formerly  called  vegetable  alkali. 

950.  Potassium  and  chlorine. — Chlorine  acts 
with  much  energy  upon  potassium,  and  by  the 
mixture  a  white  compound  is  formed,  which  has 
been   named  muriate  of  potassa,  but  which  is 
properly  a  chloride  of  potassium.     This  com- 
pound is  likewise  formed  by  heating  potassium 
in  gaseous  muriatic  acid,  the  gas  being  in  this 
case    converted    into   chlorine,   which   directly 
attaches  itself  to  the  potassium,  and  hydrogen  is 
evolved.     This  compound  is  stated  to  dissolve 
without  decomposition  in  three  parts  of  water  at 
68°.     The  crystals  which  it  -forms  are  cubical ; 
they  have  a  saline  and  hitter  taste  ;  and  do  not 
undergo  much  change  when  exposed  to  the  air. 
The  salt  was  at  one  time  known  under  the  name 
of  salt  of  silvius ;   it  has  likewise  been  called 
regenerated  sea-salt. 

951.  Iodine  and  potassium. — Iodine  also  acts 
on  potassium  with  much  energy.     If  they  are 
heated  together,  iodine  being  in  excess,  a  light  of 
a  purplish  tinge  is  seen  to  issue  from  the  combi- 
nation at  the  moment  of  Us  forming.    The  com- 


pound is  white,  fusible,  and  crystalline.  It  de- 
composes water,  and  forms  an  hydriodate  of 
potassa,  which  again  if  exposed  to  heat  gives  out 
its  water,  and  becomes  reconverted  into  iodide  of 
potassium. 

952.  Hydrogen    and    potassium. — Potassium 
heated  in  hydrogen  produces  a  hydruret,  which 
is  of  a  gray  color,  not  fusible,  and  without  me- 
tallic lustre.   It  is  inflammable,  and  burns  vividly 
when  exposed  to  a  high  temperature ;  and  it  may 
be  reduced  to  the  state  of  potassium,  by  heating 
it  very  strongly  in  a  close  vessel,  so  as  to  liberate 
its  hydrogen  in  a  state  of  gas.     Heated -mercury 
will  likewise  liberate  the  hydrogen  from  this  com- 
pound, and  produce  an  amalgam  of  the  mercury 
with  potassium. 

953.  Sulphur  and  potassium. — If  potassium  be 
fused  with  sulphur,  a  gray  sulphuret  of  the  me- 
tal is  produced,  heat  and  light  being  evolved 
from  the  combination.   This  compound  gives  out 
sulphureted  hydrogen,  when  acted  upon  by  water 
or  diluted  acids. 

954.  Phosphuret    and   potassium. — A    phos- 
phuret  of  potassium  may  be  produced  by  fusing 
these   substances   together.     The  color  of   this 
compound  is  leaden  ;    but  there  is  another  com- 
pound of  the  same  materials  of  a  chocolate  color; 
so  that  it  is  probable  these  two  bodies  (potassium 
and  phosphorus)  unite  in  different  proportions, 
the   lead-colored  compound  consisting   of  two 
atoms   of  metal   +    1  of  phosphorus;  and  the 
chocolate  of  one  atom  of  metal  +  1  of  phos- 
phorus. 

Salts  of  Potassa.  ( 

955.  Sulphate  of  potassa. — Several   chemical 
operations  give  this  salt  as  one  of  their  results. 
It  may  be  formed  in  the  direct  way  by  mixing 
sulphuric  acid  and  potassa,  and  crystallising  the 
solution. 

956.  The  taste  of  this  salt  is  bitter ;  it  fuses 
and  eventually  volatilises  by  a  strong  heat;  it 
dissolves  in  sixteen  parts  of  water  at  60°,  and 
five  of  boiling  water.     At  high  temperatures  it  is 
decomposed  by   charcoal,  and  becomes  a  sul- 
phuret, but  it   is  not   thus  decomposed  when 
treated  with  sulphur. 

957.  Super-sulphate,  or  bi-sulphate  of  potassa. 
— This  may  be  formed  by  boiling  the  sulphate 
with  sulphuric  acid,   or   by  dissolving  in   hot 
water  the  remains  of  the  distillation  of  nitric 
acid  from  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  nitrate 
of  potass.      This  salt  contains  twice  as  much 
acid  as  the  sulphate ;  it  has  an  exceedingly  sour 
taste,  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  and  acts  power- 
fully on  vegetable  blues.     It  was  formerly  called 
arcanum  duplicatum. 

958.  Nitrate  of  potassa. — This  salt,  which  is 
commonly  known  under  the  name  of  nitre  or 
saltpetre,  is  principally  imported  for  commercial 
purposes  from  the   East  Indies.     The  nitre  ot 
commerce  is,  however,  exceedingly  impure ;  be- 
ing frequently  mixed  with  a  very  large  propor- 
tion of  common  salt,  by  which  indeed  it  becomes 
partially  decomposed. 

959.  It  may  be  obtained  directly  by  saturating 
nitric  acid  with  potassa,   and  crystallising  the 
solution. 

960.  In  Franc*  and  Germany  it  is  artificially 


C  H  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y 


439 


produced  upon  a  very  large  scale,  and  in  what 
are  termed  beds  of  nitre.  The  process  consists 
in  lixiviating  old  plaster  rubbish.  When  animal 
and  vegetable  putrifaction  go  on  in  contact  with 
soils  which  are  calcareous,  a  nitrate  of  lime  be- 
comes abundantly  formed,  and,  from  this,  nitre 
is  obtained  by  treating  it  with  carbonate  of 
potassa.  See  Thenard's  Traite  de  Chimie 
Elementairte,  for  a  full  account  of  the  French  pro- 
cess for  producing  nitre. 

961.  Nitre  forms  in  six-sided  prismatic  crys- 
tals ;  it  is  soluble  in  seven  times  its  weight  of 
water  at  60°,  and  water  at  212°  takes  up  its  own 
weight.     The  addition  of  common  salt  makes  it 
much  more  soluble.     Nitre  fuses  by  the  appli- 
cation of  a  moderate  heat,  and  forms  what  is 
called  sal-prunelle,.  which  is  moulded  into  cakes 
for  sale.     At  a  red  heat  nitre  is  decomposed,  and 
this  decomposition  is  materially  assisted  by  a 
mixture  of  charcoal,  to  which  it  gives  its  oxygen, 
and  the   results  are  carbonic  oxide  and    acid, 
nitrogen  and  sub-carbonate  of  potassa. 

962.  Nitre,  by  being  subjected  to  such  a  de- 
gree of  heat  as  to  disengage   a  portion  of  its 
oxygen,  is  converted  into  a  nitrite. 

963.  Sulphur  decomposes  nitre,  and  occasions 
different  compounds,  according  to  the  propor- 
tion of  the  ingredients,  and  the  mode  of  admix- 
ture. 

964.  The  compound  called  fulminating  pow- 
der is  formed  of  three  parts  of  nitre,  two  of  salt 
of  tartar,  and  one  of  sulphur.     This  composition 
violently   explodes   when  thrown  on  a  heated 
iron,  owing  to  the  rapid  action  of  the  sulphur 
upon  the  nitre.  , 

965.  Gunpowder  is  composed  of  one  part  of 
sulphur,  one  of  powdered  charcoal,  and  five  of 
nitre,  or  of  different  proportions  of  the  last  in- 
gredient, according  as  rapidity  and  force  of  ex- 
plosion are  required,  the  nitre  being  in  the  largest 
quantity   in  that  powder  which  is  required  to 
explode  quickly,   as  in  the    shooting   powder. 
The   ingredients   are   all   separately  powdered, 
then  rubbed  and  beaten  together  with  moisture 
into  a  cake,   which  is  afterwards    broken    up, 
granulated,  and  dried  very  cautiously. 

966.  The  action  of  the  combustible  materials 
upon  the  nitre,  induced  by  augmented  temper- 
ature, or  by  a  spark,  occasions  the  immediate 
production  .of  gaseous  matter,  and  hence  the  ex- 
plosion of  gunpowder.      Carbonic  oxide,  car- 
bonic acid,  nitrogen  and  sulphurous  acid,  are 
the  principal  gaseous  results,  and  the  solid  residue 
consists  of  sub-carbonate,  sulphate,  andsulphuret 
of  potassa  and  charcoal. 

967.  Carbonate  of  potassa.—  This  is  a  salt  of 
much  importance.     It  has  been  called  salt  of 
tartar,  potash,  pearl-ash,  &c.  accordingly   as  it 
may  have  been  procured,  or  according  to  the 
degree  of  purity  in  which  it  is  met  with. 

968.  Potassa,  in  solution,  easily  attracts  car- 
bonic acid,  and  the  salt  may  be  obtained  by 
directly  exposing  a  solution  of  potassa  to  the 
gas  ;  a  solution  of  potassa  which  has  condensed 
all  the  carbonic  acid  it  is  capable  of  absorbing, 
when  evaporated  to  dryness,affords  sub-carbonate, 
or  more  properly  carbonate  of  potassa.     Sub-car- 
bonate is  the  name  under  which  it  has  been  re- 
ceived into  the  Pharmacopoeia.     See  PHARMACY. 


969.  Carbonate  of  potassa  may  also  be  ob- 
tained by  calcining  the  bi-tartrate  of  potassa,  or 
tartar,  as  it  is  vulgarly  called  ;  hence  the  name 
salt  of  tartar. 

970.  Carbonate  of  potassa   is  a  very  deli- 
quescent salt ;  it  has  an  alkaline  taste,  and  it 
renders  blue  infusions  of  vegetables  green. 

971.  It  has  the  susceptibility  of  a  surcharge 
of  carbonic   acid ;  and  this  may  be  effected*by 
passing  a  current  of  carbonic  -acid  into  a  solution 
of  the  carbonate.     This  solution  being  slowly 
evaporated,    affords  crystals  which  are  not   so 
alkaline  in  their  taste  as  the  carbonate.     They 
are  properly  a  bi-carbonate,  the  quantity  of  car- 
bonic acid  being  double  that  of  the  carbonate. 

972.  Chlorate  of  potassa. —  This  salt  maybe 
formed  either  by  passing  chlorine  gas  through  a 
solution  of  potassa,  or  by  directly  mixing  liquid 
chloric  acid  with  the  solution  of  this  salt.     The 
solution  is  to  be  put  on  one  side,  in  a  place  ex- 
cluded from  light  and  heat  for  about  twenty-four 
hours,  and  the  chlorate  will  form  crystals. 

973.  Chlorate  of  potassa  has  a  sharp  cool 
taste  ;  it  gives  out  a  phosphorescent  light  when 
triturated   in  the  dark ;  it  requires  for  solution 
seventeen  parts  of  cold,  and  two  and  a  half  of 
boiling  water.     It  yields  oxygen  gas  after  fusion, 
when  exposed  to  a  high  temperature.     It  acts 
with  energy  upon  many  inflammable  bodies,  and 
an  explosion  is  caused  by  triturating  it  with 
sulphur,  phosphorus,    and    charcoal.       It   has 
indeed  been  proposed  as  a  substitute  for  nitre 
in  gunpowder,   but  the  facility  with  which  it 
detonates  when  treated  with  inflammable  sub- 
stances, constitutes  an  objection  to  its  employ- 
ment for  this  purpose. 

974.  Perchlorale  of  potassa.    (Oxy  chlorate). 
This  may  be  produced  by  mixing  one  part  of 
the  chlorate  with  three  of  sulphuric  acid  ;  and 
exposing  the  mixture  to  a  gradual  heat,  till  the 
compound  turns  white.     In  this  way  is  formed 
a  mixture  of  bi-chlorate  and  per-chlorate,  which 
may  be  separated  by  solution  and  crystallisation, 
since  the  bi-chlorate  is  much  more  soluble  than 
the  perchlorate. 

975.  This   salt  does    not  change    vegetable 
colors ;    for  its  solution  it  requires  more  than 
fifty  times  its  weight  of  cold  water.     When  sub- 
jected to  the  temperature -of  412°,  it  gives  out 
oxygen,  and  chloride  of  potassium  remains. 

976.  lodateand  hydriodate  of  potassa. — These 
salts  are  both  formed  by  putting  iodine  in  a  so- 
lution of   potassa;    the  iodate  is  soluble  with 
difficulty,  while  the  hydriodate  is  very  soluble  ; 
the  latter  may  be  separated  from  the  former  by 
means  of  alcohol ;  the  iodate  remaining  in  small 
white  crystals. 

977.  Phosphate  of  potassa. — This  salt  may  be 
obtained  by  mixing  phosphoric  acid  with  a  so- 
lution  of  carbonate  of  potassa  to  the  point  of 
neutralisation.     The    solution    being    carefully 
evaporated,   must  then  be   put  aside  for  some 
days  for  crystals  to  form. 

978.  The  sub-phosphate  is  procured  by  fusing 
together,  in  a  platinum  crucible,  the  phosphate 
and  hydrate  of  potassa.    A  super  or  bi-phosphate 
is  formed  by  dissolving  the  phosphate  in  phos- 
phoric acid. 

979.  There  are  likewise  phosphites  of  potassa. 


440 


CHEMISTRY. 


980.  Borate  of  potassa  may  be  procured  by 
subjecting  a  mixture  of  boracic  acid  and  nitrate 
of  potassa  to  a  bright  red  heat ;  or  it  may  be  ob- 
tained by  a  mixture  of  boracic  acid  with  potassa. 

981.  Fluoric  acid  unites  with  potassa,  and 
.forms  two  distinct  compounds,  viz.  the  acid  or 
bi-fluate,  and  the  neutral  fluate.     And  hydro- 
cyanate  of  potassa  may  be  formed  by  mixing  to- 
gether hydro-cyanic  acid,  and  hydrate  of  potassa. 
This  salt  becomes  a  cyanide  of  potassa  by  cal- 
cination.     The  ferro-cyanate,  which   was   for- 
merly   called  triple   prussiate,  is  obtained    by 
digesting  the  hydro-cyanite  of  potassa  in  a  liquid 
state  with  the  protoxide  of  iron  ;  or  by  digesting 
the  ferro-cyanate  of  iron  with  the  liquid  hydrate 
of  potassa.     This  curious  compound  is  regarded 
by  Berzelius  rather  as  a  cyanide  than  a  hydro- 
cyanate,  and  '  this  cyanide,  in  common  with  all 
those   in  which   the  metal    is  strongly  electro- 
positive, as  those  of  sodium,  barium,  &c.   he 
believes  to  continue  such,  ev"en  after  solution  in 
water ;  while  the  cyanides  with  weaker  bases,  such 
as  those  of  ammonia,  and  many  of  the  metallic 
oxides,  become  on  the  contrary,  hydro-cyanates.' 

982.  Potassa  and  sulphur. — When  these  two 
substances  are  fused  together,  a  red  sulphuret  of 
potassa  is  produced,   formerly  called    liver  of 
sulphur,     This  is  a  compound  which  is  exceed- 
ingly soluble  in  water,  and  the  solution  becomes 
a  hydro-sulphuret.     '  The  action  of  sulphuret  of 
potassa  on  water,  says  Mr.  Brande,  is  complicated, 
and   has   been  variously  explained.     By  some 
this  is  considered  as  a  compound  of  potassium 
and  sulphur,  in  which  case,  when  acted  upon  by 
water,  hydrogen  is  imparted  to  the  sulphur  and 
oxygen    to  the  potassium,  and  a  sulphuret  of 
potassa,  with  excess  of  sulphur  (or  sulphureted 
sulphuret  of  potassa)  is  formed.     If  we  consider 
the  sulphuret  as  consisting  of  potassa  and  sul- 
phur, then  the  oxygen,  as  well  as  the  hydrogen, 
of  the  water  must  be  transferred  to  the  sulphur, 
and  sulphuric  and  sulphurous  acid,  and  sulphu- 
reted  hydrogen  would  be  formed.     And  gene- 
rally, when  the  solutions  of  the  livers  of  sulphur 
are  examined,  sulphate  and  sulphite  of  the  alkali 
are  found.     On  the  whole,  however,  it  appears 
most  probable,  that  when  sulphur  and  the  al- 
kalis are  fused  together  at  a  high  temperature, 
the  latter  undergo  decomposition,  and  that  sul- 
phurets  of  their  metallic  bases  are  actually  formed.' 
Vauqudin.  Ann.de  Chim. 

983.  The  hydro-sulphuret  may  be  converted 
into  a  hypo-sulphite,  by  adding  to  it  sulphurous 
acid  ;  and  a  sulphite  is  produced  by  subjecting 
a  solution  of  potassa,  in  its  carbonated  state,  to 
the  action  likewise  of  sulphurous  acid. 

984.  Compounds   of  potassium    with  metals: 
(extracted  from  Dr.  Henry's  Elements).      With 
mercury  potassium  gives  some  extraordinary  and 
beautiful  results.    The  combination  is  very  rapid, 
and  is  effected  by  merely  bringing  the  two  metals 
into  contact  at  the  temperature  of  the  atmos- 
phere.    The  amalgam  in  which  the  potassium  is 
in  the  least  proportion  seems  to  consist  of  about 
1  part  in  the  weight  of  basis,  and  76  of  mercury. 
It  is  very  soft  and  malleable,  but,  by  increasing 
the  proportion  of  potassium,  we  augment  in  a 
proportional  degree  the  solidity  and  brittleness  of 
the  compound. 


985.  The  compound  of  mercury  and  potassium 
may  be  obtained  by  an  easy  and  simple  process, 
first  pointed  out  by  Berzelius.     Mercury,  to  the 
depth  of  a  line,  is  put  into  a  glass  capsule  two 
inches  in  diameter,  with  a  flat  bottom.     On  this 
a  solution  of  pure  potassa  is  poured ;  an  iron  wire 
connects  the  mercury  with  the  negative  pole  of 
a  galvanic  arrangement,  which  need  not  contain 
more  than  20  pairs  of  plates;  and  a  spiral  pla- 
tina  wire  from  the  positive  pole  is  immersed  in  the 
solution,  and  kept  within  about  a  line  from  the 
surface  of  the  mercury.      In  six  hours  the  effect 
is  observable,  and  in  twenty-four  is  very  distinct ; 
for  in  that  time  more  than  1200  grains  of  mer- 
cury will  be  rendered  solid  by  combination  with 
potassium.       Unfortunately    this    combination 
cannot  be  so  decomposed  as  to  obtain  the  potas- 
sium in  a  separate  state. 

986.  In  this  state  of  division  potassium  ap- 
pears to  have  its  affinity  for  oxygen  considerably 
increased.     By  a  few  minutes  exposure  to  the 
air,  potassa  is  formed,  which  deliquiates,  and  the 
mercury  is  left  pure  and  unaltered.     When  a 
globule  is  thrown  into  water  it  produces  a  rapid 
decomposition  and  a  hissing  noise,  potassa  is  re- 
generated, pure  hydrogen  disengaged,  and   the 
mercury  remains  free. 

987.  The  fluid   amalgam  of  potassium  and 
mercury  dissolves  all  the  metals ;  and  in  this  state 
of  union  mercury  even  acquires  the  power  of  ac- 
ting on  platina. 

988.  Potassium  unites  also  with  gold,  silver, 
and  copper;  and  when  the  compounds  are  thrown 
into  water,  this  fluid  is  decomposed,  potassa  is 
formed,  and  the  metals  are  separated  unaltered. 
When  the  reduction  of  an  ore  has  been  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  fluxes  containing  potassa, 
M.  Vauquelin  has  shown  that  the  revived  metal 
contains  a  greater  or  less  proportion  of  potassium, 
which  modifies  its  properties.     By  exposure  to 
the  air,  or  by  the  action  of  water,  this  impurity 
may  be  removed. 

989.  Potassium  reduces  all  the  metallic  oxides 
when  heated  with  them,  even  of  those  metals 
which  most  powerfully  attract  oxygen,  such  as 
oxides  of  iron.     In  consequence  of  this  property, 
it   decomposes   and    corrodes   flint,  and   green 
glass  by  a  very  gentle  heat ;  potassa  is  generated 
with   the  oxygen  taken  from  the  metal,  which 
dissolves  the  glass,  and  exposes  a  new  surface.  At 
a  red  heat  even  the  purest  glass  formed  merely  of 
potassa  and  silica  is  acted  upon.      The  alkali  in 
the  glass  seems  to  give  up  a  part  of  its  oxygen 
to  the  potassium,  and  an  oxide  of  potassium  re- 
sults, with  a  less  proportion  of  oxygen  than  is 
necessary  to  constitute  potassa.     The  silica  also 
it  is  probable  is  partly  deoxidised. 

SODIUM. 

990.  By  a  process  similar  to  that  which  pro- 
cured potassium  from  potassa,  Sir  H.  Davy  ob- 
tained from  soda  the  metal  now  to  be  noticed. 
In  the  chemical  characters  of  this  last  metal  there 
is  also  a  considerable  resemblance  to  potassium ; 
it  is  soft  and  malleable ;  in  color  it  resembles  lead, 
when  heated  in  contact  with  air  it  rapidly  oxidi- 
ses, and  when  thrown  into  water  it  combines 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  fluid,  and  causes  hydrogen 
to  be  evolved  with  violent  effervescence. 


CHEMISTRY. 


44  i 


991.  Sodium  and  oxygen. — The  well  known 
substance  called  soda  is  a  protoxide  of  sodium. 
It  may  be  obtained  by  burning  sodium  in  air 
containing  just  enough  of  oxygen  to  change  the 
metal  into  an  alkali.      In  the  experiment  also 
just  alluded  to,  of  throwing  sodium  into  water,  a 
solution   of  soda  is  obtained.     The  substance, 
however,  is  commonly   formed   in  an   artificial 
manner  by  subjecting  its  carbonate  to  the  action 
of  lime. 

992.  A  peroxide  of  the  metal  may  be  procured 
by  burning  it  with  an  excess  of  oxygen.     This 
substance  is  of  an  orange  color ;   it  may  be  con- 
verted into  soda  by  the  action  of  water,  its  excess 
of  oxygen  escaping,  and  thus  leaving  a  solution 
of  the  protoxide. 

993.  Sodium   and  chlorine. —  Sodium   when 
heated  in  chlorine  produces  a  white  compound, 
with  a  penetrating  taste,  which  is  a  chloride  of 
sodium,  or  in  other  words  common  salt.     This 
compound  may  also  be  formed  by  heating  sodium 
in  muriatic  gas,  and  thus  producing  a  muriate  of 
soda,  a  name  by  which,  until  the  discovery  of 
Davy  respecting  the  metallic  composition  of  the 
alkalis,  common  salt  was  known.      There  is  this 
difference,  however,  between  the  chloride  of  so- 
dium and  the  muriate  of  soda,  that  the  latter  can 
only  exist  in  afluid  state,  or  in  a  state  of  solution, 
while  chloride  of  sodium  has  in  reality  no  pro- 
per existence  but  in  the  condition  of  a  solid,  for 
when  acted  on  by  water  it  necessarily  decom- 
poses the  fluid  and  becomes  a  muriate  of  soda. 

994.  Common  salt  exists  in  a  native  state  abun- 
dantly.    It  is  found  in  large  quantities  in  Ches- 
hire, and  is  called  rock  salt.      For  an  account  of 
its  manufacture  and  properties,  see  the  article 
SALT  in  this  Encyclopaedia.     See  also  Aikin's 
Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  article  Muriate  of  soda. 

995.  Sodium  and  Iodine. — Iodine  acts  on  sodi- 
um in  the  same  manner  as  itdoesonpotassium,and 
an  iodide  of  sodium  is  the  result ;  this  compound 
when  treated  with  water  forms  both  an  hydriodate 
and  iodate  of  soda. 

996.  Sulphur  and  phosphorus  act  upon  sodium 
and  produce  sulphurets.     The  sulphuret  of  sodi- 
um is  gray.     The  phosphuret  has  the  appearance 
of  lead. 

Salts  of  Soda. 

997.  Sulphate  of  soda,  formerly  called  sal  mi- 
rabile  or  Glauber's  salt.      By  the  action  of  sul- 
phuric acid  on  common  salt,  sulphate  of  soda  is 
readily  produced.      In  this  process  the  water  of 
the  sulphuric  acid  is  decomposed,  its  hydrogen 
unites  with  the  chlorine  of  the  common  salt  and 
forms  gaseous  muriatic  acid,  while  its  oxygen 
going  to  the  sodium  forms  soda.     Then,  further, 
the  acid  that  has  no  water  unites  to  soda  to  pro- 
duce sulphate  of  soda. 

998.  Sulphate  of  soda  is  precipitated  from  its 
solution  in  regular  crystals,  which  are  transparent 
and  when  exposed  to  the   air  they  effloresce. 
This  is  a  very  soluble  salt.     Its  taste  is  saline 
and  bitter.      The  principal  use  of  this  salt  is  in 
medicine   and  pharmacy.     See  MEDICINE  and 
PHARMACY. 

999.  A  bi-sulpliate  may  be  obtained  by  adding 
sulphuric  acid  to  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda 
while  hot.     It  forms  large  rhomboidal  crystals, 


which  are  soluble  in  twice  their  weight  of  cold 
water.  There  is  a  sulphite  and  a  hyposulphite 
of  soda. 

1000.  Nitrate  of  soda. — This  may  be  formed 
either  by  distilling  common  salt  with  nitric  acid, 
or  by  saturating  the  carbonate  with  nitric  acid. 
This  is  the  cubic  nitre  of  former  times ;  its  taste 
resembles  the  nitrate  of  potassa,  but  it  is  sharper. 
This  last  salt  (nitre)  in  its  crude  state  often  con- 
tains it.    It  has  been  suggested  as  an  economical 
substitute  for  nitre  in  the  making  of  fire-works. 

1001.  Muriate  of  soda.     See  sect.  993. 

1002.  Carbonate  of  soda. — This  salt  is  princi- 
pally obtained  from  marine  plants,   the  ashes  of 
which  by  lixiviation  afford  the  impure  alkali  call- 
ed soda.     Barilla  and  kelp  are  the  two  forms  in 
which  the  impure  soda  of  commerce  is  met  with. 
The  latter  consists  of  the  ashes  of  sea  weed, 
while  the  former  is  the  ash  of  the  salsola  soda. 
These  substances  are  contaminated  by  muriate 
of  soda  and  other  impurities,  from  which  they 
may  be  separated  by  solution,  filtering,  and  re- 
crystallising. 

1003.  Carbonate    of  soda   is  an  efflorescent 
salt,  it  has  a  large  portion  of  water  of  crystallisa- 
tion, it  has  a  strong  alkaline  taste,  and  changes 
vegetable  blues  into  green. 

1004.  Bi-carbonate   of  soda    is    formed    by 
passing  carbonic  acid  through  a  solution  of  the 
carbonate,  or  by  adding  carbonate  of  ammonia 
to  it.     This  salt  has  a  much  weaker  alkaline  taste 
than  the  carbonate,  and  it  requires  a  consider- 
ably larger  proportion  of  water  for  its  solution. 

1005.  Mr.  R.  Phillips  has  analysed  a  substance 
found  near  Fezzan  in  Africa,  which  occurs  there 
native  in  great  abundance,  and  which  is  called 
trona.     He  found  it  to  be  a  compound  inter- 
mediate between  the  carbonate  and  bi-carbonate, 
and  he  hence    terms   it  a   sesqui-carbonate  of 
soda.     See  Quarterly  Journal,  vii.  p.  298.     In 
the  same  Journal,  i.  p.  188,  will  be  found  an  ac- 
count of  a  very  productive  soda  lake  in  South 
America. 

1006.  Chlorate  of  soda.— By  adding  chloric 
acid   to   carbonate   of  soda,  this  salt   may   be 
formed.     It  is  not  unlike,  in  its  general  charac- 
ter, the  chlorate  of  potassa. 

1007.  Iodate  of  soda  is  formed  by  adding 
iodine  to  a  solution  of  soda ;  an  hydriodate  is 
produced  at  the  same  time ;  which  may  be  sepa- 
rated by  alcohol.     Iodide  of  sodium  is  formed 
from  these  salts  by  treating  them  with  heat. 

*1007.  Phosphate  of  soda  may  be  procured  by 
saturating  phosphoric  acid  with  carbonate  of 
soda,  evaporating  and  crystallising.  There  seems 
to  be  some  discrepancy  in  opinion  with  respect 
to  the  proportions  with  which  the  phosphoric 
acid  enters  into  combination  with  soda.  Of  phos- 
phite and  hypo-phosphite  of  soda  very  little  is  at 
present  known. 

1008.  Borate  of  soda.     (Borax).— This  salt 
is  brought  from  India  in  a  crude  state,  under  the 
name  of  tincal ;  when  it  is  purified  it  becomes 
the  refined  borax  of  the  shops  ;  and  when  it  is 
deprived  of  its  water  of  crystallisation,  it  forms 
a  white  powder,  and  at  length,  on  increasing  the 
heat,  it  is  changed  into  the  glass  of  borax.    The 
crystallised  and  purified  salt  is  soluble  in  twenty 
parts  of  water  at  60°,  and  in  six  parts  of  boil- 


442 


CHEMISTRY. 


ing  water.     Borax  has  a  place  in  the  Pharmaco- 
poeia.    See  MEDICINE  and  PHARMACY. 

1009.  The  selenic  and  prussic  acids   form 
distinct  salts  with  soda. 

1010.  Sodiwn  and  sulphur.— A.  sulphuret  of  so- 
dium maybe  formed  by  treating  sulphate  of  soda 
with  charcoal :  and  hydro-sulphuret  is  produced 
in  several  of  the   processes  by  which   soda  is 
separated  from  its  sulphate. 

LITHIUM. 

101 1.  In  analysing  a  mineral  which  goes  under 
the  name  of  petalite,  a  very  small  quantity  of 
an  alkali  was  found  in  it  by  M.  Arfwedson,  which 
he  supposed   at  first  to  be  soda.     But,  upon 
further  investigation,  he  found  that  it  was  dis- 
similar to  soda  in  some  of  its  properties,  more 
especially  in  the  power  it  possessed  of  neutral- 
ising much,  more  acid.     To  this  new  principle 
then  the  name  of  lithion  was  given,  deduced 
from  its  mineral  or  stony  origin,  and  this  term 
has  since  been  changed  into  lithium. 

1012.  It  has  since  been  ascertained  that  the 
principle  exists  in  a  somewhat  larger  proportion 
in  the  mineral  called  triphane  or  spodumene. 
It  has  also  been  detected  in  some  others. 

1013.  The  most  direct  way  of  extracting  it  is 
to  fuse  the  mineral,  reduced  to  a  fine  powder, 
with  two  or  three  times  its  weight  of  carbonate 
of  potassa,  to  dissolve  this  fused  mass  in  muriatic 
acid,  evaporating  to  dryness  :  then  to  digest  the 
dried  mass  in  alcohol,  which  dissolves  but  little 
else  than  the  muriate   of  lithia,   which    is   ob- 
tained pure  by  dissolving  and  evaporating  it  a 
second  time.     This  muriate  is  now  to  be  digested 
with  carbonate  of  silver,  which  forms  a  carbonate 
of  lithia,  and  this  carbonate  may  be  decomposed 
by  lime  or  baryta  as  are  other  carbonates. 

1014.  Other  and  more  economical  ways  have 
been  proposed  of  preparing  lithia,  one  of  which 
is  to  mix  the  mineral,  from  which  it  is  procured, 
with  twice  its  weight  of  fluor  spar  powdered, 
then  to  heat  the  mixture  in  sulphuric  acid  until 
the  fluoric  acid,  with  the  silica,  shall  be  vola- 
tilised ;  a  sulphate  of  lithia  is  in  this  way  formed, 
which  may  be  decomposed. 

1015.  When  this  substance  (lithia)  is  submitted 
to  the  action  of  the  voltaic  influence  it  is  de- 
composed, in  the  same  manner  as  is  potassa  and 
soda  ;  but  it  again,  after  reduction,  unites  so  ra- 
pidly with  oxygen,  that  it  has  been  found  im- 
possible to  collect  the  metallic  base  or  lithium, 
so  as  to  ascertain  its  properties.     The  propor- 
tions of  its  combination  with  oxygen  are  of  course 
likewise  still  unsettled. 

1016.  Lithium    with   chlorine. — Chloride     of 
lithium   is  to  be  obtained  by  evaporating  the 
muriate  of  lithia,  and  then  fusing  the  dried  re- 
sidue.   This  is  an  extremely  deliquescent  sub- 
stance,  herein   differing  from  the  chlorides  of 
potassium  and  sodium ;  it  is  white  and  semi- 
transparent;  it  is  decomposed  when  subjected  to 
a  high  heat  in  the  open    air,    parting  with  its 
chlorine,  imbibing  oxygen,  and  acquiring  alka- 
lescent properties.     It  moreover  tinges  the  flame 
of  a  red  color,  and  is  crystallisable  with   con- 
siderable difficulty,  all  properties  marking  its  dis- 
tinction from  potassium  or  sodium. 

1017.  Sulphur  and  lithium. — Sulphuret  of  li- 


thium appears  capable  of  being  formed   in  the 
same  manner  as  a  sulphuret  of  potassium. 

1018.  Salts    of   Lithia. — Sulphate    of    lithia 
forms  crystals  of*  small  prisms,  which  are  white 
and  shining  ;  it  has  a  saline  but  not  bitter  taste. 
A  bi-sulphate  is  produced  by  adding  an  excess 
of  acid  to  the  sulphate.     This  is  a  more  fusible 
and  less  soluble  salt  than  the  neutral  sulphate. 

1019.  Nitrate  of  lithia. — The  crystals  of  this 
salt  are  rhomboids ;  it  is  deliquescent  and  fusible ; 
it  has  a  cooling  taste. 

1020.  Muriate  of  lithia  does  not  appear  to  be 
a  crystallisable  salt. 

1021.  Carbonate  of  lithia  is  alkaline,  efflo- 
rescent and  fusible.     When  fused  on  platinum,  it 
acts  powerfully  upon  that  metal. 

1022.  Phosphate  of  lithia.— This  may  be  ob- 
tained by  adding  phosphoric  acid  to  the  sulphate 
mixed  with  ammonia.     It  is  insoluble  in  this 
menstruum,  and  is  therefore  precipitated. 

CALCIUM. 

1023.  Calcium,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  pro- 
cured from  lime.     When  this  substance  is  nega- 
tively  electrised,  in  contact  with   mercury,  an 
amalgam  of  mercury,  with  a  white  metal,  is  ob- 
tained, which  metal  is  calcium.     But  at  present 
our  knowledge  of  this  metal  is  very  imperfect, 
from  the  great  difficulty  of  separating  its  mercu- 
rial amalgam,  and  from  the  rapidity  with  which 
it  again  unites  with  the  oxygen  that  has  been 
torn  from  it  in  the  process  of  reduction.     It  ap- 
pears,  however,    that   lime   is   formed  of  nine 
parts  of  this  metallic  base,  united  to  7'5  parts  of 
oxygen,  so  that  its  representative  number  will 
be  =  26-5. 

Lime.     (Calx). 

1024.  This  substance,  in  its  carbonated  state, 
is  a  very  abundant  product  of  nature.     Marble, 
limestone,  chalk,  are  all  carbonates  of  lime ;  and 
the  shells  of  crustaceous  animals  are  formed,  in 
a  very  considerable  measure,  of  this  material. 

1025.  Lime  may  be  freed  from  its  carbonic 
acid,  and  obtained  in  a  state  of  purity,  by  expos- 
ing one  of  its  carbonates  to  the  process  of  calcin- 
ation ;  but,  to  obtain  it  absolutely  free  from  all 
impurities,  white  marble  should  be  dissolved  in 
diluted  muriatic  acid,  a  small  quantity  of  am- 
monia added,   and   the  solution   filtered;  then 
carbonate  of  ammonia  is  to  be  added,  which  will 
cause  the  precipitation  of  the  lime,  which  is  to 
be  washed  and  exposed  to  a  white  heat. 

1026.  Lime  is  of  a  grayish  color;  it  is  caustic, 
and  converts  vegetable  blues  to   green.      It  is 
difficult  of  fusion.     Exposed  to  air   it  absorbs 
water  and  carbonic  acid,  and  passes  from  a  gray 
to  white. 

1027.  When  water   is   poured  upon  lime,  it 
becomes  immediately  hot,  and  is  converted  into 
a  white  powder.     Every  one  is  familiar  with  the 
process  of  slaking  lime,  and  the  disengagement  of 
heat  and  vapor  that  takes  place  in  that  process. 
Now  slaked  lime  is  a  hydrate  of  lime,  or,  more 
strictly   speaking,  a  proto-hydrate ;    the    water, 
however,  of  this  hydrate  is  not  very  forcibly  re- 
tained, for  it  may  be  expelled  by  a  strong  heat, 
and  leave  the  lime  dry  and  pure. 

1028.  The  disengaged  heat  is  consequent  upor. 


CHEMISTRY. 


443 


yiart  of  the  water,  which  enters  into  combination 
with  lime,  assuming  a  solid  form  ;  and  it  is  sup- 
posed in  this  state  to  pass  into  a  more  solid  con- 
dition than  that  of  ice,  for  it  gives  out  more 
caloric  than  does  the  same  quantity  of  water  in 
becoming  ice ;  and  even  ice  itself,  when  entering 
into  combination  with  lime,  evolves  heat. 

1029.  Lime  is  but  sparingly  soluble  in  water, 
and,  what  is  very  curious,  it  dissolves  more  readily 
and  copiously  in  cold  than   in  hot  water;  and 
Mr.  Ualton  has  made  H  probable  that  ice  would 
take  up  twice  as  much  lime  as  boiling  water.  Its 
water   solution   tastes  acid ;  it   turns  vegetable 
blues  to  green,  and  unites  with  oil  into  a  sapo- 
naceous compound. 

1030.  Lime  water  is  prepared  by  pouring  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  water  on  a  mass  of  lime  to  form 
it  into  a  thin  paste  ;  then  more  is  to  be  added, 
and  the  mixture  stirred  or  shaken  during  the  ad- 
dition.    When  the   lime  has  settled,  the   clear 
liquor  is  to  be  decanted  off  for  use,  and  kept  in 
closely  stopped  vessels.     The  quantity  of  water 
that  is  used  is  not  of  much  consequence,  provided 
more  lime  is  used  than  the  water  will  dissolve. 

1031.  Oxygen  and  calcium. — For  the  reasons 
above  stated,  with  respect  to  the  habits  of  cal- 
cium in  reference  to  oxygen,  it  is  not  very  easy 
to  predicate  the  degrees  with  which  oxygen  unites 
with  the  metal. 

1032.  Chlorine  and  calcium. — If  we  heat  lime 
in  chlorine,  oxygen  is  evolved,  and  a  chloride  of 
calcium  is  formed.     The  same  effect  is  produced 
by  evaporating   muriate   of  lime.     Indeed  the 
chloride  of  calcium  and  muriate  of  lime  are  mu- 
tually   convertible,    by   adding   or    subtracting 
water.      The   chloride   has   a   strong   attraction 
for  water :    deliquescing  with   considerable   ra- 
pidity, and  forming   an  oily  kind    of  solution, 
which  has  been  called  oil  of  lime.     This  solution 
is  a  muriate  of  lime.     It  crystallises  at  the  tem- 
perature of  32°.     One  of  the  most  powerful  of 
our  frigonfic  mixtures  is  composed  of  these  cry- 
stals with  snow.     The  salt  is  very  soluble  in  al- 
cohol, and  during  the  solution  much  heat  is  ex- 
tricated. 

1033.  Iodide  and  calcium.    (Iodide  of  calcium.) 
— This  is  to  be  obtained  by  evaporating  the  hydri- 
odateof  lime  to  dryness,  and  strongly  heating  the 
residue.     It  is  a  white  fusible  compound. 

1034.  Calcium  and  sulphur.  (  Sulphurei  of  cal- 
cium).— This  has  been  formed  by  causing  hydro- 
gen gas  to  pass  over  red-hot  lime  ;  and  Berliner 
obtained  it  by  subjecting  anhydrous  sulphate  of 
lime  to  a  powerful  heat  with  charcoal. 

1035.  Phosphorus  and  calcium. — To  prepare  the 
phosphuret  of  calcium,  we  have  the  following 
directions  in  Dr.  Henry's  Elements  :     '  Take  a 
glass  tube  about  twelve  inches   long,  and  one- 
third  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  sealed  hermetically 
at  one  end.     Let  this  tube  be  coated  with  clay, 
except  within  about  half  an  inch  of  the  sealed 
end.     Put  first  into  it  a  drachm  or  two  of  phos- 
phorus, cut  into  small  pieces,  and  then  fill  the 
tube  with  small  bits  of  fresh  burnt  lime,  of  the 
size  of    plit  peas.     Stop  the  mouth  of  the  tube 
loosely  with  a  little  paper,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  free  access  of  air.      Next  heat  to  redness  that 
part  of  the  tube  which  is  coated  with  clay,  by 
means   of  a   chafing   dish  of  red  hot  charcoal; 


and  when  the  lime  may  be  supposed  to  be  ignited 
apply  heat  to  the  part  containing  the  phosphorus, 
so  as  to  sublime  it,  and  to  bring  the  vapor  of 
it  into  contact  with  the  heated  lime.  The  phos- 
phorus will  decompose  the  lime,  and  will  form 
with  the  calcium  a  compound  of  a  reddish-brown 
color.'  This  compound  has  been  erroneously 
termed  phosphuret  of  lime  ;  it  is,  in  fact,  a  phos- 
phuret of  calcium. 

Salts  of  Lime. 

1036.  Chloride  or  o.rumuriute  of  lime. — Chlo- 
ride or  oxymuriate  of  lime  has  been  abundantly 
made  use  of  as  a  bleaching  material ;  it  is  formed 
by  passing  chlorine  into  proto-hydiate  of  lime, 
which  has  been  finely  powdered.   This  substance 
has  been  called  bleaching  powder. 

1037.  Chlorate   of  lime   is  most  easily  pro- 
duced, by  dissolving  carbonate  of  lime  in  chloric 
acid.     The  product  is  a  deliquescent  compound, 
which  has  a  sharp,  bitterish  taste.     It  is  capable 
of  being  formed  into  a  chloride  by  the  action  of 
heat,  oxygen  gas  being  evolved. 

1038.  lodate  and  hydriodate  of  lime. — Of 
these  salts  the  first  is  of  very  difficult  solution, 
requiring  several  hundred  times  its  weight  of 
water  to  dissolve  it.  When  subjected  to  a  strong 
heat,  it  gives  off  both  oxygen  and  iodine,  its 
base  remaining.  The  second  is  very  deliques- 
cent, and  when  dried  it  becomes  an  iodide  of 
calcium. 

1039.  Nitrate  of  lime  is  a  deliquescent  salt, 
it  is  found  abundantly  in  old  plaster  and  mortar, 
and  nitrate  of  potassa  is  sometimes   procured 
from  it  by  the  addition  of  carbonate  of  potassa. 
It  may  be  artificially  formed  by  diluting  nitric 
acid  with  five  or  six  parts  of  water,  then  satu- 
rating this  solution  with  carbonate  of  lime,  and 
afterwards  crystallising.  When  this  salt  is  fused, 
it  concretes  on  cooling  into  a  mass  called,  after 
its  discoverer,  Baldwin's  phosphorus.  This  must 
be  broken  into  pieces,  and  kept  in  a  well  closed 
phial. 

1040.  Carbonate  of  lime. — It  has  already  been 
stated  that  this  substance  is  abundantly  formed 
by  nature  :  indeed  it  is  'the  most  abundant  com 
pound  of  this  earth,'  and  we  shall  take  the  liberty 
of  extracting  that  author's  account  of  it,  whoso 
words  we  have  just  quoted. 

1041.  '  Carbonate  of  lime,' says  Mr.Brande,  'is 
the   most   abundant   compound    of  this   earth. 
\V  hen  lime  water  is  exposed  to  air,  it  becomes 
covered  with  an  insoluble  film  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  and  hence  is  an  excellent  test  of  the  pre- 
sence of  carbonic  acid.     But  excess  of  carbonic 
acid  redissolves  the  precipitate,  producing  a  su- 
per-carbonate. Carbonate  of  lime  is  precipitated 
by  the  carbonated  alkalis  from  solutions  of  mu- 
riate, nitrate,  and  sulphate  of  lime.    Exposed  to 
a  red  heat  the  carbonic  acid  escapes,  and  quick- 
lime is  obtained.     It  consists  of  . 

26-5  lime. 

20-7  carbonic  acid. 

472 

1042.  Carbonate  of  lime  occurs  in  nature  in 
great  abundance,  and  in  various  forms.     The 
primitive  form  of  crystallised  carbonate  of  lime, 
or  calcareous  spar,  is  an  obtuse  rhomboid  of  105° 
5',  and  74°  55'.     Jts  specific  gravity  is  2' 7.     It 


444 


CHEMISTRY. 


occurs  in  every  kind  of  rock,  and  its  secondary 
forms  are  more  numerous  than  those  of  any 
other  substance ;  sometimes  it  forms  fine  stalac- 
tites, of  which  some  of  the  caverns  of  Derbyshire 
furnish  magnificent  specimens ;  it  is  here  de- 
posited from  its  solution  in  water,  acidulated  by 
the  carbonic  acid,  and  substances  immersed  in 
this  water  become  incrusted  by  carbonate  of 
lime,  when  the  excess  of  acid  flies  off,  as  seen  in 
the  petrifying  well  of  Matlock.  A  fibrous  vari- 
ety of  carbonate  of  lime,  called  satin  spar,  is 
found  in  Cumberland. 

1043.  Another   variety,  originally   found    in 
Arragon  in  Spain,  has  been  termed  Arragonite  ; 
it  occurs  in  six-sided  crystals,  of  a  reddish  color, 
and  harder  than  the  common  carbonate.     There 
is  an  acicular  or  fibrous  variety  found  in  France 
and  Germany,  and  the  white  radiated  substance 
improperly  called  flos  ferri  is  also  regarded  as  of 
the  same  species.     Some  varieties  contain  about 
vhree  per  cent,  of  strontia. 

1044.  All  the  varieties  of  marble  and  lime- 
stone consist  essentially  of  carbonate  of  lim'e;  of 
these,   white   granular   limestone,   or   primitive 
marble,  is  most  esteemed.  There  are  also  many 
colored  varieties  of  extreme  beauty.     It  is  dis- 
tinguished from  secondary  limestone  by  the  ab- 
sence of  all  organic  remains,  by  its  granularly 
foliated  structure,  and  by  its  association  with 
other  primitive  substances. 

1045.  The  most  celebrated  statuary  marble  is 
that  of  Paros,  and  of  Mons  Pentelicus,   near 
Athens ;  of  these  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of 
ancient  sculpture  are  composed.     The  marble  of 
Carrara,   or  Luni,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
gulf  of  Genoa,  is  also  much  esteemed ;  it  is  milk 
white,  and  less  crystalline  than  the  Parian. 

1046.  Many  beautiful  marbles  for  ornamental 
purposes  are  quarried  in  Derbyshire,  and  espe- 
cially the  black   marble   called   also   lucullite. 
Westmoreland  and  Devonshire  also  afford  beauti- 
ful varieties;  and  in  Anglesey  a  marble  inter- 
mixed  with   green   serpentine   is   found,   little 
inferior  in  beauty  to  the  verd  antique. 

1047.  Among  the  inferior  limestones  we  enu- 
merate many  varieties,  such  as  common  marble, 
bituminous  limestones,  abundant  upon  the  Avon, 
near  Bristol,   and   known   under   the  name  of 
swine-stone,  or  stink-stone,   from  the  peculiar 
smell  which  it  affords  when  rubbed.     Oolite  or 
roe-stone,  of  which  the  houses  of  Bath  are  built, 
and  its  variety  called  Portland  stone.     Pisolite 
consists  of  small  rounded  masses,  composed  of 
concentric  layers,  with  a  grain  of  sand  always  in 
the  centre;  and  lastly  chalk  and  marl. 

1048.  All  these  substances  are  more  or  less 
useful  for  ornamental  purposes,  or  for  building ; 
they  afford  quick-lime  when  burned,  and  in  that 
state  are  of  great  importance  as  manure,  and  as 
ingredients   in   the  cements  used  for  building. 
There  is  a  great  variety  of  limestones  used  for 
burning  into  quick-lime,  and,  generally  speaking, 
any  of  the  varieties  may  be  used  which  neither 
fuse  nor  crumble  into  powder  at  the  tempera- 
ture required  to  expel  the  carbonic  acid,  which 
is  a  full  red  heat. 

1049.  Borate  of  lime. — The  composition  form- 
ed by  adding  a  solution  of  boracic  acid  to  lime- 
water  is  white,  insipid,  and  -sparingly  soluble. 


1 050.  Fluate  of  lime. — Pour  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid  on  the  substance  called  rluor  spar, 
and  fluoric  acid  is  expelled  in  the  form  of  gas. 
Hence  this  mineral  is  known  to  be  formed  in  a 
great  measure  of  fluoric  acid,  united  to  calcium. 
The  fluate  of  lime,  as  a  principle,  has  not  hitherto 
been  obtained  in  an  insulated  state. 

1051.  Phosphate  of  lime. — This  is  a  principal 
ingredient  in  the  bones  of  animals.     It  may  be 
produced  artificially  by  mixing  solutions  of  phos- 
phate of  soda  and  muriate  of  lime ;  or  by  dis- 
solving bones,  which   have  been  calcined   and 
rubbed  down  to  powder,  in  diluted  muriatic  acid. 

1052.  A  bi-phosphale  may  be   procured   by 
digesting  the  phosphate  in  phosphoric  acid  ;  and, 
according  to  the  investigations  of  Mr.  Dalton,  a 
tri,   octo  and  dodico-pTiosphate  are  procurable. 
Dr.  Thomson's  quadri-phosphate,  or  glacial  phos- 
phoric acid,  Mr.  D.  believes  to  be  an  octo-phos- 
phate. 

1053.  Sulphate  of  lime  occurs  native  in  gyp- 
sum, plaster,  stone,  &c.     It  may  be  formed  ar- 
tificially by  adding  to  the  carbonate  a  sufficient 
quantity   of  sulphuric   acid.     The   crystallised 
form  of  it,  when  it  has  lost  its  water  of  crystalli- 
sation and  fallen  into  a  white  powder,  is  called 
plaster  of  Paris.     This  becomes  soon  solid  after 
it  has  been  made  into  a  paste  with  water. 

1054.  As  we  trespassed  a  little  upon  our  pro- 
portional limits  to  present  Mr.  Brande's  account 
of  the  native   carbonate  of  lime,  so  in  the  pre- 
sent instance  we  shall  do  the  same ;  this,  as  well 
as  the  carbonate,  being  a  beautiful  and  interest- 
ing product  of  nature. 

1055.  '  Native  sulphate  of  lime,'  says  Mr.  B, 
'  occurs  in  various  forms.  The  crystallised  variety 
is  usually  called  selenite ;  the  fibrous  and  earthy, 
gypsum ;  and  the  granular  or  massive,  alabaster. 
The  primitive  form  of  selenite  is  a  rhomboidal 
prism  of  113°  8',  and  66°  52'.     The  crystals  are 
commonly  transparent  and  of  various  colors;  it 
is  softer  than  native  carbonate  or  carbonate  of 
lime,  and  yields  very  easily  to  the  nail.      It  is 
seldom  found  in  veins,  but  generally  dissemi- 
nated in  artificial  strata.     It  occurs  in  Cumber- 
land, at  Alston,  and  in  Oxfordshire,  at  Shotover 
Hill,  where  it  is  often  accompanied  by  shells 
and  pyrites,  and  appears  to  have  resulted  from 
their  mutual  decomposition.   A  beautiful  fibrous 
variety  is  found  in  Derbyshire,  applicable  to  or- 
namental purposes. 

1056.  Massive  and  granular  gypsum  is  found 
in  this  country,  accompanying  the  salt  deposits  in 
Cheshire.      It   abounds   in    Montmartre,   near 
Paris,  and  contains  organic  remains ;  sometimes 
it  forms  entire  hills.    In  the  Tyrolese,  Swiss,  and 
Italian  Alps  it  is  found  upon  the  primitive  rocks, 
often  of  the  purest  white,  especially  at  Moutier, 
near  Mont  Blanc,  and  near  the  summit  of  Mount 
Cenis.     It  is  turned  by  the  lathe,  and  sculptured 
into  a  variety  of  beautiful  forms,  more  especially 
by  the  Florentine  artists. 

1057.  There  is  a  variety  of  sulphate  of  lime 
which  has  been  called  anhydrous  gypsum,  or 
anhydrite,  in  reference  to  its  containing  no  watei 
It  is  harder  than  selenite,  and  somttimes  contains 
common  salt,  and  is  then  called  muriacite.    It  i* 
rarely  crystallised,  generally  massive  and  lamel 
lar,  and  susceptible  of  division  into  rectangular 


CHEMISTRY. 


445 


prisms.  It  has  been  found  in  Derbyshire  and 
Nottinghamshire  of  a  pale  blue  tint ;  sometimes 
it  is  pink  or  reddish,  and  often  white.  It  has 
been  found  at  Vulpino,  in  Italy,  and  hence 
called  Vulpinite.  The  statuaries  of  Bergamo  and 
Milan  employ  it;  and  artists  know  it  by  the 
name  of  marbre  di  Bergamo.  A  compound  of 
sulphate  of  lime  and  sulphate  of  soda  is  found  in 
the  salt-mines  of  New  Castile,  which  mineralogists 
have  described  under  the  name  of  glauberite. 

1058.  Sulphate  of  lime  is  without  much  taste 
or  smell ;  it  is  difficultly  soluble  in  water.     It  is 
decomposed  by  the  carbonates  of  the  alkalis.      It 
is  on  this  principle  that  hard  waters,  in  which 
there  is  generally  sulphate  of  lime,  curdle  soap; 
the  sulphuric  acid  of  the  sulphate  seizing  upon 
the  alkali  of  the  soap,  and  thus  the  oil  becoming 
separate. 

1059.  Ferro-cyanate   of  lime   is    principally 
useful  as  a  test  of  the  presence  of  iron.    Seleniate 
of  lime  has  no  particular  interest. 

1060.  Lime   and  sulphur. — Besides  the  sul- 
phuret  of  calcium,  already  noticed,  sulphurets  of 
lime  may  be  produced  in  the  form  of  hydro-sul- 
phuret,  hydrogurated   sulphuret,  hypo-sulphite, 
and    sulphite,   according   to   the    quantities   of 
aqueous  fluids  that  are  directly  or  indirectly  em- 
ployed in  their  formation. 

BARIUM. 

1061.  The  earth  baryta  is  employed  for  the  ob- 
taining of  this  metal ;  and  it  is  procured  by  ne- 
gatively electrifying   that  substance  in   contact 
with  mercury.     The  metal  is  of  a  dark  gray 
color;  it  greedily  absorbs  oxygen,  and  is  there- 
fore very  speedily,  and  almost  unresistingly,  con- 
verted into  the  oxide  of  barium. 

1062.  This  oxide  of  barium  or  baryta  is  ob- 
tained by  subjecting  nitrate  of  baryta,  in  its  crys- 
tallised form,  to  a  bright  red  heat.     It  is  of  a 
gray  color,  very  difficult  of  fusion,  and  is  the 
heaviest  of  the  substances  that  go  under  the  ge- 
neral appellation  of  earths,  hence  its  name.     It 
absorbs  water  with  eagerness,  and  becomes  a 
hydrate.    Gay  Lussac,  and  Thenard,  have  shown 
that  the  substance  is  capable  of  uniting  with  an 
additional  quantity  of  oxygen  to  that  which  it 
contains  in  its  state  of  baryta ;  this    is    therefore 
called  a  deutoxide  or  peroxide  of  barytum. 

1063.  Sulphate  of  baryta. — This  is  an  abun- 
dant product  of  nature,  and  is  principally  met 
with  in  Cumberland  and  Derbyshire;    in  this 
country  it  passes  under  the  name  of  heavy  spar. 
The  Derbyshire  variety  of  it  is  called  cawk. 

1064.  The  affinity  of  baryta  for  sulphuric  acid 
is  stronger  than  that  for  any  other  base,  and  its 
combination   is   therefore  easily  effected,  either 
directly  or  by  decomposition  of  any  of  the  al- 
kaline sulphates,  the  insolubility  too  of  the  salt 
makes   baryta,  with   the  facility  of  union   just 
alluded  to,  a  good  test  for  the  presence  of  sul- 
phuric acid. 

1065.  The  native  sulphate  was  employed  by 
Mr.  Wedgwood  in  the  manufacture  of  jasper 
ware.    When  decomposed  by  charcoal  or  heated 
to  redness  in  a  paste  it  acquires  the  property  of 
phosphorescence,  and,  as  this  substance  was  first 
produced  and  observed  upon  at  Bologna,  it  has 
obtained  the   name   of  Bolognian   phosphorus. 


The  artificial  sulphate  is  used  as  a  paint,  under 
the  name  of  permanent  white. 

1066.  Sulphite    and   hypo-sulphite   of    baryta 
may  be  formed,  the  first  by  mixing  sulphite  of 
potassa  with  muriate   of  baryta,    the   next   by 
adding  muriate  of  baryta  to  a  solution  of  hypo- 
suphite  of  lime.     The  first  is  an  insoluble  com- 
pound ;  the  last  but  slightly  soluble. 

1067.  Nitrate  of  baryta  may  be  formed  by  dis- 
solving the  carbonate  in  nitric  acid,  evaporating 
and  crystallising.     The  taste  of  this  salt  is  acrid, 
and  in  a  degree  astringent.    It  is  decomposed  by 
a  bright  red  heat,  and  by  this  decomposition  a 
pure  baryta  may  be  obtained. 

1068.  Carbonate  of  baryta. — The  earth  baryta 
when  pure  has  a  very  powerful  affinity  for  carbonic 
acid,  so  that  the  carbonate  is  easily  formed.     It 
is  a  salt  nearly  insoluble  in  water ;  it  is  tasteless, 
but  acts  as  a   virulent  poison.     The  substance 
called  witherite,  (from  its  discoverer,  Dr.  With- 
ering,) is  a  native  carbonate  of  baryta. 

1069.  Chlorate   of   baryta    may  be    directly 
formed ;  that  is  by  the  union  of  chlorine  gas  with 
a  solution  of  pure  baryta.     The  taste  of  this  salt 
is  highly  pungent. 

1070.  Hydriodate  and  iodate  of  baryta. — The 
first   is   a   crystallisable  and  very   soluble  salt. 
The  second  is  exceedingly  insoluble  :  if  this  hy- 
di  iodate  be  evaporated  and  ignited,  an  iodide  of 
barium  is  formed. 

1071.  Phosphate  of  baryta. — Phosphoric  acid 
and  baryta  combine  in  several  proportions,  form 
ing  neutral  phosphate,  bi-phosphate,  and  sesque- 
phosphate. 

1072.  Phosphite   of  baryta. — This   combina- 
tion of  phosphorus  acid  with  baryta  may  be  ob- 
tained by  mixing  muriate  of  baryta  with  phos- 
phate of  ammonia. 

1073.  The  borate  of  baryta  is  a  white  and  in- 
soluble powder :    it  has  not  been  particularly 
investigated. 

1074.  Barium  and  chlorine. — Chloride  of  ba- 
rium.    This  may  be  formed  by  heating  pure  ba- 
ryta in  chlorine  gas,  or  by  dissolving  its  carbonate 
in  diluted   muriatic  acid.     '  When  filtered  and 
evaporated  the  solution,  which  contains  muriate 
of  baryta,  not  chloride  of  barium,  yields  regular 
crystals  of  the  former  salt,  which  have  most  com- 
monly the  shape  of  tables,  bevelled  at  the  edges,  or 
of  eight-sided  pyramids,  applied  base  to  base. 
These  crystals  dissolve  in  five  parts  of  water,  at 
60°,  or  in  a  still  smaller  quantity  of  boiling  wa- 
ter, and  also  in  alcohol.     They  are  not  altered 
by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere ;  sulphuric  acid 
detaches  the  baryta,  and  the  salt  is  also  decom- 
posed   by   alkaline   carbonates    and  sulphates. 
When   the  crystals  are  exposed  to  a  red  heat 
they  are   converted   into   chloride   of   barium.' 
Henry.     See  CHLORINE. 

1075.  As  of  lime  so  of  baryta,  a  ferro-cyanate 
and  seleniate  may  be  formed. 

Nearly  all  the  compounds  with  baryta,  as  a 
base,  are  poisonous,  and  may  be  formed  in  the 
same  manner.  It  also  occurs  native  in  consider- 
able quantities.  It  is  found,  as  well  as  the  car- 
bonate, at  Strontian  in  Scotland,  and  in  the  vici- 
nity of  Bristol,  as  well  as  at  Montmartre  neat 
Paris.  Strontia,  like  baryta,  has  a  stronger  affi- 
nity for  sulphuric  acid  than  have  any  of  the 


446 


CHEMISTRY. 


alkalis.      Sulphite   and   hypo-sulphite   may  be 
formed  with  the  sulphurous  acid. 

STRONTIUM. 

1076.  This  metal  is  produced  from  strontia,  as 
barium  is  from  baryta.     It  somewhat  resembles 
barium  in  its  external  appearance,  and,  like  it,  is 
converted  soon  into  strontia  by  exposure  to  the 
oxygen  of  the  air. 

1077.  Strontia. — Oxide  of  strontium  may  be 
formed  either  by  subjecting  the  carbonate  to  a 
strong  heat  in  the  open  air,  or  by  igniting  the  ni- 
trate of  strontia  in  a  close  vessel.     The  crystals 
of  this  salt  have  much  the  same  habits  and  sus- 
ceptibilities as  those  of  baryta ;  but  there  is  a 
difference  in  ihe  form  of  the  crystals;  those  of 
strontia,   too,    contain    more    combined   water 
than  those  of  baryta,  and  they  are  less  soluble. 

1078.  Strontium   and   chlorine. — Chloride  of 
strontium   may  be   formed   either  by  dissolving 
the  carbonate  in  the  muriatic  acid,  and  heating 
to  dryness,  or  by  directly  subjecting  strontia  to 
the  action  of  chlorine  gas.     This  chloride  is  con- 
verted into  muriate  of  strontia  by  subjecting  it  to 
the  action  of  water,  and  then  crystallising ;  these 
salts  are  reconverted  into  a  chloride  by  being  ex- 
posed to  a  red  heat. 

1079.  Strontium  and  iodine. — Iodide  of  stron- 
tium is  formed  like  iodide  of  barium,  by  heating 
the  hydriodate  in  a  close  vessel. 

1080.  Strontium  and  sulphur. — Sulphuret  of 
strontium.     This  may  be  formed  by  subjecting 
the  powdered  sulphate  of  strontia  to  a  red  heat 
with  charcoal,  or  by  directly  fusing  the  strontia 
with  sulphur.   Solution  in  water  converts  this  sul- 
phuret  into  a  hydro-sulphuret,  and  hydrogureted 
sulphuret  of  strontia. 

1081.  Sulphate  of  strontia. — This  salt  has   a 
considerable  resemblance  to  sulphate  of  baryta. 

1082.  Nitrate  of  strontia. — This  salt  may  also 
be  obtained   in  the  same  mariner  as  the  nitrate 
of  baryta.     Its  crystals  communicate  to  the  flame 
of  a  candle  a  deep  red  color  ;   and  it  is  the  salt 
which  is  employed  at  the  theatres  in  the  red  fire. 

1083.  Carbonate   of  strontia.     The  habits  of 
this  earth,  strontia,  with  carbonic  acid,  are  consi- 
derably like  those  of  baryta.      This  carbonate  is 
found,  as  we  have  just  stated,  native  in  Argyll- 
shire.     It  was   first  discovered  at  Strontian  in 
that  county  in  1787.     Its  color  is  greenish,  and 
i*  occurs  in  crystals  and  in  radiated  masses. 

1084.  Phospliate  of  strontia  may  be  formed 
by  mixing  muriate  of  strontia  and  phosphate  of 
soda.     It  is  tasteless  and  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  an  excess  of  phosphoric  acid.     A  bi- 
phosphate  may  be  formed  of  strontia. 

1085.  Borate  of  strontia  was  formed  by  Dr. 
Hope.     It  is  a  white  powder,  changes  syrup  of 
violets  to  a  green,  and  is  soluble  in  130  parts  of 
water. 

1086.  Seleniates   of  strontia    are    two;    the 
neutral  and   the   bi-seleniate.     There  is  also   a 
ferro-cyanite  of  strontia. 

1087.  It  will  have  been  observed  that  there 
exists  a  considerable  resemblance  between  stron- 
tia and  baryta,  both   in  appearance  and  habits. 
As  this  circumstance   has  led  to  some  confusion 
in  analysis,  we   give  the  following  extract  from 
Mr.  Brande  on  this  subject. 


1088.  The  following   are  some  of  the  most 
striking  points  of  resemblance.     They  are  both 
found  native  in  the  states  of  sulphate  and  car- 
bonate only ;  both  sulphates  are  soluble  in  excess 
of  sulphuric  acid,  and  nearly  insoluble  in  water; 
they  are  decomposable  by  similar  means,  as  well 
as  the  native  carbonates ;  they  are  both  crystal- 
Usable   from   their   hot   aqueous  solutions,  and 
both  attract  carbonic  acid.     The  carbonates  are 
each  soluble  with  effervescence  in  most  of  the 
acids ;  but  the  native  carbonates  are  not  so  easily 
acted  upon  as  the  artificial.     Pure  ammonia  pre- 
cipitates neither  the  one  nor  the  other. 

1089.  The  following  are  essential  distinctions. 
Baryta  and  all  its  salts,  except  the  sulphate,  are 
poisonous.  The  corresponding  strontitic  salts  are 
innocent.     Baryta  tinges   flame,  yellow :  stron- 
tia, red.     Strontia  has  less  attraction    for   acids 
than  baryta,  since  the  strontitic  salts  are  decom- 
posed  by  baryta.     The  greater  number  of  the 
barytic  salts  are  less  soluble  than  those  of  stron- 
tia;  and  they  differ   in  their  respective   forms 
and  solubilities.     Pure  baryta  is  ten  times  more 
soluble  in  water  than  pure  strontia. 

MAGNESIUM. 

1090.  This  metal  can  hardly  be  said  to  have 
been  demonstrated ;  but  when  the  earth  of  mag- 
nesia is  negatively  electrised  with  quicksilver, 
the  resulting  compound  decomposes  water,  and 
occasions  the  formation  of  magnesia.     In  one 
experiment  of  Sir  H.  Davy,  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  the  metallic  base  of  magnesia,  a  solid 
was   obtained,   which,   from   its  whiteness  and 
lustre,  appeared  evidently  metallic.     '  It  sank 
rapidly  in  water,  though  surrounded  by  globules 
of  gas,  producing  magnesia,  and  quickly  changed 
in  air,  becoming  covered  with  a  white  crust,  and 
falling  into  a  fine  powder,  which  powder  proved 
to  be  magnesia.     He  afterwards,  by  passing  po- 
tassium over  magnesia,  at  a  high  temperature, 
and  introducing  quicksilver  into  the  tube  while 
hot,  obtained  an  amalgam,  which  was  deprived 
of  its  potassium  by  the  action  of  water.     It  then 
appeared  as  a  solid  white  metallic  mass,  which, 
by  exposure  to  the  air,  became  covered  with  a 
dry  white  powder,  and,  when  acted  on  by  weak 
muriatic   acid,   gave  off  hydrogen  gas  in  con- 
siderable  quantities,  and   produced  a  solution 
of  magnesia.'     Philosophical  Transactions,  1808, 
1810. 

1091.  Magnesia  then  is  considered  an  oxide 
of  magnesium.     It  may  be  obtained  pure  by  ex- 
posing its  carbonate  to  a  red  heat.     It  is  a  well- 
known  substance,  white,  and  almost  tasteless ;  it 
possesses,  in  some  measure,  the  properties  of  an 
alkali,  but  it  does  not,  like  the  other  alkaline 
earths,  absorb  moisture  or  carbonic  acid  from  the 
air.     It  appears,  however,  to  have  an  affinity  for 
water,  and  it  combines  with  it  under  some  cir- 
cumstances, so  as  to  constitute  a  hydrate.  Water, 
however,  having  been  agitated  with  magnesia, 
and  filtered  through  paper,  does  not,  as  in  the 
case  of  lime-water,  manifest  the  properties  of  the 
substance  itself. 

1092.  Magnesia,  in  a  state  of  impurity  or  ad- 
mixture, is  by  no  means  a  rare  production  of 
nature ;  it  forms  a  considerable  portion  of  what 
is  called  magnesian  lime-stoue,  serpentine,  &c. 


CHEMISTRY. 


447 


It  nas  not  hitherto  been  much  employed,  except 
in  medicine. 

1093.  Chlorine   and   magnesium. — The   com- 
pound formed  by  heating  magnesia  in  chlorine 
gas,  and  which  is  a  chloride  of  magnesia,  is  not 
much  known.     The  chloride  of  magnesium  may 
be   formed   by  mixing   chloride   of  lime   with 
sulphate  of  magnesia.     The  chlorate  of  magnesia 
is   a   bitter   deliquescent   salt,    but    not    much 
known. 

1094.  Muriate  of  magnesia. — This  is  met  with 
in  some  of  the  mineral  waters,  as  well  as  in  sea- 
water.     It  cannot  like  some  of  the  other  muriates 
be  converted  into  a  chloride  of  the  base,   since 
exposure  to  strong  heat  occasions  a  dissipation  of 
part  of  the  acid.     Hydriodate  of  magnesia  is  a 
deliquescent  salt,  and  also  loses  its  acid  by  ex- 
posure to  heat.     When  iodine   is  heated  along 
with  magnesia  and  water,  both  hydriodate  and 
iodate  of  magnesia  are  formed.     By  concentrating 
the  solution  both  salts  are  partly  decomposed, 
and  a  flocculent  iodide  of  magnesia  is  formed, 
resembling  kermes  in  appearance,  which  when 
heated  loses  part  of  its  iodine,  and  is  changed  in- 
to a  sub-iodide.     Henry. 

1095.  Nitrate  of  magnesia  is  formed   by  dis- 
solving the  carbonate  in  diluted  nitric  acid.     It 
is  a  crystalline  salt,  and  has  a  cooling  and  bitter 
taste.     The  ammonio-nitrate  may  be  obtained  by 
mixing  the  solutions  of  nitrate  of  magnesia  and 
nitrate  of  ammonia.  This  salt  is  less  deliquescent 
than  its  components  are  separately. 

1 096.  Carbonate  of  magnesia  is  usually  formed 
by   adding  a  carbonated  alkali  to  sulphate  of 
magnesia.       It  is  a  white,   tasteless,  insoluble 
powder,  and  the  carbonic  acid  is  expelled  from 
it  at  a  red  heat ;  the  residuum  being  calcined  or 
pure  magnesia.     It  appears  that  the  carbonate  of 
magnesia,  is  not  a  fully  saturated  carbonate,  but 
that  what  has  been  generally  considered  the  bi- 
carbonate, is  in  fact  the  true  carbonate. 

1097.  Borate   of  magnesia,  may   be   formed 
artificially.       A   native   compound   of    boiacic 
acid  and  magnesia  is  instanced  in  the  mineral 
called  boracite,  which  is  found  near  Luneburgh. 

1098.  Phosphate   of   magnesia  may   also   be 
formed  artificially  ;  and  the  ammonio-phosphate 
is  produced  by  mixing  solutions  of  phosphate  of 
ammonia  and  phosphate  of  magnesia.     This  salt 
according  to  Fourcroy  contains  equal  weights  of 
phosphate  of  ammonia,  phosphate  of  magnesia 
and  water.     It  is  tasteless  and  decomposable  by 
heat,  leaving  as  a  residue  only  phosphate  of  mag- 
nesia and  water. 

1099.  Sulphate   of   magnesia. — This   salt   is 
one   of  importance,   were  it  only  for    its  very 
extensive  use  in  medicine.     It  was  at  one  time 
procured  from  the  springs  of  Epsom,  and  hence 
its  common  name,  Epsom  salts.     It  is  generally 
upon  a  large  scale  obtained  from  sea-water,  the 
residue  of  which,  after  the  separation  of  common 
salt,  is  called  bittern,  which  is  a  mixture  of  sul- 
phate with  muriate  of  magnesia;  the   latter  is 
decomposed  by  sulphuric  acid.     It  may  be  ob- 
tained by  the  direct  admixture  of  pure  magnesia 
with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 

1100.  Sulphate  of  magnesia  forms  in  crystals. 
It  has  a  bitter  taste  :  it  is  soluble   in  its  own 
weight  of  water  at  60 J  and  when  exposed  to  heat 


loses  its  water  of  crystallisation  without  decom* 
position.  This  salt  is  largely  used  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  carbonate  of  magnesia  of  the  shops  ; 
carbonate  of  potass  and  sulphate  of  magnesia 
being  mixed  together  in  a  heated  state.  The  am- 
moniaco-magnesian  sulphate  is  formed  by  adding 
a  solution  of  pure  ammonia  to  that  of  sulphate  of 
magnesia.  A  compound  sulphate  of  potassa  and 
magnesia  has  been  produced  by  saturating  bi- 
sulphate  of  potassa  with  magnesia.  This  salt  has 
a  bitter  taste,  and  is  not  much  more  soluble  than 
sulphate  of  potassa. 

1101.  A  compound  sulphate  of  magnesia  and 
soda  has  also  been  procured,  which  is  soluble  in 
rather  more  than  three  times  its  weight  of  water 
at  60°. 

1102.  Sulphite  of  magnesia  may  be  procured 
by  passing  sulphurous  acid  into  water,  in  which 
is   diffused   the  carbonate  of  magnesia.     '  The 
crystals  into  which  this  salt  form  effloresce  in  the 
air,  and  become  slowly  a  sulphate.     The  hypo- 
sulphite may  be  obtained  by  heating  a  solution 
of  the  sulphite  with  flowers  of  suipher.     This  is 
an  exceedingly  bitter  salt,  and  freely  soluble  in 
water  ;  but  it  is  not  deliquescent. 

1103.  The   sulphurets  of   magnesia  have  not 
been  much  investigated. 

1104.  The  selenic  acid  unites  with  magnesia 
in  two  proportions ;  but  the  compounds  have  not 
been  found  to  possess  much  interest. 

1105.  'The   fossils  which   contain   magnesia 
are  generally  soft  and  apparently  unctuous  to  the 
touch  ;  they  have  seldom  either  lustre  or  trans- 
parency,  and  are  generally  more  or  less  of  a 
green   color.      Steatite  or  soapstone,   talc,  and 
asbestos,  may  be  taken  as  instances.     The  chry- 
solite also  contains  more  than  half  its  weight  of 
magnesia.      The  mineral   called  bitter-spar,  of 
which  the  finest  specimens  come  from  the  Tyrol, 
contains  forty-five  per  cent,  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia, fifty-two  carbonate  of  lime,  and  a  little 
iron    and   manganese.     Its  primitive  crystal   is 
a  rhomboid  nearly  allied  to  that  of  carbonate  of 
lime;  its  angles  being  106°  20',  and  73°  80'. 
It  is  of  a  yellowish  color,  and  a  pearly  lustre, 
semi-transparent  and  brittle.     A  variety  found 
at  Miemo  in  Tuscany  has  been  called  Miemite. 
The  species  of  marble  called  dolomite  found  'in  the 
Alps,  and  in  Icolmkill  in  Scotland,  contains  also  a 
large  quantity,  generally  forty  per  cent,  of  car- 
bonate of  magnesia.     The  same  may  be  said  of 
the  magnesian   lime-stone  of  Derby  and  Not- 
tingham :  it  is  generally  of  a  yellowish  color, 
and  less  rapidly  soluble  in  dilute  muriatic  acid, 
than  the  pure   lime-stones,  whence   the  French 
have  termed  it,  chauxcarbonateelente.  The  lime 
which  it  affords  is  much  esteemed  for  cements ; 
but  for  agricultural  purposes  it  is  often  mischie- 
vous, in  consequence  of  its  remaining  caustic  for 
a  very  long  time,  and  thus  injuring  the  young 
plants. 

1106.  The  separation  of  magnesia  and  lime, 
continues    Mr.  Brande,  from  whom  we  are  now 
extracting,  is  a  problem  of  some  importance  in 
analytical  chemistry,  as  they  often  exist  together 
in  the   same   mineral,   more   especially   in   the 
varieties  of  magnesian  lime-stone.     When   so- 
lution of  carbonate  of  ammonia  is  added  to  the 
mixed  solution  of  lime  and  magnesia  in  nitric 


448 


CHEMISTRY. 


or  muriatic  acids,  carbonate  of  lime  falls,  and 
the  magnesia  is  retained  in  solution,  and  may  be 
separated  by  boiling ;  this  method,  however 
simple,  is  not  susceptible  of  great  accuracy,  for  a 
portion  of  carbonate  of  lime  will  always  be  re- 
tained along  with  the  magnesia  in  solution,  and 
a  triple  ammoniaco-magnesian  salt  is  also  formed. 
Mr.  R.  Phillips  (Quarterly  Journal  vi.  317,) 
proposes  the  following  process.  '  To  the  mu- 
riatic or  nitric  solution  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
add  sulphate  of  ammonia  in  sufficient  quantity  ; 
evaporate  the  mixture  gradually  to  dryness,  and 
then  heat  it  to  redness  till  it  ceases  to  lose  weight 
by  the  volatilistation  of  the  muriate  or  nitrate  of 
ammonia  formed  :  note  the  weight  of  the  mixed 
salt,  reduce  it  to  powder  and  wash  it  with  a  sa- 
turated solution  of  sulphate  of  lime,  till  all  the 
sulphate  of  magnesia  appears  to  be  dissolved ; 
dry  the  sulphate  of  lime  left,  and,  by  deducting 
its  weight  from  that  of  the  mixed  sulphates,  the 
quantity  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  dissolved  will 
appear.'  After  repeated  trials  of  the  various 
modes  of  separating  lime  from  magnesia,  I  am 
induced,  adds  Mr.  Brande,  to  consider  the  fol- 
lo\ving  as  the  least  defective.  To  the  mixed  so- 
lution of  lime  and  magnesia,  add  oxalite  of  am- 
monia slightly  acid,  collect  the  precipitate,  wash 
and  dry  it.  Sixty-two  parts  indicate,  26'5  of  lime. 
If  nitric  or  muriatic  acid  were  used  for  solution, 
the  magnesia  may  afterwards  be  obtained  by 
evaporation,  and  heating  the  residue  to  redness 
in  a  platinum  crucible  till  it  ceases  to  lose 
weight.  If  sulphuric  acid  were  the  solvent  the 
same  operation  affords  dry  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
of  which  fifty-six  parts  are  equivalent  to  18'5 
of  magnesia. 

YTTRIUM. 

1107.  The  earth  called  Yttria  or  Ittria  was 
discovered  in  1794  by  professor  Gadolin,  in  a 
stone  from  Ytterby  in  Sweden.     The  mineral  has 
since  been  called  Gadolinite.     Its  metallic  base 
has  not  yet  been  demonstrated  in   a  separate 
form  ;  but   the  power  that  Yttria  possesses  of 
converting  potassium  into  potassa,  when  heated 
with  that  metal,  establishes  its  character  as  an 
oxide. 

1 108.  Yttria  is  to  be  obtained  from  its  mineral 
by  the  following  process : — '  Powder  the  mineral 
and   boil  it  in  repeated   portions  of   nitro-mu- 
riatic  acid,  evaporate  nearly  to  dryness,  dilute 
with  water  and  filter,  evaporate  to  dryness,  ig- 
nite the  residue  for  some  hours  in  a  close  vessel, 
redissolve  and  filter.     To  this  .solution   add  am- 
monia, which  throws  down  Yttria  and  oxide  of 
cerium  ;  heat  the  precipitate  red  hot,  dissolve  it 
in  nitric  acid,  and  evaporate  to  dryness ;  dilute 
with   150  parts  of  water,   and   put  crystals   of 
sulphate  of  potassa  into  the  liquid.     The  crys- 
tals gradually  dissolve,  and  after  some  hours  a 
white  precipitate  appears  of  oxide  of  cerium, 
the  whole  of  which  must  be  separated  by  a  re- 
petition of  this  process.     The  liquor  is  then  to 
be  filtered,  and  the  addition  of  pure  ammonia 
forms  a  precipitate   of  yttria,  which   is  to   be 
•washed,    and    heated    red-hot.       Berzelius    in 
Thomson's  Chemistry,  vol.  i.  p.  357. 

1109.  Yttria  is  insipid,  smooth  to  the  touch, 
very  ponderous,  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in 


most  of  the  acids,  infusible,  but  by  intense  neat, 
and  without  influence  upon  vegetable  colors  ;  it 
is  supposed  to  contain  twenty-five  per  cent,  of 
oxygen. 

GLUCINUM. 

1110.  The  base  of  glucina  has  not  been  de- 
monstrated, but  it  changes  potassium  into  potassa, 
and  hence  the  inference  that  it  is  an  oxide  of  a 
metal  which  should  of  course  be  denominated 
glucinum. 

1111.  Glucinum  was  discovered  by  Vauque- 
lin  in  the  year  1798,  in  the  beryl,  a  precious 
stone   of  a  green  color.     It  also  exists   in  the 
emerald  of  Peru,  it  is  likewise  found  in  euclase. 
We  are  directed   to  obtain  the  earth  from  any 
one  of  these  minerals  by  the  following  process  : 
'  reduce  it  to  a  fine  powder,  and  fuse  it  with 
thrice  its  weight  of  potassa  ;  dissolve  in  a  di- 
lute muriatic  acid  ;    evaporate  to  dryness  ;  re- 
dissolve  in  water,  and  precipitate  by  carbonate 
of-  potassa.      Dissolve   this   precipitate  in  sul- 
phuric acid.,  and  add  a  little  sulphate  of  potassa, 
and  on  evaporation  crystals  of  alum  will  be  ob- 
tained.    These  being  separated,   add  excess  of 
carbonate  of  ammonia  to  the  residuary  liquor, 
which  will   retain  glucina  in  solution,  but  the 
alumina  will  be  precipitated  ;  filter,  and  evapo- 
rate to  dryness,  and  apply  a  red  heat,  glucina 
remains.' 

111-2.  Glucina  is  a  fine  white  soft  powder, 
insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  liquid  potassa 
and  soda  :  with  the  acids  forming  combinations 
that  have  a  sweet  and  somewhat  astringent  taste. 
Its  name  is  derived  from 


ALUMINUM. 

1113.  Alumina  changes  potassium  into  potassa, 
and  therefore  it  is  presumed  to  be  an  oxide,  but 
its  base,  which  of  course  is  analogically  consi- 
dered to  be  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  alumi- 
num, has  not  hitherto  been  demonstrated  satis- 
factorily. 

1114.  This  earth  (alumina),  may  be  separated 
from  its  admixtures  by  adding  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, or  bi-carbonate  of  potassa,  to  a  solution  of 
common  alum.     This  substance  is  insipid  and 
without  odor  ;  it  forms  a  cohesive  mass  with  water. 
It  is  soluble  in  potassa,  and  in  soda,  and  forms 
compounds  with  lime,  baryta,  strontia  and  silicn. 
In  pottery  and  porcelain,  alumina  forms  an  es- 
sential ingredient. 

1115.  'Alumina  forms  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  rocks  and  strata  that  compose  this  globe 
It  is  the  chief  ingredient  in  all  the  varieties  o 
clay,  and  gives  them  the  property  of  tenacity  anc 
ductility,  or  of  being  capable  of  being  moulded 
into  the  shapes  of  vessels,  which  are  rendered 
hard  and  durable  by  the  subsequent  application 
of  heat.      Bricks,  tiles,  and  all  the  varieties  of 
pottery  and  porcelain  are  chiefly  formed  of  alu- 
mina, with  variable  proportions  of  silica  and 
other  earths.     It  imparts  to  soils,  when  present 
in  due  proportion,  the  quality  of  being  sufficiently 
retentive  of  moisture,  for  a  soil  may  be  too  open 
and   ight  to  be  fertile,  as  well  as  too  stiff  from 
the  excess  of  its  aluminous  ingredient.     It  is  re- 
markable, also,  that  alumina  nearly  pure,  com- 
poses some  of  the  hardest  minerals,  such  as  the 


CHEMISTR  Y. 


449 


corundum,  which  is  hard  enough  to  be  employed 
in  polishing  diamonds.'     Henri/. 

1116.  Alum.    (Sulphate  of  Alumina,  or,  more 
properly  speaking,  sulphate  of  alumina  and  po- 
tassa). 

1117.  This  salt  may  be  prepared  by  roasting 
and    lixiviating    certain    clays    which    contain 
pyrites,  adding  some  potassa.     See  PHARMACY. 

1118.  It  has  a  sweetish  taste,  it  reddens  vege- 
table blues  ;    when  heated  it  swells  up,  loses  its 
regular  shape  and  appearance,  and  becomes  what 
is  called  burnt  alum.     In  this  way,  however,  it 
seems  that  \ve  cannot  expel  the  whole  of  the  acid. 
It  dissolves  in  five  parts  of  water  at  60°,  and, 
when  ignited  with  charcoal,  a  spontaneously  in- 
flammable compound  becomes  formed,  which  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Homberg's  pyrophorus; 
a  substance  which  is  ordered  to  be  prepared  in 
the  following  manner : — 'Mix  equal  parts  of  honey, 
or  of  brown  sugar,  and  powdered  alum  in  an  iron 
ladle  ;  melt  the  mixture  over  a  fire,  and  keep  it 
stirred  till  dry  ;  reduce  the  dry  mass  to  powder, 
and  introduce  it  into  a  common  phial  coated  with 
clay,  and  placed  in  a  crucible  of  sand.    Give  the 
whole  a  red  heat,  and  when  a  blue  flame  appears 
at  the  neck  of  the  phial,  allow  it  to  burn  about 
live  minutes ;    then  remove  it  from  the  fire,  stop 
the  phial  and  allow  it  to  cool,  taking  care  that 
air  cannot  enter  it.' 

1119.  Alum  is  used  pretty  extensively  in  the 
arts  of  dyeing  and  calico  printing.  It  is  also  em- 
ployed in  medicine. 

1120.  Muriate  and  nitrate  of  alumina  may  be 
formed  by  dissolving  the  purified  earth  in   the 
acids  ;  but  we  are  informed  by  Sir  H.  Davy,  that 
no  substance  exists  which  can  be  considered  as 
a  true  compound  of  alumina  and  chlorine. 

1121.  Ammonia,  soda,  and  magnesia  may  be 
made  to  unite  with  alum. 

For  further  information  on  aluminous  compo- 
sition, see  Dr.  Thomson's  System,  and  for  an 
interesting  account  of  aluminous,  and  silico- 
aluminous  minerals,  see  Brande's  Manual,  vol.  ii. 
p.  312. 

THORINUM. 

1122.  The  earth  Thorina  differs  from  alumina 
in  being  soluble  in  solution  of  potassa;  from 
yttria  by  its  astringent  taste  without  sweetness, 
and  by  its  neutral  solutions  affording  a  precipi- 
tate when  boiled.    From  zirconia  it  differs  in  the 
following  properties :  1st.  after  being  heated  to 
redness  it  is  still  soluble  in  acids.     2d.  Sulphate 
of  potassa  occasions  no  precipitate  in  its  solu- 
tions.    3d.  It  is  precipitated  by  oxalate  of  am- 
monia.     4th.  Sulphate   of  thorina   crystallises 
while  sulphate  of   zirconia  does  not.     Brande 
from  Thomson. 

1 123.  We  do  not  absolutely  know  from  expe- 


riment that  this  earth  is  a  metallic  oxide,  the  in- 
ference that  it  is  so  is  merely  from  analogy. 

ZIRCONIUM. 

1124.  When  potassium  was  brought  into  con- 
tact with  zirconia  heated,  potassa  was  formed  and 
dark  metallic  particles  elicited. 

1125.  The  earth  was  discovered  by  Klaproth  in 
the  precious  stone  called  jargon  or  zircon.     It 
has  since  been  detected  in  the  hyacinth.     Its  or- 
dinary form  is  in  reddish  crystals  ;  it  is  mixed  in 
its  native  state  with  silica  and  a  small  quantity  of 
iron.      The  pure  earth  is  insoluble  in  water  and 
in  pure  liquid  alkalis,  but  soluble  in  the  carbo- 
nates of  these  last.     Its  combinations  with  the 
acids  into  salts  have  not  been  much  investigated. 

SILICIUM. 

1126.  The  experiments  of  Sir  H.  Davy,  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  the  metallic  base  of  the 
earth  silica,  were  so  far  successful  as  that  the 
phenomena  produced  left  no  doubt  that  like  the 
other  earths  this  also  is  an  oxide;  and  Berzelius 
decomposed  it  by  fusing  it  with  charcoal  and  iron 
in  a  blast  furnace,  thus  obtaining  an  alloy  of 
iron  and  silicium. 

1127.  Silica,  or  silicious  earth,  is  a  very  abun- 
dant product  of  nature.  In  flint  and  in  rock  crys- 
tal it  exists  almost  pure.      We  may  obtain  it  by 
calcining  common  gun  flints,  or  by  heating  rock 
crystal  to  redness,  adding  water  to  it,  and  then 
reducing  the  quenched  mass  to  a  fine  powder. 

1128.  When  pure  silica  is  white  and  tasteless 
it  requires  an  intense  heat  for  fusion.    It  readily 
unites  with  the  fixed  alkalis  and   forms   glass. 
fSee  Aikin's   Dictionary,   see   also   the   article 
GLASS  in  this  Encyclopaedia).  It  is  not  acted  o*> 
by  any  acid  excepting  the  fluoric. 

1129.  Silica  is  of  most  important  use  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass,  and   a  certain  proportion 
of  it  is  employed  in  the  composition  of  porce- 
lain, in  order  to  give  a  due  hardness  to  the  alu- 
minous or  clayey  earth  which  constitutes  the 
principal  part  of  porcelain.  Silica  is  an  essential 
ingredient  in  fertile  soils;  it  divides  the  other 
portions  of  which  a  soil  may  be  constituted,  and 
occasions  the  ground  to  be  more  porous.     See 
the  articles  SOIL  and  AGRICULTURE. 

We  shall  now  present  our  readers  with  the  fol- 
lowing long  but  very  useful  tables  from  Dr.  Ure, 
exhibiting  at  one  view  the  habitudes,  &c.  of  all 
the  known  metallic  and  earthy  salts.  It  will  be 
observed  that  both  the  bases,  and  the  compounds, 
are  placed  in  alpbabetical  order,  so  that  the 
reader  can  at  once  refer  to  the  substance,  the 
form,  composition,  &c.  of  which  ho  is  desirous 
to  ascertain. 


VOL.  \  . 


460 


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CHEMISTRY. 


PART  V. 

VEGETABLE  SUBSTANCES. 


1131.  We  are  now  to  engage  in  the  consider- 
ation of  a  different  order  of  substances  from  any 
that  have  yet  been  under  investigation,  viz.  the 
products  of  organisation,  the  regulating  principle 
of  which,  being  something  not  within  the  com- 
pass of  mere  material  existence,  renders  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  subject  altogether  dissimilar 
from  that  of  substance,  which  is,  ab  origine  ad 
finem,  inert  matter. 

1132.  Organic  products   are   divided  as   to 
their  chemical  consideration  into  immediate  or 
proximate    and   ultimate   principles;    the   first 
term  applying  to  those  principles  which  actually 
exist  during  the  existence  and  agency  of  the 
vital  principle  ;  the  second  comprehending  those 
compounds  which  formed   in  themselves,  and 
abstractedly,  no  part  of  the  vegetable  or  animal 
being,  but  which  result  from  an  entirely  new, 
and  now,  strictly  speaking,  chemical  arrange- 
ment of  the  elements  of  that  being. 

1133.  In  the  article  ANALYSIS  we  have  ad- 
verted to  a  method  recently  proposed   by  Gay 
Lussac  and  Thenard  for  ascertaining  the  ultimate 
principles   of  vegetables  with   accuracy,   these 
appear  to  be  few  in  number,  carbon,  oxygen,  and 
hydrogen  being  the  principal  of  them ;    some 
affording  nitrogen,  small  quantities  of  sulphur, 
potassa,  lime,   soda,  magnesia,  silica,  nitrate  of 
potassa,  and  soda,  muriate  of  soda,  phosphate 
of  lime,  with  minute  quantities  of  iron  in   a 
state  of  oxide,  and  of  oxide  of  manganese. 

We  now,  however,  are  to  consider  the  pro- 
ducts of  vegetation,  or  those  principles  which 
result  from  the  organic  constitution  of  vegetable 
bodies,  and  which  are  displayed  during  the 
agency  of  vegetable  life. 

1134.'  The  products  of  the  vegetable  economy,' 
says  Dr.  Henry,  'are  either  situated  in  particular 
organs  or  vessels,  or  are  distributed  through- 
out the  whole  plant.  Sometimes  they  reside 
in  the  root  or  stalk,  at  others  in  the  bark  or 
leaves,  at  others  they  are  peculiar  to  the  fruit, 
the  flowers,  the  seeds,  and  even  to  particular 
parts  of  these  organs.'  When  thus  insulated, 
they  may  readily  be  procured  in  a  separate  state ; 
and  in  several  instances  nothing  more  is  required 
than  the  labor  of  collecting  them.  Thus  gum 
exudes  from  some  trees,  and  manna  issues  from 
the  branches  of  others.  Sometimes,  however, 
we  are  presented  with  a  variety  of  substances 
mingled  together,  and  requiring  separation  by 
processes  which  are  sufficiently  simple,  and 
which  consist  in  repose,  filtration,  pressure, 
washing,  distillation  at  a  gentle  heat,  solution  by 
water  and  alcohol,  and  similar  operations  that  do 
not  alter  the  nature  of  the  bodies  submitted  to 
them.' 

1135.  'The  number  of  principles,'  continues 
our  author,  '  which  have  thus  been  extracted 
from  vegetables  has  of  late  years  been  greatly 
enlarged,  and  amounts  at  present  to  upwards  of 
forty.  Of  these,  the  greater  part  are  certainly 
entitled,  by  a  train  of  properties  sufficiently  cha- 
racteristic, to  rank  as  distinct  compounds.  But 
others  seem  so  nearly  allied  t6  substances  with 
which  we  have  long  been  acquainted,  that  it 


can  serve  no  useful  purpose  to  assign  to  them  a 
different  place  in  the  system.  The  unnecessaiy 
multiplication  indeed  of  vegetable  principles 
contributes  rather  to  retard  than  to  advance  the 
progress  of  this  difficult  part  of  chemistry ;  and 
it  is  only  in  cases  of  decided  and  unequivocal 
differences  of  qualities,  that  we  should  proceed 
to  the  establishment  of  new  principles.' 

We  are  pleased  to  find  our  own  sentiments  in 
accordance  with  so  great  a  master  of  chemical 
philosophy  as  is  Dr.  Henry,  and  we  have  often 
thought  that  there  is  a  little  too  much  of  running 
to  seed  disposition  in  the  present  day,  with  respect 
to  the  detection  of  principles,  now  that  our  means 
of  analysis  are  so  largely  facilitated  by  the  vast 
improvements  of  modern  science. 

1136.  Vegetable  products  have  been  divided 
by  some  authors  into  four  classes.     1.  Those 
which  are  usually  solid,  and  not  very  combus- 
tible.    2.  Those  which  are  fluid  or  melt  with 
heat,  and  burn  like  oils,  and  are  all  insoluble  in 
water  though  they  are  generally  soluble  in  al- 
cohol.    3.  Substances  which  are  not  soluble  in 
water,  alcohol,  or  ether. 

1137.  Although   we   shall  in   some  measure 
follow  this  division,  it  cannot  be  considered  as 
throughout  tenable ;  and  arrangements  of  this  kind 
are  of  no  utility  in  facilitating  acquirement.     In 
the  first  class  have  been  arranged, 

Acids  Starch 

Sugar  Coloring  matter 

Sarcocoll  Gluten 

Asparagin  Albumen 

Gum  Fibrin 

Gelatin  Bitter  principle 

Ulmin  Extractive. 

Inulin 

ACETIC  ACID. 

1138.  This  acid,  unless  we  except  those  which 
are  ready  formed  in  vegetables,  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  that  was  known  to  mankind.     It 
seems  to  have  been  in  very  general  use  from 
the  earliest  times.     When   first  prepared  it  is 
called    vinegar ;   when  rectified   by  distillation 
it  is  called  distilled    vinegar,  or  acetous  acid, 
by   chemists ;    when   highly  concentrated   it  i» 
called   radical  vinegar,  and  by  chemists  acetic 
acid. 

1139.  Vinegar  is  prepared  from  beer,  or  wines, 
which  become  sour  when  exposed  to  the  air  at 
a  temperature  between  70°  and  80°,  and  espe- 
cially if  some  fermenting  substance  be  added  to 
the  liquor.     It  is  also  prepared  in   very  con- 
siderable quantities  by  the  distillation  of  wood. 

1 140.  Boerhaave  describes  a  process  for  making 
vinegar  from  wine,   which  is  still  followed  in 
many  of  the  wine  countries.     Two  large  oaken 
vats  or  hogsheads,  open  at  one  end,  have  each  a 
wooden  grate  or  hurdle  fixed  about  a  foot  above 
their  bottom.     On  each  of  these,  grates  is  placed 
a  layer  of  the  green  twigs  of  the  vine.     The 
vessels  may  then  be  filled  with  the  foot-stalks  of 
grapes,  called   rape,   in  order   to  increase  the 
strength  of  the  fermentable  matter.     The  vessels 
being  thus  prepared,  one  of  them  must  be  filled 
to  the  top  with  the  wine  to  be  fermented  into 
vinegar,  and  the  other  must  only  be  half  filled. 
A  fermentation,  with  increase  of  heat,  soon  takes 


CHEMISTRY. 


473 


place  in  the  half  filled  vessel,  and  at  the  end  of 
very  twenty-four  hours  this  must  be  filled  up 
with  liquor  from  the  full  vessel.  The  fermentation 
only  goes  on  in  the  half  filled  vessel,  and,  by  ex- 
thanging  the  liquor  every  twenty-four  hours,  the 
fermentation  is  checked,  and  goes  on  in  each  vessel 
alternately.  In  about  iwelve  or  fifteen  days  the 
rinegar  is  formed  ;•  though  during  winter  longer 
time  is  necessary. 

1141.  Vinegar  has  generally  the  color  of  the 
liquor  from  which  it  was  fermented,  a  sour  taste, 
and   an  agreeable   smell.     Its   specific   gravity 
varies  from  1-8135  to  1-0251.     It  is  liable  to 
spontaneous   decomposition ;    but   Scheele  dis- 
covered that  by  making  it  boil  for  a  few  seconds, 
and  corking  it  in  bottles,  it  may  be    made  to 
keep  a  very  long  time.     Vinegar  contains  one 
or   more  vegetable   acids,  besides   the   acetic ; 
and    likewise    mucilage,    tartar,   and    coloring 
matter. 

1142.  When  distilled  by  the  heat  of  a  water- 
bath,  until  about  two-thirds  have  passed  over, 
the  impurities  are  left  behind.     The  liquor  which 
passes  over  is  limpid   as  water,  of  an  agreeable 
odor,  and  a  strong  acid  taste.     This  is  distilled 
vinegar,  or  the  acetous  acid  of  the   chemists, 
and  it  consists  of  the  acetic  acid  combined  with 
a  portion  of  water.     It  will  keep  any  length  of 
time  in  close  vessels.  Exposed  to  a  moderate  heat 
it  wholly  evaporates  without  change.     Exposed 
to  cold  most  of  the  aqueous  part  congeals,  and 
what  remains  liquid  is  the  acid  in  a  high  state  of 
concentration.     Mr.  Lowitz  has  proved  that  the 
acid  itself,  however  much  it  may  be  concentrated, 
congeals  at  22°  below  0. 

1143.  \Vhen  acetate  of  copper  is  reduced  to 
powder,  and  distilled,  at  first  there  conies  over  a 
liquor  nearly  tasteless  and  colorless,  and  after- 
wards a  highly  concentrated  acid.     When  the 
heat  is  continued  until  the  bottom  of  the  retort 
is  red-hot,  no  more  acid  comes  over,  and  there 
remains  a  powder  of  the  color  of  copper.     The 
acid  product,  which  should  be  collected  in  a 
receiver  by  itself,   is  tinged   green    by  a  little 
copper  which  comes  over  with  it;  but,  by  dis- 
tilling again  with  a  gentle  heat,  it  is  obtained 
transparent  and  colorless  like  water.     This  acid 
is   very  pungent  and   concentrated  ;  and  is  the 
radical  vinegar,  or  the  vinegar  of  Venus  of  the 
alchemists. 

1144.  It  was  first  supposed  by  Berthollet  and 
others,  that  the  acid,  in  this  case,  combined  with 
a  new  portion  of  oxygen,  obtained  from   the 
oxide  of  copper,  from  which  it  was  distilled. 
Hence  the  name  of  acetic  acid,  which  marked  the 
highest  dose  of  oxygen  which  could  combine  with 
any  basis.  But  Adet,  Darracq,  Proust,  and  others, 
have  demonstrated  that  radical  vinegar  differs  in 
no  respect  from  acetous  acid,  except  in  being 
much  more  concentrated,   and  in   being  more 
completely  freed  of  the  impurities,  which,  in  some 
degree,  contaminate  the  former,  as  well  as  common 
vinegar.   The  opinion  then  of  the  basis  of  vinegar 
combining  with  different  doses  of  oxygen,  so  as 
to  constitute  acids  with  different  properties,  is 
now  given  up. 

1145.  Lowitz,  of  Petersburg,  has  pointed  out 
another  method  of  obtaining  acetic  acid  in  a 
high   state  of  concentration.     To  three  parts  of 


acetate  of  potash  add  four  parts  of  sulphuric 
acid,  and  distil  off  the  acetic  acid.  The  sulphuric 
acid  combines  with  the  potassa,  and  sets  loose 
the  acetic ;  but  a  portion  of  the  former  comes 
over  with  the  latter.  This  may  be  separated 
by  distilling  the  product  again  from  acetate  of 
baryta. 

1146.  The  specific  gravity  of  distilled  vinegar 
varies  from  1-007  to  1-0095;  but  that  of  radical 
vinegar  is  as  high  as  1-080.     The  radical  vinegar 
is  very  pungent  and  acrid  ;  it  soon  corrodes  the 
skin,  and  changes  vegetable  blues  to  red.     It  is 
very  volatile,  and  readily  takes  fire.    It  combines 
with  water  in  any  proportion,  and  during  mixture 
much  heat  is  evolved. 

1147.  This  acid  crystallises  when  prepared  in 
the  way  last  described.     It  may  also  be  made  to 
crystallise  when  made  into  a  paste,  with  charcoal, 
and   distilled  with  the  heat  of  a  water-bath,  or 
212°,  which  expels  the  water  combined  with  it. 
The  heat  being  afterwards  raised,  the  acid  comes 
over,  and  crystallises  in  the  receiver,  provided  it 
be  changed. 

1148.  This  acid  oxidises  iron,  zinc,  copper, 
nickel,  tin ;  and  is  not  known  to  act  upon  the 
other  metals.      It  combines  with  alkalis,  earths, 
and  metallic  oxides,  and  the  salts  it  forms  with 
these   substances  are    known  by  the   name  of 
acetates. 

1 149.  It  is  decomposed  by  sulphuric  and  ni- 
tric acids ;  it  dissolves  the  boracic,  and  absorbs 
carbonic  acid.     It   combines  a  variety   of   ve- 
getable substances,  such  as  oils,  mucilage,  and 
aromatics. 

1150.  Berzelius  gives  the  proportional  com- 
ponents of  acetic  acid, 

Carbon  .  .  .  4  6- 83 
Oxygen  .  .  .  46'82 
Hydrogen  .  .  6-35 

100-00 
OXALIC  ACID. 

1151.  The  oxalic  acid  exists  ready  formed  in 
the  oxalis  acetosella,  or  wood  sorrel,  and  other 
plants  of  that  genus,  as  was  discovered  by  Scheele, 
to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  discovery  of  this 
acid.    It  has  also  been  called  the  saccharine  acid, 
or  acid  of  sugar,  because  it  is  commonly  prepared 
from  this  substance. 

1152.  The  process  commonly  employed  for  its 
preparation,  is  that  which  was  recommended  by 
Bergman.     An  ounce  of  white  sugar  powdered, 
is  put  into  a  tubulated  retort,   with  three  ounces 
of  nitric  acid,  of  the  specific  gravity  of  1-567. 
The  sugar  dissolves,   and  fumes  of  nitrous  acid 
escape.     Then  a  receiver  is  fitted,  and  the  liquor 
made  to  boil,  which  causes  much  nitrous  gas  to 
rise.     When   the  liquor  in  the  retort  acquires  a 
reddish-brown  color,  three  ounces  more  of  the 
nitric  acid  are  added,   and   the  boiling  is  con- 
tinued until  the  liquor  becomes  colorless.     The 
contents  of  the  retort  being  now  emptied  into  a 
broad  vessel,  the  oxalic  acid,  formed  during  the 
boiling,   shoots   into  quadrilateral  prisms  which 
are  often  affixed  to  each  other  at  an  angle  of  45°. 
These  crystals  being  collected,  and  dried  upon 
blotting  paper,   may  be  farther  purified  by  solu 
tion  in  distilled  water,  evaporating  and  crystal- 


474 


CHEMISTRY. 


lising  them  a  second  time.  If  two  ounces  of 
nitric  acid  be  added  to  the  liquid  residuum, 
boiled  and  crystallised  as  before,  an  additional 
quantity  of  the  oxalic  acid  may  be  obtained. 

1153.  By  the  same  process,  oxalic  acid  may 
be  obtained  from  gum  arabic,  alcohol,  honey, 
wool,  hair,  and  a  variety  of  animal  and  vegetable 
substances.    We  have  obtained  it  from  powdered 
peat,  when  treated  in  this  manner. 

1154.  Oxalic  acid,  thus  prepared,  is  in  the 
form  of  four-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  two-si- 
ded summits.      They  are  transparent,  and  of  a 
brilliant  white  color  ;  have  a  very  acid  taste,  and 
redden  all  vegetable  blues,  except  indigo. 

1155.  These  crystals  dissolve  in  water  with  a 
crackling  noise.     Boiling  water  dissolves  its  own 
weight,  and  water  65°  half  its  weight  of  them. 
Boiling  alcohol  dissolves  56  parts  in  100  of  its 
weight  of  these  crystals,  and  at  medium  tempera- 
ture, only  forty  parts.     Liquid  oxalic  acid  has  a 
very  acrid  taste  when  concentrated,   but  when 
much  diluted  it  is  a  very  agreeable  acid.  Accord- 
ing to  Morveau,  one  part  of  crystallised  acid, 
conveys  a  sensible  acidity  to  2633  parts  of  water. 
Water  may  be  evaporated  from  it,  without  carry- 
ing any  of  the  acid  along  with  it. 

1156.  This  acid  oxidises  lead,  copper,  iron, 
tin,  bismuth,  nickel,  cobalt,  zinc,  manganese ;  but 
does  not  act  upon  gold,  platinum,  silver,  or  mer- 
cury.    Jt  combines  with  alkalis,  earths,  and  me- 
tallic oxides ;  and  the  salts  it  forms  are  called 
oxalates. 

1157.  When  the  crystals  of  oxalic  acid  are  ex- 
posed to  heat,  a  white  smoke  arises,  which  is  very 
disagreeable  to  the  eyes  and  nostrils.     The  resi- 
duum is  whiter  than  the  acid  had  been,  and  -feths 
of  its  weight  is  lost,  which  is  recovered  by  expo- 
sure to  the  air.    WThen  distilled  with  a  strong 
heat,  it  yields  a  great  quantity  of  carbonic  acid 
gas,  and  of  carbureted  hydrogen  gas,  while  char- 
coal remains  behind. 

1158.  Muriatic  and  the  acetic  acids  dissolve 
the  oxalic,  but  without  altering  it.     The  sulphu- 
ric acid,  when  assisted  by  heat,  partly  decomposes 
it,  and  charcoal  is  formed.     At  a  boiling  heat, 
nitric  acid  decomposes,  and  converts  it  into  car- 
bonic acid  and  water. — Hence,  in  the  formation 
of  this  acid,  the  nitric  acid  should  not  be  added 
in  excess.  An  accurate  observation  of  Dr.  Thom- 
son, determines  its  composition  as  follows : 

Oxygen  ....  64 
Carbon  ....  32 
Hydrogen  ...  4 

100 

1159.  Its  property  of  forming  an  insoluble 
compound  with  lime  renders  it  very  useful  for 
detecting  the  presence  of  lime  in  solutions.     It 
takes  lime  from  all  the  other  acids ;  and,  if  a  little 
of  it  be  dropped  into  the  solution  of  any  salt  of 
lime,  a  white  cloud  is  formed,  which  soon  falls  to 
the  bottom.      In  this  way  lime  may  be  pre- 
cipitated from  its  union  with  any  of  the  other 
acids. 

TARTARIC  ACID. 

1160.  Tartar,  or  cream  of  tartar,  a  substance 
which  is  evolved  during  the  fermentation  of  wine, 
lias  long  been  the  object  of  chemical  investigation. 


It  was  long  ago  discovered  to  be  an  acid  united 
to  potassa ;  but  Scheele  was  the  first  who  ob- 
tained it  in  an  uncombined  state. 

1161.  To  obtain  the  tartaric  acid,  the  sub- 
stance called  tartar,  or  cream  of  tartar  (bitartrate 
of  potassa),is  boiled  in  water,  and  powdered  chalk 
added  until  effervescence  ceases,  and  the  liquor 
no  longer  reddens  vegetable  blues.   Being  allowed 
to  cool,   the  liquor  is  thrown  upon  a  filter,  and 
well  washed.     A  white  powder  is  left  upon  the 
filter,  which  is  tartaric  acid  combined  with  lime. 
This  powder  being  put  into  a  mattrass,  and  di- 
luted with  water,  has  as  much  sulphuric  acid 
added  to  it  as  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  chalk 
employed.     Allow  it  to  digest  twelve  hours  in  a 
moderate  heat,  and  stir  it  occasionally.      The 
sulphuric  acid  combines  with  the  lime,   and  falls 
to  the  bottom,  while  the  tartaric  acid  remains 
dissolved  in  the  water.    The  sulphate  of  lime 
being  allowed  to  subside,  the  clear  liquor  is  de- 
canted off,  and  a  little  acetate  of  lead  dropped  in 
which  forms  a  white  cloud,  if  any  sulphuric  acid 
should  remain.     Should  this  be  the  case,   the 
liquor  must  be  digested  with  more  tartratc  of 
lime,  until  all  the  sulphuric  acid  be  absorbed. 
If  not,  the  liquid,  being  slowly  evaporated,  de- 
posits about  one-third  of  the  weight  of  the  tartar 
employed,  of  tartaric  acid  in  a  crystallised  form. 
These  crystals  may  be  purified   by  dissolving 
them  again   in  distilled  water,  and  crystallising 
them    a    second    time    by    slow    evaporation. 
Fourcroy  thinks  this  acid  exists,  in  a  state  o. 
purity,  in  some  vegetables ;  and  Vauquelin  found 
a  64th  part  in  the  pulp  of  the  tamarind. 

1162.  The  crystals  of  tartaric  acid  are  exceed- 
ingly various  in  their  figure,  size,  and  mode  of 
arrangement.  They  have  a  sharp  acid  taste,  and, 
diluted  with  water,  the  taste  resembles  that  of 
lemon  juice.     The  acid  strongly  reddens  vegeta- 
ble blue  colors.     The  crystals  do  not  decompose 
when  exposed  to  the  air.    They  are  very  soluble 
in  water,  and  a  concentrated  solution  does  not 
lose  its  acid  properties  in  the  air ;  though  one 
that  is  much  diluted  is  apt  to  do  so. 

1163.  When  exposed  to  heat  in  an  open  fire 
the  crystals  burn,  leaving  a  spongy  residuum  o. 
charcoal,  in  which  a  little  lime  has  been  detected. 
When  distilled  in  close  vessels  this  acid  is  con- 
verted  into  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  carbureted 
hydrogen  gas,  a  colored  oil,  and  a  reddish  acid 
liquor ;  which  was  formerly  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  pyrotartarous  acid. 

1164.  Hermbstad  ascertained  that  the  tartaric 
acid,  after  being  repeatedly  distilled  with  six  times 
its  weight  of  nitric  acid,  is  converted  into  the 
oxalic  acid.     Front  360  parts  of  tartaric  acid  he 
obtained,  by  this  process,  560  parts  of  oxalic 
acid. 

1165.  This  acid  has  never  been  applied  to 
any  use,  but  some  of  its  compounds  are  much 
used  in  medicine.     It  combines  in  two  different 
proportions  with  a  great  variety  of  bases.     In 
order  to  detect  the  presence  of  this  acid  in  any 
liquor,  it  is  only  necessary  to  drop  in  a  little 
of  the   solution  of  potassa,  which,  combining 
with  the  acid,  will  form  a  cloud,  or  insoluble  salt. 

1 166.  This  acid  combines  with  metallic  oxides, 
forming  salts  which  are  known  by  the  name  of 
tarlrates. 


CHEMISTRY. 


475 


1 167.  According  to  Ure,  the  constituents  of  this 
acid  are 


Oxygen  . 

Carbon   . 
Hydrogen 


65-82 

31-42 

2-76 

100-00 


CITRIC  ACID. 

1168.  It  has  long  been  known  that  the  juice 
of  oranges  and  lemons  is  an  acid  ;  but  it  is  not 
pure,  as  it  contains  mucilage,  which  renders  it 
liable  to  spontaneous  decomposition. 

1169.  Mr.  Georgius,  in  1774,  published  in  the 
Swedish  Memoirs  a  process  for  obtaining  the 
acid  pure.     He  filled  bottles  with  lemon  juice, 
and  having  corked  them  close  set  them  in  a  cellar. 
In  four  years  the  mucilage  had  dropped  to  the 
bottom  in  flakes,  a  thick  crust  had  formed  at  the 
cork,  and  the  liquid  was  become  limpid  as  water. 
Having  decanted  off  this  liquid  he  exposed  it  to 
a   cold    of  23°,  which   froze  great   part  of  the 
water,  and  left  behind  a  pretty  strong  acid.     The 
acid  was  not,  however,  perfectly  pure,  and  it  was 
Scheele  who  first  pointed  out  the  method  of  ob- 
taining thvs  acid  in  purity,  and  demonstrated  its 
peculiar  properties. 

1170.  Having  filtered  lemon  juice,  add  pow- 
dered chalk  to  it,  in  small  quantities,  as  long  as 
effervescence  takes  place,  or  until  the  acid  be  sa- 
turated.    The  lime  forms  an  insoluble  compound 
with  the  citric  acid,  and  falls  to  the  bottom  in  the 
form  of  a  white  powder.     This  powder  being 
thrown  upon  a  filter,   and  washed  with   warm 
•water  until  it  comes  off  clear,  must  be  put  into 
a  matrass  with   six  times  its  weight  of  water. 
Then  add  as  much  sulphuric  acid  as  may  be 
sufficient  to  saturate  the  lime  and  boil  it  for  some 
minutes.     The  sulphuric  acid  now   forms  an  in- 
soluble compound  with  the  lime,  while  the  citric 
acid  remains  dissolved  in  the  water.     Having 
thrown  the  sulphate  of  lime  upon  a  filter,  and 
washed  off  the  citric  acid  with  water,  this  acid 
is  obtained  in  a  liquid  form.     The  liquid  being 
now  evaporated  to  the  consistence  of  syrup,  and 
set  aside  to  cool,  the  citric  acid  is  obtained  in  a 
crystallised  form. 

1171.  Mr.  Scheele  advises  to  add  sulphuric 
acid  in  excess,  to  ensure  the  separation  of  the 
lime,  and  Dize  thinks  this  necessary  to  dissolve 
the  mucilage  which  adheres  to  the  citric  acid. 
But  Proust  has  proved  that  when  too  great  an 
excess  of  the  sulphuric  acid  is  used,  it  acts  upon 
the  citric  acid  itself,  converts  part  of  it  into  char- 
coal, and  prevents  it  from  crystallising.     This 
mistake  is  corrected  by  adding  a  little  chalk. 
This  chemist  ascertained  that  ninety-four  parts 
of  lemon  juice  were  necessary  to  saturate  four 
parts  of  chalk  ;  and  seven  and  a  half  parts  of 
citrate  of   lime  were  obtained ;    to  decompose 
which  required  twenty  parts  of  sulphuric  acid, 
of  the  specific  gravity  1-15.     See,  for  an  account 
of  several  modern  improvements  in  the  process, 
Parties'  Chemical  Essays,  vol.  iii. 

1172.  The   crystals  of  citric  acid  are  rhom- 
boidal  prisms.     Their  taste  is  exceedingly  acid, 
and  even  painful ;  but,  when  sufficiently  diluted 
with  water,  the  acid  is  cooling  and  pleasant.  The 


acid  has  a  slight  odor  of  lemons,  and  redden* 
vegetable  blues. 

1173.  When  thrown  in  the  fire  the  crystals 
melt,  exhale  an  acrid  vapor,  and  leave  behind  a 
small  quantity'  of  charcoal.     Distilled  in  close 
vessels,  part  evaporates  without  decomposition, 
and  the  remainder  is  converted  into  acetic  acid, 
carbonic  acid,    and    carbureted    hydrogen    gas, 
which  comes  over ;  and  charcoal  is  left  in  the 
retort. 

1174.  This  acid  is  very  soluble  in  water.     Ac- 
cording to  VauqueHn  seventy-five  parts  of  cold 
water  dissolves   100  parts  of  its  crystals ;  and 
boiling  water  dissolves  twice  its  weight  of  them. 
The  crystals  are  not  altered  by  exposure  to  the 
air ;  and  a  strong  solution  may  be  kept  a  long 
time  in  close  vessels,  though  it  putrifies  and  is 
decomposed  at  last. 

1175.  Concentrated   sulphuric  acid   converts 
the  citric  into  acetic  acid.     Scheele  could  not 
convert  it  into  oxalic  acid  by  treating  it  with  the 
nitric   acid ;   but  Westrumb  effected  this   con- 
version.    By  treating  sixty  grains  of  citric  acid 
with  200  grains  of  nitric  acid,  he  got  thirty  grains 
of  oxalic  acid.     With  300  grains  of  nitric  acid 
he  obtained  only  fifteen  grains  of  oxalic  acid  ; 
and  with  600  grains  of  nitric  acid,  no  oxalic  acid 
was  obtained.     On  distilling  these  products,  par- 
ticularly  the  last,   it  was  found  to  consist  of 
vinegar  mixed  with  nitric  acid.     He  therefore 
infers  that  Scheele  had  used  too  great  a  propor- 
tion of  nitric  acid,  by  which  the  citric  acid  had 
been  converted  into  the  acetic  instead  of  the 
oxalic  acid. 

1176.  Berzelius  gives  the  constituents  of  citric 
acid  as  follows : — 


Oxygen  . 
Hydrogen 
Carbon  , 


54-831 

3-800 

41-369 

100-000 


1177.  The  salts  it  forms  with  metallic  oxides 
are  called  citrates. 

1178.  The  uses  of  this  acid  in  making  lemon- 
ade, punch,  and  other  drinks,  and  as  a  seasoner 
for  food  are  well  known.     The  crystals  of  the 
acid  have  lately  been  introduced  in  place  of  the 
expressed  juice  of  lemons,  as  much  of  the  acid 
can  thus,  be  conveyed  under  a  small  bulk.     But 
they  have  not  the  peculiar  flavor  of  the  natural 
juice,  which  seems  owing  to  their  wanting  the 
aromatic  oils  of  the  fruits. 

MALIC  ACID. 

1179.  This  acid,  as  its  name  imports,  abounds 
in  apples,  and  is  found  in  various  fruits  and  plants 
ready  formed.     Its  properties  were  first  discover- 
ed by  Scheele,  who  proposed  the  following  pro- 
cess for  extracting  it. 

1180.  Having  bruised  four  apples,  squeeze  out 
the  juice,   and  filter  it  through  a  linen  cloth 
Saturate  this  juice  with  potassa,  and  add  to  it 
acetate  of  lead  until  no  more  precipitation  en- 
sues.    The  acetic  acid  combines  with  the  potassa, 
and   remains  with  it   dissolved   in  the  liquor ; 
while  the  lead  combines  with  the  malic  acid,  and 
goes  to  the  bottom  with  it  as  an  insoluble  pow- 
der.    Wash  this  precipitate  carefully  with  water 


476 


CHEMISTRY. 


and  then  pour  upon  it  sulphuric  acid  diluted  with 
•water,  until  the  liquor  has  a  sharp  acid  taste  with- 
out any  of  that  sweetness  which  continues  as  long 
as  any  lead  remains  in  it.  The  sulphuric  acid 
forms  an  insoluble  compound  with  the  lead,  lea- 
ving the  malic  acid  in  the  liquor.  By  washing 
the  sulphate  of  lead  upon  a  filter,  the  pure  malic 
acid  is  obtained  combined  with  water. 

1181.  Vauquelin  has  ascertained  that  it  may 
be  extracted  in  abundance  from  the  house-leek, 
or  sempervivum  tectorum,  where  it  exists  in  union 
with  lime.     To  the  juice  of  the  house-leek  he 
added  acetate  of  lead,  as  long  as  any  precipitation 
took  place.      Having  washed  the  precipitate,  he 
decomposed  it  by  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  as  di- 
rected by  Scheele. 

1182.  Malic  acid  has  also  been  obtained  by 
the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  sugar.     Equal  parts 
of  nitric  acid  and  sugar  being  distilled  until  they 
assume  a  brown  color,  which  happens  when  all 
the  nitric  acid  is  abstracted ;  the  oxalic  acid,  which 
may  have  been  formed,  is  precipitated  by  lime 
water.     Another  acid  remains  which  should   be 
saturated  with  lime,  and   filtered.     Pour  upon 
this  filtered  liquor  acetate  of  lead  until  no  more 
precipitation  ensues.     The  precipitate  is  the  ma- 
lic acid  combined  with  lead,  which  may  be  sepa- 
rated by  diluted"  sulphuric  acid  as  before. 

1183.  Malic  acid,  thus  obtained,  is  of  a  reddish 
brown  color,  and  very  acid  taste.     When  evapo- 
rated it  becomes  thick  and  viscid,  but  does  not 
crystallise.      Exposed  in  thin  layers  to  a  dry  at- 
mosphere, it  dries  and  assumes  the  appearance  of 
varnish ;  and  it  is  thought,  at  least  with  certain 
additions  to  correct  its  solubility  in  water,  it 
might  make  a  very  brilliant  varnish.     It  reddens 
vegetable  blues.     It  is  very  soluble  in  water,  and 
decomposes  spontaneously  when  kept  in  vessels. 

1184.  When  heated  in  open  vessels  it  swells, 
exhales  acrid  fumes,  and  leaves  a  porous  and  vo- 
luminous charcoal.     When  distilled,  it  yields  aci- 
dified water,  a  large  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  gas, 
a  little  carbureted  hydrogen  gas  ;  and  a  porous 
coal  is  left  in  the  retort. 

1185.  Sulphuric  acid  converts  part  of  it  into 
charcoal ;  and  nitric  acid  converts  it  into  oxalic 
acid.     Hence  malic  acid  is  composed  of  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  carbon.     Vauquelin's  proportions 


Hydrogen  . 

Carbon 

Oxygen 


16-8 
28-3 
54-9 

100-0 


1186.  The  malic  has  much  resemblance  to  the 
citric  acid;  but  it  differs  from  the  latter,    1st.  In 
not  forming  crystals.     2nd.  In  forming  a  soluble 
salt  with  lime,  while  citrate  of  lime  is  almost  in- 
soluble, even  in  boiling  water.     3rd.  In  precipi- 
tating mercury,  lead,  and  silver  from  nitrous  acid 
and  even  diluted  solution  of  gold ;  while  citric 
acid  does  not  alter  any  of  these  solutions.     4th. 
In  having  a  less  affinity  than  the  citric  acid  for 
lime.  *.±. 

1 187.  The  malic  combines  with  metallic  oxides, 
forming  salts  which  have  obtained  the  name  of 
malates. 


GALLIC  ACID. 

1188.  The  excrescence  upon  oak  trees  called 
the  gall-nut,  contains  the  gallic  acid  combined 
with  tannin.     This  acid  exists  in  a  great  variety 
of  plants;  and  in  the  gall  plant,  from  which  it 
seems  to  have  derived  its  name,  it  is  found  com- 
bined not  only  with  tannin,  but  with  a  portion 
of  camphor.   The  Dijon  Academicians  were  the 
first  who  published  experiments  on  this  substance 
in  1777 ;  but  it  was  Scheele  who  first  obtained 
the  gallic  acid  nearly  in  a  state  of  purity. 

1189.  Having  exposed  an  infusion  of  gall-nuts 
a  long  time  to  the  air,  and  occasionally  removed 
the  mouldy  crust  which  gathers  on  its  surface,  he 
observed  that  it  deposited  a  crystalline  sediment 
of  an  acid  taste.   Having  collected  a  large  quan- 
tity   of    this    sediment,   and    washed    it    with 
cold  water,  he  dissolved  it  in  hot  water,  filtered, 
and  evaporated  the  liquid  very  slowly.   It  yielded 
an  acid  salt  in  crystals  as  fine  as  sand. 

1190.  Deyeux  obtained  the  same  acid  by  ex- 
posing gall-nuts  in  a  large  glass  retort  to  a  heat 
which  was  slowly  and  cautiously  raised.     The 
gallic  acid  was  sublimed  in  the  form  of  white 
crystalline  plates.     But  the  heat  must  not  be  too 
great,  and  the  process  must  be  stopped  before 
any  oil  comes  over  ;  otherwise  the  labor  will  be 
lost. 

1191.  When  pure,  the  gallic  acid  is  in  the 
form  of  transparent  octahedral  plates.      It  tastes 
acid,  and  somewhat  astringent ;  and  has  a  pecu- 
liar aromatic  odor  when  heated. 

1192.  It  is  soluble  in  twelve  parts  of  cold 
water,  and  in  one  and  a  half  of  boiling  water. 
The  acid  soon  decomposes  when  the  solution  is 
heated.     Cold  alcohol  dissolves  one-fourth  of  its 
weight  of  this  acid,  and,  when  boiling  hot,  it  dis- 
solves a  quantity  equal  to  its  own  weight.     It  is 
also  soluble  in  ether. 

1193.  By  a  moderate  heat  it  sublimes  without 
alteration ;  but  a  strong  heat  decomposes,  and 
converts  it  into  an  acid  water,  carbureted  hydro- 
gen gas,  carbonic  acid  gas,  oil,  and   charcoal. 
When  distilled  it  yields  oxygen  gas,  an  acid  li- 
quor; and  some  gallic  acid  comes  over  unchanged, 
while  charcoal  remains  in  the  retort.     If  whati 
comes  over  into  the  receiver  be  repeatedly  dis- 
tilled, the  same  products  are  obtained,  until  the 
acid  is  wholly  decomposed.     Or  the  acid  may 
be  wholly  decomposed  by  the  repeated  distillation 
of  a  solution  of  it  in  water. 

1194.  The  crystals  of  this  acid  do  not  alter  by 
exposure  to  the  air;  but,  when  an  aqueous  solution 
of  it  is  long  exposed,  it  becomes  brown,  mouldy 
at  the  surface,  and  the  acid  is  destroyed.  Scheele, 
by  treating  the  gallic  with  the  nitric  acid,  in  the 
usual  way,  converted  it  into  the  oxalic  acid. 

1195.  From  these   circumstances  it  appears 
that  the  gallic  acid,  like  the  other  vegetable  acids, 
is  composed  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon. 
Berzelius's  proportions  of  which  are 


Hydrogen 
Carbon 
Oxygen     . 


5-00 
56-64 
38-36 

100-00 


1 196.  It  displaces  the  carbonic  acid,  and  com- 
bines with  alkaline  substances,  and  the  salts  it 


CHEMISTRY. 


477 


forms  have  obtained  the  name  of  gallates  ;  but 
these  have  scarcely  been  examined.  When  drop- 
ped into  water  of  baryta,  strontia,  or  lime,  it 
produces  a  bluish-red  color,  and  occasions  flaky 
precipitates  consisting  of  the  acid  combined  with 
ihese  earths.  It  also  precipitates  solutions  of 
glucina,  yttria,  and  zirconia  in  acids,  and  this 
forms  a  test  by  which  these  are  distinguished  from 
the  other  earths. 

1197.  It  changes  the  color,  and  produces  pre- 
cipitates  in   many   of    the   metallic    solutions. 
Richter  has  shown  that  it  does  not  take  iron  from 
the  sulphuric  acid,  unless  it  be  assisted  by  a  sub- 
stance which  has  an  affinity  for  that  acid ;  and 
that  it  strikes  a  black  color  with  all  the  oxides  of 
iron.     This,  however,  is  denied  by  Proust  and 
Berthollet,  whose  experiments  seern  to  establish 
an  opposite  opinion. 

1198.  The  gallic  is  reckoned  one  of  the  colo- 
rific acids,  and  it  seems  to  produce  this  effect 
upon  the  oxides  of  metals,  by  making  them  ap- 
proach to  the  metallic  state.   Gold  it  completely 
reduces,  when  presented  to  it  in  solution.    Hence 
this  acid  is  used  as  a  test  to  distinguish  metals, 
from  the  color  it  strikes  when  dropped  into  their 
solutions.  But  it  is  still  extremely  doubtful  whe- 
ther the  gallic  acid  possesses  this  property  in  itself, 
or  owes  it  to  a  portion  of  tannin  in  combination 
with  it.  Among  the  many  processes  for  obtaining 
this  acid,  the  following  is  pointed   out  by  Mr. 
Brande  as  deserving  notice  : — Moisten  bruised 
gall-nuts,  and  expose  them  for  four  or  five  weeks 
to  a  temperature  of  about  80°.     A  mouldy  paste 
is  formed,  which  is  to  be  squeezed  dry  and  digested 
in  boiling  water.     It  then  affords  a  solution  of 
gallic  acid,  which  may  be  whitened  by  animal 
charcoal,  and  which,  on  evaporation,  yields  gallic 
acid  crystals,  in  white  needles.     For  an  account 
of  tannin  and  a  further  account  of  gallic  acid, 
see   ADDENDA  to  this  ART. 

BENZOIC  ACID. 

1199.  This  acid  is  obtained  from  a  resin  called 
Benzoin,  or  Benjamin,  which  abounds  in  several 
plants,  but  especially  the  stryax  benzoe,  a  tree 
which  grows  in  Sumatra,  and  other  parts  of  the 
East  Indies.     It  is  likewise  obtained  from  the 
balsam  of  Peru   and   Tolu  ;  from  vanilla,  and 
liquid  amber.     It  exists  in  the  urine  of  children, 
and  in  that  of  some  adults ;  but  constantly  in 
the  urine  of  quadrupeds  which  live  on  grass  and 
hay,  especially  in  that  of  the  horse  and  cow.     It 
is   supposed    to  ex-ist  in   many  of  the  grasses, 
especially  in  the  anthoxanthum  odoratum,  which 
•gives  the  fine  scent  to  hay. 

1200.  This  acid  was  first  described,  1608,  by 
Blaise  de  Vigenere,  under  the  name  of  flowers  of 
benzoin  ;  but  is  now  called  benzoic  acid. 

1201.  It  is  usually  obtained  by  sublimation, 
from  a  quantity  of  coarsely  powdered  benzoin 
put  into  an  earthen  pot,  the  mouth  of  which  is 
covered  by  a  cone  of  thick  paper,  to  which  the 
benzoic  acid  attaches  itself.     The  heat  applied  is 
that   of  a  sand-bath,  well  regulated ;    because, 
without  this,  empyreumatic  oil  is  apt  to  rise,  and 
contaminate  the  acid .     Neuman  proposed  moist- 
ening the  benzoin  with  alcohol,  and  the  acid  rises 
after  the  alcohol  is  expelled.     Geoffrey,  in  1773, 
obtained  this   acid  by  digesting  benzoin   in  hot 
water,  which  deposits  crystals  of  the  acid  while 
*he  water  cools. 


1202.  Scheele  obtained   the  benzoic  acid  by 
dissolving  benzoin  in  water  mixed  with  lime,  so 
as  to  be  of  the  consistence  of  milk,  poured  upon 
the  benzoin  in  small  portions  at  a  time.     These 
were  boiled  together  in  a  tinned  pan,  and  con- 
stantly stirred,  until  the  lime  had  combined  with 
the  acid.     The  liquor  was  then  allowed  to  settle, 
and  the  limpid  part  decanted  off.     Successive 
additions  of  water  were  made,  boiled,  stirred,  and 
decanted  as  before,  until  the  whole  acid  was  ex- 
tracted  in   union   with   the   lime.     The  milky 
lime-water  ought  not  to  be  added  to  the  benzoin 
in  too  large  a  quantity  at  a  time,  otherwise  the 
latter  is  apt  to  coagulate,  and  will  not  yield  its 
acid.     All  these  portions  of  decanted  liquor  be- 
ing added  and  filtered,  and  washed   upon  the 
filter  with  hot  water,  the  acid  in  union  with  lime, 
is  obtained  in  limpid  solution.   The  liquid, being 
now  considerably  reduced  by  evaporation,  must 
be  strained  into  a  glass  vessel,  to  extract  some 
which  dissolves  in  it.     When  cool,  muriatic  acid 
is  added,  with  constant  stirring,  until  no  precipi- 
tation ensues,  or  until  the  liquor  begins  to  taste 
sour.     The  muriatic  acid  combines,  and  remains 
soluble  with   the  lime ;  while  the  benzoic  acid 
is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder. 

1203.  Mr.  Hatchett  digested  benzoin  in  sul- 
phuric acid,  and,  from  the  compound,  sublimed 
the  benzoic  acid  by  a  gentle  heat.     By  this  pro- 
cess he  obtained  this   acid  in  a  high  state  of 
purity. 

1204.  Benzoic  acid,  thus  obtained,  is  a  light 
white  powder ;    its   taste   acrid   and   somewhat 
bitter ;  its  smell  peculiar  and  aromatic ,  its  spe- 
cific gravity  0-667.     It  hardly  affects  vegetable 
blues,  but  reddens  infusion  of  turnsol,  especially 
when  hot. 

1205.  With  a  moderate  heat  it  melts  into  a 
soft  brown  spongy  substance,  and  forms  a  ra- 
diated crust  on  its   surface  while   cooling.     A 
greater  heat  volatilises  this  acid,  with  a  strong 
odor.     In  contact  with   flame  it  burns,  without 
leaving  a  residuum.     Distilled  in  close  vessels, 
part  sublimes  unaltered,  part  decomposes  into 
oil  and  carbureted  hydrogen  gas. 

1206.  It  is  scarcely  soluble  in  cold  water ;  but 
480  grains  of  boiling  water  dissolve  twenty  grains 
of  it :  nineteen  grains  of  which  are  deposited, 
when  the  water  cools,  in  long  white  feather-like 
crystals. 

1207.  It  dissolves  in  the  concentrated  sulphu- 
ric, sulphurous,  and  nitric  acids,  rendering  them 
somewhat  brown,  and  is  precipitated  from  these 
acids  by  adding  water.  Acetic  acid  also  dissolves 
it  when  hot,  and  drops  it  in  crystals  when  it 
cools,  in  the  same  way  as  water.     The  other 
acids  are  not  known  to  have  any  effect  upon  it. 

1208.  Alcohol  dissolves  it  copiously,  and  boil- 
ing alcohol  takes  up  its  own  weight  of  this  acid 
It  is  precipitated  from  alcohol  by  the  addition  o. 
water. 

1209.  It  is  not  known  to  oxidise  metals  ;  but 
it  combines  with  alkalis,  earths,   and   metallic 
oxides,  forming  salts  which  are  called  benzoates. 
Berzelius  gives  its  proportions  as  follows  : — 

Hydrogen  .  .  .  5'16 
Carbon  .  .  .  74-41 
Oxygen  .  .  .  20*43 

100-00 


478 


CHEMISTRY. 


SUCCINIC  ACID. 

1210.  It  is  so  called  from  the  Latin  name  of 
amber,  from  which  it  is  extracted.     When  this 
is  exposed  to  heat,  a  volatile  salt  is  sublimed  from 
it,  which  Agricola  called  the  salt  of  amber.  Boyle 
first  discovered  it  to  be  an  acid ;  and  it  is  now 
known  by  the  name  of  succinic  acid. 

1211.  To   prepare   succinic  acid,  a  retort  is 
half  filled  with  powdered  amber;  the  powder 
covered  with  a  quantity  of  dry  sand ;  a  receiver 
luted  on,  and  the  retort  placed  in  a  sand-bath. 
On  applying  a  moderate  heat,  there  first  passes 
over  water,  then  acetic  acid,  and  then  the  suc- 
cinic acid  attaches  itself  to  the  neck  of  the  retort. 
It'  the  distillation  be  continued,  there  passes  over 
a  thick  brown  oil,  which  has  an  acid  taste. 

1212.  To  separate  the  succinic  acid  from  the 
oil,  it  is  dissolved  in  boiling  water,  and  thrown 
upon  a  filter  on  which  there  is  a  small  quantity 
of  cotton,  previously  moistened  with  oil  of  am- 
ber.    The  oil  mostly  attaches  itself  to  the  cotton, 
while  the  acid  passes  through  in  union  with  the 
water.      This  water    being  slowly  evaporated, 
the  acid  is  obtained  in  a  crystallised  form.  Mor- 
veau  has  shown  that  it  may  be  rendered  perfectly 
pure  by  distilling  from  its  crystals  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  nitric  acid,  provided  the  heat  applied 
be  not  so  great  as  to  sublime  the  succinic  acid 
along  with  the  nitric. 

1213.  The  crystals  of  this  acid  are  transparent, 
white,  shining ;  and  their  figure  is  foliated,  tri- 
angular, and  prismatic.     They  have  a  sour  taste, 
but  are  not  corrosive.     They  redden  tincture  of 
turnsol,  but  have  little  effect  upon  other  vege- 
table colors.     With  the  heat  of  a  sand-bath,  this 
acid  is  partly  sublimed  unchanged,  and  partly 
decomposed,  leaving  a  coally  residuum. 

1214.  At  the  temperature  50°  ninety-six  parts 
of  water  dissolve  one  of  this  acid.     At  52°  one 
part  of  the  acid  is  dissolved  in  twenty-four  of 
water;  and,  at  212°,  water  dissolves  the  half  of 
its  weight,  and  the  acid  crystallises  as  the  water 
cools ;  but  still  retains  more  of  the  acid  in  solu- 
tion than  it  can  dissolve  at  the  same  temperature. 
It  dissolves  in  boiling  alcohol  in  the  proportion 
of  177  parts  of  the  acid  to  240  of  the  alcohol, 
and  again  shoots  into   crystals   as  the  solution 
cools. 

1215.  The  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  dissolve 
but  do  not  decompose  it,  when  assisted  by  heat. 
Muriatic  acid  does  not  act  upon  it  when  cold, 
but  when  heated  it  forms  with  it  a  gelatinous 
coagulum. 

1216.  Berzelius  states  its  composition  to  be, 

Hydrogen  .  .  4-512 
Carbon  .  .  .  47-600 
Oxygen  .  .  .  47-888 

100-000 

1217.  This  acid  combines  with  alkalis,  earths' 
and  metallic  oxides  ;  and  the  salts  it  forms  are 
called  succinates. 

CAMPHORIC  ACID. 

1218.  This  acid,  as  the  name  imports,  is  ob- 
tained from  camphor,  a  concrete  substance  which 
exudes  from  the  laurus  camphora,  Linn,  a  ihrub 
of  the  East  Indies.    Camphor  is  so  volatile  that 


it  cannot  be  melted  in  open  vessels,  and,  when 
placed  under  hot  water,  its  vapor  rises  and  may 
be  burnt  at  the  surface.  When  burnt  m  contact 
with  oxygen,  water  is  formed,  charcoal  is  de- 
posited, and  carbonic  acid  gas  is  disengaged. 
Hence  it  consists  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  the 
latter  being  prpbably  in  great  proportion. 

1219.  The  camphoric  acid  was  first  discovered 
by  Kosegarten,  in  consequence  of  distilling  nitric 
acid  eight  times  successively  off  camphor.     The 
process,  according  to  La  Grange,  is  as  follows : — 
Put  into  a  retort  one  part  of  camphor,  and  eight 
parts  of   nitric  acid,  of  the  specific  gravity  of 
1-33.     Distil  with  a  moderate  sand  heat.     Some 
camphor  rises,  and  a  great  quantity  of  nitrous 
gas,  and  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  is  emitted.     The 
process  must  be  repeated  three  times  on  the  same 
camphor,  with  equal  additions  of  acid  each  time, 
so  that  twenty-four  parts  of  nitric  acid  are  ne- 
cessary on  the  whole,  for  one  part  of  camphor. 
After  the  third  distillation,  the  retort  being  al- 
lowed to  cool,  crystals  are  deposited,  which  are 
the  camphoric  acid ;  and  their  weight  is  some- 
what less  than  that  of  half  the  camphor  employed. 
The  crystals  may  be    washed  with  cold  water, 
and  dried  on  blotting  paper 

1220.  The  crystals  of  camphoric  acid  are  of  a 
snowy  whiteness,  and  parallelepiped  form.    They 
effloresce  in  the  air,  by  parting  with  the  water  of 
crystallisation. 

1221.  The  acid  is  soluble  in  200  parts  of  cold 
water,  and  boiling  water  dissolves  one-twelfth  of 
its   weight.      It  has  a  slightly  acid   and   bitter 
taste,  a  smell  like  that  of  saffron  ;  and  reddens 
vegetable  colors.     It  is  soluble  in  the  sulphuric 
and  muriatic  acids.     Alcohol  dissolves  it ;  and 
the  solution  being  left  in  contact  with  the  air,  the 
acid  crystallises. 

1222.  When  thrown  upon    ignited    coals,   it 
emits  a  dense  aromatic  vapor,  and   is   entirely 
dissipated.  By  a  gentle  heat  it  melts  and  is  sub- 
limed.    When  oxygen  gas  is  passed  through   it 
in  a  heated  porcelain  tube,  the  acid  is  sublimed, 
without  undergoing  any  change.     But  tviien  it  is 
distilled,  it  first  melts  and  then  sublimes;  and  its 
properties  are  then  found  to  have  undergone  a 
change.     It    now    acquires    a    strong   aromatic 
smell ;  its  taste  is  less  acrid ;  and  it  no  longer  is 
soluble  in  water ;    nor  reddens  the  tincture  01 
turnsol. 

1223.  The  compounds  which  this  acid  forms 
with  the  alkalis,  earths,  and  metallic  oxides,  are 
called  camphorates.     Its  constituent  parts  have 
not  been  ascertained. 

SUBERIC  ACID. 

1224.  Thi5  acid  is  obtained  from  cork,  which 
is  the  bark  of  the  tree  quercus  suber,  Linu.  From 
suber,  the  Latin  name  of  the  tree,  the  acid  de- 
rives its  name.    This  acid  was  long  confounded 
with  the  oxalic,  until  Bouillon  La  Grange  proved 
it  to  possess  properties  different  from  those  of 
any  other  acid. 

1225.  To  obtain    suberic    acid,  six  parts  of 
nitric  acid  of  specific  gravity  1-261   are  poured 
on  one  part  of  grated  cork,  or  broken  chips  of 
cork,  and  the  mixture  is  distilled  as  long  as  red 
vapors   continue  to  escape.      A  yellow  matter 
like  wax  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  liquid  ;  and, 


CHEMISTRY. 


while  it  is  yet  hot,  it  is  poured  into  a  glass  or 
porcelain  vessel,  placed  in  a  sand-bath  over  a 
gentle  fire,  and  constantly  stirred  with  a  glass 
rod.  The  matter  becomes  thick ;  and  when 
white  vapors  begin  to  rise  the  vessel  is  removed 
from  the  sand-bath,  and  the  matter  is  constantly 
stirred  until  it  becomes  cold.  An  orange  colored 
mass  is  thus  obtained,  of  a  strong  and  pungent 
odor  while  hot,  and  of  a  peculiar  aromatic  smell 
when  cold.  Its  consistence  is  that  of  honey. 

1226.  To  separate  the  suberic  acid  from  this 
mass,  boiling  water  is  to  be  poured  upon  it,  and 
the  heat  kept  up  until  it  becomes  liquid.     It 
must  then  be  thrown  upon  a  filter,  which  keeps 
back  what  is  insoluble  in  water.     The  filtered 
liquor,  as  it  cools,  becomes  muddy,  throws   up  a 
pellicle  to  its  surface,  and  deposits  a  powdery 
sediment.     The  sediment  being  separated  by  fil- 
tration, the  liquid  should  be  evaporated  to  dryness 
by  a  gentle  heat.     The  mass  thus  obtained  is 
suberic  acid. 

1227.  Suberic   acid,  thus  obtained,  does  not 
crystallise.     It  tastes  sour,  'and   slightly  bitter; 
reddens  vegetable  blues  ;  and  when  dropped  into 
a   solution  of  indigo  in  sulphuric  acid   (com- 
monly  called    liquid  blue)  it  changes  its  blue 
color  into  a  green. 

1228.  Water  from  60°  to  70°  of  temperature 
dissolves  only  a  very  small  proportion  of  this 
acid,  but  boiling  water  dissolves  half  its  weight 
of  it.     If  it  be  impure,  it  attracts  moisture  when 
exposed  to  the  air.     Exposed  to  light,  and  es- 
pecially the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  it  soon  be- 
comes brown. 

1229.  Exposed  to  heat  in  a  .matrass,  it  sub- 
limes, and  the  acid  is  deposited  on  the  inside  of 
the  glass  in  zones  of  different  colors.     A  stronger 
heat  converts  it  into  a  substance  resembling  dis- 
tilled oil.     It  is  not  completely  dissolved  by  the 
other  acids,  and  alcohol,  when  mixed  with  it, 
develops  an  aromatic  ether. 

1230.  It  converts  the  blue  nitrate  and  sulphate 
of  copper  into  a  green  ;  the  green  sulphate  of 
iron  into  a  deep  yellow ;  and  the  sulphate  of 
zinc  into  golden  yellow.     It  oxidises  silver,  mer- 
cury, copper,  lead,  tin,  iron,  bismuth,  arsenic, 
cobalt,  zinc,  antimony,  manganese,  and  molyb- 
denum.    It  is  not  known  to  act  on  any  of  the 
other  metals. 

123 1;  This  acid  combines  with  alkalis,  earths, 
and  metallic  oxides,  and  the  salts  it  forms  with 
these  substances,  are  called  suberates. 

MELLITIC  ACID. 

1232.  This  acid  is  derived  from  a  mineral  of 
a  honey-yellow  color,  which  has  only  been  found 
among  the  beds  of  wood-coal,  at  Arten  in  Thu- 
ringia,  and  in  Switzerland.     Induced  by  the  ac- 
cidental circumstance  of  its  color,  which  varies 
considerably,  Werner  gave  to  this  substance  the 
name  of  honig  stein  (honey-stone)  ;  which  foreign 
mineralogists  changed    into    mellitite,  from  the 
Latin  name  of  honey. 

1233.  Mellitite  is  in  some  degree  combustible, 
and  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally  of  ve- 
getable origin,  and  only  an  imperfect  variety  of 
coal.     Various  results  were  obtained  by  different 
chemists  who  analysed  it;  but  in  1799  Klaproth 
ascertained  it  to  be  compounded  of  alumina  and 


a  peculiar  acid,  to  which  he  assigned  the  name 
of  mellitic  ;  and  his  conclusions  were  confirmed 
by  Vauquelin. 

1234.  To  obtain  the  mellitic  acid,  reduce  mel- 
litite to  powder,  and  boil  it  in  about  seventy-two 
times  its  weight  of  water.     The  alumina  sepa- 
rates from  the  acid  in  flakes  ;  and  having  filtered, 
and  sufficiently  evaporated  the  liquor,  the  acid  \s 
obtained  in  a  crystallised  form. 

1235.  These  crystals  are  either  fine  needles,  or 
small  short  prisms,  with  shining  faces.     They 
are  considerably  hard.     Their  color  is  brownish; 
their  taste  sweetish-sour,  which  changes  to  bitter. 
They  are  not  very  soluble  in  water,  though  their 
degree  of  solubility  is  not  ascertained. 

1236.  They  are  decomposed  by  heat,  emitting 
a  copious  smoke,  and  leave  behind  a  quantity  of 
ashes.     This  acid  is  not  convertible  into  the  ox- 
alic acid. 

1237.  Klaproth's  analysis  gives  the  following 
as  the  composition  of  the  mellilite  : 

Mellitic  acid  .  .  46 
Alumina  ...  16 
Water  ....  38 

100 

1238.  When  it  is  distilled  in  a  retort,  the  acid  is 
completely  decomposed,  and  its  constituents 
enter  into  new  combinations.  Mellitic  acid,  like 
other  vegetable  acids,  is  composed  of  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  carbon;  though  the  proportion 
of  these  ingredients  is  not  perhaps  ascertained. 
Though  this  acid  in  some  particulars  resembles 
the  oxalic,  it  differs  in  several  respects,  and  chiefly 
in  the  nature  of  the  compounds  it  forms  with 
other  substances. 

1239.  This  acid  combines  with  alkalis,  earths, 
and  metallic  oxides,  and  the  salts  it  forms  are 
named  mellates. 

LACCIC  ACID. 

1240.  This  acid  is  strictly  speaking  of  animal 
origin,  although  it  is  generally  arranged  among 
the  vegetable  acids.      It  is  obtained  from  a  spe- 
cies of  white  lac  ;   a  substance  resembling  bees- 
wax, which  forms  the  nests  of  a  kind  of  insects 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Madras.     It  was  disco- 
vered by  Dr.  Anderson  in  1786,  and  it  is  formed 
in  the  shape  of  small  cowry  shells,  by  a  species 
of  the  coccus,  every  way  resembling  the  insect 
from  which  the  Mexicans  extract  cochineal.  These 
insects  possess  the  art  of  collecting  honey  like 
bees,  .and  when  Dr.  Anderson  proceeded  to  mul- 
tiply them,  with  a  view  to  make  cochineal,  he 
found  his  crop  very  much  diminished  by  the  avi- 
dity with  whirh  the  children  he  employed  ate 
up  their  nests,  owing  to  their  sweet  and  agreeable 
taste. 

1241.  In  1793  this  substance  was  examined  by 
Dr.  Pearson,  at  the  request  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
and  the  laccic  acid  was  extracted  from  it  by  the 
following   process  : — 2000  grains  of  white  lac 
were  exposed  to  the  degree  of  heat  just  sufficient 
to  melt  them.   As  they  grew  soft  and  fluid,  there 
oozed  out  550  grains  of  a  reddish  watery  liquid, 
which   smelled  like  newly  baked  bread.      To 
this  liquid  Dr.  Pearson  gave  the  name  of  laccic 
acid. 


480 


C  II  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y. 


1242.  It  changes  turnsol  to  a  red  color ;  when 
heated,  smells  like  newly  baked  bread ;  after  being 
filtered,  has  a  saltish  bitter  taste,  but  is  not  sour. 
After  standing  it  grows  turbid,  and  deposits  a 
small  quantity  of  sediment.     At  the  temperature 
of  60°  its  specific  gravity  is  1-025.    Evaporation 
rendered  it  turbid  ;    and  after  standing  it  depo- 
sited small  needle-shaped  crystals  among  muci- 
laginous matter. 

1243.  When  distilled  it  came  over  at  the  tem- 
perature of  200°,  and  a  small  quantity  of  extrac- 
tive   matter   remained   behind.      The   distilled 
liquor  was  transparent  and  yellowish;  did   not 
redden  paper  stained  with  turnsol,  nor  change  to 
a  blue,  paper  dipped  in  sulphate  of  iron  after 
being  moistened  with  solution  of  notassa  ;  which 
showed  it  was  not  the  prussic  acid.     About  1 00 
grains  of  this  distilled  liquor  being  evaporated 
until  it  grew  turbid,  and  set  aside  for  a  night, 
deposited  acicular  crystals,  which,  viewed  through 
a  lens,  appeared  in  a  group  not  unlike  the  umbel 
of  parsley.     They  tasted  bitterish. 

1244.  Another  100  grains  being  slowly  eva- 
porated to  dryness,  left  a  blackish  matter  behind, 
which  did  not  evaporate  when  heated  very  hot 
on  a  naked  fire  ;   while  oxalic  acid  was  wholly 
dissipated  by  a  much   lower   degree   of   heat. 
Hence  this  differs  from  oxalic  acid. 

1245.  This  acid  combined  and  effervesced  with 
the  alkaline  carbonates,  and  with  that  of  lime. 
The  salts  it  formed  with  potassa  and  lime,  being 
heated  red  hot,  were  reconverted  into  carbonates. 
Hence  it  appears  that  this  acid  is  of  vegetable 
origin ;  but  whether  it  be  a  peculiar  acid,  or  a 
mixture  of  some  known  acid  with   extraneous 
substances,  the  quantity  examined  by  Dr.  Pearson 
was  too  small  to  enable  him  to  ascertain. 

1246.  Prussic  acid  has  been  detected  in  water 
distilled  from  bitter  almonds,  in  laurel  leaves,  in 
peach  blossoms,  and  in  the  bark  of  the  primus 
padus.     Vauquelin  also  discovered  it  in  the  ker- 
nels of  apricots.     For  the  mode  of  its  artificial 
formation,  and  an  account  of  its  chemical  habits 
and  properties,  see  part  III.  of  the  present  essay. 

1247.  Mor-oxylic  acid. — This  was  discovered 
by  Klaproth,  combined  with  lime  in  small  yellow- 
ish grains,  which  exude  from  the  trunk  of  the 
white  mulberry. 

1248.  To  obtain  this  acid  in  a  separate  state, 
the  small  grains  in  which  it  occurs  were  decom- 
posed by  acetate  of  lead,  and,  to  the  insoluble 
precipitate,    diluted  sulphuric  acid  was  added. 
From  the  liquid,  fine  needle- shaped  crystals  were 
obtained  by  evaporation,  which  had  the  taste  of 
succiuic  acid,  were  not  altered  by  exposure  to 
air,  dissolved  readily  in  water  and  in  alcohol ;  but 
did  not,  like  succinic  acid  or  its  salts,  precipitate 
metallic  solutions.      When  heated  in  a  retort, 
these  crystals  first  yielded  a  little  acid  liquor,  and 
then  sublimed  unaltered,  adhering  in  colorless 
and  transparent  crystals  to  the  top  and  neck  of 
the  retort. 

The  compounds  which  this  acid  fonns  with 
bases  have  been  called  moroxylates.     Henry. 

1249.  Phosphoric  acid  exists  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree  in  almost  all  vegetable  substances. 
It  is  generally  however  in  combination  with  an 
alkaline  base. 

1250.  Boletic  acid. — This  acid  has  been  noticed 


in  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  Encyclopaedia 
as  existing  in  the  juice  of  the  boletus  pseudo 
ignarius. 

A  class  of  salts  from  this  acid  may  be  termed 
boletates. 

1251.  Zumic  acid. — tJraconnot,  the  discoverer 
of  the  boletic  acid,  was  likewise  the  first  to  ob- 
serve this  supposed  new  principle  in  rice,  and 
Dr.  Thomson  proposed  that  it  should  be  named 
zumic  acid  from  £v/x»j  leaven.     It  has  been  since 
nowever  nearly  proved  by  Vogel  to  resemble  too 
closely  the  lactic  acid  of  Scheele  and  Berzelius  to 
entitle  it  to  distinct  recognition. 

1252.  Kinic  acid. — Vauquelin  first  procured 
this  acid  from  crystals  of  a  solution  of  Peruvian 
bark  ;  it  is  said  to  be  distinguishable  from  other 
vegetable  acids,  by  its  forming  a  soluble  salt  with 
lime,  and  by  its  not  precipitating  silver  or  lead 
from  their  solutions. 

1253.  The  meconic  acid,  according  to  Robiquet, 
is  best  obtained  from  the  residuum  of  the  mag- 
nesian  salt  left  undissolved  in  the  process  for  ex- 
tracting morphia.  This  acid  is  exceedingly  soluble 
in  water  and  alcohol.  It  reddens  vegetable  blues ; 
but  its  distinguishing  character  is  the  power  it 
possesses  of  producing  an  intensely  red  color  in 
solutions  of  iron  oxidised  to  the  maximum.     It 
does  not  seem  to  possess  the  medicinal  or  dele- 
terious properties  of  opium  when  received  into 
the  stomach. 

1254.  The  isaguric  acid  obtained  from  St.  Ig- 
natius's   bean  (Ann.  de   Chim.  et   Phys.  viii.) 
seems  nearly  to  resemble  the  malic. 

An  acid   has  been  procured  from  galls  which 
differing  from  the  gallic  has  been  named  ellagic. 

SUGAR. 

1255.  Sugar  seems  to  have  been  known  in  In- 
dia and  in  China  from  the  remotest  times.  During 
the  crusades  the  Venetians  brought  it  from  India, 
and  carried  on  a  lucrative  trade  in  sugar  with  the 
rest  of  Europe.     It  long  continued  to  be  used 
only  as  a  medicine ;  but  since  it  began  to  be  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  the  West  Indies,  it  now 
enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  our  food. 
In  the  East  and  West  Indies  it  is  extracted,  by 
compression,  from  the  arundo  saccharifera,  or 
sugar  cane.     In  America  it  is  extracted  from  the 
acer  saccharinum,  or   sugar  maple,  but  in  too 
small  quantity  for  exportation.     In  Prussia,  and 
other  parts  of  Germany,  it  has  lately  been  extrac- 
ted from  the  beet  root ;  though  this  source  of  it 
seems  to  be  too  scanty  ever  to  rival  the  sugar  cane  : 
sugar  is  also  found   in  a  variety  of  other  plants, 
in  grapes,  and  various  fruits.     The  methods  by 
which  it  is  extracted,  and  the  various  purifica- 
tions it  undergoes  before  it  is  prepared  for  use, 
are  detailed  in  another  part  of  this  work.     See 
SUGAR. 

1256.  Pure  sugar  is  of  a  white  color,  is  not 
altered  by  the  air,  though  in  moist  air  it  imbibes 
a  little  water.     It  has  a  strong  sweet  taste,  but  no 
smell.     It  is  brittle,  and  easily  reduced  to  pow- 
der.    In  the  dark,  when  two  pieces  are  rubbed 
against   each  other,   they  emit  a  strong  phos- 
phorescent light.     It  is  very  soluble  in   water, 
which  at  48°  dissolves  its  own  weight  of  sugar. 
At  the  boiling  temperature,  water  takes  up  any 
quantity  of  sugar.     When  water  is  saturated  with 


CHEMISTRY. 


481 


sugar,  it  is  called  syrup,  which  is  ropy  and  adhe- 
sive, and  when  spread  upon  paper  it  forms  a  sort 
of  varnish,  which  water  soon  dissolves.  When 
syrup  is  concentrated  by  boiling,  and  poured  into 
pans  which  are  kept  in  a  room  heated  by  stoves, 
so  as  to  be  scarcely  supportable  by  animals,  the 
sugar  crystallises  on  small  sticks  placed  in  the 
pans  for  that  purpose.  The  crystals  are  usually 
four  or  six-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  two-sided 
and  sometimes  by  three-sided  summits.  This  is 
called  candied  sugar. 

1257.  The  alkaline  earths  combine  with  sugar, 
and  superadd  a  bitter  and  astringent  to  its  sweet 
taste.     When  lime  is  precipitated  from  it  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  it  recovers  its  former  sweet  taste. 
The  fixed    alkalis   destroy  the    sweet   taste  of 
syrup   more   effectually   than   lime,  but  if  they 
be  precipitated   by  alcohol   the  sweet  taste  is 
restored. 

1258.  The  acids  dissolve  sugar,  and  the  con- 
centrated  acids  decompose  it.     Sulphuric  acid 
converts  it  into  water,  acetic  acid,  and  a  bulky 
residuum  of  charcoal,  of  a  black  color  ;  while  the 
sulphuric  is  converted  into   the  sulphurous  acid. 
Nitric  acid  converts  it  into  the  malic  and  oxalic 
acids,  as  stated  when  treating  of  these  acids. 
Liquid   chlorine  acid    converts    it    into    malic 
acid,  and  is  itself  changed  into  the  common  mu- 
riatic acid.     Muriatic  acid  gas  makes  it  assume 
a  brown  color,   with  a  strong  smell.     The  vege- 
table acids  dissolve  but  do  not  seem  to  alter  sugar. 
Alcohol  dissolves  from  about  a  twelfth  to  a  six- 
teenth part  of  its  weight  of  sugar.      When  left 
undisturbed,  the  sugar  separates    in    beautiful 
crystals.      A  moderate  quantity  of  sugar  retards 
the  coagulation  of  milk,   but  a  large  quantity 
causes  it  to  coagulate.     The  hydro-sulphurets, 
sulphurets,  and  phosphurets  of  alkalis  and  alka- 
line earths,  decompose  sugar,  and  change  it  into 
a  substance  resembling  gum. 

1259.  When  heated,  sugar  melts,  swells,  be- 
comes  brownish-black,  and   emits  air  bubbles, 
with  a  peculiar  smell  to  which   the  French  have 
assigned  the  name  of  caromel.     With  a  red  heat 
it  takes  fire  with  a  kind  of  explosion.     When 
distilled,  it  first  yields  water,  then  pyromucous 
acid,  which  is  merely  a  compound  of  oil  and 
impure   acetic   acid  ;    afterwards   empyreumatic 
oil  and  a  bulky  residue  of  charcoal   remains  in 
the  retort.      Mr.  Cruickshanks  introduced  480 
grains  of  pure  sugar  into  a  retort,   and,  after 
healing  them  to  redness,  obtained   the  following 
products  : — 

Pyromucous   acid  with  a  drop  or 

two  of  oil 270  grains 

Charcoal 120 

Carbureted  hydrogen,  and  carbonic 
acids      .  90 


SARCOCOLL. 


480 

1260.  From  these  experiments  it  is  inferred 
that  sugar  is  a  vegetable  oxide,  composed  en- 
tirely of  oxygen,  carbon,  and  hydrogen.  The 
proportions  Berzelius  states  to  be 

Oxygen  .  .  .  49-4 
Carbon  .  .  .  44'5 
Hydrogen  ...  6'1 


Vol.  V. 


1000 


1261.  It  is  said  to  exude  from  tne  psenea  sur 
cocolla,  a  shrub  which  is  indigenous  in  the  north- 
eastern parts  of  Africa.     It  comes  to  Europe  in 
the  shape  of  oblong  grains,  from  the  size  of  a 
pea  to  that  of  a  grain  of  sand.  Its  color  is  yellow, 
and  sometimes  reddish-brown,  and  it  resembles 
gum-arabic.     It  smells    somewhat   like   annise 
seed.     It  contains  four  different  substances,  of 
which    the  pure  sarcocoll  is  by  far  the  most 
abundant.    The  sarcocoll  is  separated  by  solution 
in  water  and  alcohol,  when  it  assumes  the  ap- 
pearance of  jelly.     It  amounts  to  about  TR0ths  of 
the  mass.     When  the  liquor  is  evaporated,  it 
assumes  the  appearance  of  brittle  brown  cakes 
like  gum.     Its  specific  gravity  is  2-1684.      Its 
taste  is  sweet,  but  leaves  an  impression  of  bitter- 
ness.    It  seems  to  be  a  compound  of  sugar  and 
gum,  but  partaking  more  of  the  properties  of 
sugar. 

1262.  Liqunnce  seems  to  be  a  variety  of  sar- 
cocoll.    It  is  obtained,  by  expression,  from  the 
roots  of  the  glycyrreza  glabra,  a  plant  cultivated 
in  the  south  of  Europe,   and  of  Britain.     The 
juice  is  thickened  by  boiling.     It  comes  from 
Spain  in  rolls,  wrapped  in  bay  leaves,  and  is 
afterwards  purified,  and  formed   into  small  cy- 
linders, about  the  size  of  a  goose  quill,  which 
are  sold  under  the  name  of  refined  liquorice.    It 
is  black  and  glossy,  and  besides  sugar,  contains 
about  a  third  of  mucilage,  and  some  charcoal, 
which  is  not  found  in  pure  sarcocoll.   These  may 
be  regarded  as  varieties  of  sugar,  or  rather  sugar 
combined  with  other  substances. 

1263.  Robiquetfound  the  following  ingredieiits 
in  liquorice : — 

1.  Starch 

2.  Gluten 

3.  Liquorice  sugar 

4.  Phosphate  and  malate  of  lime  and  mag- 

nesia 

5.  An  acrid  oil 

6.  A  substance  like  asparagin 

7.  Woody  fibre. 

ASPARAGIN. 

1264.  This  substance  was  detected  by  Vau- 
quelin   and  Robiquet  in  the  juice  of   aspara- 
gus.    The  juice,  having  been   squeezed   out,  is 
evaporated  to  the  consistence  of  syrup,  and  set 
aside.     Various   crystals   appear,    and,   among 
others,  those  of  asparagin  are  white  and  trans- 
parent, and  have  the  figure  of  rhomboidal  prisms. 
It  is  hare'  and  brittle ;  its  taste  cool  and  slightly 
nauseous.     Does  not   dissolve   in   alcohol ;    in 
hot  water  dissolves  readily,  but  sparingly  in  co.d 
water. 

GUM. 

1265.  Gum  and  mucilage  are  commonly  con- 
founded together,  though  Hermstadt  shows  there 
is  a  shade  of  difference  betwixt  them,  and  that 
gum  may  be  separated  from  mucilage  by  dropping 
into  a  strong  solution  of   them  sulphuric  acid. 
The  mucilage  coagulates,  while  the  gum  remains 
dissolved,   and   may   be    decanted   off.      Gum 
exudes  in  the  form  of  a  tasteless  juice  from  a 
great  variety  of  trees,  especially  from  those  of 
the  mimosa  species.     What  is  called  gum  arabic 
exudes  from  the  mimosa  nilotica.    It  also  exudes 

2  1 


43? 


CHEMISTRY. 


from  the  cherry,  the  wild  cherry,  and  the  plumb- 
tree  of  this  country.  It  is  usually  in  small 
pieces,  like  tears,  hard,  and  so  brittle  that  it  can 
be  reduced  to  powder.  It  is  colorless  when 
pure,  but  is  commonly  of  a  yellowish  tinge.  It 
has  neither  smell  nor  taste,  and  its  specific  gravity 
varies  from  1-3161  to  1-4817.  Exposed  to  the 
sun's  rays  it  becomes  white.  Its  solution  in 
water  is  called  mucilage,  which  is  thick  and  ad- 
hesive, and  is  often  used  to  give  lustre  and 
stiffness  to  linen.  When  spread  out  it  soon 
dries,  and  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  varnish, 
but  water  soon  renders  it  glutinous,  or  washes  it 
away.  When  the  water  is  evaporated,  the  gum 
is  obtained  unaltered.  When  its  solution  is  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  it  soon  becomes  mouldy  on  the 
surface,  but  it  may  remain  several  years  without 
putrefaction.  At  last,  however,  the  smell  of 
acetic  acid  becomes  perceptible  in  it.  Exposed 
to  heat,  gum  softens  and  swells,  but  does  not 
melt.  Air-bubbles  are  emitted,  it  becomes  black, 
and  when  reduced  to  charcoal  emits  a  low  blue 
flame.  When  entirely  consumed,  a  small  quan- 
tity of  white  ashes  remains,  composed  chiefly  of 
the  carbonates  of  lime  and  potash.  Concentrated 
chloride  of  iron  dropped  into  a  strong  solution 
of  gum,  converts  it  into  a  brown  semi-transparent 
jelly,  which  is  not  very  soluble  in  water.  Sili 
cated  potash  produces  a  white  flaky  precipitate 
in  solution  of  gum,  while  the  liquid  remains 
transparent.  This  forms  a  very  delicate  test  of 
gum  in  solutions. 

1266.  Liquid  potassa  first  converts  gum  into  a 
curd,  and  then  dissolves  it;  but  it  afterwards 
reverts   to   its   curdled  state.     Lime-water  and 
ammonia    likewise   dissolve   gum,   which   may 
afterwards  be  separated  little  altered.     Charcoal 
powder  gives  solution  of  gum  a  black  color,  which 
cannot  be  removed  by  filtration.      But,  if  the 
charcoal  be  in  great  quantity,  it  retains  the  whole 
of  the  gum,  and  the  water  passes  clear. 

1267.  The  vegetable  acids  dissolve  gurn  with- 
out change.     Sulphuric  acid  decomposes  it,  and 
there   remains   about  'twenty-nine  per  cent,  of 
charcoal.     Some  tannin  is  formed  with  water  and 
acetic  acid.     Strong  muriatic  acid  forms  a  brown 
solution,  from   which   some  charcoal  falls.     If 
this  solution  be  saturated  with  ammonia,  evapo- 
rated to  dry  ness,  and  the  residue  digested  in 
alcohol,  a  brown  substance  is  extracted,  which, 
when  evaporated  to  dryness,  bears  a  strong  re- 
semblance  to   sugar.      Chlorine   converts  gum 
into   citric  acid.     Nitric  acid,   «vith   heat,  con- 
verts it  into  sacclactic  acid,  malic  acid,  and  oxalic 
acid. 

1268.  Gum  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  and,  when 
alcohol  is  dropped   into  its  solution,  the  gum  is 
precipitated  in  white  flakes.     Gum  and  sugar 
readily  unite  when  both  are  dissolved  in  water. 
Alcohol  dissolves  a  great  part  of  the  sugar  in  the 
mixture,  and  leaves  a  white  substance  composed 
of  gum  and  sugar,  resembling  (he  material  of 
which  the  nests  of  wasps  are  composed. 

1269.  Gum,  according  to  Dr.  Ure's  analysis, 
consists  of 

Carbon  .  .  .  35-294 
Oxygen  .  .  .  58-823 
Hydrogen  .  .  .  5-883 

100-000 


Whether  it  contains  a  trace  of  nitrogen  seems 
uncertain. 

1270.  Besides  gum  arabic,  there  are  various 
other  species  of  gum  in  common  use,  as  gum 
Senegal,  and  gum  tragacanth,  the  gum  of  the 
cherry  and   plumb-tree,  &c.     A  mucilage   also 
abounds  in  the  leaves  and  roots  of  many  plants, 
which   might   be   extracted  and  used  as  gum. 
The  bulbs  of  the  hyacinth  contain  so  much  mu- 
cilage, that  when  dried  they  may  be  used  as 
gum.     George,   of  Petersburg,  found  that  the 
stringy  lichens  yield  a  mucilage  which  lord  Dun- 
donald  proposed  to  employ  as  a  substitute  for 
gum,  and  it  is  much  used  by  the  calico-printers 
for  that  purpose.     The  fuci,  or  sea-weeds,  yield 
a.  mucilage  which  seems  capable  of  answering 
the  purposes  of  gum,  could  it  be  deprived  of 
those  deliquescent  salts  which  the  fuci  imbibe 
from  sea-water. 

1271.  Gum,  in  the  state  of  mucilage,  is  a  very 
nutritive  food.     It  is  often  used  as  a  paste  ;  and 
the  calico-printers  use  great  quantities  of  it  to 
give   consistency  to  their  colors,   and  prevent 
them  from  spreading  upon  the  cloth.     For  the 
same  reason  it  is  employed  in  the  making  of  ink. 
It  forms  the  basis,  or  vehicle,  of  many  mixtures 
applied  in  medicine. 

JELLY  (Vegetable). 

1272.  If  the  juice  of  bramble-berries,   rasp- 
berries, currants,  and  a  variety  of  other  fruits,  be 
squeezed  through  a  cloth  and  set  to  rest,  part  of 
it  coagulates.     If  the  liquid  part  be  poured  off, 
'and  the  coagulum  washed  with  cold  water,  jelly 
is  obtained  nearly  iu  a  state  of  purity.    Its  color 
is  that  of  the  berries  from  which  it  was  squeezed. 
It  is   scarcely  soluble  in  cold  water,  but  very 
soluble   in  hot   water,   and,  when  the  solution 
cools,  it  again  coagulates  into  a  jelly.     If  long 
boiled  it  does  not  afterwards  coagulate.     This 
is  the  reason  why,  in  making  currant  and  other 
jellies,  if  a  sufficient  quantity  of  sugar  be  not 
addfd  to  absorb  all  the  juice  of  the  fruit,  if  they 
attempt  to   concentrate  it  by  long   boiling,    it 
remains  ever  after  liquid,  and  no  jelly  is  formed. 
Jelly  combines  readily  with   alkalis ;  nitric  acid 
converts  it  into  oxalic  acid,  with  hardly  separating 
azotic  gas.     Its  ultimate  analysis  has  not  been 
attempted. 

ULMIN. 

1273.  We  know  nothing  of  this  substance  ex- 
cept from  Klaproth,  to  whom  a  specimen  was 
sent  from  Palermo  in  1802,  and  he  conjectures  it 
to  be  an  exudation  from  the  ulmus  nigra.     It  is 
of  a  black  color,  resembles  gum  in  being  readily 
soluble  in  water,  but  differs  from  it  in  the  solution 
not  being  ropy,  nor  forming  a  paste.      It  agrees 
with  gum  in  being  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether, 
and  in  being  precipitated  from  aqueous  solution 
by  alcohol  in  light  brown  flakes.     The  nitric  acid 
and  chlorine  convert  it  into  a  resin,  insoluble  in 
water.      In  this  respect  it  seems  to  be  allied  to 
the  volatile  or  essential  oils,  which  are  changed 
into  resins  by  being  subjected  to  the  same  pro- 
cesses.    When  burnt  it  emits    little  smoke  or 
flame,  but  leaves  a  spongy  charcoal,  which,  when 
burned  in  the  ooen  air  leaves  a  little  carbonate 
of  ootassa. 


C  H  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y. 


483 


INULIX. 

1274.  Was  extracted  by  Rose  by  boiling  the 
roots  of  the  inula  helenium,  or  elacampane.  The 
decoction,  after  standing  some  time,  deposits  the 
inulin  in  the  form  of  white  powder  like  starch. 
As  far  as  appears  respecting  this  substance,  it 
seems  to  be  only  a  variety  of  starch,  or  starch 
combined  with  some  other  vegetable  product, 
differing  from  starch  in  this  in  yielding  none  of 
the  waxy  matter  which  is  formed  when  starch  is 
digested  with  the  nitric  acid. 

STARCH. 

1275.  Starch  is  commonly  made  from  wheat, 
and  the  process  employed  by  manufacturers  is 
to  steep  the  wheat  in  cold  water,  the  purest  that 
can  be  got,  until  it  becomes  soft,  and  yields  a 
milky  juice  when  squeezed.     It  is  then  put  into 
coarse  linen  bags  and  pressed  in  a  vat  tilled  with 
water,  which  forces  a  milky  juice  through  the 
cloth,  containing  much  starch;  and  the  pressure 
is  repeated  as  long  as  the  wheat  yields  any  milky 
juice.      The  starch  gradually  falls  to  the  bottom 
while  the  liquid  gradually  ferments  into  alcohol 
and  vinegar,  partly  at  the  expense  of  the  starch. 
The  vinegar  dissolves  impurities,  and  the  fer- 
mented liquor  being  poured  off,  the  starch  is  re- 
peatedly washed  with  water.      It  is  afterwards 
dried  with  a  moderate  heat,  and  during  the  dry- 
ing it  splits  into  columnar  masses  which  affect  the 
quadrangular  figure- 

1276.  Wheaten  starch  has  a  fine  white  color, 
with  an  inclination  to  blue.      It  has  hardly  any 
smell  or  taste,  and  when  dry  is  not  injured  by 
long  exposure  to  the  air.     It  falls  in  powder,  but 
forms  a  sort  of  emulsion  with  cold  water;  and 
forms  a  jelly  with  boiling  water,  which  may  be 
diluted  by  adding  more  water.     When  the  water 
cools,  the  starch  slowly  falls  to  the  bottom.  Linen 
dipped  into  a  solution  of  starch,  and  suddenly 
dried,  acquires  a  considerable  degree  of  stiffness. 
Hence  one  great  use  of  starch  is  to  convey  a  de- 
gree of  stiffness,  and  a  smooth  skin  to  linen  after 
it  is  bleached,  and  to  linen  clothes  in  the  laundry. 
WThen  the  solution  is  evaporated  to  dryness,  a 
brittle  opaque  substance  is  obtained,  differing  in 
appearance  from  common  starch,  probably  owing 
to  a  portion  of  water  retained  in  its  composition. 
If  starch  be  exposed  to  damp  air,  its  surface  be- 
comes mouldy,  and  it  acquires  an  acid  taste. 

1277.  The  infusion  of  nutgalls  combines  with 
starch,  and  throws  it  down  from  every  solution. 
The  precipitate  is  again  dissolved  by  heating  the 
liquid  to   120°.     The  solution  of  nutgalls  and 
starch  is  transparent,  and  has  nearly  the  color  of 
the  nutgall  infusion.      Thus  infusion  of  nutgalls 
forms  the  best  test  of  the  presence  of  starch  in 
any  vegetable  decoction.  Potassa  triturated  with 
starch,  and  a  little  water,  forms  a  semi-transparent 
jelly.      On  adding  more  water,  an  opal  colored 
solution  is  obtained,  from  which  the  starch  may 
be  thrown  down  by  an  acid.     When  muriatic 
acid  is    used,   an   aromatic   odor   is   produced. 
Sulphuric  acid  dissolves  starch  slowly,  with  such 
evolution  of  charcoal  that  if  the  quantity  of  starch 
be  considerable,  the  compound  becomes  solid. 
At  the  same  time  a  smell  of  sulphurous  acid  is 
perceptible,  shewing  that  part  of  the  sulphuric  acid 
is  decomposed.     Diluted  sulphuric  acid  dissolves 


starch  with  heat,  without  apparent  decomposition 
as  the  starch  may  be  thrown  down  by  alcohol. 
Nitric  acid  dissolves  starch,  without  forming  ox- 
alic acid,un!ess  when  assisted  by  heat,  in  wliicli 
case  both  oxalic  and  malic  acid  are  fcrrr.ed.  In 
this  respect  starch  differs  from  sugar.  Strong 
muriatic  acid  also  dissolves  starch  slowly,  without 
effervescence. 

1278.  When  thrown  upon  a  hot  iron,  starch 
melts,  swells,  froths,  blackens,  and  burns  with  a 
bright  flame  like  sugar,  but  it  does  not  explode 
like  the  latter.     At  the  same  time  it  emits  much 
smoke.  When  distilled  it  yields  acidulous  water 
empyreumatic  oil,  and  much  carbonic  acid  and 
carbureted  hydrogen  gas.      The  charcoal  which 
remains  is  wholly  consumed  when  burnt  in  the 
open  air ;  a  proof  that  it  contains  little  or  no 
earth. 

1279.  Starch  is  found  in  a  great  variety  of 
plants,  and  in  different  parts  of  plants.  It  is  most 
commonly  found  in  the  seeds  and  bulbous  roots 
of  plants  which  are  used  as  food.     The  seeds  of 
several  trees  contain  it  as  the  chestnut,horse-chest- 
nut,  and  acorn.  Having  already  stated  the  mode 
by  which  it  is  obtained  from  wheat;  we  shall 
briefly  enumerate  the  other  sources  from  which  it 
is  commonly  obtained. 

1280.  Potatoe  starch  is  made  by  grating  down 
the  potatoe,  and  placing  the  gratings  upon  a  fine 
sieve  over  a  tub  or  vat.  Water  being  poured  upon 
them,  washes  through  a  great  quantity  of  starch. 
After  it  has  time  to  settle,  the  acidulous  liquor  is 
poured  off,  and  the  sediment  well  washed  with 
pure  water.       If  the   sediment  be  sufficiently 
washed,  it  is  starch  of  a  much  brighter  color,  and 
which  goes  much  farther,  than  wheaten  starch. 
Though  heavier  than  wheaten  starch,  it  makes  a 
much  more  beautiful  hair  powder.     In  one  of  the 
late  bad  seasons  when  the  starch  manufactories 
and.  the  distillation  from  grain  were  stopped,  and 
when  a  great  part  of  the  potatoe  crop  was  frozen 
in  the  ground  by  early  frost,  George  Robertson 
esq.  author  of  the  Agricultural  Surveys  of  Edin- 
burgh and  Mearns  shires,  made  excellent  starch 
from  frosted  potatoes.    Having  first  cleaned  them 
he  bruised  them  into  a  pulp,  and  then  treated 
them  as  above  described.      Though  the  potatoes 
were  not  half  ripe,  he  calculated  they  might  yield 
£  50  value  per  acre  in  starch.     This  deserves  the 
attention  of  agriculturists,  as  frozen  potatoes  are 
good  for  nothing  else. 

1281 .  Arrow  is  a  farina  or  starch,  from  the  foe- 
cula  of  the  marantha  arundinacia.      Salop  is  ti.e 
farina  obtained  from  several  varieties  of  the  orchis. 

1282.  Sou-ens  is  a  species  of  starch  made  from 
the  husks  and  coarse  particles  of  oat-meal.   The 
acid  liquor  being  poured  off,  the  starch,  with  a 
portion  of  the  acid,  is  boiled  in  a  pot;  after 
which  it  forms  a  coagulum  on  cooling,  well  known 
in  Scotland  as  a  nutritive  and  agreeable  species 
of  food. 

1283.  Sago  is  extracted  from  the  pith  of  seve- 
ral species  of  palm  trees  in  the  Moluccas,  Philip- 
pines, and  other  islands  in  the  East  Indies.    The 
palm  being  cut  into  pieces,  the  wood  is  split  off, 
one  side  exposing  the  pith  in  the  hollow  of  the 
tree.    Upon  this  cold  water  is  poured  and  the  pith 
well  stirred.,  which  separates  the  starch  from  the 
fibrous  part}  ond  what  runs  off  is  passed  through 

2  I  2 


484 


CHEMISTRY. 


a  fine  sieve  or  searce.  The  starch  is  now  allow- 
ed to  settle,  the  water  is  poured  off,  and  when 
the  sediment  is  half  dry  it  is  granulated  by  being 
passed  through  a  funnel.  It  is  said  to  acquire 
its  gray  color  by  being  dried  by  artificial  heat. 
Sago  is  well  known  as  a  very  nourishing  food. 

1284.  Cassava  is  prepared  from  the  roots  of  an 
American  plant,  the  iatropha  manihat.     They  are. 
peeled  and  pressed  in  a  sack  composed  of  rushes. 
A  juice  is  forced  out  which  is  a  deadly  poison, 
and  employed  by  the  Indians  to  poison  their  ar- 
rows.     This  juice  gradually  deposits  a  white 
starch,  which,  being  well    washed,  is   innocent. 
What  remains  in  the  sack  is  also  chiefly  composed 
of  starch,  and  being  dried  in  smoke,  and  passed 
through  a  sieve,  from  the  starch  thus  obtained 
the   cassava   bread   is   formed,  which    is   often 
brought  to  Europe,  and  is  highly  nutritive.     Ta- 
pioca is  prepared  from  the  same  plant. 

1285.  The  acid  water  poured  from  sowens,  and 
what  is  produced  by  the  starch  makers,  is  greedily 
devoured  by  swine  who  fatten  upon  it.      It  has 
also  been  lately  discovered  that  the  grains  and 
dregs  of  distillers  and  brewers  go  much  farther  in 
fattening  all  kinds  of  cattle,  after  they  become 
sour,  than  when  they  are  consumed  in  a  sweet 
state.     It  has  hence  been  inferred  by  rural  econo- 
mists that  all  kinds  of  vegetable  food,  which  admit 
of  it,  should  be  acidified  before  they  are  presented 
to  animals. 

1286.  Berzelius  makes  starch  to  consist  of 


Carbon  . 
Oxygen  . 
Hydrogen 


43-481 

49-455 

7-064 


100-000 
Dr.  Ure's  proportions  give  rather  more  oxygen. 

INDIGO. 

1287.  Tin's  beautiful  pigment  and  dyestuff  is 
extracted  from  the  leaves  of  different  species  of 
plants,  as  the  indigofera  argentea,  or  wild  indigo, 
which  yields  the  best,  though  the  smallest  quan- 
tity; from  the  indigofera  disperma,  or  guatimala 
indigo;  and  the  indigofera  tinctoria,  or  French 
indigo,  which  though  of  inferior  quality  yields  the 
largest  quantity,  and  is  hence  generally  preferred 
by  the  planters.     The  plants  are  annually  raised 
from  seeds  sown  in  trenches  about  a  foot  asunder. 
In  the  West  Indies  they  are  sown  in  March,  and 
the  plants  are  ready  for  cutting  in  May.     Here 
four  cuttings  are  often  obtained  in  one  year  ;  but 
in  South  America  they  require  six  months  to  attain 
maturity,  and  they  seldom  obtain  more  than  two 
cuttings,  often  only  one. 

1288.  The   plants   are  cut  with   sickles  and 
placed  in  a  cistern  about  sixteen  feet  square, 
where  they  are  pressed  down  with  loaded  planks. 
They  are  then  covered  with  water  to  the  depth  of 
four  or  five  inches.     A  fermentation  takes  place, 
which  Le  Blond  thinks  succeeds  best  with  a  tem- 
perature about  80°.     The  water  becomes  turbid, 
assumes  a  green  color,  while  volatile  alkali  and 
carbonic  acid  gas  are  emitted.      Much  attention 
is  paid  to  this  fermentation,  because  if  carried  too 
far  the  color  is  destroyed,  if  checked  too  soon, 
much  of  color  remains  in  the  plants.  When  com- 
pleted, the  liquor  is  let  into  a  smaller  cistern 


placed  below  the  former,  called  the  battery,  where 
it  is  violently  agitated  by  levers  moved  by  machi- 
nery, about  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  Flocculi 
begin  to  appear,  and  the  liquor  seems  curdled. 
A  quantity  of  lime  water  is  now  poured  in,  which 
is  supposed  to  prevent  putrefaction,  or  to  absorb 
carbonic  acid  gas,  and  hasten  the  deposition  of 
the  color.  The  pigment  is  now  allowed  to  sub- 
side; after  which,  the  water  being  drawn  off,  it  is 
drained  in  small  linen  bags,  and  then  dried 
in  small  wooden  boxes  in  the  shade. 

1289.  Dr.  Roxburgh  obtained  indigo  from  the 
leaves  of  the  merium  tinctorium,  a  tree  very  com- 
mon in  Hindostan.     He   kept   the  leaves   in   a 
copper  full  of  water,  at  the  temperature  of  100°, 
until  they  assumed  a  yellowish-blue  color,  and 
the  liquor  a  deep  green  color.      After  which  the 
liquor  was  drawn  off,  and  treated  as  in  the  former 
case.     Several  chemists  have  also  obtained  indigo 
from  the  isatis  tinctoria,  or  woad,  a  plant  which 
grows  wild  in  many  parts  of  this  country,  and  is 
much  used  as  a  dye-stuff.  They  treated  the  woad 
in  the  same  way  as  was  just  described  respecting 
the  indigofera  tinctoria.     Some  think  the  ancient 
Picts  used  this  plant  for  dyeing  their  skins  of  a 
blue  color.      Chaptal  elicited  a  blue  color  from 
goats-rue,  sainfoin,  chick  peas  and  lucern,  when 
treated  after  the  manner  of  indigo.     But  he  was 
not  able  to  precipitate  the  color,  and  he  ascribes 
his  failure  to  an  excess  of  extractive  matter,  which 
caused  the  liquor  to  froth,  and  kept  the  color 
suspended. 

1290.  Indigo  seems  to  have  been  known  HI 
the  East  Indies,  as  its  name  imports,  from  the 
earliest  times.     It  was  first  brought  to  Europe, 
and  its  uses  made  known  by  the  Dutch,  in  the  six- 
teenth century.    It  may  seem  very  strange  that  it 
was  universally  cried  down  as  a  destructive  dye. 
Its   use  was   prohibited   in   England   by  queen 
Elizabeth,  and  the  prohibition  was  not  removed 
until  the  reign  of  Charles  II.    Colbert  restricted 
the  French  dyers  to  a  limited  quantity  of  it.     In 
Saxony  it  was  prohibited,-  and  the  reasons  as- 
signed in  the  edict  were  that  it  wa?  a  corrosive 
substance,  only  fit  to  be  food  for  the  devil.     It 
was  afterwards  cultivated   in   Mexico  and   the 
West  Indies,  and  these  countries  long  supplied 
Europe   with   this   article.      Some  of  our   en- 
lightened countrymen  have  lately  restored  the 
East  Indian  indigo  to  its  ancient  reputation,  and 
it  is  now  imported  from  the  east  in  considerable 
quantities. 

1291.  Indigo  is  a  light,  compact,  friable  sub- 
stance, of  a  deep  blue  color.     The  tints  of  its 
surface  vary  according  to  the  manner  of  its  pre- 
paration, between  copper,  violet,  and  blue.    The 
lightest   indigo   is   the   best;   and  it  is  always 
mixed  with  other  matters,  derived  either  from 
the  plant,  or  from  carelessness  in  its  manufacture 
Bergman  found  the  best  indigo  he  could  procure 
to  contain  the  following  ingredients  : 

47  pure  indigo 

12  gum 
6  resin 

22  earth 

13  oxide  cf  in>& 

100 


CHEMISTRY. 


The  earth  consisted  of 

10-2  barya 
10-0  lime 
1-8  silica 


22-0 

Proust  found  a  considerable  portion  of  magnesia 
in  the  indigo  he  examined ;  and  it  is  probable 
the  earthy  ingredients  vary  in  different  speci- 
mens. Indigo,  when  freed  of  these  extraneous 
matters,  is  a  soft  powder,  of  a  deep  blue  color. 
It  is  not  altered  by  air  or  water,  though  Bergman 
observed,  that  when  long  kept  under  water,  it 
gave  signs  of  putrefaction.  Heated,  it  burns 
with  a  bluish  red  smoke,  and  a  faint  white  flame, 
and  leaves  earthy  ashes. 

1292.  Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  dissolves 
it    readily,   and   the   sulphate   of  indigo,   thus 
formed,  is  called  liquid  blue.     When  much  con- 
centrated it  appears  black,  but  when  diluted,  is 
of  a  fine  blue  color.     A  single  drop  of  the  pre- 
paration  communicates  a  blue   color  to  many 
pounds  of  water.        Heated  sulphuric  acid,  or 
the  acid  in  which  sulphur  has  been  boiled,  dis- 
solves indigo  more  readily  than  the  pure  acid. 
If  the  sulphate  be  poured  into  boiling  water  it 
becomes  green,  but  if  into  cold  water  it  exhibits 
a  fine  blue  color. 

1293.  From   the  analysis  of  the   precipitate 
produced  in  this  solution  by  potassa  and  its  sul- 
phate, Mr.  Crum  considers  it  to  be  a  compound 
of  sulphate  of  potassa  with  a  peculiar  principle, 
which   he   names   cerulin,  and   the   precipitate 
itself  he  calls  ceruleo  sulphate  of  potassa.     Ce- 
rulin it  seems  has  many  properties  analagous  to 
tan.     If  the  solution  of  indigo  in  sulphuric  acid 
be  kept  till  it  has  lost  its  yellow  color,  and  be- 
come blue,  the  addition  of  water  precipitates  a 
purple   substance  quite  different  from   indigo. 
From  the  property  possessed  by  this  substance  of 
becoming  purple-colored  on  the  addition  of  cer- 
tain salts,  Mr.  Crum  terms  it  phenecin.     Henry. 

1294.  Nitric  acid  attacks  indigo  with  great 
violence,  unless  it  be  largely  diluted  with  water. 
When    of    the    specific    gravity    l-52,   it    sets 
indigo   on   fire.     Upon    100   grains   of  indigo, 
Mr.  Hatchett  poured  an  ounce  of  nitric  acid, 
diluted  with  two  ounces  of  water.     When  the 
effervescence  began  to  subside,  the  liquid  was 
evaporated  to  dryness   on  a  sand-bath;   water 
being  now  poured  on,  formed  a  beautiful  yellow 
solution,  of  a  very  bitter  taste.     It  appeared  that 
artificial  tannin  had  been  formed,  which,  when 
combined  with  indigo,  forms  this  color.     When 
four  parts  of  nitric  acid  are  boiled  upon  one  part 
of  indigo,  it  is  converted  into  tannin,  oxalic  acid, 
benzoic  acid,  and  bitter  principle.     The  other 
acids  only  dissolve  indigo,  as  far  as  yet  known, 
after  it  is  precipitated  from  the  sulphuric ;  and 
with  it  they  form  a  solution  of  a  blue  color.    The 
fixed   alkaline    solutions,  also,   only   act   upon 
indigo  after  it  is  precipitated  from  a  previous 
solution.     The   alkaline   solutions   are   at   first 
green,   but   afterwards   become    yellow.      Am- 
monia and  the  alkaline  earths  produce  nearly 
the  same  effects. 

1295.  When  indigo  is  mixed  with  bran,  woad, 
Brasil  wood,  and  other  substances  which  readily 
ferment,  it  acquires  ••»  green  color,  and  easily 


combines  with  lime  or  potassa.  With  such  mix 
tures  the  vat  is  commonly  prepared  when  indigo 
is  used  as  a  dye.  See  DYEING.  It  would  ap- 
pear that  the  blue  color  of  indigo  is  owing  to  an 
excess  of  oxygen  in  its  composition ;  for  such 
substances  as  powerfully  attract  oxygen,  change 
it  to  green,  to  yellow,  or  render  it  colorless. 
When  cloth  comes  out  of  the  vat,  it  is  at  first 
green,  but  soon  becomes  blue  by  attracting  oxy- 
gen from  the  air.  If  the  agent  change  it  to 
yellow,  it  never  recovers  its  first  color,  but  the 
yellow  remains  permanent.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  indigo  is  mixed  with  manganese,  and  other 
bodies  which  freely  impart  oxygen,  its  yellow 
color  is  changed,  or  destroyed.  Mr.  Dalton's 
analysis  of  indigo  gives 

Carbon     .     .     .     75-5 

Azote   ....       7'7 

Oxygen     .     .     .     12-3 

Hydrogen      .     .       3-5 

100-0 

For  further  information  on  the  subject  of  indigo, 
see  the  article  DYEING,  and  PKINTING,  CALICO. 

GLUTEN. 

1296.  Beccaria,  an  Italian  philosopher,  first 
discovered,  that  if  wheat  flour  be  made  into  dough 
with  a  little  water,  and  then  kneaded  and  worked 
with  the  hand  under  a  rill  of  water,  or  stream  from 
a  tea-kettle,  starch  and  mucilage  are  washed  off. 
After  the  water  passes  off  clear,  trjere  remains  a 
substance  called  gluten.     It  is  of  a  gray  color, 
ductile  and  elastic,  and  may  be  drawn  to  twenty 
times  its  original  length  without  breaking.  When 
made  thin  it  is  white,  and  very  much  resembles 
animal  tendon,  and  adheres  so  tenaciously,  that  it 
is  often  employed  to  cement  broken  pieces  of 
china.     It  has  scarcely  any  taste,  has  a  peculiar 
smell,  and  after  exposure  to  the  air  it  assumes  a 
brown  color,  and  seems  to  be  coated  with  oil. 
It  dries  in  the  air,  becomes  hard,  brittle,  slightly 
transparent,  assumes  a  dark  brown  color,  and  re- 
sembles glue.     Its  fracture  is  then  vitreous,  or 
resembles  that  of  glass.   Fresh  gluten  obstinately 
retains  a  portion  of  water,  to  which  it  owes  its 
elasticity  and   tenacity.     After  being  boiled  in 
water  it  loses  both  those  properties. 

1297.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in  cold  water,  and 
is  precipitated  when  the  water  is  heated.     When 
kept  moist  it  swells,  undergoes  fermentation,  and 
emits  bubbles  of  hydrogen  and  carbonic   acid 
gases.    At  the  same  time  it  emits  the  smell  of 
putrifying  animal  bodies.     Cadet  kept  it  twenty- 
four  days  in  a  damp  room.     It  first  assumed  a 
crust,  which  being  removed,  its  interior  was  con- 
verted into  a   substance   resembling  bird-lime. 
Rouelle,  jun.  ascertained,  that  if  it   be   longer 
kept  in  such  a  situation,  it  assumes  the  smell  and 
taste  of  cheese.      It   is   blown   up  with  cells, 
which  contain  a   liquor  consisting  of  ammonia 
and  vinegar,  which  is  commonly  found  in  blown 
cheeses. 

1298.  When  kept  some  months  under  water 
it   becomes   sour  and   fetid,    swells,   gives   out 
carbonic    acid,  and  rises  to  the   surface.     Part 
of  it  is  now  dissolved  in  the  water,  and,  if  sugar 
be  added,  the  l;quor  becomes  vinegar  without 
fermentation,  or  admission  of  air. 


436 


C  II  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y, 


1299.  If  the  bird-lime  gluten  of  Cadet  be  tri- 
turated with  alcohol,  and  then  mixed  with  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  that  liquid,  a  portion  of  it  is 
dissolved,  and  the  compound  forms  an  excellent 
varnish  for  covering  paper  or  wood.   It  may  also 
be  employed  to  cement  china ;   and  mixed  with 

» paints,  especially  vegetable  colors,  it  forms  an 
excellent  ground.  When  mixed  with  lime  it 
forms  a  good  lute,  and  linen  dipped  into  it  ad- 
neres  strongly  to  other  bodies. 

1300.  Acetic  acid  dissolves  gluten  readily,  and 
the  gluten  of  Cadet  it  renders  fit  for  making  a 
varnish,  but  not  for  mixing  with   colors.     Con- 
centrated sulphuric   acid    converts  gluten    into 
charcoal,  with  formation  of  water  and  ammonia, 
while  inflammable  air  escapes.  Nitric  acid,  when 
heated  upon  it,  causes  an  emission  of  azotic  gas; 
while  oxalic  and  malic  acids  are  formed,  and  oily 
flakes  appear  in  the  liquor.     Alkalis  and  acids 
alternately  precipitate  gluten  with  considerable 
change  in  its  qualities. 

1301.  Moist  gluten,  suddenly  dried,  swells  to 
a   great  size.     Dry  gluten  burns  precisely  like 
feathers  or  horn.     When  distilled,  water  comes 
over  impregnated  with  ammonia  and  empyreu- 
matic  oil.     The  charcoal  which  remains  is  with 
difficulty  reduced  to  ashes.     While  fermenting, 
its  flames  blacken  silver  and  lead,  showing  that 
sulphur  is    present.     Though    its    constituents 
have  not  been  minutely  examined,  it  appears  to 
be  composed  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and 
azote.  .  These  circumstances  have  led  to  a  con- 
clusion that  it  possesses  all  the  properties  of  an 
animal  substance. 

1302.  Gluten  exists  in   great   abundance   in 
wheat,  and  may  easily  be  extracted  from  its  flour. 
Sir  H.  Davy  discovered  a  larger  proportion  of  it 
in  North  American  wheat  than  in  English  wheat. 
It  has  also  been  found  in  a  great  variety  of  other 
seeds,  in  the  roots  of  many  plants,  and  in  all  the 
leaves  of  plants  which  have  been  examined.  It  is 
found  in  the  berries  of  many  plants,  such  as  those 
of  the  elder,  the  grape,  &c.     Proust  did  not  find 
any  of  it  in  the  potatoe.     This  substance  seems 
to  be  the  basis  of  bread,  and  of  yeast.     The  vin- 
ous fermentation  seems  to  be  caused  by  the  reci- 
procal action   of  gluten  and  of  sugar  upon  each 
other.     When  the  juice  of  the  grape  is  deprived 
of   its  gluten,   it   does  not  ferment  into  wine  ; 
when   this   ingredient   is   restored    it   ferments 
readily. 

1303.  Gliadine  and  Zimome,  (from  Dr.  Henry's 
Elements.)    From  the  experiments  of  M.Taddei, 
an  Italian  chemist,  it  appears  that  the  gluten  of 
^vheat  may  be  decomposed  into  two  principles, 
-ne  of  which  he  has  distinguished  by  the  name 
jf  gliadine,  from  y\iaf  gluten,  the  other  zimome, 
from  Zvpr),  a  ferment.    To  separate  them,  fresh 
gluten  must  be  kneaded  with   repeated  portions 
of  alcohol,  as  long  as  that  fluid  becomes  milky  by 
dilution  with  water      The  alkaline  dissolves  the 
gliadine  and  leaves  the  zimome. 

1304.  By  evaporating  the  alcoholic  solution, 
gliadine  is  obtained,  forming  a  brittle,  straw-yel- 
low, slightly  transparent  substance,  with  a  weak 
smell,  resembling  that  of  the  honey-comb  ;  and 
when  gently  heated,  emitting  an  odor  similar 
to  that  of  boiled  apples.     In  the  mouth  it  be- 
comes adhesive,  and  has  a  sweetish  and  balsamic 


taste.  It  is  pretty  soluble  in  boiling  alcohol ; 
but  the  greater  part  precipitates  as  the  alcohol 
cools.  It  softens,  but  does  not  dissolve  in  cold 
water.  Its  alcoholic  solution  becomes  milky  on 
adding  water,  and  is  precipitated  in  white  flocks 
by  alkaline  carbonates.  Dry  gliadine  dissolves 
in  caustic  alkalis  and  acids.  It  swells  on  burn- 
ing coals,  and  then  contracts  like  animal  matter. 
It  burns  with  a  bright  flame,  and  leaves  a  por- 
tion of  charcoal,  which  is  difficult  to  be  incin- 
erated. 

1305.  Zimome  is  obtained  pure  by  boiling 
gluten  in  alcohol,  or  by  digesting  it  in  that  fluid 
till  it  ceases  to  give  out  gliadine.  There  re- 
mains a  shapeless  mass,  which  is  hard,  tough, 
destitute  of  cohesion,  and  of  an  ash-white  color. 
After  being  washed  with  water  it  recovers  its 
viscosity,  and  becomes  brown  when  left  in  con- 
tact with  air.  It  is  specifically  heavier  than 
water.  It  does  not  ferment  like  gluten,  but 
putrifies,  exhaling  a  foetid  urinous  odor.  At  a 
boiling  temperature  it  is  soluble  in  vinegar  and 
in  the  mineral  acids.  It  combines  with  potassa, 
and  forms  a  kind  of  soap.  Lime  water,  and  so- 
lutions of  alkaline  carbonates,  harden  it,  and 
give  it  a  new  appearance.  It  inflames  when 
thrown  on  red  hot  coals,  and  emits  an  odor  si- 
milar to  that  of  burning  hair  or  hoofs-  Ann,  of 
Phil.  xv.  39.  xvi.  88. 

1306.  M.  Taddei  has  since  discovered  that 
powdered  guaiacum  is  a  test  of  the  presence  of 
zimome.  When  well  kneaded  with  good  wheat 
flour  and  a  little  water,  and  then  exposed  to  the 
air,  the  guaiacum  becomes  a  very  fine  blue 
color.  Starch  does  not  evolve  this  color,  and 
bad  flour  only  in  a  very  small  degree.  But  when 
guaiacum  is  worked  up  with  gluten,  and  still 
better  with  pure  zimome,  the  color  insumtly  ap- 
pears, and  is  a  most  superb  blue.  Guaiacum, 
however,  does  not  become  at  all  colored  by  zi- 
mome, unless  the  contact  of  oxygen  be  allowed. 
The  powder  of  guaiacum  is,  therefore,  a  re-agent, 
capable  of  detecting  the  injurious  alteration  which 
flour  sometimes  undergoes  by  the  spontaneous 
destruction  of  its  gluten,  and  also  of  ascertaining, 
in  a  general  way,  the  proportion  of  that  principle. 
Quar.  Jour.  viii.  377. 

ALBUMEN. 

1307.  This  name  has  been    assigned   to  the 
whites  of  eggs,  and  to  all  glary  tasteless  sub- 
stances, which,  like  them,  coagulate  when  heated 
nearly  to  the  boiling  point.     In    1780  Scheele 
affirmed  that  many  plants  contained  a  substance 
analogous  to  curd.     Vauquelin  lately  discovered 
that  albumen  abounded  in  the  juice  of  the  papaw 
tree,  the  carica  papaya  of  botanists,  which  grows 
in  Peru,  and  the  Isle  of  France.     Proust  has  as- 
certained that  almonds,  and  other  kernels  from 
which  emulsions  are  made,  contain  a  substance 
resembling  curd.     Now  curd  and  albumen  seem 
nearly  allied ;  but,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to 
treat  of  albumen  under  the  head  of  animal  sub- 
stances, we  forbear  entering  into  a  description 
of  its  properties  in  this  place. 

BITTER  PRINCIPLE. 

1308.  Many  vegetable  substances  have  an  in- 
tensely bitter  taste,  and  are  used  in  medicine  by 


CHEMISTRY. 


487 


brewers,  &c.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with 
the  quassia  amara  and  excelsa,  the  common  quas- 
sia of  the  shops,  with  the  roots  of  the  gentiana 
lutea,  common  gentian;  the  leaves  of  humulus 
lupulus,  the  hop  ;  the  bark  and  wood  of  spartium 
scoparium,  common  broom,  the  flowers  and  leaves 
of  anthemis  nobilis  or  chamomile,  and  many 
others  unnecessary  to  be  mentioned.  This  has 
led  chemists  to  suppose  that  the  peculiar  taste 
and  effects  of  these  substances  were  owing  to  a 
distinct  species  of  matter,  which  they  distin- 
guish by  the  name  of  the  bitter  principle.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  there  are  shades  of  differ- 
ence between  the  bitters  extracted  from  different 
vegetables,  and  it  is  not  certain  whether  the  bitter 
principle  have  been  obtained  free  of  all  extra- 
neous mixture. 

1309.  That  which  is  considered  the  purest  is 
obtained  by  digesting  quassia  some  time  in  water, 
and  then  evaporating  to  dry  ness  by  a  low  heat. 
A  brownish-yellow  substance  is  left,  somewhat 
transparent,  without  srnell,  but  of  a  very  bitter 
taste.     At  first  it  is  ductile,  but  at  last  becomes 
brittle.     It  is  very  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol. 
It  is  only  precipitated  from  solution  by  nitrate  of 
silver,  and  acetate  of  lead  ;  and  the  last  is  used 
as  a  test  to  detect  the  bitter  principle   in   li- 
quids. 

1310.  A  second  species  approaches,  in  its  pro- 
perties, to  artificial  tannin,  and  is  distinguished 
by  striking  a  green  color  with  iron,  and  by  pre- 
cipitating this  metal  from  concentrated  solutions. 
Bouillon  la  Grange  found  this  species  in  the 
flowers    of    the   arnica  montana.      It   is   also 
thought   to   exist   in     the    absynthium    vulgare 
(wormwood),  juniperus   sabinus   (sabine),  ruta 
graveolens  (rue),  anthemis  nobilis  (chamomile), 
achillea  millefolium  (milfoil). 

1311.  The  third  species  is  artificial,  and  it  may 
be  obtained  by  treating  the  white  willow  with 
nitric  acid.     Mr.  Hatchett  obtained  it  by  treat- 
ing indigo  with  the  same  acid.     It  is  of  a  deep 
yellow   color,  and   of  a  very  bitter  taste,  is  so- 
luble both  in  water  and  in  alcohol,  and  possesses 
the  property  of  dyeing  silk,  woollen  cloth,  and 
cotton,  of  a  permanent  yellow  color.     It  pos- 
sesses many  properties  of  an  acid,  crystallises  in 
elongated  plates,  and  forms  with   alkalis  crystal- 
lisable  salts.     With  potassa  it  forms  crystals  less 
soluble  than  pure  bitter  principle,  which  burn 
like  gunpowder  when  thrown  upon  ignited  char- 
coal, and  fulminate  loudly  with  a  purple  light 
when  struck  upon  an  anvil.     Ammonia  deepens 
its  color,  and  produces  a  copious  deposition  of 
fine  yellow  spicular  crystals.     It  is  probable  this 
bitter  is  nearly  allied  to  artificial  tannin. 

EXTRACTIVE  PRINCIPLE. 

1312.  Chemists  have  long  applied  the  name 
of  extract,  or  extractive,  to  all  those  substances 
which  were  obtained  from   plants   by  means  of 
water,  and  which,  after  the  water  was  evaporated, 
remained  in  a  dry  state.     But  the  term  is  now 
taken  in  a  more  limited  sense,  and  as  the  term 
formerly  included  gum,  jelly,  and   various  other 
bodies,  it  seems  now  restricted  to  such  of  the 
coloring  matters  of  plants  as  can  be  extracted  by 
water.     But  as  this  extract  has  not  been  obtained 
in  a  pure  state,  exti  active  principle  is  preferred, 


which  indicates  the  substance  which  conveys  to 
the  extract  its  discriminating  properties. 

1313.  According  to  Hermbstadt,  this   princi- 
ple is  obtained  in  greatest  purity  by  infusing  saf- 
fron some  time  in  water,  filtering  the  solution, 
and  evaporating  to  dryness.     The  solution,  from 
whatever  plant  obtained,  is  always  colored.    Ex- 
tractive principle  is  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol, 
but  not  in  ether.     When  the  water  is  slowly  eva- 
porated, the  extract  obtained  is  solid  and  trans- 
parent ;  but  when  the  evaporation  is  rapid  it  is 
opaque.     It  has  always  a  strong  taste,  which  dif- 
fers according  to  the  plant  from  which  it  is  ob- 
tained.    In  consequence  of  repeated    solutions 
and  evaporations,  it  acquires  a  deeper  color,  and 
ceases  to  be  soluble  in  water.      This  is  supposed 
to  be  owing  to  the  absorption  of  oxygen  from  the 
atmosphere,  for  which  this  principle  has  a  strong 
affinity.      If  left  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  it 
putrifies  and  is  destroyed.     When   chlorine  is 
poured  into  a  solution  of  this  principle,  a  dark 
yellow  precipitate  is  thrown  down,  which  is  in- 
soluble in  water,  but  soluble  in  hot  alcohol. 

1314.  This  principle  unites  with  alumina,  and 
forms  an  insoluble  compound.     This  is  the  rea- 
son why  alum  is  so  much  used  for  fixing  colors 
upon  cloth.     The  color  is  combined  with  some 
substance  which  decomposes  alum,  and  the  cloth 
being  previously  dipped  in  a  solution  of  alum, 
when  presented  to  the  color  in  solution,  a  mutual 
decomposition  ensues.     The  acid  of  the  alum 
combines  with  the  solvent  of  the  color,  while  the 
color  combines  with  the   alumina,  already  ad- 
hering to  the  cloth,  producing  a  triple  compound 
of  cloth,  alumina,  and  color.      For  many  opera- 
tions acetate  of  alumina  is  preferable  to  common 
alum.      The  alkalis  readily  form  soluble  com- 
pounds with  extractive.     Muriate  of  tin  is  often 
used  instead  of  alum  to  fix  colors,  and  it  operates 
in   the   same   manner.     But  it  has  been  lately 
found  that  if  the  cloth  be  previously  soaked  in 
chlorine,    and   then    dipped   in   a    solution    of 
extractive,   the  color  becomes   more  effectually 
fixed  in  the  cloth  than  if  either  alumina,  munute 
of  tin  had  been  employed.     It  would  hence  ap- 
pear that  no  other  mordant  is  necessary  to  fix 
the   colors  of  extractive,  than  combining  them 
with  oxygen.     Many  of  the  metallic  salts  com- 
bine with  extractive,  as  well  as  muriate  of  tin, 
and  precipitate   it  from  solution.     Most  of  the 
oxides  produce  the  same  effect. 

1315.  Extracts  yield,  by  distillation,  an  acid 
liquor  impregnated  with  ammonia.  Lime  causes 
their  solution  to  exhale  the  smell  of  ammonia, 
and  ammonia  precipitates  from  the  same  solu- 
tion, lime  combined   with  insoluble  extractive. 
It  has  been  observed  that  this  principle  is  more 
abundant  in  old  than  in  young  plants.     There 
are  doubtless  various  species  of  extractive,  which 
differ  according  to  the  plants  from  which  they 
are  derived.     But  these  differences  have  not  yet 
been  sufficiently  ascertained.     Beside  ulmin,  the 
bitter    principle,    asparagin,   inulin,    and   other 
principles,  to  which  we  elsewhere  refer,  some 
modern  writers  include  the  following  under  the 
head   of  extractive  matter.     Dr.  Bostock  how- 
ever, and  others,  have  doubted  whether  after  all 
there   be    any   distinct  principle  to  which   the 
name  of  extinct  or  extractive  can  be  legitimately 


488 


CHEMISTRY. 


mushroom. 

NARCOTIC  PRINCIPLE,  AND  RECENTLY  DISCOVERED 
VEGETABLE  PRINCIPLES,  CHIEFLY  OF  AN  ALKA- 
LINE NATflRE. 


applied.  The  substances  to  which  we  allude  are  bulky  coal  is  left,  which  contains  some  potassa. 
hematin  from  logwood ;  polychroite  from  saf-  It  is  soluble  in  all  the  acids,  from  which  it  is 
fron;  picrotoxin  from  cocculus  Indicus ;  nice-  precipitated  by  the  alkalis, 
tin  from  tobacco;  emetin  from  ipecacuanha;  1319.  Derosne  tried  it  upon  dogs,  and  found 
medullin,  a  name  applied  to  the  pith  of  the  sun-  it  to  be  more  powerful  than  opium.  Its  bad 
flower ;  and  fungin,  a  substance  contained  in  the  effects  were  counteracted  by  causing  the  animals 

to  swallow  vinegar.  Derosne  supposes  that  the 
vinegar  operates  by  dissolving  the  narcotic  prin- 
ciple ;  and  vinegar  is  known  to  counteract  the 
effects  of  opium  when  taken  in  excess.  , 

1320.  The  narcotic  principle  of  opium,  and 
1316.  It  is  well  known  that  the  milky  juices  other  vegetables  possessing  narcotic  power,  has, 
of  the  poppy,  the  lettuce,  and  other  plants,  and  since  the  publication  of  Derosne's  Memoirs,  been 
the  decoction  of  others,  as  of  the  leaves  of  the  investigated  by  Sertiirner  and  Robiquet.  It 
digitalis  purpurea,  excite  sleep,  arid,  if  taken  in  has  been  termed  morphia.  Sertiirner  recom- 
sufficient  quantity,  produce  death.  This  led  to  mends  that  morphia  be  obtained  from  powdered 
a  supposition  that  there  is  some  peculiar  sub-  opium;  .eight  ounces  rubbed  with  two  or  three 
stance  in  these  plants,  which,  though  mixed  with  ounces  of  acetic  acid,  so  as  to  form  a  paste,  with 
other  materials,  produces  the  effects  described,  the  addition  of  a  little  water;  then  let  two  or 
To  this  substance  was  annexed  the  name  of  the  three  pints  more  of  water  be  added;  strain  the 
narcotic  principle.  A  substance  being  extracted  liquor ;  put  into  it  a  solution  of  pure  ammonia, 
from  opium,  which  possesses  these  properties  in  and  then  evaporate  to  one-fourth.  During  the  i 
the  highest  degree,  this  substance  was  held  to  be  process  of  evaporation  a  brown  matter  is  thrown 
the  narcotic  principle  in  the  highest  degree  of  down,  which  is  morphia.  For  another  method, 
purity.  Opium  'is  obtained  from  the  papaver  see  PHARMACY. 

album,  or  white  poppy,  which  is  cultivated  in  1321.' Morphia  is  ranged  by  some  modern 
Egypt,  and  in  many  of  the  Asiatic  nations.  The  authors  among  the  native  vegetable  alkalis.  It 
poppies  are  planted  in  fertile  soil,  and  well  wa-  seems  to  exist  in  opium,  combined  with  a  pecu- 
tered.  After  the  seed  capsules  have  attained  Har  acid  called  the  meconic  acid,  and  hence  the 
nearly  their  full  size,  longitudinal  incisions  are  utility  of  ammonia  in  the  prepaiation  of  it-  See 
made  in  them  during  three  or  four  successive  MEDICINE. 

evenings.  From  these  a  milky  juice  issues,  1322.  Strychnia,  an  alkaline  principle  lately 
which  soon  concretes,  and  being  scraped  off,  and  discovered  in  the  bean  of  St.  Ignatius,  and  nux 
•wrought  into  cakes,  forms  the  opium  of  com-  vomica,  and  which  it  is  said  exists  in  a  very 
raevce.  pure  state  in  the  poison  from  the  upas-tree,  is  a 

1317.  Opium  is  a  tough  brown  substance,  has  crystalline  substance,  white,  of  an  intensely  bitter 
a  peculiar  smell,  and  an  acrid  nauseous  bitter  flavor,  and  one  of  the  most  virulent  poisons  that 
taste.  It  burns  readily  and  strongly,  and  is  a  have  yet  been  discovered. 

compound  of  various  substances,  namely,  sul-  1323.  Brucia  or  brucine. — This  term  has  been 
phates  of  lime  and  potash,  oil,  resin,  extractive  applied  to  a  principle  lately  obtained  from  the 
matter,  gluten,  &c.  Digested  in  water,  several  Angustura  bark.  It  is  also  a  crystalline  sub- 
of  its  constituents  are  dissolved ;  and,  when  it  is  stance,  with  a  bitter  but  less  acrid  taste  than 
evaporated  to  the  consistence  of  syrup,  a  pre-  morphia. 

cipitate  appears,  which  is  increased  by  diluting  1324.  Delphia  or  delphine  is  procurable  from 
the  solution  with  water.  The  precipitate  con-  the  seeds  of  the  stavesacre  (delphinium  staphy- 
sists  chiefly  of  resin,  oxygenised  extractive,  and  sagria).  This  is  also  a  crystalline  and  alkaline 
narcotic  principle.  This  being  digested  in  alco-  principle,  with  a  bitter  and  acrid  taste.  See 
.  hoi,  the  resin  and  narcotic  principle  only  are  Ann.  de  Chlm.  xii. 

dissolved.  The  narcotic  principle  falls  in  crys-  1325.  To  an  acrid  narcotic  principle  residing 
tals  as  the  solution  cools,  but  still  colored  with  in  the  menispermum  cocculus,  the  name  of  picro- 
resin.  But  by  repeated  solutions  and  crystalli-  toxia  has  been  given,  which  is  also  crystalline, 
sations  it  may  be  obtained  tolerably  pure.  If  and  exceedingly  bitter. 

the  residuum  of  opium  which  remains  undis-  1326.  Atropia. — It  was  found  in  analysing  the 
solved  by  water,  be  digested  in  alcohol,  a  con-  leaves  of  the  belladonna  that  they  yielded  a 
siderable  portion  of  narcotic  principle  is  obtained,  narcotic  princi'ple,  somewhat  like  morphia  in 
combined  with  resin.  This  also  may  be  purified  its  properties.  This,  like  the  other  alkaline 
by  repeated  crystallisations.  principles,  from  vegetables,  forms  salts  with 

1318.  In  its  purest  state,  the  narcotic  princi-  acids;  but  it  has  been  observed  that  atropia 
pie  is  of  a  white  color.  It  crystallises  in  rectan-  demands  an  excess  of  acid  for  this  combination, 
gular  prisms  with  rhomboidal  bases.  It  has  so  that  its  title  to  an  alkali  is  somewhat  equi- 
neither  taste  nor  smell.  It  is  soluble  in  about  vocal. 

400  parts  of  boiling  water,  but  is  insoluble  in  1327.  Atropia  is  an  exceedingly  powerful 
cold  water.  It  is  soluble  in  twenty-four  parts  of  principle,  producing  even  in  its  vapor  giddiness 
boiling  alcohol,  and  in  100  parts  of  cold  alcohol,  and  dilatation  of  the  pupils  of  the  eyes. 
Hot  ether  dissolves  it,  but  drops  it  when  it  cools.  1328.  The  seeds  of  the  veratrum  sabatilla, 
Heated  it  melts  like  wax,-yields  a  yellow,  acrid,  the  root  of  the  veratrum  album,  and  colchicum 
anu  aromatic  oil,  some  water,  and  carbonate  of  autumnale,  yield  a  principle  called  veratria, 
ammonia.  At  last  carbonic  acid  gas,  carbureted  which  is  exceedingly  acrid  without  bitterness, 
hydrogen  gas,  and  ammonia  ccme  ever.  A  and  very  powerful  in  its  influence  upon  the  ani- 


CHEMISTRY. 


489 


mal  svstern.  From  hyoscyamus,  and  digitalis, 
two  concentrated  and  active  principles  have 
lately  been  extracted. 

1329.  The  cinchona  bark  gives  cinchona  and 
quinia,    or   quinin,    and    Robiquet     has   very 
recently   described   a   peculiar   principle   from 
coffee,  which  he  names  cafea.    These  substances 
and  principles  will  be  enlarged  on  in  other  parts 
of  our  work.    See  MATERIA  MEDICA,  PHARMA- 
CY, and  MEDICINE. 

FIXED  OILS.     (Vegetable). 

1330.  Oils  abound  much  in  nature,  and  are  of 
very  extensive  use  in  domestic  economy,  and  in 
arts  and  manufactures.     They  were  known  at  a 
very  early  period,  are  mentioned  in  the  book  of 
Genesis,  and  in  Abraham's  time  were  used  even 
in  lamps.     Cecrops  is  said  first  to  have  intro- 
duced the  cultivation  of  the  olive  into  Attica, 
and  to  have  made  the  Europeans  acquainted  with 
the  use  of  oil.     Homer's  heroes    used   burning 
sticks  instead  of  lamps. 

1331.  Oils  are  distinguished  into  the  fixed  or 
fat,  and  the  volatile  or  essential  oils.     The  fixed 
oils  require  a  higher  temperature  than  that  of 
boiling  water  to  raise  them  in  vapor.     The  vola- 
tile oils  rise  in  vapor  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
that  of  boiling  water. 

1332.  Fixed  oils  are  highly  inflammable;  are 
liquid,  or  become  so  by  a  gentle  heat;    their 
boiling  point  not  under  600°  ;  have  a  mild  taste ; 
a  greasy  feel,  and  leave  a  stain. 

1333.  They  are  also  called  expressed  oils,  be- 
cause they  are  obtained  by  compression  from  a 
great  variety  of  vegetable,  and  some  animal  sub- 
stances.    These  oils   are   found  chiefly   in   the 
seeds  of  vegetables ;  and  Fourcroy  remarks  they 
are  found  only  in  the  seeds  of  the  bicotyledinous 
class  of  plants.     The  seeds  of  plants  from  which 
they  are  chiefly  extracted  are  the  fruit  of  the 
olive,  the  kernels  of  almonds,  and  of  a  great  va- 
riety of  stone   fruits ;    from  linseed,  rape-seed, 
hemp-seed,  poppy-seed,  and  a  variety  of  other 
seeds,  from  which  they  are  extracted  by  power- 
ful mechanical  compression.      Fixed  oils  may 
also  be  extracted  from  beech-mast,  and   various 
seeds  of  trees.     Fixed  oils  are  also  obtained  from 
animals,  but  these  we  arc  afterwards  to  notice. 

1334.  The  fixed  oils  are  very  numerous,  and 
they  have  all  some  shades  of  difference  from  each 
other.     Although   we   are    not   sufficiently   ac- 
quainted with  their  nature  to  decide  positively, 
it  seems  extremely  probable  that  the  oil  is  the 
same  in  all, -and  that  their  differences  are  occa- 
sioned by  extraneous  matters  in  the  composition 
of  each  species. 

1335.  All  the  fixed  oils  are  insoluble  in  water. 
They  are  also  lighter,  and  hence  always  float  on 
the  surface  of  that  liquid.     They  are  never  per- 
fectly limpid,  but  always  possess  some  degree  of 
color.     Nor  are  they  perfectly  fluid  but  possess  a 
degree  of  tenacity,  and  adhere  to  the  sides  of  the 
vessel  in   which  they  are  contained.     They  all 
require  a  higher  temperature  than  water  to  make 
them  boil,  and  the  boiling  point  often  varies  in 
different  specimens  of  the  same  oil. 

1336.  When  distilled,  these  oils  are  partially 
decomposed ;  some   acetic   acid  and    water  are 
formed,  and  a  little  charcoal  remains  in  the  re- 


tort, while  much  carbureted  hydrogen  gas  is 
evolved.  The  oil  becomes  lighter,  more  fluid, 
and  has  a  stronger  taste  than  before.  Distilled 
oil  was  formerly  dignified  by  the  name  of  philoso- 
phical oil. 

1337.  When  kindled  in  a  state  of  vapor,  fixed 
oil  burns  with  a  yellowish-white  flame.     The  use 
of  a  wick  for  a  candle  or  lamp,  is  to  present  a 
sufficiently  small  quantity,  and  in  regular  suc- 
cession, of  the  oil  to  the  action  of  heat,  that  it 
may  be  converted  into  vapor ;  and    the  flame 
forms  a  cone,  the  interior  of  which  is  filled  with 
this  vapor,  which  only  takes  fire  where  it  comes 
in  contact  with  the  oxygen  gas  of  the  atmosphere. 
If  the  whole  oil  be  raised  to  600°,  it  takes  fire 
spontaneously.      When   sufficiently  eooled,  the 
fixed  oils  are  converted  into  ice ;  but  the  freezing 
point  is  various  in  different  oils. 

1338.  The   linseed,   nut,   poppy,  and  hemp- 
seed  oils,  are  the  principal  drying  oils  commonly 
used,  and  they  are  employed  in  the  preparation 
of  paints  and  varnishes.     To  qualify  them   for 
these  purposes,  they  are  always  boiled  some  time 
in  an  iron  pot,   during  which  process  they  are 
partially  decomposed,  and  much  watery  vapor, 
and  carbureted   hydrogen  gas  is  emitted    from 
them.    Their  color  becomes  deeper,  an4,  their  con- 
sistency greater.  During  the  boiling  a  little  litharge 
is  commonly  mixed  with  them.    For  certain  pur- 
poses they  are  set  on  fire  during  the  boiling,  and, 
after  burning  some  time,  they  are  extinguished 
by  placing  a  lid  over  the  pot ;  after  which  the 
boiling  is  continued  until  they  acquire  the  pro- 
per viscidity.      By  these  means  these  oils  lose 
their   unctuosity.    and    approach  the  nature  of 
resins.     But  they  do  not  become  brittle,  for  they 
still  retain '  a  considerable  degree  of  toughness 
and  ductility.     Burning  them  some  time  is  the 
most  effectual  method  for  destroying  their  unctu- 
osity. 

1339.  Nut  oil  is  found  to  be  the  best  for  prin- 
ters' ink,  and  next  to  it  linseed  oil.      The  oil  is 
put  into  a  pot  only  half  full,  burnt  for  about  half 
an  hour  or  more,  and  boiled  to  the  proper  con- 
sistency.    It   is  then  called  varnish ;  and  two 
kinds,  a  thicker  and  a  thinner,  are  prepared ;  the 
latter  to  be  mixed  with  the  former,  should  its 
consistency   be  found   too  great.     The  varnish 
improves  by  keeping  after  it  is  prepared.     It  is 
ground  with  two  ounces  and  a  half  of  lamp  black 
to  every  sixteen  ounces  of  oil.     Sometimes  the 
black  is  extended  with  Spanish  whitening,  and 
sometimes  receives  a  small  admixture  of  Spanish 
or  of  Prussian  blue.     That  the  oil  has  under- 
gone some  change  by  the  boiling  and  burning, 
appears  from  printers'  ink  adhering  to  wet  paper. 
But  it  is  still  very  different  from  a  mucilage,  be* 
cause  it  does  not  combine  with  water,  nor  does 
it  spread  or  stain  the  contiguous  paper. 

1340.  The  fat  oils,  such  as  the  oil  of  olives, 
of  sweet  almonds,  of  rape-seed,  of  ben,  &c.  by 
long  exposure  to  the  air,  become  white,  thick, 
and  opaque,  so   as  to  resemble   tallow.     This 
happens   much   sooner   when  they  are   poured 
upon  water,  so  as  to  form  a  thin  coating  upon 
its  surface.     This  does   not  happen  when   they 
are  excluded  from  contact  with  oxygen  gas ;  and 
hence  it  must  be  owing  to   the  action,  or  more 
probably,  the  absorption  of  this  gus. 


490 


C  H  E  M  I  S.  T  R  Y. 


1841.  The  fixed  oils,  when  assisted  by  heat, 
readily  dissolve  sulphur,  forming  a  reddish 
colored  solution,  which  yields  much  sulphureted 
hydrogen  gas  by  distillation.  The  solution  de- 
posits the  sulphur  in  octahedral  crystals  by  slow 
cooling.  When  boiled  in  water,  along  with  phos- 
phorus, these  oils  also  dissolve  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  latter.  The  solution  yields  phos- 
phureted  hydrogen  gas  by  distillation,  and 
appears  luminous  when  spread  on  the  surface  of 
bodies. 

1342.  When   the   fixed   oils  are   agitated  in 
water,  the  mixture  becomes  milky,  but  the  oily 
particles  soon  separate  and  rise  to  the  surface. 
If  gum-arabic,  or  any  mucilage,  be  present,  the 
oil  does  not  separate,  and  the  mixture  becomes 
permanently  milky.  Such  preparations  are  called 
emulsions,  and  they  are  commonly  prepared  by 
grinding  oily  seeds,  such  as  those  of  almonds,  in 
water,  which  contain  both  an  oil  and  a  mucilage 
to  keep  its  particles  separate. 

1343.  The  fixed  oils  dissolve  the  white  oxide 
of  arsenic;  and  when  boiled  with  the  oxides  of 
mercury,  lead,  or  bismuth,  they  form  the  tough 
compounds  called  plasters,  which  are  used  as  an 
artificial  skin  to  exclude  the  air  from  wounds. 

1344.  Phosphoric  acid  deepens  the  color  of 
these  oils?  and  sulphuric  acid  first  renders  them 
black,  afterwards  converts  them  into  bitumen, 
and  at  last  decomposes  them  entirely,  if  its  ac- 
tion be  continued   a  sufficient  length  of  time. 
The  result  is  the  formation  of  water,  while  char- 
coal is  precipitated,  and  an  acid  evolved.     But 
the  action  of  this  acid  on  these  oils  has  not  been 
sufficiently  examined. 

1345.  The  ultimate  components  of  olive  oil, 
as  given  by  Gay  Lussac,  and  Thenard,  are  : — 

77-21  carbon. 
9-43  oxygen. 
13-36  hydrogen. 


100-00 

1346.  The  volatile  oils  are  so  called  from  their 
volatility,  as  they  always  rise  in  vapor  at  a  lower 
temperature  than  212°,  or  the  boiling  point  of 
water.     They  are  also  called    essential  oils,  as 
they  were  supposed  to  contain  the  concentrated 
substance  of  the  plant  from  which  they  were  ob- 
tained.    They  are  called  aromatic  oils,  from  the 
fragrant  smell  which  they  exhale. 

1347.  Beside  these   properties,  they  are  very 
combustible,  nearly  as  liquid  as  water,  though 
sometimes  viscid ;  have  an  acrid  taste ;  are  solu- 
ble in  alcohol,  and  imperfectly  in  water ;  after 
evaporation  they  leave  no  stain  on  paper.     This 
last  property  enables  us  to  judge  whether  they 
have  been  adulterated  by  a  mixture  of  the  fixed 
oils,  for  if  a  drop  evaporates  from  paper  without 
leaving  a  stain,  they  are  pure,  if  not,  they  are 
adulterated. 

1348.  The  volatile  oils  are  almost  all  obtained 
from  vegetables,  though  some  few,  such  as  oil  of 
musk  and   others,  are  obtained  from   animals. 
They  are  obtained  from  all  'parts  of  plants,  the 
root,  the  bark,  the  wood,  'the  pith,  the  leaves, 
flowers,  fruits,  and  seeds.     But  they  are  never 
found  in  those  seeds  which  yield  fixed  oils. 

1349.  They  may  often  be  obtained  by  simple 


expression,  which  is  the  case  with  oil  of  lemons? 
oranges,  and  bergamotte.  But  in  general  they 
are  obtained  by  distilling  the  plants  containing 
them,  mixed  with  water,  with  a  moderate  heat. 
The  oil  comes  over  along  with  the  water,  and 
floats  upon  its  surface.  In  this  way  the  oil  of 
lavender,  peppermint,  thyme,  and  various  others, 
which  are  employed  by  the  perfumer,  are  ob- 
tained. Oil  of  turpentine  is  obtained  by  distil- 
ling the  juice  called  turpentine,  which  exudes 
from  the  juniper  tree. 

1350.  Some  of  these  oils  are  as  limpid  as  wa- 
ter, and  have  no  oily  appearance,  as  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, oranges,     lemons,    bergamotte,   roses. 
Some  have  a  degree  of  viscidity,  as  oil  of  mace, 
cardamum,  sassafras,  cloves,  cinnamon.     Others 
gradually  lose  their  fluidity  and  become  solid,  as 
oil  of  parsley,  fennel,  aniseed,  balm.      Others, 
when  slowly   evaporated,   crystallise,   as  oil  of 
thyme,   peppermint,   marjoram.       Others   soon 
acquire  the  consistence  of  butter,  as  the  oil  of 
nutmegs,  hops  and  pepper.     They  are  also  of 
almost  every  color ;  and  some  which  are  limpid 
at  first,  become  brown  by  age.     Their  odors  are 
also  so  various,  as  to  defy  all  description.     In 
fact  all  the  fragrance  of  the  vegetable  kingdom 
is  contained    in   the  essential  oils ;  and,  when 
these  are  extracted,  plants  have  no  smell  what- 
ever.    A  description  of  their  odors  would  there- 
fore be  a  description  of  the  peculiar  smell  of 
each  odoriferous  plant.     The  specific  gravity  of 
these  oils  is  also  considerably  various,  and  it  va- 
ries in  the  same  oil  at  different  periods  of  its  age. 

1351.  The  volatile  oils  evaporate  readily  when 
heated  in  the  open  air,  and  diffuse  their  peculiar 
odor ;  but  they  do  not  evaporate  so  readily  in 
close  vessels,  unless  water  be  present.     Without 
this,  they  are  apt  to  be  decomposed,  they  lose 
their   odor,  and   become   darker   in   the  color. 
When  exposed  to  cold,  they  freeze  at  different 
temperatures,  according  to  the  oil.     Some  at  17° 
are  partially  crystallised,  and  converted  into  other 
substances,  one  of  which  resembles  benzoic  acid. 

1352.  When  exposed  to  light  in  close  vessels, 
their  color  becomes  deeper,  their  consistency  and 
specific  gravity  are  increased,  as  well  as  their 
absolute  weight.     Tingry  thinks  these  effects  are 
produced  by  the  fixation  of  light.     But  as  the 
degree  of  effect  is  always  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  oil,  and  of  air  included  in  the  ves- 
sel, it  is  more  probably  owing  to  the  absorption 
of  oxygen. 

1353.  Dr.  Priestley  ascertained  that  these  oils, 
•by  exposure  to  the  air,  absorb  oxygen,  and  also 
absorb  it  from  the  air  in  close  vessels  in  which 
they  are  kept.     He  ascertained  that  oil  of  tur- 
pentine imbibes  a  considerable  quantity  of  air, 
which  can  be  extricated  from  it  by  means  of  the 
air-pump.     By  long  exposure  to  air,  the  volatile 
oils  lose  their  smell,  become  thick,  and  assume 
the  appearance  of  resins. 

1 354.  Many  of  these  oils,  when  dropped  upon 
sugar,  which  is  afterwards  dissolved  in  water, 
convey   to   the  water  their   peculiar  taste   and 
smell.     This  solution  is  known  by  the  name  of 
oleo-saccharum.       They   dissolve    in    alcohol, 
ether  and  the  fixed  oils.     Oil  of  turpentine  dis- 
solves slowly  in  alcohol,  and  afterwards  separate» 
from  it. 


CHEMISTRY. 


41)  I 


1355.  When  digested   upon   sulphur,   at   its 
melting  temperature,  they  dissolve  a  portion  of 
it,  acquire  a  brown   color,  with  a   disagreeable 
smell  and  taste.  These  solutions  used  to  be  called 
balsams  of  sulphur,  and  a  portion  of  the  sulphur 
crystallises  on    slow    cooling.     When   strongly 
heated,  these  balsams  emit  such  quantities  of  gas, 
as  to  occasion  dangerous  explosions ;  and  they 
should  be  managed  with  much  caution. 

1356.  With  the  assistance  of  heat,  these  oils 
dissolve  a  portion  of  phosphorus,  though  most 
of  them  part  with  it  again  on  cooling.     But  if 
ten  parts  of  camphor  be  rubbed  and  mixed  with 
one  part  of  phosphorus,  this  mixture  enters  into 
permanent  union  with  the  essential  oils,  particu- 
larly the  oil  of  cloves,  and  the  solution  possesses 
the  property  of  being  luminous  without  taking- 
fire.     When  the  face  or  hands  are  rubbed,  or 
letters  written  with  it,  they  appear  luminous  in 
the  dark.     This   is  what  Boyle  used  under  the 
name  of  liquid  phosphorus. 

1357.  The  essential  oils  scarcely  combine  with 
alkalis.      The    medicinal     preparation,    called 
Starkey's  soap,  is  made  by  triturating  oil  of  tur- 
pentine with  potassa,  and  the  operation  is  so  te- 
dious and  laborious,  that  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve the  oil  is  converted  into  resin,  by  absorbing 
oxygen  from  the  atmosphere  before  it  combines 
with  the  alkali.     With  resin  the  alkalis  combine 
very  readily. 

1358.  The  sulphuric  acid  first  dissolves  these 
oils,  then  converts  them  into   resin,  and  lastly 
into  charcoal.     They  may  be  separated  from  the 
acid  in  any  of  these  states  by  pouring  in  water. 
An  acid  soap  may  be  formed  by  slowly  dropping, 
and  repeatedly  stirring,  oil  of  turpentine  in  sul- 
phuric acid.     The  soap  separates  from  the  mass ; 
is  of  the  consistence  of  soft  wax ;  and  soluble  in 
water  and  alcohol.     When  this  soap  is  decom- 
posed by  an  alkali,  the  oil  is  found  to  have  been 
converted   into    a   resin,   and  afterwards  unites 
with  alkalis. 

1359.  When     concentrated     nitric    acid     is 
poured  suddenly  upon  any  of  the  essential  oils, 
'•  sets  them  on  fire;  but  if  the  acid  be  diluted 
»Jb  water,  it  dissolves  them,  and  converts  them 
into  resins,  of  a  yellow  color.  Chlorine  acts  in  the 
same  way. 

1360.  When  these  oils  are  burnt  in  the  open 
air,  they  emit  a  clear  bright  flame,  with  much 
smoke.     The  smoke,  being  collected,  is  found  to 
consist  of  carbonic  acid,  water,  and   charcoal. 
From  these  facts,  combined  with  the  effects  of 
acid  supporters  upon  them,  it  is  inferred  that  the 
volatile   oils   are   composed   of    hydrogen   and 
carbon,    with    various  proportions  of    oxygen ; 
though  no  exact  analysis  of  them  has  yet  been 
attempted. 

1361.  The  volatile  oils  are  much  used  in  me- 
dicine, in  painting,  and  perfumery.     Oil  of  tur- 
pentine is  much  used  to  dissolve  resins,  and  the 
solutions  are  applied  as  varnishes  to  various  bo- 
dies.    The  oil  of  turpentine  used  in  this  way 
readily  evaporates,  leaving  the  resin  in  contact 
with  the  body  to  which  it  is  applied  ;  or  the  oil 
is  oxygenated  and  becomes  a  resin  itself;  but  the 
varnish  does  not  become  brittle  like  the  original 
resin. 

1362.  There  is  another  class  of  oils  which  has 


been  distinguished  by  the  name  of  empyreuma- 
tic  oils,  which  agree  in  some  particulars  with  the 
volatile  oils.  They  are  formed  when  the  other 
oils  are  distilled  with  a  higher  degree  of  heat 
than  the  boiling  point  of  water,  or  by  the  appli- 
cation of  high  degrees  of  heat  to  moist  animal  and 
vegetable  substances,  which  are  not  known  to  con- 
tain any  oil.  They  are  supposed  to  be  the  other 
oils  changed,  and  partially  decomposed  by  heat. 
They  have  a  strongly  fetid  and  disagreeable 
smell,  and  an  acrid  and  harsh  taste.  They 
combine,  in  small  proportion,  with  water,  and  are 
soluble  in  alcohol.  It  is  from  these  oils  that 
spirits  and  other  distilled  liquids,  derive  what  is 
called  an  empyreumatic  flavor,  which  happens 
either  when  the  still  is  too  large,  and  contains 
such  an  incumbent  mass  of  liquid  that  the  steam 
is  compressed,  and  cannot  freely  rise  from  its 
bottom ;  or  when  the  neck  and  worm  are  too 
narrow  to  discharge  the  steam  as  fast  as  it  is  ge- 
nerated. In  such  cases  the  heat  accumulates 
considerably  higher  than  the  vaporific  point, 
before  it  can  be  carried  of!  by  the  steam ;  the 
still  is  said  to  be  burnt,  its  bottom  often  giving 
way  ;  and  the  spirits  are  impregnated  with  em- 
pyreumatic oil,  formed  by  the  accumulation  of 
heat  in  the  still. 

BITUMENS. 

1363.  This  name  was  formerly  applied  to  all 
mineral  inflammables,  but  is  now  restricted  to 
substances  which  have  a  striking  resemblance  to 
vegetable  oils   and   resins.     Indeed   there    are 
strong  reasons  for  believing  that,  if  not  all,  at 
least  this  class  of  mineral  inflammables,  was  ori- 
ginally derived  from   vegetables  and  animals  : 
and,  on  this  principle,  may,  with  propriety,  be 
introduced  into  this  part  of  our  treatise. 

1364.  This  class  of  bodies  is  subdivided  into 
mineral  oils,  and  bitumens  properly  so  called.  The 
mineral   oils   bear  a  most  striking  resemblance 
to  volatile  oils  which  we  have  just  been  discus- 
sing, and  ought  to  be  classed  with  them.     The 
bitumens  are  a  more  numerous  class  of  bodies, 
and  they  seem  to  bear  the  same  relation  to  the 
mineral    oils,    that   resins    bear  to  the  volatile 
oils. 

1365.  The  only  mineral  oil  whose  properties 
have  been  examined,  is  usually  called  petroleum, 
or  rock  oil,  and  sometimes  coal  oil,  as  it  is  ob- 
tained from  fossil  coal.     It  is  very  volatile,  and 
distills  without  alteration ;  is  usually  of  a  yel- 
lowish-brown color,  though  we  have  seen  it  rec- 
tified so  as  to  be  as  limpid  and  fluid  as  water. 
It  has  a  very  acrid  taste;    and  a  disagreeable 
smell.     Its  specific  gravity  varies  from  0-730  to 
0-878.     It  combines  with  alcohol,  ether,  the  vo- 
latile and  fixed  oils,  and  possesses  all  the  pro- 
perties of  a  volatile  oil. 

1366.  In  its  purest  form  petroleum  is  usually 
called  naphtha,  in  which  state  it  issues  in  great 
abundance  from  many  fissures  in    the   mineral 
strata,  along  the  shores  of  the   Caspian,  and  in 
Persia.     It  also  occurs  in  Germany,  Italy,  and 
various    parts    of  Europe.     It   is  often   seen  to 
form  a  white  scum  on  the  surface  of  water  which 
issues  from  springs  in  this  country,   and  some- 
times to  ooze  from  fissures  of  rocks,  where  it  may 
be  collected  in  small  quantities.     In  this  state  it  is 


492 


CHEMISTRY. 


limped  and  colorless,  but  becomes  darker  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air. 

1 367.  Petroleum,  and  bitumen,  were  first  ex- 
tracted from  coal  in  this  country,  by  lord  Dun- 
donald,  by  distillation  from  kilns  constructed  for 
the  purpose.     The  product  of  the  first  distilla- 
tion is  a  thin  dark  colored  liquid,  consisting  of 
petroleum   combined  with   coal    tar.     By   ex- 
posure to  the  air,  part  of  the  petroleum  evapo- 
rates, the  liquid  thickens,  becomes  blacker,  and 
acquires  the  consistence  of  tar,  and  even   be- 
comes solid   if  exposed   a  sufficient  length  of 
time.     It  would  seem  that  oxygen  is  absorbed  as 
well  as  volatile  oil  evaporated.     But  to  inspis- 
sate his  tar,  lord  Dundonald  subjected  it  to  a 
second  distillation,  by  which  he  seems  to  have 
expelled  too  much  of  the  volatile  oil,  as  his  tar 
was  rendered  brittle  like   resin,  and  was  apt  to 
crack  and  fall  off  from  the  sides  of  ships  on  which 
it  was  laid.     Perhaps  it  would  have  been  better 
to  have  combined  some  fixed  oil,  or  wood  tar, 
with  his  inspissated  tar ;  or  to  have  brought  the 
tar  of  the   first  distillation  to  the  proper  con- 
sistence by  combining  it  with  resin. 

1368.  In  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Asiatic  Re- 
searches, 1-127,  we  have  a  very  accurate  descrip- 
tion, by  Captain  Hiram  Cox,  of  a  species  of  mi- 
neral oil,  every  way  similar  to  the  product  of  lord 
Dundonald's  first  distillation,  which  flows  from 
numerous  springs  near  Amarapoorah,  the  capital 
of  the  Burmhan  empire  in  India.     They  dig  nu- 
merous pits  for  this  oil,  to  the  depth  of  about  200 
feet,  and  it  yields  a  considerable  income  to  the 
proprietors,  as  well  as  revenue  to  .the  govern- 
ment.    It  oozes  from  strata  of  coal,  and  of  dark 
bitumated  clay,  commonly  called  blae's  in  this 
country  by  the  colliers.     This  oil   is   nearly  as 
liquid  as  water  when  taken  out,  but  by  exposure 
to  the  air  and  to  cold  it  becomes  of  a  darker  color, 
and  thicker  consistency.     It  is  combined  with 
resin   produced    in  this  country,  and  used  -for 
the  timbers  of  houses,  and  the  bottoms  of  boats, 
which  it  defends  from  rotting,  and  from  the  at- 
tacks of  insects.     It  is  also  burnt  in  lamps,  and 
rubbed  on  the  skin  to  cure  cutaneous  eruptions, 
bruises,  and  rheumatisms.     The  opodeldoc,  so 
much  extolled  in  this  country  for  curing  sprains, 
seems  to   be  nothing   else   but    purified    coal- 
oil. 

1369.  The  bitumens,  properly  so  called,  are 
a  more  numerous  class  of  bodies  than  the  mineral 
oils.     In  general  they  seem  to  consist  of  a  resin 
ous  substance  combined  with  a  greater  or  smaller 
proportion  of  mineral  oil.    When  they  first  issue 
from  the  earth,  they  are  generally  of  the  con- 
sistence of  thin  tar,  but  they  become  thick,  and 
often  consolidate,  by  exposure  to  the  air. 

1370.  They  are  of  various  colors,  but  gene- 
rally brown   or   black.     Their  smell   is   distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  the  bituminous  smell, 
and  when  they  are  heated,  or  rubbed,  somewhat 
resembles  that  of  swine.     They  become  electric 
by  friction ;  when  heated  they  melt,  and  burn 
with  a  bright  flame,  and  much  smoke.     They 
are  all  insoluble  in  water,  and  most  of  them  in 
alcohol ;  but  they  are  all  soluble  in  ether,  and  in 
the  fixed   and  volatile  oils.     They  do  not  com- 
bine with  alkalis,  nor  form   soaps.      The  acida 


have  little  action  on  them;  but  the  nitric  acid 
dissolves  and  acts  upon  them  nearly  in  the  same 
way  as  it  does  on  resins. 

1371.  To  this  class  we  would  refer  the  sea- 
wax,  or  maltha,  found  on  the  lake  Baikal  in  Si- 
beria, which  is  white,  and  of  the  consistence  of 
white  cerate,  as  Klaproth  obtained  a  similar  sub- 
stance  by    distilling   wood-coal    in    Germany. 
Perhaps,  also,  the  mineral  tallow,  described  by 
Kirwan,  and  said  to  be  found  on  the  coast  of 
Finland  and  other  parts  of  Sweden,  may  be  re- 
ferred to  this  class.     Perhaps  a  white  light  sub- 
stance, called  moss-tallow,  which  is  found  in  the 
bottoms  of  peat  bogs  near  Inverness  and  other 
parts   of  Scotland,  may  also  be  a  mineral   bi- 
tumen ;  though  we  entertain  some  suspicion  it 
may  have  been  the  tallow  of  cattle  which  had 
been  killed   by  huntsmen,  and  dropped  there 
when  these  bogs  were  woods,  before  the  moss 
grew  up.     Though  this  substance  has  not  been 
particularly  examined,  we  may  remark  that  it  dif- 
fered from  tallow  in  several  respects,  though  it 
resembles  it  in  some  others,  particularly  in  its 
melting  and  inflaming. 

1372.  By  far  the  most  abundant  species  of  mi- 
neral bitumen,  is  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
asphaltum  or  mineral  tar;  and  it  is  every  way 
similar  to  the  coal  tar  of  lord  Dundonald.  Of  .this 
there  is  a  considerable  lake  in  the  island  of  Tri- 
nidad, which  is  so  much  hardened  on  the  surface 
by  exposure  to  the   air  that   people  can  walk 
upon  it,  though  it  is  liquid  below,  and  still  more 
fluid  when   it  issues  from  the  mineral  strata. 
This  lake  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  crater  of 
a  volcano,  which  has  been  filled  up  by  bitumen 
flowing   from    contiguous    strata    of  coal.     It 
abounds  in  Albania,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  substance  chiefly  employed  in  preparing 
the  Greek  fire.     It  abounds  also  on  the1  shores 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  Palestine ;  and  was  used  in 
place  of  mortar,  for  building  the  tower  and  walls 
of  Babylon.     The  Egyptians  employed  it  in  em- 
balming.    It  is  said  to  abound  in  Persia,  and 
several  parts  of  Asia.     Considerable  quantities 
of  this   substance  often  issue  from  the  strata  of 
stone  quarries  in  the  county  of  Caithness.     At 
first  it  is  nearly  as  fluid  as  water,  but,  by  exposure 
to  the  air,  it  acquires  a  darker  color,  and  the 
consistence  of  tar.     By  long  exposure,  it  even 
becomes  hard,  and  as  black  as  jet. 

1373.  The  color  of  this  bitumen  is  at  first 
dark  brown,  and  it  always  becomes  blacker  the 
longer  it  is  exposed  to  the  air.     Its  specific  gra- 
vity varies  from  1'07,  to  1'165,  according   to 
Kirwan. 

1 374.  Klaproth  ascertained  that  the  asphaltum 
of  Albania  is  not  soluble  in  alkalis,  acids,  water, 
or  alcohol ;  but  it  is  soluble  in  petroleum  and  all 
the  oils,  and  in  sulphuric  ether.     Five  parts  of 
petroleum  dissolved  one  part  of  asphaltum,  and, 
being  gently   evaporated,   left   a   black   brown 
shining  varnish.     The  solution  in  ether  was  of  a 
pale  brown  red  color,  and  being  evaporated,  a 
reddish  semitransparent  fluid  substance  was  left,, 
still  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

1375.  A  hundred   grains  of  this   asphaltum 
being  distilled  by  a  heat  gradually  raised  to  red- 
ness, yielded 


CHEMISTRY. 


493 


Grains. 
*lt>  cubic  inches  (German)  carbure  /ed 

hydrogen  gas       .          .         .  ".6 

A  light  brown  fluid  oil,  or  petroleum  32 

Water  tainted  with  ammonia       .  6 

Charcoal  30 

Ashes        '......  16 


\  100 

The  ashes  consisted  chiefly  of  silica  and  alumina, 
with  some  lime,  iron,  and  manganese. 

1376.  As  petroleum  combined  chiefly  with  a 
certain  proportion  of  charcoal,  forms  bitumen, 
so  bitumen,    into    whose    composition    a   larger 
proportion    of   charcoal    enters,    forms    mineral 
coal.     Of  this  there  are   several  varieties,  but 
they  may  be  classed  under  the  general  names  of 
brown  coal,  and   black  coal.     The  brown   coal 
has  not  been  found  in  this  country,  but  it  abounds 
in  some  parts  of  Germany,  and  it  contains  some 
of  the   vegetable   principles   unchanged.       The 
black  coal  abounds  in  Britain,  and  it  may  be 
regarded  as  the  source  of  her  wealth  and  pros- 
perity.    It  is  of  two  kinds.     The  flaming  coal, 
which  contains  a  considerable  portion  of  bitumen 
in  its  composition, — and  what  is  usually  called 
blind  coal,  because  it  burns  without  flame,  and 
has  lately  been  called  glance  coal  by  Werner. 
This  is  found  at  Kilkenny  in  Ireland,  in  some 
parts  of  Ayrshire,  in  the  island  of  Arran,  on  the 
banks  of  the  grand  canal  at  Annfield,  and  differ- 
ent parts  of  Fifeshire,  and  in   some  districts  of 
England.  This  last  is  charcoal,  without  bitumen, 
and  hence  it  does  not  flame ;   the  flame  of  coal, 
like  that  of  oil  (1337)  being  owing  to  the  com- 
bustion of  bitumen  after  it  is  raised  in  vapor. 
Besides  bitumen  and  charcoal,  all  these  sorts  of 
coal  contain  a  greater  or  smaller  admixture  of 
extraneous  earths,  and  sometimes  of  iron,  sul- 
phur and  other  substances. 

1377.  When  the  flaming  coal  is  distilled  in 
lord  Dundonald's  method,  it  gives  out"  a  vast 
quantity  of  heavy  inflammable  air,  or  carbureted 
hydrogen,  gas ;  a   bituminous  oil,   at  first  fluid, 
but  gradually  changes  to  the  consistence  of  tar  ; 
and   water   impregnated  with  ammonia.     Lord 
Dundonald  has  applied  the  oil  to  the  making  of 
varnishes.    The  residue  is  coak,  or  mineral  char- 
coal, which  yields  a  strong  and  steady  heat,  and 
is  of  great  use  in  various  manufactures. 

1378.  Mineral   caoutchouc  is  another  species 
of  bitumen,  only  found  in  Derbyshire.     It  is  so 
called  from  its  resemblance  to  vegetable  caout- 
chouc, or  Indian  rubber.  It  effaces  pencil  marks 
from  paper,  but  stains  it  a  little.     It  is  elastic, 
of  a  dark  brown,  and  sometimes  of  a  red  color. 
It  resists  all  liquid  menstrua,  but  dissolves   in 
olive  oil,  according  to  Delametherie.     Klaproth 
found  it   dissolved  in   petroleum,  the  solution 
being  of  a  bright  yellow  color,  and  transparent. 
It  bums  with  a  bright  flame,  and  melts  by  heat, 
retaining  Us  tenacity  after  melting,  which  is  not 
the  case  with  Indian  rubber.  After  being  melted 
it  dissolves  in  oils. 

1379.  There  is  another  bituminous  substance 
connected  with  the  Bovey  coal  in  Devonshire, 
to  which  Mr.  Hatchett  assigned  the  name  of  resin- 
asphaltum,  and  whose  chemical  properties  he  ex- 
amined.— It  is  of  a  pale  ochre  yellow  color ;  brit- 


tle, and  fracture  vitreous;  specific  gravity  1-135 
It  burns  with  a  bright  flame,  and  emits  a  fragrant 
odor,  at  last  tainted  with  a  bituminous  smell.  It 
melts,  and  after  cooling,  is  black,  brittle,  and 
fracture  vitreous.  Water  does  not  act  upon  it; 
but  a  portion  dissolves  in  alcohol,  potassa,  and 
nitric  acid ;  what  dissolves  having  the  properties 
of  a  resin,  and  the  insoluble  part  of  an  asphaltum. 
Mr.  Hatchett  found  it  composed  of 

Resin  55 

Asphaltum     41 

Earths  3 

99 
WAX. 

1380.  It  is  well  known  that  bees  possess  the 
power  of  forming  wax,  which  Huber  ascertained 
they  can  do  from  honey  or  sugar.    But  this  sub- 
stance is  also  a  vegetable   product,  and  some 
plants  yield  it  in  such  abundance  that  it  might 
be  profitably  extracted  from  them.     It  coats  the 
surface  of  the  leaves  of  many  trees,  and  the  leaves 
being  bruised,  and  digested,  first  in  water  then 
in  alcohol,  until  all  that  is  soluble  in  these  liquids 
be  extracted  from   them,  the  insoluble  part  is 
mixed  with  six  times  its  weight  of  pure  ammo- 
niacal  solution,  which  dissolves  the  wax.     The 
solution  being  filtered,  the  ammonia  is  saturated 
with  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  with  constant  stir- 
ring, which  precipitates  the  wax  in  yellow  pow- 
der.    After  being  well  washed,  it  is  melted  over 
a  gentle  fire. 

1381.  Wax  is  bleached,  and  acquires  a  pure 
white  color,  by  exposing  it  in  thin  slices  to  the 
atmosphere.    It  has  then  hardly  any  smell,  and  its 
specific  gravity  is  from  0'8203  to  0'9662.     It  is 
insoluble  in  water;  melts  at  155°.    At  a  greater 
heat    it  boils  and  flies  off  in   vapor.     An   ig- 
nited body  sets  the  vapor  on  fire,  and  this  pro- 
perty renders  wax  very  useful  for  making  candles. 
Wax  is  soluble  in  boiling  alcohol,  and  in  heated 
ether.  With  the  fixed  oils  it  forms  the  compound 
called  cerate,  much  used  by  surgeons,  and  whose 
consistency  varies  according  to  the  proportion  of 
oil.    It  also  dissolves  in  heated  oil  of  turpentine, 
and  other  volatile  oils,  and  a  part  precipitates  on 
cooling.     With  the  fixed  alkalis  it  forms  soap, 
arid  with  volatile  alkali  a  soapy  emulsion,  scarcely 
soluble  in  water.    The  acids  have  little  action  on 
wax,  and  chlorine  only  bleaches,  or  renders  it 
white.      Hence  wax  is  much  employed  as  a  lute 
to  confine  acids  in  vessels.    From  an  experiment 
of  Lavoisier  it  would  appear  that  wax  is  com- 
posed of 

82-28  parts  carbon 
17-72  hydrogen 

lOO'OO 

It  probably  contains  also  a  portion  of  oxygen. 
As  the  absorption  of  oxygen  renders  the  fixed 
oils  concrete,  wax  is  supposed  to  be  a  fixed  oil 
which  has  become  concrete  by  being  saturated 
with  oxygen. 

1382.  In  Louisiana,  and  other  parts  of  North 
America,  a  pale  green  wax  is  obtained  from  the 
berries  of  the  myrica  cerifera,  which  are  boiled 
and  squeezed  in  water.    The  wax  is  melted,  a:ii 


494 


CHEMISTRY. 


swims  on  the  surface,  where  it  is  skimmed  off. 
The  Chinese  extract  wax  from  various  vegetables ; 
and  it  is  now  thought  to  be  a  very  abundant  pro- 
duct of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

CAMPHOR. 

1383.  Neumann  first  demonstrated  this  to  be 
a  distinct  vegetable  substance.     It  has  long  been 
known  in  the  East,  and  was  first  brought  to  Eu- 
rope by  the  Arabians.     It  is  obtained  in  Japan 
by  distilling  the  wood  of  the  laurus  camphora,  in 
large  iron  pots,  along  wiNth  water.     To  the  pots 
are  fitted  earthen  heads  stuffed  with  straw.    The 
camphor  sublimes,  and  concretes  upon  the  straw. 
The  Dutch  subject  it  to  a  second  sublimation  in 
glass  vessels  of  a  turnip  shape,  having  a  small 
mouth  covered  with  paper.     When  sublimed  in 
close  vessels  it  crystallises  in  hexagonal  plates, 
or  pyramids. 

1384.  Refined  camphor  is  a  white  brittle  sub- 
stance, of  an  acrid  taste,  and  aromatic  odor.     Its 
specific  gravity  is  0-9887.     It  is  so  volatile  that 
when  exposed  in  open  vessels  in  hot  weather,  it 
goes  entirely  off  in  vapor.     It  is  insoluble  in 
water,  but  communicates  to  it  its  peculiar  smell. 
Rectified  alcohol  dissolves  three-fourths  of  its 
weight  of  camphor,  which  is  precipitated  by  add- 
ing water.     When  camphorated  alcohol  is  dis- 
tilled, the  spirit  passes  over  first,  leaving  the 
camphor  ;  and  this  affords  an  easy  way  of  puri- 
fying camphor.     Camphor  is  also  soluble  in  the 
fixed  and  volatile  oils.     Acids  dissolve  camphor 
with   effervescence,  and  it  may  be  precipitated 
from  the  recent  solution  unaltered.     Mr.  Hat- 
chett,  by  digesting  sulphuric  acid  on  camphor, 
and   afterwards  distilling  the  compound,    con- 
verted it  into  a  yellow  oil,  charcoal,  and  a  resinous 
substance   resembling  artificial  tannin.     Nitric 
acid  converts  camphor  into  a  yellow  substance 
resembling  oil,  which  is  called  oil  of  camphor. 
With  acetic  acid  it  forms  the  compound  called 
aromatic  vinegar. 

1385.  When  suddenly  heated,  camphor  melts 
at  300°,  according  to  Venturi,  and  at  421°  ac- 
cording to  Romini.     It  is  very  inflammable,  and 
burns  with  much  flame,  without  leaving  a  resi- 
duum.    It  even  burns  on  the  surface  of  water. 
Bouillon  la  Grange  thinks  camphor  is  composed 
of  volatile  oil  and  charcoal,  and  that  its  ultimate 
ingredients  are  carbon  and  hydrogen,  the  pro- 
portion of  caebon  being  much  greater  than  in  oils. 

1386.  Camphor  has  been  found  to  exist  in  all 
the  volatile  oils  that  have  been  examined,  and  is 
supposed  to  communicate  to  them  their  peculiar 
smell.     If  a  volatile  oil  be  exposed  to  the  air  at 
a  temperature  between  22°  and  54°,  part  of  the 
oil  evaporates,  and  camphor  crystallises.     Or  if 
the  oil  be  distilled  in  a  water-bath  some  degrees 
below  the  boiling  point,  until  a  third  of  the  oil  is 
forced  over,  camphor  is  found  crystallised  in  the 
still.     If  this  be  removed,  and  the  oil  aijain  dis- 
tilled, more  camphor  crystallises ;   and  in  this 
way  all  the  camphor  may  bft  separated  from  the 
oil.     The  camphor  thus  obtained  is  purified  by 
mixing  it  with  a  little  dry  lime  and  subliming  it. 
This  differs  from  common  camphor  in  not  form- 
ing a  liquid  solution  with  the  sulphuric  and  the 
nitrid   acids;    and  it  is  precipitated  from   the 
latter  acid  in  a  glutinous  mass. 


1387.  Mr.  Kind,  of  Eutin,  having  passed  a 
ftream  of  muriatic  acid  gas  through  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, in  a  Woulfe's  bottle,  converted  nearly 
one-half  of  the  oil  into  camphor.     The  propor- 
tion of  gas  which  answers  best  is  what  can  be 
separated  by  sulphuric  acid  and  heat   from  a 
quantity  of  common  salt  equal  in  weight  to  the 
oil  of  turpentine  employed. 

1388.  Camphor  is  much  used  in  medicine. 
It  proves  destructive  to  many  species  of  insects, 
and  the  gall-plant,  which  contains  camphor,  is 
commonly  called  flea-bane  in  this  country,  from 
the  use  to  which  it  is  sometimes  applied. 

BIRD-LIME. 

1389.  This  viscous  substance  exudes  from  the 
bark  and  leaves  of  several  plants.     It  is  said  to 
abound  in  the  berries  of  the  misletoe.     It  is 
usually  prepared  by  boiling  the  middle  bark  of 
the  holly,  seven  or  eight  hours,  until  it  becomes 
soft.     It  is  then  put  into  a  hole  in  the  earth, 
covered  with  stones,  and  left  to  ferment  or  rot 
for  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks.     This  fermenta- 
tion changes  it  to  a  mucilaginous  consistency ; 
and  it  is  now  pounded  to  a  paste  in  mortars,  and 
well  washed  with  river  water.     It  is  soluble  in 
ether,  and  in  boiling  alcohol.     Its  color  is  green- 
ish, its  flavor  sour,  its  consistence  gluey,  stringy, 
and  tenacious.     It  has  hence  been  much  em- 
ployed in  catching  small  birds.     It  reddens  ve- 
getable blues.     It  softens,  but  does  not  dissolve 
in  boiling  water.     Concentrated  solution  of  pot- 
assa  forms  a  species  of  soap  with  bird-lime. 

RESINS. 

1390.  Resins  derive     their  name  from  com- 
mon rosin,  which  is  the  most  abundant  of  any  of 
this  class  of  substances.    Resins  are  supposed  to 
have  the  same  relation  to  the  volatile  which  wax 
has  to  the  fixed  oils,  and  to  be  formed  in  conse- 
quence of  a  combination  of  oxygen  with  volatile 
oils.     Accordingly  when  a  volatile  oil  is  long 
exposed  to  the  air  it  acquires  the  properties  of  a 
resin,  in  consequence,  it  is  thought,  of  its  com- 
bining with  oxygen.     The  same  change  takes 
place  more  rapidly  when  oil  of  turpentine   is 
exposed   to   chlorine.      It    is    soon    converted 
into  a  yellow  resin.     Resins  often  exude  spon- 
taneously  from    trees,   or   flow   from    artificial 
wounds.     They  are  frequently  at  first  combined 
with  a  volatile  oil  from  which  they  are  separated 
by  distillation.    They  are  solid  brittle  substances, 
commonly  of  a  yellow  color.     Their  taste  re- 
sembles that  of  volatile  oils,  but  they  have  no 
smell   unless  they  contain  foreign   ingredients.' 
They  are  all  heavier  than  water.    They  are  all 
non-conductors  of  electricity,  and  by  friction  are 
electrified  negatively. 

1391.  When  heated  they  melt,  and  when  ig- 
nited they  burn  with  a  yellow  flame,  emitting  at 
the  same  time  much  smoke.    They  are  insoluble 
both  in  hot  and  in  cold  water,  but  when  they  are 
melted  in  water,  or  combined  with  volatile  oil 
arid  distilled  with  water,  they  become  opaque 
and  less  brittle  than  formerly.     This  every  shoe- 
maker knows  who  prepares  his  rosin  by  working 
it  in  warm  water. 

1392.  They  are,  with  only  two  exceptions,  so- 
luble in  alcohol,  especially  when  it  is  heated, 


CHEMISTRY. 


495 


which  takes  up  about  one-third  of  its  weight  of 
resin.  If  the  alcohol  be  distilled  off,  the  resin 
remains  unchanged.  Or  if  water  be  poured  into 
the  solution,  the  resin  falls  in  the  state  of  a  white 
powder.  They  are  also  soluble  in  sulphuric 
ether.  Most  of  them  are  soluble  in  the  fixed 
oils,  and  especially  in  the  drying  oils.  They  are 
also  generally  soluble  in  oil  of  turpentine  and 
other  volatile  oils.  They  are  soluble  in  the  fixed 
alkaline  solutions,  and  hence  the  soap  manufac- 
turers put  a  quantity  of  rosin  in  their  soap,  which 
gives  it  a  yellow  color,  a  peculiar  smell,  and  ren- 
ders it  more  soluble  in  water.  In  volatile  alkali 
they  only  form  an  imperfect  solution. 

1393.  Mr.  Hatchett  first  discovered  that  resins 
are  soluble  in  acids.  Sulphuric  acid  being 
poured  on  them  in  powder,  first  dissolves  the 
resins,  and,  by  the  assistance  of  heat,  gradually 
converts  them  into  artificial  tannin  and  charcoal, 
which  burns  like  mineral  coal.  The  compound 
being  washed,  and  the  tannin  separated  by  alco- 
hol and  water,  from  100  grains  of  the  following 
resins,  Mr.  Hatchett  obtained  the  following  pro- 
portions of  charcoal  by  this  process  : 


Copal  .  , 
Mastich 
Elemi  .  . 
Tacamahac 
Amber  .  . 
Resin 


67  grains 

66 

63 

62 

56 

43 


The  same  bodies  when  exposed  to  a  red  heat  in 
close  vessels  yield  very  little  charcoal.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  quantity  obtained  by  Mr.  Hatchett 
irom  100  grains  of  several  of  them  : 


Mastich 
Amber 
Resin    . 


4'50  grains 

3-50 

0-65 


1394.  Nitric  acid  of  the  specific  gravity  1'38, 
dissolves  resin  with  the  assistance  of  heat,  and 
changes  its  nature.     It  is  precipitated  by  water. 
If  the  acid  be  in  sufficient  quantity,  and  be  long 
digested  on  a  resin,  a  yellow  viscid  substance  is 
obtained  which  is  equally  soluble  in  water  and 
alcohol.     At  last  the  nitric  acid  converts  resin 
into  artificial  tannin.     Muriatic  acid  also  dis- 
solves resins  slowly.     Mr.  Hatchett  recommends 
acetic  acid  as  an  excellent  solvent  of  resins  for 
vegetable  analysis. 

1395.  By  destructive  distillation  resins  yield 
carbureted  hydrogen  gas,  carbonic  acid  gas,  some 
acidulous  water,  and  much  empyreumatic  oil. 
When  volatile  oil  is  exposed  to  the  air  it  is  partly 
converted  into  resin,  partly  into  the  benzoic  or 
camphoric  acids,  while  a  portion  of  water  is  also 
formed.     It  has  hence  been  inferred  that  resin 
consists  of  volatile  oil,  combined  with  oxygen, 
and  deprived  of  a  portion  of  its  hydrogen.     To 
know  if  any  substance  contains  resin,  pour  sul- 
phuric ether  upon  it  in  powder,  and  expose  it  to 
the   light.     If  resin  be  present,  the  ether  will 
assume  a  brown  color.     We  shall  now  enume- 
rate a  few  of  the  more  useful  resins. 

1396.  Rvsin  is  obtained  from  the  pinus  sylves- 
tris,  or  Scotch  fir,  from  the  pinus  abies,  or  spruce 
i\r,  from  the  larix,  and  balsamea.     When  the 
bark  is  stripped  from  the  fir  trees  in  winter,  they 
become  encrusted  with  a  white  brittle  substance, 


consisting  of  rosin  united  to  a  small  portion  of 
oil.  The  yellow  rosin  is  made  by  melting  and 
agitating  this  substance  in  water,  and  it  is  more 
ductile  than  the  others  because  it  contains  a  small 
portion  of  oil.  The  larix  yields  Venice  turpen- 
tine, the  balsamea  the  balsam  of  Canada. 

1397.  Mastich  is  obtained   from  the  pistacea 
lentiscus,  a  tree  which  grows  in  the  Levant,  and 
particularly  in  the  island  of  Chios.     Transverse 
incisions  are  made  in  the  tree,  from  which  a  juice 
exudes,  which  concretes  into  this  resin.     It  con- 
tains nearly  a  fifth  of  caoutchouc,  from  which  the 
resin  may  be  separated  by  solution  in  alcohol. 
It  is  chewed  in  Turkey,  as  we  chew  tobacco,  and 
is  often  employed  by  surgeons  to  fill  up  the  va- 
cuities of  carious  teeth. 

1398.  Sandarach  is  obtained  from  the  juni- 
perus  communis,  or  common  juniper.    It  exudes 
spontaneously,  and   is   soluble   in   about   eight 
times  its  weight  of  water,  but  is  not  soluble  in 
tallow  or  oil.     It  is  also  soluble  in  acids  and 
alkalis. 

1399.  Elemi  is  obtained  from  the  amyris  ele- 
mifera,  a  tree  which  grows  in  Canada,  and  Spa- 
nish   America.     Incisions   being   made   in    the 
bark,  during  dry  weather,  the  resin  exudes,  and 
is  allowed  to  harden  in  the  sun.     It  has  a  strong 
and  fragrant  smell,  which  gradually  diminishes. 

1400.  Tacamahac  is  obtained  from  the  fagara 
octandra,  a  tree  which  grows  in  America.    It  has 
an  aromatic  smell,  and  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  but 
not  in  water. 

1401.  Anime  is  obtained  from  the  hymenaea 
courbaril,  or  locust  tree,  which  grows  m  North 
America.     It  very  much  resembles  copal,  but  is 
easily  soluble  in  alcohol,  which  copal  is  not.     It 
is  much  employed  in  making  varnishes,  owing 
to  its  solubility  in  alcohol. 

1402.  Ladanum  or  labdanum  exudes  from  the 
cistus  creticus,  a  shrub  which  grows  in  Syria  and 
the  Grecian  islands.    Water  dissolves  about  one- 
twelfth  of  it,  which  seems  to  be  gum.     Part  of 
the  remainder  is  soluble  in  alcohol.     It  gene- 
rally contains  about  one-fourth  of  its  weight  of 
extraneous  matters. 

1403.  Botany  Bay  resin  is  obtained  from  the 
acarois  resinifera,  a  singular  sort  of  tree  which 
grows  near  Botany  Bay,  and  other  parts  of  New 
South  Wales.     It  exudes  spontaneously,  or  from 
wounds  made  in  the  bark  of  the  tree.     Two- 
thirds  of  it  are  soluble,  by  digestion,  in  alcohol. 
The  remaining  third  is  extractive  matter  soluble 
in  water,  and  woody  fibre.     It  is  partially  solu- 
ble in  alkaline  solutions,  and  it  burns  like  rosin. 

1404.  Black  poplar  resin  was  first  pointed  out 
by  Schroder,  who  obtained  it  from  the  buds  of 
the  black  poplar,  by  boiling  them  in  water,  and 
afterwards  pressing  them.    The  buds  yield  about 
one-fourth  of  their  weight  of  this  resin,  which  is 
very  similar  to  the  resin  of  Botany  Bay. 

1405.  Green   resin   constitutes    the    coloring 
matter  of  the  leaves  of  trees,  and  of  almost  all 
plants.     It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in 
alcohol,  by  which  it  may  be  extracted  from  the 
leaves  of  plants.     If  the  leaves  be  immersed  in 
chlorine  they  soon  assume  a  withered  appearance, 
but  the  coloring  matter  acquires  the  properties  of 
resin  in  greater  perfection. 

1406.  Copal  is  said  to  be  obtained  from  the 


49G 


C  H  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y. 


rhus  copallinum,  a  tree  which  abounds  in  several 
parts  of  North  America.  It  is  said  also  to  be 
produced  from  various  trees  in  Spanish  America. 
li  :s  a  white  substance,  sometimes  opaque,  often 
nearly  transparent.  It  has  long  been  reckoned  a 
gum,  because  it  is  of  difficult  solution  in  alcohol, 
oil  of  turpentine,  and  in  the  fixed  oils.  But  it 
melts  when  heated,  and,  as  Mr.  Hatchett  dis- 
covered, is  soluble  in  acids  and  in  alkalis.  With 
nitric  acid  it  forms  artificial  tannin,  and  exhibits 
all  the  usual  properties  of  the  resins.  It  is  there- 
fore now  classed  with  the  resins.  If  copal  be 
suspended  by  a  thread  above  the  surface  of  alco- 
hol, in  a  close  vessel,  well  corked,  and  the  alcohol 
raised  in  vapor  by  the  heat  of  a  sand-bath,  the 
copal  melts,  and  drops  like  oil  into  the  alcohol, 
and  is  .suddenly  dissolved.  After, the  drops  cease 
to  be  dissolved  by  the  alcohol,  it  is  unnecessary 
to  continue  the  process,  because  the  alcohol  is 
now  saturated  with  the  copal.  By  a  similar 
process  copal  may  be  combined  with  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. Copal  was  first  used  as  an  ingredient 
in  varnishes  by  the  French.  It  afterwards  found 
its  way  into  Holland,  where  the  mode  of  pre- 
paring it  was  much  improved.  But  the  modes 
by  which  it  is  prepared  have  hitherto  been  kept 
a  secret  among  workmen,  and  arc  hardly  known 
in  the  British  Isles. 

1407.  Lac. — Though  this  substance  has  long 
been  known  in  the  arts,  little  is  ascertained  res- 
pecting its  origin.    It  is  said  to  be  deposited  on 
various  species  of  trees  in  the  East  Indies,  by  an 
insect 'called  chremes  lacca.     It  seems  to  form 
the  nests  of  these  insects,  and  it  appears  doubt- 
ful whether  it  be  formed  in  their  bodies,  or  be 
merely  an  exudation  occasioned  by  their  punc- 
tures in  the  tree.  In  its  original  state  it  is  called 
stick-lac,  which  is  of  a  deep  red  color.     When 
broken  and  boiled  in  water,  the  water  dissolves 
a  great  part  of  this  coloring  matter,  and  the  de- 
coction is  used  as  a  red  dye.     What  remains 
undissolved  is  called  seed-lac,  which   is   of  a 
brown  color.   Alcohol  dissolves  the  greatest  part 
of  what  the  water  has  left.  What  the  water  leaves 
melts  by  heat,  and,  being  formed  into  thin  plates, 
is  known  under  the  name  of  shell-lac. 

1408.  To  Mr.  Hatchett  we  are  indebted  for 
an  accurate  analysis  of  the  three  species  of  lac, 
and  the  following  table  exhibits  his  results  in 
parts  of  a  100. 

TABLE. 

Stick  Lac.  Seed  Lar.  Shell  Lac. 

Resin       ...  68  88'5  90-9 

Coloring  matter  10  2'5  0'5 

Wax    ....       6  4-5  4-0 

Gluten      ...       5-5  2'0  2-8 
Foreign  bodies         6'5 

Loss    .                      40  2-5  1-8 


100-0 


100-0 


100-0 


1409.  Lao  is  of  very  extensive  use  in  India. 
In  Europe,  besides  furnishing  a  red  dye,  it  forms 
the  basis  of  sealing-wax.  Black  wax  is  formed 
by  melting  certain  proportions  of  shell  lac  with 
oil  of  turpentine,  and  stirring  into  the  solution  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  ivory  black.  Red  wax  is 
formed  in  the  same  manner,  with  vermilion,  to 


give  the  color.  A  portion  of  bleached  bees-wax 
is  often  used  to  save  the  expense  of  lac.  This 
substance  also  makes  a  conspicuous  figure  in  the 
composition  of  varnishes.  A  solution  of  100 
grains  of  lac  in  four  ounces  of  water,  in  which 
twenty  grains  of  borax  are  also  dissolved,  and  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  lamp  black  is  stirred  in  the 
mixture,  constitutes  Chinese  ink. 

1410.  Amber  is  thought  to  be  of  vegetable 
origin,  and,  though  it  differs  from  resiu  in  some 
particulars,  it  agrees  with  it  in  most  of  its  pro- 
perties. It  is  a  light,  hard  and  brittle  substance, 
of   a    yellow   color,   and    nearly    transparent. 
Though  usually  tasteless,  and  without  smell,  it 
emits  a  fragrant  odor  when  pounded  or  heated. 
It  cannot  be  melted  without  losing  weight,  and 
changing  its  appearance.     In  a  strong  heat  it 
burns,  leaving  a  small  quantity  of  ashes.     It  is 
not  soluble   in  water,  but  dissolves  after  long 
digestion,  in  alcohol.    A  residuum  is  left,  which 
is  not  acted  on  by  alcohol.     A  boiling  solution 
of  the  fixed  alkalis  converts  amber  into  soap.   It 
is  also  soluble  in  weak  solution  of  potash,  after 
very  long  digestion.     Sulphuric  acid  converts  it 
into  a  black  resinous  substance.     Nitric  acid, 
with  heat,  exhibits  the  same  phenomena  with  it 
as  with  the  other  resins.     It  only  combines  with 
the  fixed  and  volatile  oils  after  being  roasted,  or 
melted  by  heat.     In  this  case  the  solution  forms 
amber  varnish. 

1411.  Resin  from   bitumen. — Mr.   Hatchett 
ascertained  that  when  mineral  bitumen,  such  as 
that  which  is  distilled  from  pit-coal,  is  digested 
in  nitric  acid,  it  acquires  the  properties  of  a 
resin.     Its  fracture  is  then  dark  brown,  and  it 
acquires  a  resinous  lustre. 

VARNISHES. 

1412.  As  resins  form  the  basis  of  varnishes,  it 
may  not  be  improper  to  conclude  this  branch  of 
the  subject  with  a  short  account  of  those  which 
are  in  most  frequent  use.     The  object  of  var- 
nishes is  to  prevent  the  action  of  air  and  water 
on  the  varnished  bodies.     In  most  cases  it  is 
also  desirable  that  they  should  be  transparent,  so 
as  not  to  obscure  the  colors  of  the  bodies  to 
which  they  are  applied.     They  should  not  crack 
nor  scale  off,  and  they  should  be  susceptible  of  a 
fine  polish.    It  is  also  necessary  that  the  solvent 
of  the  resin  used  as  a  varnish,  should  be  capable 
of  drying.     The  solvents  usually  employed  in 
making  varnishes  are  alcohol,  which  forms  what 
are  called  drying  varnishes,  volatile  or  essential 
oil,  which  forms  what  are  called  essential  var- 
nishes, and  the  drying  fixed  oils  which  form  the 
fat  varnishes.     Frequently  more  than  one  sol- 
vent, and  different  resins,  are  mixed  in  the  same 
varnish.     Powdered  glass  is  also  recommended 
by  Mr.  Tingry,  to  give  them  more  consistency. 
The  mixture  is  commonly  made  in  a  glass  ma- 
trass immersed  in  a  vessel  of  boiling  water,  and 
is  stirred  with  a  stick  until  the  combination  be 
completed.     The  materials,  when  necessary,  are 
previously  liquified  in  separate  bottles  by  expo- 
sing them  to  the  steam  of  boiling  water.     After 
the  combination  is  effected,  the  varnish  is  poured 
off,  and  filtered  through  cotton, 

1413.  Chaptal,  in   his  Chemistry  applied  to 
the  Arts,  recommends,  on  the  authority  of  Tin- 


CHEMISTRY. 


497 


gry,  the  following  varnishes,  which  dry  of  them- 
selves. 

1414.  A  very  brilliant  varnish  for  pasteboard, 
lx>xes,  pen-cases,  &c. 

OZ. 

Pure  mastic  .  .  6 
Sandarach  .  .  3 
Pulverised  glass  .  4 
Venice  turpentine  3 
Alcohol  ...  32 

1415.  An  equally  brilliant  and  harder  varnish 
for  carriages,  door  and  window  frames,  &c.  is 
made  by 

OZ. 

Copal,  after  it  has  been  melted  by  a  1 

gentle  heat,  and  poured  into  water  j  * 

Sandarach         6 

Pure  mastic 3 

Pulverised  glass    . 4 

Pure  turpentine 2£ 

Alcohol        32 

1416.  An  equally  brilliant,  but  more  pliable 
and  solid  varnish  is  obtained  from 


oz. 
6 
4 
1 


Sandarach  . 

Elemi     .  . 

Anime    .  . 

Camphor  .     .       J 

Alcohol  .     .  32 

1417.  For  wainscot,  iron-work,  grates,  balus- 
trades, &c. 

OZ. 

Sandarach  .  .  6 
Shell-lac  .  .  2 
Resin  ...  4 
Pure  turpentine  4 
Powdered  glass  4 
Alcohol  .  .  32 

1418.  For  waxing  tables  and  other  furniture, 
melts  over  a  slow  fire, 

OZ. 

White  wax 2 

Add  essence  of  turpentine  pre-  )  . 

viously  liquified      .     .     .      J 
continue  to  stir  until  the  composition  become 
cold.     This  mixture,  being  rubbed  upon  furni- 
ture, conveys  all  the  brilliancy  of  the  finest  var- 
nish. 

1419.  For  violins,  and  instruments  composed 
of  rose  wood,  acajou,  or  plumb-tree,  and  par- 
ticular kinds  of  furniture, 

OZ. 

Seed  lac     .  .  2 

Sandarach  .  4 

Mastich      .  .  1 

Benzoin     .  .  1 

Turpentine  .  2 

Alcohol     .  .  32 

1420.  Various   coloring  substances,  such  as 
gamboge,  dragon's  blood,  turmeric,  saffron,  &c. 
may  be  mixed  in  the  composition  of  varnishes, 
so  as  to  convey  any  particular  color  to  the  bodies 
which  they  cover.     The  following  composition 
forms  a  varnish  of  a  beautiful  golden  orange 
color : — Twelve  grains  of  oriental  saffron,  and 
three-fourths  of  an  ounce  of  turmeric  being  in- 
fused during  twenty-four  hours  in  twenty  ounces 

VOL.  V. 


of  alcohol,  pour  this  infusion  into  a  well  pulver- 
ised mixture  of 

oz. 
Sandarach     ....     2 

Elemi 2 

Dragon's  blood  in  tears   1 
Seed  lac     [   ....     1 
Gamboge      ....       f 
This  varnish  is  used  for  covering  mathematical 
instruments,  utensils  of  copper,  iron,  and  steel. 
When  applied  to  metals  they  should  be  previ- 
ously heated. 

1421.  A  beautiful  golden  color  may  also  be 
conveyed  to  vases,  and  utensils  formed  from  the 
various  compositions  of  copper,  known  by  the 
name  of  brass,  &c. 

oz.        grs. 

Amber  ~\  f   2      — 

Gamboge  f  triturated  on  \    2      — 

Seed  lac  ?    porphyry     j    6      — 

Dragon's  blood  J  \, —      60 

Extract  of  red  sandal,    ...     -7-      24 
dissolved  in  tincture  of 

Oriental  saffron —      36 

Alcohol 36      — 

1422.  The  above  are  the  varnishes  usually 
employed  when  alcohol  is  the  principal  solvent. 
From   such  varnishes  the  alcohol  soon  evapo- 
rates and  leaves  the  varnish  in  a  hard  and  brittle 
state,  apt  to  crack  and  scale  off,  unless  corrected 
by  the  other  ingredients.     In  the  composition  of 
the  essential  varnishes,  the  volatile  oil  of  turpen- 
tine is  commonly  used  as  the  principal  solvent 
of  the  resins.     This  oil,  like  alcohol,  escapes  in 
vapor;  but  part  remains  in  union  with  the  resins, 
and  conveys  to  the  varnish  greater  pliability, 
and  renders  the  varnish  less  apt  to  crack  and 
scale  off,  than  those  varnishes  where  alcohol  is 
the  principal  solvent.     It  therefore  follows  that 
varnishes,  where  oil  of  turpentine  is  the  princi- 
pal sol  vent,  are  best  adapted  for  pictures,  leather, 
and   such  bodies   as   are  exposed   to  be  bent, 
folded,  or  dashed  against  hard  substances. 

1423.  The  following  varnish  is  recommended 
for  pictures : — 

oz. 

Purified  mastic 12 

Pure  turpentine 1J 

White  glass,  pulverised    ....       5 
Camphor  added  in  small  fragments  )    ., 
after  the  resins  are  dissolved          J      * 
Rectified  oil  of  turpentine      .     .     .36 

1424.  Another  varnish  for  leather,  wood,  and 
metals,  is  composed  of 

oz.      grs. 

Seed  lac  .  .  4  — 
Sandarach  .  4  — 
Dragon's  blood  OJ  — 
Turmeric  .  .  3  36 
Gamboge  .  .  3  36 
Pure  turpentine  2  — 
Pulverised  glass  5  — 
Oil  of  turpentine  32  — 

1425.  Copal  varnish,   as   Tingry  discovered, 
may  be  formed  by  dissolving  copal  in  ether,  in 
the  following  manner : — Half  an  ounce  of  copal, 
in  very  fine  powder,  is  gradually  dropped  into 
a  flask  containing  two  ounces  of  ether.     The 

2  K 


498 


CHEMISTRY. 


flask  is  then  closed,  and  agitated  for  about  half 
an  hour,  and  then  left  to  repose.  When  after- 
wards agitated,  if  the  liquid  exhibit  a  wavy  sur- 
face, and  appear  muddy,  more  ether  must  be 
added,  as  the  solution  is  imperfect.  The  ether 
dissolves  from  a  fifth  to  a  fourth  of  its  weight  of 
copal.  The  varnish  thus  formed  is  of  a  pale 
citron  color  It  is  applied  with  a  brush,  and 
the  substance  on  which  it  is  spread  should  be 
covered  with  a  slight  coating  of  any  volatile  oil 
to  prevent  the  too  rapid  evaporation  of  the 
ether.  The  oil  may  be  afterwards  wiped  off  by 
a  linen  cloth.  This  varnish  forms  such  a  hard 
coating  on  wood  and  metals,  that  it  can  hardly 
be  defaced  by  either  friction  or  blows. 

1426.  Copal  varnish  may  also  be  prepared  by 
solution  in  the  essential,  or  volatile  oils.     When 
oil  of  turpentine  is  used  as  the  solvent,  it  is  pre- 
viously necessary  to  expose   the  oil  to  the  sun 
for   some   months   in    bottles   closely   stopped, 
having  an  empty  space  of  some  fingers'  breadth 
between  the  oil  and  the  cork.     Eight  ounces  of 
this  prepared  oil   are   put  into  a  matrass,  im- 
mersed  in   boiling  water,   and   afterwards   one 
ounce  and  a  half  of  powdered  copal  is  gradu- 
ally dropped  into  the  matrass,  during  which  the 
matrass  is  moved  round  among  the  water.   After 
the  solution  is  effected  the  matrass  is  removed 
from  the  bath,  allowed  to  repose  some  days,  and 
the  liquid  is  filtered  through  cotton. — This  var- 
nish has  nearly  the   same   properties  with  that 
which  was  last  described ;    but  its  success  de- 
pends much  on  the  state  of  the  oil  employed  as 
the  solvent. 

1427.  Other  volatile  oils  are  used  as  helps  in 
the  solution  of  copal  for  varnish.     For  example, 
two  ounces  of  essential   oil   of  lavender  being 
heated  in  a  matrass  over  a  gentle  fire,  one  ounce 
of  powdered  copal   is   added  in  small  parcels, 
and  the  liquid  stirred  with  a  stick  until  the  copal 
disappears.      Six  ounces   of  oil  of  turpentine, 
heated   nearly   to   the   boiling  point,   are  then 
poured  in  at  three  different  times,  and  the  mix- 
ture is  stirred  incessantly  until  the  combination 
be  completed.     This  varnish  is  solid,  and  of  a 
brilliant  golden  color,  but  less  drying  than  the 
preceding. 

1428.  Another  varnish  is  prepared  by  putting 
six  ounces  of  oil  of  lavender  into  a  matrass,  with 
^ne  dram  of  camphor,  and  heating  them  until 
they  boil.     Then  two  ounces  of  powdered  copal 
are  added,  in  very  small  portions,  with  constant 
stirring  of  the  liquor.     After  the  copal  is  well 
incorporated,  a  sufficient  proportion  of  boiling 
oil  of  turpentine   is  gradually  added,  and  the 
boiling  and  stirring  are  continued  until  the  mix- 
ture has  acquired  the  necessary  consistency. 

1429.  Fat  varji'uhes  are  chiefly  employed  to 
cover  iron,  copper,  and  utensils  made  of  other 
metals.     The  oils  chiefly  employed  as  solvents 
are  linseed  rendered  drying  by  the  means  which 
were  described  when  treating  of  that  oil  and  nut 
oil.      A  portion  of  oil  of  turpentine,  or  other 
essential  oil,  is  commonly  added  to  facilitate  the 
drying.     But  the  fat  varnishes  are  so  slow  in 
drying,  that  the  workmen  are  obliged  to  dry  the 
articles  covered  with  them,  by  the  heat  of  stoves. 
A  very  good  varnish  is  made  by  adding 


8  ounces  of  boiling  linseed  oil  to 
16      —    of  copal  melted  in  a  matrass, 
16      —    of  oil  of  turpentine.     The  two 
first  ingredients  being  well  stirred,  the  matrass  is 
removed  from  the  fire,  and  shaken  until  the  heat 
abates.     Then   the  heated  oil  of  turpentine  is 
added,  the  whole  well  stirred,  and  while  yet  hot 
is  passed  through  a  linen  cloth.     This  varnish 
should  be  kept  in  wide-mouthed  bottles,  and  it 
improves  by  keeping. 

1430.  Another  hard,   durable,   and  beautiful 
varnish  may  be  formed  by  digesting  together 

6  ounces  of  copal 
24      —     drying  linseed  oil 
1J    —    Venice  turpentine 
6      —     oil  of  turpentine. 

1431.  Since  balloons  were  invented  many  ex- 
periments have  been  made  to  procure  a  varnish 
sufficient  to  retain  the  gas.     Caoutchouc  is  pre- 
ferable to  all  known  substances  for  this  purpose ; 
but  as  ether  is  the  only  solvent  from  which  it 
parts  with  its  properties  unaltered,  this  solvent 
is  too  expensive  for  general  use.    The  method 
commonly  adopted  is  to  liquify  the  caoutchouc 
cut  into  small  slips,  in  a  matrass  over  a  sand- 
bath,  and  then  to  add  boiling  linseed  oil,  and 
after  they   are   well   stirred   and   incorporated, 
hfated  essential  oil  k  added.    Each  of  the  three 
ingredients  are  in  equal  proportions.     After  the 
varnish  cools  it  is  passed  through  a  linen  cloth. 
Linseed   oil  and  nut   oil,  when  rendered  very 
drying,  acquire  all  the  properties  of  varnish,  and 
are  often  used  to  cover  balloons  without  any  ad- 
dition.    We  shall  resume  this  subject  under  the 
word  VARNISH.     See  also  AEROSTATION. 

GUAIACUM 

1432.  Is  obtained  from  the   guaiacum  offici- 
nale,  a  tree  in  the  West  Indies,  whose  wood  is 
uncommonly  hard  and  heavy.     It  exudes  spon- 
taneously, or  billets  being  bored  longitudinally, 
and  heated  at  one   end,  the  melted  substance 
runs  out  at  the  other.     It  has  long  been  used 
in  medicine,  particularly  in  rheumatic  complaints. 
It  is  a  solid  substance  resembling  a  resin,  of  a 
mixed  brownish,  reddish,  or  greenisu  color ;  and 
it   becomes    gray   by  exposure   to   light  in  the 
open  air.     When  pounded  or  melted  by  heat  it 
diffuses  a  fragrant  odor.     About  nine  per  cent, 
of  it  are  soluble   in  water,   and   the  dissolved 
part  possesses  the  properties  of  extractive.    Al- 
cohol    dissolves    guaiacum    readily.       Liquid 
chlorine    precipitates    the    solution   of   a    tine 
pale  blue  color,  which  is  permanent,  and  ren- 
ders it  probable  that  guaiacum  contains  indigo 
in  its  composition.     It  is  also  soluble  in  sul- 
phuric ether,  and   in   the   sulphuric  and  nitric 
acids.     Mr.  Brande  obtained  from  100  parts  of 
this  substance  by  distillation, 

Acidulous  water  ....  5'5 
Thick  brown  oil  .  .  .  .  24-5 
Empyreumatic  oil  ...  30'0 

Charcoal 30-5 

Carbonic   acid   and   carbu- 
reted hydrogen  gases    .       9'5 

100-0 

1433.  This  substance  differs  from  the  resias 
in   containing  a  much    greater    proportion  of 


CHEMISTRY. 


499 


charcoal ;  in  forming  oxalic  acid  when  treated  with 
nitric  acid,  but  no  tannin  as  is  the  case  with  the 
resms ;  and  in  the  various  changes  of  color  it 
undergoes,  which  seems  a  consequence  of  com- 
bining with  various  proportions  of  oxygen. 
BALSAMS. 

1434.  Balsams  possess  the  general  properties 
of  resins,  but  differ  from  them  in  yielding  a  por- 
tion of  benzoic  acid  when  heated  or  digested  in 
acids.      Though   insoluble  in  water  they  often 
yield  benzoic  acid  when  boiled  in  that  liquid. 
The  strong  acids  dissolve  them,  and  the  alkalis 
act  upon  them  nearly  as  on  the  resins.     Their 
name  is  derived  from  the  celebrated  balm  or 
balsam  of  Gilead.     They  are  either  liquid  or 
solid.     The  liquid  balsams  yet  known  are  five  iu 
number. 

1435.  Opobalsamum,  or  balm  of  Gilead,  is  ob- 
tained from  the  amyris  Gileadensis,  a  tree  which 
grows  in  Arabia,  especially  near  Mecca.     It  is 
so  much  esteemed  by   the  Turks  that  little  or 
none  of  it  ever  reaches  this  country.     Of  course 
its  properties  are  not  known  in  Europe,  except 
from  some  vague  reports. 

1436.  Copaiva  is  obtained  from  incisions  made 
in  the  trunk  of  the  copaifera  officinalis,  a  tree 
which  grows  in  South  America,  and  in  some  of 
the  West  India  Islands.      It  is  of  a  yellowish 
color,  transparent,  at  first  resembles  oil,  but  gra- 
dually acquires  the  consistence  of  honey.    It  has 
a  pungent  taste,  and  agreeable  smell,  and  when 
mixed  and  distilled  with  water  it  yields  from  a 
half  to  three  and  three  quarters  of  its  weight  of 
volatile  oil.  The  residuum  is  resin.  But  when  dis- 
tilled from  awater-bath,  without  being  mixed  with 
water,  only  a  few  drops  of  oil  and  very  little  water 
are  obtained.     This  led  Schonberg  to  conclude 
that  the  balsam  is  decomposed  when  it  is  dis- 
tilled from  an   infusion   in  water,  and  that  the 
oil  and  the  resin   are   formed   during  the  pro- 
cess.    Distilled  at  the  temperature  of  550°,  it 
yields  oil,  acidulous  water,  a  small  proportion  of 
carbonic  acid,  and  much  olefiant  gas.     It  is  so- 
luble in  the  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids,  both  of 
which  convert  it  into  artificial  tannin.     It  hence 
seems  nearly  allied  to  turpentine. 

1437.  Balsam  of  tolu  is  obtained  from  inci- 
sions made  in  the  bark  of  the  toluifera  balsamum, 
a  tree  which  grows  in  South  America.     It  has  a 
fragrant  smell,  is  of  reddish-brown  color,  and  by 
age  becomes  solid  and  brittle.     Distilled  with 
water  it  yields  very  little  volatile  oil,  but  con- 
veys to  the  water  its  taste  and  smell.     If  the 
distillation  be  long  continued  benzoic  acid  sub- 
limes.    Mr.  Hatchett  found  it  to  be  soluble  in 
the  alkalis,    and    that  when    dissolved  in  the 
smallest  possible  quantity  of  solution  of  potash, 
it  lost  its  own  smell,  and  assumed  a  most  deli- 
cious odor,  resembling  that  of  clove  pink.     This 
smell  he  found  to  be  permanent,  and  hence  this 
preparation  seems  likely  to  answer  as  a  perfume. 
Sulphuric  acid,  by  digestion,  converts  about  fifty- 
four  per  cent,  of  this  substance  into  charcoal.    A 
portion  of  artificial  tannin  is  formed,  and  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  pure  benzoic  acid  sublimes. 
Nitric  acid  acts  upon  it  nearly  in  the  same  way 
as  upon  the  resins.     Benzoic  acid  sublimes,  and 
by  repeated  digestions  it  is  converted  into  arti- 
ficial tannin. 

1438.  Balsam  of  Peru  is  obtained  by  boiling 


in  water  the  twigs  of  the  myroxylon  Peruifera,  % 
tree  which  grows  in  the  warm  parts  of  South 
America,  and  which  abounds  in  resin.  Its  taste 
is  hot  and  acrid,  its  smell  agreeable,  its  color 
brown,  and  its  consistence  that  of  honey.  Water, 
in  which  it  has  been  boiled  some  time,  deposits, 
on  cooling,  crystals  of  benzoic  acid.  Distilled 
from  a  sand-bath,  with  a  heat  gradually  raised, 
some  benzoic  acid  is  first  sublimed ;  next  some 
water  and  oil  come  over.  At  550°  the  balsam 
begins  to  boil,  and  much  benzoic  acid  is  sub- 
limed, while  a  little  water,  much  oil,  and  gas, 
come  over  until  the  temperature  reaches  617°. 
The  gas  is  chiefly  carbonic  acid  mixed  with  a 
portion  of  olefiant  gas.  On  increasing  the  heat 
a  brownish  oil  comes  over,  and  at  last  a  black 
oil  of  the  consistence  of  pitch,  with  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  gas,  part  of  which  is  carbonic 
acid,  but  the  greatest  part  seems  to  be  olefiant. 
Sulphuric  acid  converts  this  acid  into  charcoal, 
the  proportion  of  which  amounts  to  no  less  than 
sixty-four  per  cent,  of  the  original  weight  of  the 
balsam.  The  residue  is  artificial  tannin.  The 
nitric  acid  evolves  the  prussic  acid,  and  converts 
the  balsam  into  artificial  tannin.  Both  acids  oc- 
casion, by  digestion,  a  copious  sublimation  of 
benzoic  acid. 

1439.  Styrax  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  bark 
of  the  liquidambar  styraciflua,  a  tree  which 
grows  in  Virginia  and  several  parts  of  America. 
A  similar  tree,  called  rosa  mallos  by  the  natives, 
grows  in  the  island  of  Cobross,  in  the  Red  Sea, 
where  the  bark  is  boiled  in  salt  water  -to  the 
consistence  of  bird-lime,  and  then  put  into  casks. 
It  is  of  a  greenish  color,  an  agreeable  smell,  and 
aromatic  taste.  It  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air 
and  becomes  harder.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol, 
and  water  extracts  from  it  benzoic  acid. 

1440  The  solid  balsams  are  three  in  number, 
namely  benzoin  or  benjamin,  which  is  extracted 
from  incisions  made  in  the  styrax  benzoe,  a  tree 
which  grows  in  Sumatra.  It  is  a  solid  brittle 
substance,  of  a  yellowish-white  color ;  has  little 
taste,  but  a  very  agreeable  smell,  which  is  in- 
creased by  heat.  It  has  long  been  used  in  medicine, 
and  when  treating  of  benzoic  acid,  &c.,  we  pointed 
out  the  methods  by  which  the  acid  is  extracted 
from  the  balsam.  It  is  not  affected  by  cold 
water,  but  boiling  water  takes  up  a  portion  of  the 
acid .  Warm  alcohol  dissolves  it,  and  it  is  readily 
soluble  in  ether.  Sulphuric  acid  dissolves  it, 
while  benzoic  acid  sublimes.  By  continued 
digestion  the  balsam  is  converted  into  artificial 
tannin,  and  into  charcoal,  of  which  the  quantity 
is  forty-eight  per  cent,  of  the  benzoin  dissolved. 
Nitric  acid  acts  with  violence  on  benzoin,  and, 
when  assisted  by  heat,  converts  part  of  it  into 
artificial  tannin.  It  is  soluble  in  acetic  acid,  and 
in  a  boiling  lee  of  the  fixed  alkalis.  Mr.  Brande 
exposed  100  grains  of  benzoin  in  a  retort  to  a 
heat  gradually  raised  to  redness.  The  products 
were 

Benzoic  acid 9'0 

Acidulous  water 5-5 

Butyraceous  and  empyreumatic  oil    .     60-0 

Charcoal -     22-0 

Carbureted  hydrogen  and  carbonic 

acid  gases 3*5 


2  K  2 


lOO'O 


500 


CHEMISTRY. 


1441.  Storax  is  obtained  from  the  styrax  offi- 
cinalis,  a  tree  which  grows  in  the  Levant,  and 
some  parts  of  Italy.     It  is  brought  to  us  in  cakes, 
which  are  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  but  soft  to 
the  touch.     This  is  the  most  fragrant  of  aH  the 
oalsams.    It  is  soluble  in  alcohol;  and,  when  dis- 
tilled by  Neumann,  nearly   the  same  products 
were  obtained  as  from  benzoin. 

1442.  Dragon's  blood  is  said  to  be  furnished 
by  the  calamus  draco,  the  dracona  draco,  and 
the  pterocarpus  draco,  trees  which  grow  in  the 
East  Indies.    Theie  are  two  kinds  of  it,  one  in 
small  oval  drops,  of   a    fine  deep  red,   which 
become  crimson  when  pounded.     The  other  is 
in  larger  masses,  some  of  which  are  pale,  and 
some  dark  red.    Alcohol  dissolves  the  greatest 
part  of  it,   forming  a  fine   deep  red  solution, 
which  stains  marble,  especially  if  it  be  heated. 
It  also  dissolves  in  oils,  and  conveys  to  them  a 
deep  red  color.     It  melts  by  heat,  inflames,  and 
emits  benzoic  acid.     When  digested  with  lime 
a  portion  of  it  becomes  soluble  in  water,  and 
conveys  to  it  a  balsamic  odor.      Nitric  acid  de- 
taches benzoic  acid,  and  converts  the  residue  into 
artificial  tannin.     Sulphuric  acid  also  converts  it 
into    artificial    tannin,     and   evolves    charcoal, 
amounting  to  forty  eight  per  cent,  of  the  dragon's 
blood  employed. 

CAOUTCHOUC. 

1443.  This  substance  being  much  employed 
in  rubbing  out  pencil  lines,  and  cleaning  paper, 
is  generally  known   in  this  country  under  the 
name  of  Indian  rubber.    It  exudes,  in  the  form  of 
a  milky  juice,  from  punctures  made  in  the  havea 
caoutchouc,  and  the  jatropha  elastica,  which  grow 
in  Brasil.    It  is  also  obtained  from  the  ficus  In- 
dica,  the  artocarpus  integrifolia,  and  the  urceola 
elastica,  in  the  East  Indies.     It  may  probably  be 
obtained  from  several   other  trees.     When  the 
milky  juice  is  exposed  to  the  air,  it  gradually  lets 
fall  a  concrete  substance,  which  is  caoutchouc.  If 
chlorine  be  added  to  the  juice,  the  deposition 
takes  place  immediately,  and  the  chlorine  loses 
its  odor.    If  the  milky  juice  be  confined  in  a  glass 
vessel  with  air,  a  skin  of  caoutchouc  forms  on  its 
surface.     This  renders  it  probable  that  the  for- 
mation of  caoutchouc  is  effected  by  combination 
with  oxygen. 

1444.  Caoutchouc  is  of  a  white  color,  without 
either  taste  or  smell.     The  natives  form  it  into 
bottles  and  other  figures,  by  spreading  the  milky 
juice  upon  moulds  of  clay,  and  drying  it  in  the 
smoke.     This  occasions  the  caoutchouc  of  com- 
merce to  be  of  a  dark  color,  as  it  is  composed  of 
alternate  layers  of  caoutchouc  and  smoke.     This 
substance  is  soft  and  pliable  like  leather.     It  is 
remarkably  elastic,  and  can  be  drawn  out  to  a 
great  length,  and  recover  its  former  figure  if  the 
force  is  removed.     Its  adhesion  is  such  that  it 
cannot  be  broken  without  a  very  considerable 
force.     Mr.  Gough  of  Manchester  observed  that 
when  stretched  its  temperature  is  raised,  and  if 
it  be  then  plunged  into  cold  water  it  loses  much 
of  its  contractile  power  and  does  not  return  to  its 
former  dimensions  unless   it  be  plunged    into 
warm  water  or  warmed  in   the  hand.     This  is 
considered  as  a  fine  illustration  of  Dr.  Black's 
theory  of  latent  heat,  and  a  proof  that  the  elas- 


ticity of  caoutchouc,  and  the  ductility  of  metals, 
are  occasioned  by  the  same  cause,  namely  the 
latent  heat  they  contain. 

1445.  Caoutchouc  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  if 
boiled  some   time   it   softens,  and   then   if  two 
pieces  be  applied  to  each  other,  and  pressed,  they 
adhere  as  if  they  were  but  one  piece.     In  thi? 
way  different  pieces  of  caoutchouc  may  be  sol- 
dered together,  and  made  to  assume  any  figure 
we  please.      This  substance  is  insoluble  in  alco- 
hol ;  but  it  is  soluble  in  ether  that  has  previously 
been  washed  with  water.     Alcohol  precipitates 
caoutchouc  from  its  etherial  solution.     After  the 
ether  is  evaporated,  the  caoutchouc  remains  un- 
altered ;  and  this  solution  might  be  used  like  the 
original  milky  juice  of  the  tree,  for  making  var- 
nish, and  utensils  of  various  kinds  of  caoutchouc, 
were  not  the  ether  too  expensive  for  ordinary 
purposes.     The  great  Frederick  king  of  Prussia 
had   a  pair  of  boots  made  of  caoutchouc.     A 
mould  of  wrought  clay,  the  exact  figure  of  his 
leg,  was  covered  with  etherial  solution  of  caout- 
chouc, laid  on  in  alternate  layers  by  a  brush, 
until  it  acquired  the  proper  thickness,  after  which 
the  clay  was  knocked  in  pieces  and  taken  out. 
Caoutchouc  is  also  soluble  in  the  volatile  oils ; 
but  after  the  oil  is  evaporated  it  never  fully  re- 
covers its  former  elasticity.    Dr.  Thomson  ascer- 
tained that  alkaline  solutions  take  up  a  minute 
portion  of  caoutchouc.     The  acids  scarcely  act 
upon  it,  and  the  sulphuric  only  chars  it  exter- 
nally.     Fabroni  discovered   that  well  rectified 
petroleum,  or  the  volatile  oil  of  coal,  dissolves 
caoutchouc,  and  after  the  oil  is  evaporated,  leaves 
it  unaltered.     We  consider  this  to  be  a  discovery 
of  great  importance,  as  it  furnishes  a  cheap  solvent 
of  caoutchouc  for  converting  it  into  varnish  and 
various  useful  purposes,  which  has  long  been  a 
desideratum  in  the  arts.     When  heated  it  melts, 
but  retains  ever  after  the  consistence  of  tar.     It 
burns  with  a  bright  white  flame,  and  in  the 
countries  where  it  abounds  it  is  used  as  candles. 
It  exists  in  a  great  variety  of  plants,  but  can  only 
be  profitably  extracted   from  those  in  which  it 
abounds.      It   is   thought   to   be   composed   of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  azote,  and  oxygen.     It  is  now 
employed  to  a  considerable  extent  in  rendering 
cloth  and  leather  water-proof. 

GUM  RESINS. 

1446.  These  substances  have  long  been  used 
in  medicine,  but  they  have  not  attracted  much 
of  the  notice  of  chemists.  They  seem  to  be  com- 
posed of  extractive,  and  an  oil  approaching  in 
its  properties  to  a  resin.    They  are  usually  solid, 
opaque,  and  brittle.     They  are  inflammable,  but 
do  not  melt  by  heat  like  the  resins.     Their  smell 
is  strong,  and  their  taste  often  acrid.  With  water 
they  form  a  milky  solution ;  with  alcohol  a  trans- 
parent solution,  which  becomes  milky  on  adding 
water.     Like  resins  they  dissolve  in  heated  alka- 
line solutions,  and  Mr.  Hatchett  ascertained  that 
sulphuric  acid  gradually  converts  them  into  char- 
coal and   artificial  tannin,  as  it  does  the  resin. 
The  principal  of  these  substances  which   have 
been  applied  to  use,  are 

1 447.  Gulbanum,  which  is  obtained  from  the 
bubon  galbanum,  a  native  plant  of  Africa.     Its 
taste  is  strong,  and  smell  peculiar.     When  dis- 


CHEMISTRY. 


501 


tilled  it  yields  about  half  its  weight  of  volatile 
oil,  which  at  first  is  of  a  blue  color. 

1448.  Ammoniac   is  brought  from  the  East  In- 
dies, but  its  source  is  unknown  in  Europe.     Its 
taste  resembles  that  of  galbanum,  but  its  smell 
is  more  pleasant. 

1449.  Olibanum,  is  obtained  from  the  junipe- 
rus  lycta,  a  shrub  which   abounds    chiefly    in 
Arabia.     It  consists  of  yellow,  transparent,  and 
brittle  masses,  whose  taste  is  bitter  and  nauseous, 
but  when  burnt  it  diffuses  an  agreeable  smell. 
This  is  the  frankincense  of  the  ancients,  and  by 
many  sects  is  still  employed  as  an  appendage  of 
public  worship. 

1450.  Asaftetida  is  obtained  from  the  ferula 
asafoetida,  a 'native  plant  of  Persia.     When  the 
plant  is  about  four  years  old,  it  is  dug  up,  the 
roots  cleaned,  and,  their   extremities   being  cut 
off,  there  exudes  a  milky  juice.  Another  portion 
of  the  root  is  then  cut  off,  and  more  juice  exudes, 
and  this  process  is  continued  until  the  roots  be 
exhausted.     The  juice  hardens  into  brittle  grains 
of  different  colors,  whose  taste  is  acrid  and  bitter, 
with  a  strong  alliaceous  and  fetid  smell.     Dis- 
tilled with  water  or  alcohol,  it  yields  a  volatile 
oil  which  possess  all  the  active  properties  of  asa- 
foetida, and  is  much  used  in  medicine. 

1451.  Scammony  is  obtained  from  the  roots  of 
the  convolvulus  scammonia,  a  climbing  plant  of 
Syria.     This  substance  is  employed  in  medicine 
as  a  powerful  cathartic. 

1452.  Gamboge  or  gamgutt,  is  obtained  by 
wounding  the  shoots,  or  puncturing  the  bark,  of 
the  stulagmitis  cambogioides,  a  tree  which  grows 
in  various  parts  of  India.     It  was  first  brought  to 
Europe  by  the  Dutch.    Taken  internally  it  ope- 
rates as  a  violent  cathartic.  It  is  partially  soluble 
in  water,  and  almost  entirely  in  alcohol.    It  is  of 
a  fine  yellow  color,  and  is  used  as  a  paint,  for 
coloring  varnishes,  and  for  staining  marble. 

1453.  Myrrh,  as  we  are  informed  by    Mr. 
Bruce,  is  obtained  from  a  genus  of  the  mimosa, 
a  plant  which  grows   in  Arabia  and  Abyssinia. 
It  forms  yellow  tears,  somewhat  transparent  when 
pure.     Its  taste  is  bitter  and  aromatic,  its  smell 
peculiar.    It  was  much  admired  by  the  ancients, 
and  is  still  much  employed  in  medicine. 

1454.  Euphorbium  is  obtained  from  the  eu- 
phorbia officinalis,  from  which  it  exudes  in  the 
form  of  milky  juice,  and  is  afterwards  dried  in 
the  sun.     It  is  reckoned  poisonous.     See,   for 
further   information  on   gum  resins,   MATERIA 
MEDICA. 

COTTON. 

1455.  This    product    makes   a    conspicuous 
figure  in  the  clothing  of  a  great  many  civilised 
nations,  and  in  this  country  a  vast  number  of 
persons  are  constantly  employed  in  its  manu- 
facture.     It    envelopes    the    seeds    of    various 
plants,  and  the  cotton  of  commerce  is  chiefly 
procured  from  different  species  of  gossypium. 
Various  plants,  which  yield  cotton,  grow  wild 
within  the  tropics,  and  several  species  of  them 
are   cultivated    in    the  East  and  West   Indies. 
According  to  Mr.  Bryan  Edwards,  those  plants 
in  the  West  Indies  which  yield  the  finest  cotton, 
are  what  are  called  green  seed  cotton,  from  the 
color  of  their  seeds.     Of  these  there  are  two  va- 


rieties, distinguished  by  the  ease  and  difficulty 
with  which  the  cotton  parts  from  the  seeds.  The 
cotton  is  enveloped  in  pods,  which  open  when 
the  seeds  are  ripe,  and  the  cotton  is  separated 
from  the  seeds  by  means  of  rollers. — Cotton  seems 
to*  be  chiefly  composed  of  carbon;  but,  as  it  has 
never  been  subjected  to  any  precise  chemical 
investigation,  we  shall  not  pretend  to  decide  re- 
specting its  component  ingredients.  For  the 
methods  of  bleaching  and  dyeing  cotton.  See 
BLEACHING  and  DYEING. 

SUBEE. 

1456.  This  consists  of  the  outer  bark  of  the 
quercus  suber,  or  common  cork.     It  is  a  light, 
spongy,  and.  elastic  substance,  and  the  trees  which 
yield  it  grow  in  great  abundance  in  Spain,  and 
various  countries  not  remote  from   the  tropics. 
It  dees  not  expand  nor  become  sufficiently  elastic 
for  making  corks,  until  after  it  has  been  partially 
burnt.     It  burns  with  a  white  bright  flame,  and 
leaves  a  light  and  bulky  charcoal.     By  digestion, 
water  and  alcohol  extract  a  yellowish  solution 
from  it;  sulphuric  acid  chars  it;  and  nitric  acid 
converts  it  partly  into  suberic  acid,  partly  into 
artificial  tannin,  partly  into  a  substance  resem- 
bling wax,  and  partly  into  a  substance  resem- 
bling starch.     Fourcroy  thinks  the  epidermis  of 
all  trees  is  a  substance  resembling  cork. 

WOOD. 

1457.  All  plants  contain  more  or  less  of  what 
is  called  woody  fibre.     If  plants  be   digested 
first  in  water  and  then  in  alcohol,  until  these 
solvents   have  taken   up  all  the   matters   with 
which  they  can  combine,  there  remains  nothing 
but  woody  fibre.     This  consists  of  longitudinal 
fibres,  easily  separable  into  smaller  fibres,  and 
every  plant  exhibits  cross  sections  peculiar  to 
itself,  and  a  particular  arrangement  of   fibres 
which  would  lead  one  to  think  that  the  woody 
fibres  are  bundles  of  regularly  formed  crystals. 
From  this  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  fibres, 
different  species  of  wood  can  easily  be  distin- 
guished, even  after  they  are  petrified,  and  form 
parts  of  solid  rocks.     Woody  fibre  is  not  altered 
by  water,  alcohol,  or  exposure  to  the  air.   Weak 
alkaline  solutions  dissolve  it,  and  it  may  be  pre- 
cipitated from  them  by  an  acid  without  altera- 
tion.   This  property  renders  woody  fibre  capable 
of  being  extracted  from   other  vegetable   pro- 
ducts, few  of  which  are  soluble  in  weak  alkaline, 
lees.     Some  of  the  acids  char  woody  fibre,  and 
it  is  converted  into  charcoal  when  heated  to  red- 
ness, without  access  of  air.     When  charred  by 
acids,  it  moulders  down  into  a  black  powder. 
When  charred  by  heat  its   fibres   retain   their 
original  structure.     Woody  fibre  constituting  the 
bones  of  plants,  it  is  generally  understood  that 
those  trees  which,  after  being  charred,  yield  the 
greatest  weight  of  charcoal  compared  with  the 
original   weight  of  the   wood,   form   the   most 
durable  and  least  destructive  timber.     But  an  ex- 
periment of  Proust  seems  to  contradict  this  ge- 
nerally received  opinion ;    though    in   making 
such  experiments  it  is   hardly   possible  to  be 
accurate.     He  took  1-00  of  different  trees,  and 
found  the  weight  of  charcoal  they  yielded  to  be 
as  follows  : 


502 


CHEMISTRY. 


Black  ash 
Guaiacum 
Pine     .     . 
Green  oak 
Heart  of  oak 
Wild  ash  . 
White  ash 


0-25 
0-24 
0-20 
0-20 
0-10 
0-17 
0-17 


The  woody  fibre  has  recently  been  termed  lignin- 
Its  analysis  gives, 

Carbon    .     .     .     53'86 

Oxygen   .     .     .     41.02 
5-12 


100-00 

Its  atomic  constitution  being  so  near  the  ele- 
ments of  acetic  acid,  that  '  if  deprived  of  1  atom 
water,  and  three  atoms  of  carbon,  the  other  ele- 
ments would  be  convertible  into  that  acid.' 

The  following  principles  have  recently  been 
detected  in  different  vegetable  substances. 

1458.  Polychroite  is  a  name  given  by  Bouillon 
and  others,  to  the  extract  of  saffron.     It  is  of  a 
deep  yellow  color,  has  a  bitter  taste,  an  agree- 
able smell,  and   is  deliquescent.      It  loses  its 
color  by  exposure  to  light  and  chlorine.     Sul- 
phuric acid  renders   it   blue,   and  nitric   acid 
green.     This  principle  unites  with  potassa,  with 
lime,  and  with  baryta.     Its  solutions  in  baryta 
and  lime  occasion  yellow    precipitates.    It  is 
precipitated  of  a  dark  brown  color  by  sulphate 
of  iron,  nitrate  of  mercury  separates  a  red,  and 
subacetate  of  lead,  a  yellow  precipitate.    This 
variety   of  product  as  to  color,  has  of  course 
given  rise  to  the  name  of  the  principle. 

1459.  Nicotin. — Vauquelin    first    separated 
this   principle  from  tobacco.      It  is   colorless, 
soluble  in  water,   acrid,  possesses  the  peculiar 
smell  of  tobacco,  and  is  poisonously  active  upon 
life. 

1460.  Pollenin. — Professor  John  was  the  first 
to  trace  this  principle  in  the  pollen  of  tulips. 
It  was  at  first  supposed  to  be  mere  albumen. 
This  has  a  yellow  color,  but  is  without  taste  or 
smell.    Upon  exposure  to  air  it  undergoes  a  sort 
of  putrefaction,  and  acquires  the  smell  of  cheese. 
It  is  exceedingly  combustible.     The  pollen  of 
the  lycopodium  clavatum  is  said  to  be  in  frequent 
use  at  the  theatres  for  the  imitation  of  lightning, 
from  the  rapidity  with  which  it  inflames  and 
burns. 

1461.  Lupulin — Dr.  Ives  has  given  this  name 
to  a  yellow  powder  which  is  obtained  by  beat- 
ing and  sifting  the  hop.     It  is  said  to  be  peculiar 
to  the  female  plant.     '  In  preserving  beer  from 
the  acetous  fermentation,  and  in  communicating 
an  agreeable  flavor  to  it,  lupulin  was  found  to 
be  equivalent  to  ten  times  its   weight  of  hop 
leaves.     It  is  itself  a  compound  substance,  con- 
sisting of  tan,  extract,  a  bitter  principle,  wax, 
resin,  and  lignin.      If  analysed  by  the  methods 
of  Pelletier  and  Caventon  it  is  not  improbable 
that  an  ingredient  might  be  discovered  in  the  hop 
of  an  alkaline  nature,  in  which  its  narcotic  vir- 
tue would  be  found  to  reside.'     See  Ann.  of 
Phil.  N.  S.  i.  194.     Henry. 

1462.  Cathartine.— This  is  a  principle  obtained 
from  the  senna  leaves  by  Lassaigne.    It  is  said 
to  be  a  powerful  cathartic  in  exceedingly  small 


doses.  It  is  described  as  of  a  reddish  color, 
soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  but  not  in  ether ; 
its  taste  is  peculiarly  nauseous  and  bitter. 

1463.  Colycyntine. — Vauquelin  proposes  this 
designation  for  a  yellow  bitter  substance,  ob- 
tained from  an  alcoholic  solution  of  colocynth, 
which  appears  to  him  to  be  a  peculiar  principle. 
Active  and  peculiar  principles  are  also  saia  to 
reside  in   rhubarb  and    jalap.     See  Quarterly 
Journal,  xvi.  and  xvii. 

1464.  Emetin. — A  principle  obtained  by  Pelle- 
tier and  Dumas  from  Ipecacuan,  of  an  acrid  and 
bitter  taste  and  highly  emetic. 

1465.  Hcematin  is  the  coloring  principle  of 
the  hcematoxylon  or  logwood. 

1466.  Pipeline  has  been  obtained  from  black 
pepper. 

1467.  Olivile  from  the  olive  tree,  and 

1468.  Medullin  is  a  name  given  to  the  pith 
of  the  sun  flower,  a  principle  which  i  s  described 
as  destitute  of  taste  and  smell,  insoluble  in  water, 
alcohol,  and  oils,  but  soluble  in  nitric  aeid,  which 
converts  it  into  oxalic  acid ;  and,  when  decom- 
posed by  destructive  distillation,  it  leaves  char- 
coal, having  a  metallic  lustre  like  bronze.     The 
product  of  destructive  distillation  also  abounds 
in  ammonia. 

1469.  Many  of  these  principles  (which  are 
daily  multiplying,  and  which  probably  may  be 
added  to,  before  the  pages  we  are  now  penning 
are  out  of  the  press),  will  be  reverted  to  under 
the  heads  of  MATERIA  MEDICA,  and  PHARMACY, 
and  the  modes  in  which  they  are  obtained  wil. 
be  more  particularly  described. 

COMPOUNDS  OF  VEGETABLE  ACIDS. 

Previously  to  speaking  of  fermentation,  we 
present  the  following  brief  enumeration  of  the 
compounds  of  vegetable  acids,  some  of  these 
have  previously  been  slightly  adverted  to,  and 
a  more  ample  description  of  most  of  them  will 
be  found  under  MATERIA  MEDICA,  and  PHAR- 
MACY. 

1470.  Acetate  of  potassa  may  be  prepared  by 
saturating  acid  with  the  alkali.     This  is  a  very 
deliquescent  salt,  and  extremely  soluble. 

1471.  Acetate  of  soda  may  be   formed  either 
by  mixing  acetate  of  lime  and  crystallised  sul- 
phate of  soda,  or  by  direct  union  of  the  soda 
with  the  acetic  acid.     This  is  a  crystalline  salt, 
requiring  about  three  times  its  weight  of  cold 
water  for  solution. 

1478.  Acetate  of  ammonia. — The  crystals  of 
this  salt  when  they  are  obtained,  are  exceed- 
ingly  deliquescent.     Acetate  of  ammonia  has 
been  long  and  extensively  used  in  medicine ;  it 
was  formerly  called  spirit  of  Mindererus. 

1479.  Acetate  of  lime.— This  is  a  very  soluble 
salt,  both  in  water  and  alcohol. 

1480.  Acetate  of  baryta,  of   strontia,  mag- 
nesia,   and   alumina  are  all   capable  of   being 
formed.     The  last  is  a  compound  of  some  im- 
portance from  its  use  in  calico  printing  and  dye- 
ing.    See  DYEING.     For  the  modes  of  prepara- 
tion of  such  of  those  compounds  as  are   used 
in  medicine  consult  the  article  PHARMACY. 

1481.  Tartaric  acid  combines  with  potassa,  to 
form  a  salt,  formerly  called  soluble  tartar.     The 
proportions  of  this  salt  are  stated,  as 


CHEMISTRY. 


503 


Tartaric  acid 
Potassa 


57-90 
42-10 


100-00 

1482.  Bi-tartrateq.fpotassa  or  super-tartrate  as 
its  name  implies,  is  a  combination  of  the  tartaric 
acid  with  potassa  in  a  larger  proportion.     The 
crystals,  which   when   powdered,  are  vulgarly 
called  cream  of  tartar,  are  a  bi-tartrate  of  po- 
tassa. 

1483.  Tartrate  of  potassa  and  soda   may  be 
formed  by  mixing  twenty-four  of  cream  of  tar- 
tar with  eighteen  parts  of  carbonate  of  soda. 
This  is   the  much  famed  rochelle  salts  of  the 
shops. 

1484.  Tartrate  of  soda  is  formed  by  saturating 
tartaric  acid  with  carbonate  of  soda.    By  adding 
another   proportional  of  the  tartaric    acid   we 
form  a  bi-tartrate. 

1485.  Tartrate  of  ammonia  may  likewise  be 
converted  into  a  bi-tartrate. 

1486.  Tartrate  of  lime  is  formed  iti  the  pro- 
cess of  preparing  tartaric  acid  by  the  addition 
of  carbonate  of  lime  to  a  solution  of  bi-tartrate 
of  potassa. 

1487.  Baryta, strontia,  magnesia,  and  alumina, 
may  all  be   formed  into  tartrates  by  the  acid. 
Most  of  the  metals  too,  are   susceptible  of  this 
combination. 

1488.  Citrates.— The  fixed  and  volatile  alka- 
lies, baryta,    magnesia,   and   lime,  among  the 
earths ;  or  metallic  oxides,  and  zinc,  iron,  cop- 
per, and  lead  among  the  metals,  have  all  been 
made  to  unite  with  the  citric  acid  so  as  to  form 
citrates. 

1489.  Malates  or  combinations  of  the  malic 
acid  with  potassa,  soda,  lime,  baryta,  strontia, 
magnesia,  and  alumina,  have  been  formed  and 
investigated  as  well  as  those  of  iron  and  lead. 

1490.  Benzole  acid  has  been  made  to  combine 
so  as  to  form  benzoates  with  ammonia,  potassa, 
soda,  lime,  baryta,  strontia,  magnesia,  alumina, 
as  well  as  with   iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  man- 
ganese, &c. 

1491.  Succinates  have  been  investigated  of 
ammonia,  potassa,  soda,  baryta,  strontia,  mag- 
nesia, alumina,  lead,  iron,  and  manganese. 

1492.  Oxalate  of  potassa. — This  combination 
of  oxalic  acid  and  potassa  if  dissolved  in  oxalic 
acid  produces  a  binoxalate,  and  if  this  again  be 
digested  in  diluted  nitric  acid  a  quadroxalate  is 
formed  ;  the  salt  which  is  thus  formed  exists  in 
the  juice  of  the  wood-sorrel,  and  when  it  is  ob- 
tained from  that  vegetable  it  is  denominated  salt 
of  sorrel  or  essential  salt  of  lemons. 

1493.  Oxalate  of  soda. — This  salt  nearly  re- 
sembles in  taste  the  oxalate  of  potassa,  it  exists  in 
small  grains;  oxalate  of  soda  may  exists  in  binox- 
alate but  not  in  quadroxalate  proportions. 

1494.  Oxalate  of  ammonia. — This  salt  crystal- 
lises in  long  transparent  prisms.      This  salt  is  of 
great  use  in  the  detection  of  lime,  as  it  throws  it 
down  from  almost  all  its  combinations.       There 
may  be  formed  a  super  or  bi-oxalate  o*"  ammo- 
nia. 

1495.  Oxalate  of  lime. — This  compound  is 
procured  by  adding   either  oxalic  acid  or  oxa- 
late of  ammonia  to  any  solution  of  lime.      It  is 
insoluble  in  excess  of  oxalic  icid. 


1496.  The  oxalates  of  strontia,  baryta,  and 
magnesia,  are  nearly  insoluble. 

1497.  Oxalate  of  alumina  is  soluble  in  oxalic 
acid. 

1498.  If  manganese,  in  a  state  of  oxide,  be  di- 
gested with  oxalic  acid,  carbonic  acid  is  evolved, 
and  the  manganese  reduced  to  a  state  of  deutox- 
ide  unites  with  the  oxalic  acid.   This,  after  a  time, 
becomes  colorless,  and  a  triple  salt  is  formed  con- 
taining the  protoxide  of  manganese. 

1499    Many  beside  of  the  metals  combine  into 
oxalates  with  the  oxalic  acid. 

FERMENTATION. 

1500.  We  now  proceed  to  treat  of  the  prin- 
cipal products  of  fermentation,  or  of  that  decom- 
position which  vegetables  undergo  when  placed 
in  circumstances  favorable  to  the  change.      Fer- 
mentation has  been  divided  into  the  vinous,  ace- 
tous, and  putrefactive ;  it  is  to  the  first  however 
that  we  shall  confine  ourselves  in  the  present  in- 
stance ;  since  the  product  of  the  second,  vinegar 
or  acetous  acid,  has  already  been  noticed,  and  the 
putrefactive  change  or  decomposition  of  bodies  is 
not  with  strict  propriety  ranked  among  the  phe- 
nomena of  fermentation.    See  DISTILLATION. 

VINOUS  FERMENTATION. 

1501.  This  is  also  called  the  spirituous  fermen- 
tation, because  it  produces  wine,  from  which  spi- 
rits may  be  obtained  by  distillation.  This  process 
must  have  been  known  at  a  very  early  period, 
for  we  read  in  the  book  of  Genesis  that  Noah 
planted  a  vineyard,  and  got  drunk  with  the  wine 
it  produced;  which  seems  to  indicate  that  the 
vinous  fermentation  was  known  long  before  the 
time  of  Noah.     To  bring  on  this  fermentation 
three  things  are  necessary  :   1.  A  certain  propor- 
tion of  saccharine  matter,  or  sugar.     2.  Water, 
for  if  the  materials  be  dry,  sugar  continues  un- 
altered.    3.   A  temperature   from    60°  to  70°. 
The  juice  of  the   grape,   which    is   commonly 
called  must,  ferments  of  itself  at  a  temperature 
approaching  to  70°,  and  hence  wine  must  have 
been   early  discovered   in   the   warm   climates, 
where  they  probably  used  the  expressed  juice  of 
the  grape,  or  of  other  fruits,  as  drink  to  quench 
their  thirst.     To  make  the  fermentation  succeed 
well,  a  large  body  of  the  liquor  is  convenient, 
because  small  quantities  are  apt  to  run  into  the 
acetous  fermentation.    In  must,  besides  sugar, 
there  is   a   portion  of  gluten,  of  jelly,   and  of 
tartar.     It  seems    to  be  the  gluten  which  con- 
veys the  disposition   towards    spontaneous  fer- 
mentation.     The    juices   of    all  berries  which 
contain    sugar,   such    as  gooseberries,  raspber- 
ries,   strawberries,    elderberries,    currants,   &c. 
&c.  likewise  the  expressed  juices  of  many  fruits, 
such  as  apples,  pears,   &c.   &c.,  the    juices  of 
many  trees,  such  as  the  birch,  the  sugar  maple, 
&c.   &c.  ferment   spontaneously,    and   produce 
wine.     The  juice  of  the  sugar-cane  also  ferments 
spontaneously,  and  from  its  wine,   rum  is   ex- 
tracted by  distillation.     If  the  juices  of  fruits  or 
of  berries  contain  too  little  sugar,  it  is  necessary 
to  supply  the  deficiency  by  adding  more.     If 
they  contain  too  much,  and  appear  viscid,  water 
must  be  added,  or  fermentation  will  not  take 
place,  or  it  will  go  on  very  slowly.  See  WINE. 


504 


CHEMISTRY. 


1502.  Beer  is  fermented  from  the  seeds  of 
plants,  after  they  have  been  converted  into  a  sac- 
charine substance  by  the  process  of  germination 
or  malting.  See  MALT  and  MALTING.  Almost 
every  species  of  corn  has  been  employed  for  this 
purpose.  In  India  they  use  rice ;  and  Mr. 
Mungo  Park  informs  us,  that  in  the  interior  of 
Africa  they  make  beer  from  the  holcus  spicatus. 


1504.  But  in  the  making  of  the  wash  used  by 
distillers,  which  is  a  species  of  beer,  a  different 
plan  is  followed  out.  They  apply  a  much 
greater  proportion  of  yeast,  and  push  the  fer- 
mentation until  all  the  saccharine  be  exhausted. 
They  well  know  that  if  any  sugar  remains  in 
their  liquor  undecomposed,  it  is  lost  to  them, 
and  yields  no  spirit.  Another  circumstance  de- 


Our  ancestors  used   honey  and  various  herbs  to    serves  attention  respecting  the  distillers.     They 


produce  an  intoxicating  liquor,  to  which  they 

gave  the  name  of  mead.     In  modern  Europe, 

barley  is  the  grain  universally  used  for  making 

beer,  and  it  is  commonly  malted  before  it  is  ap-    vary  their  proportions  of  these  ingredients,  from 

plied  to  this  purpose;  though  in  some  cases  a    three  to  eight  or  ten  measures  of  raw  grain  to 

proportion  of  raw  grain  is  employed.  The  Greeks    one  of  malt,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  grain 


find  that  a  large  proportion  of  raw  grain,  mixed 
with  a  small  proportion  of  malt,  yields  more  spi- 
rit than  if  they  operated  upon  malt  alone.  They 


ascribed  the   invention    of  beer  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians. 

1503.  The  extract  of  malt  does  not  readily 


and  of  the  malt.  These  being  hashed,  or  bruised 
into  coarse  meal,  are  thrown  into  their  mashing 
tun,  and,  after  the  hot  water  is  let  in  upon  them, 


ferment  of  itself,  even  though  the  temperature  be  are  violently  agitated  in  order  to  produce  a  com- 
plete incorporation  with  the  liquid.  The  conse- 
quence is  that  a  wort,  or  as  they  call  it  wash,  is 
produced  more  highly  saccharine  than  if  the 


favorable ;  or  it  ferments  very  slowly ;  or  is  apt 
to  run  into  the  acetous"  or  the  putrefactive  fermen- 
tations. To  excite  the  vinous  fermentation,  a 


proportion  of  yeast  is  always  added  to  the  extract,    whole  material  operated  upon  had  consisted  of 

or  wort.     Yeast  is  ascertained  to  consist  chiefly 

of  gluten  in  a  particular  state,  with  a  quantity  of 

carbonic  acid  gas  entangled  in  its  viscid  substance. 

Though  the  vinous  fermentation  has  been  excited 

by  impregnating  the  liquor  with  carbonic  acid 


malt. 

1505.  The  phenomena  attending  the  vinous 
fermentation,  are  a  violent  agitation  in  the  liquor. 
It  becomes  thick  and  muddy,  and  throws  a  volu- 
minous frothy  matter  to  the  surface.  Much  car- 


gas,  it  does  not  appear  that  yeast  owes  its  proper-    bonic  acid  gas  escapes.     The  agitation  and  in- 

*.!  —  ».  »!.: on._  u_i f  «„_:.  i i crease  of  bulk  of  the  liquor,  seem  to  be  owingto 

the  production  and  escape  of  this  gas  ;  and  the 
agitation  produced  by  the  escape  of  this  gas, 
seems  to  bring  all  the  substances  dissolved  in  the 
liquor  into  chemical  contact,  so  that  they  can 
mutually  decompose  each  other.  Access  of  air 


ties  to  this  gas.  The  bakers  of  Paris  have  long 
been  accustomed  to  bring  their  yeast  from  Flan- 
ders, and,  to  save  carriage,  they  squeeze  the  juice 
through  bags  and  convey  it  in  a  dry  form.  In 
addition  to  this,  Sir  John  Dalrymple  dried  yeast 
in  rooms  heated  to  a  high  temperature  by  stoves, 


after  it  had  been  previously  squeezed  in  bags  of    is  not  necessary  to  the  vinous  fermentation  ;  but 


cloth.  His  yeast  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  dry 
powder,  yet,  after  being  moistened  with  water,  it 
excited  the  vinous  fermentation,  after  being  con- 
veyed to  London,  to  the  West  Indies,  and  to 
several  remote  parts  of  the  world.  By  his  pro- 
cess, at  least,  no  doubt  can  be  entertained,  but 
all  the  carbonic  acid  gas  that  previously  existed 


there  must  be  sufficient  opening  to  allow  the  car- 
bonic acid  gas  to  escape ;  otherwise  the  process 
will  not  commence,  or  will  be  wholly  checked  ; 
as  it  is  only  by  the  agitation  of  the  liquor,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  escape  of  this  gas,  that  the  ingre- 
dients are  brought  to  act  upon  each  other.  The 
carbonic  acid  in  its  escape  carries  off  a  consider- 


in  the  yeast,  was  completely  expelled.  Yet  soon  able  portion  of  the  spirit  already  formed,  and  also 
after  it  was  moistened  it  began  to  froth,  and  to  of  the  unchanged  liquor.  It  might,  perhaps,  be 
emit  carbonic  acid  gas  as  it  did  when  fresh.  It 


seems  then  that  we  are  still  unacquainted  with 
the  properties  of  yeast,  and  indeed  are  much  in 
the  dark  with  regard  to  the  most  ordinary  pro- 
cesses which  are  going  around  us.  But  yeast 
bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  gluten  in  must, 
and  the  expressed  juices  of  fruits.  When  this  is 
extracted  from  them,  they  will  not  ferment  unless 
it  be  restored.  Sugar,  though  it  be  dissolved  in 
water,  will  not  ferment,  but  if  mixed  with  the 
juices  of  fruits  or  berries,  or  with  yeast,  it  fer- 
ments rapidly.  The  yeast,  with  a  considerable 
addition  of  new  yeast  evolved  from  the  ferment- 
ing mass,  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  liquor,  where 
it  forms  a  frothy  turbid  scum.  In  the  making 
of  beer,  the  object  is  not  to  push  the  fermentation 
until  all  the  saccharine  matter  be  decomposed, 
but  to  moderate  its  violence,  and  to  check  it  in 
due  time.  For  this  purpose  a  certain  quantity 
of  hops  is  boiled  with  the  wort  before  it  is  set  to 
ferment.  The  essential  oil  of  the  hops  conveys 
an  agreeable  flavor  to  the  beer,  and  their  bitter 
checks  the  violence  of  the  fermentation,  and  pre- 
vents the  liquor  from  running  into  the  acetous  or 
putrid  fermentations.  See  BEER  and  BREWERY. 


possible  to  conduct  the  carbonic  acid  through 
spaces  where  it  might  deposit  its  spirit,  so  that 
distillers  might  gain  as  much,  or  at  least  much 
better  spirits  from  their  fermenting  tuns,  than 
they  obtain  from  their  stills.  During  the  fermen- 
tation, a  considerable  increase  of  temperature 
takes  place,  which  varies  according  to  circum- 
stances. 

1506.  When  the  process  is  finished,  which 
requires  longer  or  shorter  time,  according  to  the 
temperature  of  the  weather,  and  other  circum- 
stances, the  liquor  is  no  longer  muddy  but  tran- 
sparent. Its  specific  gravity  is  considerably  dimi- 
nished. It  has  no  longer  a  sweet,  but  a  vinous 
taste,  and  conveys  a  sensation  of  heat  to  the  pa- 
late. Boerhaave  was  the  first  person  who 
attended  to  the  phenomena  of  fermentation;  and 
Lavoisier  has  shown  that  during  the  process 
there  is  a  mutual  decomposition  of  sugar  and 
water,  by  which  alcohol,  or  ardent  spirit,  is  pro- 
duced. Chaptal  has  also  shown  that  in  the  fer- 
mentation of  wine,  a  portion  of  the  tartaric  acid 
is  decomposed,  and  converted  into  malic  acid; 
and  that,  during  the  process,  a  quantity  of  azotic 
gas  is  evolved.  From  what  source  this  gas 


CHEMISTRY. 


505 


arises  we  are  at  a  loss  to  decide.  Sugar  is  not 
known  to  contain  any  of  it ;  and  the  experiments 
of  Lavoisier  lead  us  to  conclude,  that  the  pro- 
duction of  spirit  ceases,  and  the  vinous  fermen- 
tation stops,  when  all  the  sugar  in  the  liquor  is 
decomposed.  -,,,, 

OF  ALCOHOL. 

1507.  Alcohol  is  an  Arabic  word,  and  it  means 
the  spirit,  being  the  first  product  that  was  ob- 
tained after  distillation  was  invented.     It  is  also 
called  spirit  of  wine,  because  it  is  obtained  by 
distilling  wine,  beer,  and  other  fermented  liquors. 
We  are  informed  in  Holy  Writ  that  Noah  planted 
a  vineyard  and  drank  wine  ;  and  it  is  probable 
the  preparation  of  this  liquor  was  discovered  in 
very  early  times.     Beer  seems  to  have  been  used 
by  the  Egyptians  in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  and 
Tacitus  informs  us  it  was  the  drink  of  the  an- 
cient Germans.     Though  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans knew  the  use  of  wine,  it  does  not  appear 
from  their  writings  that  they  were  acquainted  with 
distilled  or  ardent  spirits.     The  northern  nations 
of  Europe  knew  intoxicating  liquors  from  the 
earliest  ages,  and  they  seem  to  have  chiefly  used 
beer  or  mead,  mixed  with  bitter  and  aromatic 
herbs.   See  SPIRIT  OF  WINF. 

1508.  At  what  time  the  distillation  of  ardent 
spirits  from  fermented  liquors  was  first  invented, 
is  not  certainly  known,  though  it  would  seem 
that  this  art  was  long  practised  among  the  Hin- 
doos and  other  eastern  nations,  before   it  was 
known  to  the  Arabians,  or  through  them  was 
adopted  in  Europe. 

1509.  When  any  fermented  liquor  is  distilled, 
the  first  part  that  comes  over  is  ardent  spirits. 
These  products  are  known  by  different  names, 
according  to  the  substance  from  which  they  are 
obtained.     Thus  brandy  is  distilled  from  wine, 
rum  from  the  fermented  juice  of  the  sugar  cane, 
whisky  and  gin  from  the  fermented  infusion  of 
malt  and  grain.     But,  whatever  name   may   be 
given  to  ardent  spirits,  they  all  consist  of  nearly 
three  ingredients,  namely,  water,  spirit  or  alcohol, 
and  a  little  oil  or  resin,  to  which  they  owe  their 
flavor  and  color. 

1510.  When  the  product  of  the  first  distilla- 
tion is  distilled  a  second  time,  the  portion  which 
comes  first  over,  being  a  more  pure  spirit  than 
before,   is   called    rectified  spirits,  and  is  sold 
under  the  name  of  alcohol,  or  spirit  of  wine.     It 
still,  however,  contains  a  portion  of  water,  if  not 
also  of  oil,  from  which  it  may  be  separated  by 
the  following  process. 

1511.  A  quantity  of  highly  rectified   spirit  is 
mixed  with  a  portion  of  very  dry  and  warm  salt 
of  tartar,  or  carbonate  of  potassa,  which  has  a 
strong  affinity  for  water  and  oil,  but  does  not 
combine  with  pure  spirit.     Being  agitated,  the 
potassa  combines  with  the  water,  and  sinks  with 
it  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  while  the  spirit 
float1?  at  top.      The  spirit  may  then  be  decanted 
off,  or  drawn  off  by  a  siphon  ;  or  the  solution  of 
water  and  potassa  may  be  drawn  by  a  stop-cock 
through  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.     The  alcohol 
thus  obtained  may  be  separated  from  any  minute 
portion  of  alkali  it  may  contain,  by  a  very  slow 
distillation  from  a  water-bath.     The  spirit  passes 
over  and   leaves  the  potassa   behind  ;  but  it  is 
proper  not  to  continue  the  distillation  to  dryness, 


lest  water  and  oil  may  be  forced  over  from  the 
remnant  of  potassa.  This  process  was  first  men- 
tioned by  Sully,  and  by  its  means  alcohol  is  ob- 
tained in  its  highest  state  of  purity.  Arnold  de 
Villa  Nova,  professor  of  medicine  at  Montpelier, 
first  formed  tinctures  and  introduced  them  into 
medicine  by  the  use  of  alcohol ;  and  he  seems 
first  to  have  accurately  described  this  liquid 
about  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

1512.  Alcohol  thus  prepared  and  purified  is 
a  light,  colorless,  and  transparent  liquid,  of  a 
penetrating  and  agreeable  smell,  and  of  a  warm, 
stimulating,  and  acrid  taste.  It  intoxicates  much 
more  powerfully  than  wine,   or  any  other  fer- 
mented liquor.   Its  specific  gravity,  when  nearly 
pure,  is  0'800,  but  at  the  temperature  of  60°  it 
is  seldom  obtained  above  0-820,  and  the  alcohol 
of  commerce,  which  is  only  rectified  spirits,  is 
seldom  under  0-8371.  Muschenbroeck,  by  means 
of  salt  of  tartar,  obtained  it  as  low  as  0-815,  but 
in  general,  what  is  obtained  by  that  process  is 
seldom  under  0-821. 

1513.  Dr.   Black,    by   repeated   distillations 
from  muriate  of  lime,  obtained  alcohol,  as  low 
as  0  800.     Lowitz  of  Petersburgh,  and  Richter, 
by  following  the  same  plan,  obtained  alcohol  of  a 
still  lower  specific  gravity  than  Dr.  Black.     The 
latter  chemist  having  exposed  muriate  of  lime  to 
a  red  heat,  reduced  it  to  powder,  and  put  it  into 
a  retort  while  yet  warm.     He  then  poured  upon 
it,  at  different  intervals,  a  quantity  of  alcohol 
which  had  been  purified  to  0-821,  nearly  equal 
to  the  weight  of  the  salt.     A  violent  heat  was 
produced,  and  the  retort  being  put  upon  a  sand- 
bath,  and  receiver  adjusted,  the  liquid  was  made 
to  boil.  The  salt  was  soon  dissolved,  and  formed 
with  the  alcohol  a  thick  solution.     What  had 
come  over  into  the   receiver  was  now  poured 
back,  and  the  whole  distilled  with  a  very  gentle 
boiling  nearly  to  dryness.     The  alcohol  thus  ob- 
tained was  of  the  specific  gravity  of  0-792,  at  the 
temperature  of  68°.  By  a  similar  process,  Lowitz 
obtained  alcohol  of  the  specific  gravity  0-791  at  the 
temperature  of  68°.     These  may  be  considered 
as  the  purest,  states  of  alcohol,  as  there  are  no 
means  known  by  which  it  can  be  deprived  of 
more  water.     But,  as  the  last  portions  of  water 
seem  to  adhere  to  it  with  great  force,  it  may 
possibly  still  contain  some  water.     The  specific 
gravity  of  alcohol  is  diminished  in  proportion  as 
it  is  deprived  of  water ;  and  it  increases  in  pro- 
portion as  water  is  added  to  it.     Hence  the  spe- 
cific  gravity   of  this   liquid  is   regarded  as   a 
standard  of  its  purity. 

1514.  Alcohol  has  never  been  known  to  con- 
geal with  the  most  intense  cold  that  can  be  ap- 
plied.    Mr.   Walker   cooled   a  spirit   of  wine 
thermometer  to — 91°,  without  any  appearance 
of  congelation.    It  is  also  very  volatile.    Fahren- 
heit found  that  alcohol,  which  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  60°  was  about  0-820  of  the  specific  gravity 
boiled  at  176°  of  temperature.     When  of  0'80C 
specific  gravity,  it  boils  at  173^°.     In  vacuo  it 
boils  at  56°,  so  that,  were  it  not  for  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere,  this  fluid  would  always  be  iu 
the  form  of  a  gas,  transparent  and  invisible  like 
common  air. 

1515.  It  is  owing  to  its  superior  volatility  tha 
alcohol,  or  spirit,  separates  from  the  watery  mass 
in  the  process  of  distillation.     If  managed  with 


506 


CHEMISTRY. 


skill  and  attention,  it  is  of  no  consequence  whether 
the  process  of  distillation  be  conducted  rapidly 
or  slowly.  However  violent  the  heat  may  be 
which  is  applied  externally  to  the  still,  the  in- 
ternal heat  can  never  be  greater  than  the  vapo- 
rific  point  of  the  liquor.  Each  of  the  ingredients 
will  come  over  in  the  order  of  its  volatility, 
and  it  is  only  necessary  to  be  more  exact  in  turn- 
ing aside  the  last  portions,  which  consist  of  spirit 
combined  with  oils.  By  attention  to  this  cir- 
cumstance the  Scotch  distillers,  who  charge  and 
run  a  still  in  less  than  five  minutes,  can  make 
better  spirits  than  formerly,  when  it  required 
a  week  or  a  fortnight  to  run  a  still. 

1516.  Alcohol  combines  with  water  in  all  pro- 
portions ;  and  as  there  is  a  mutual  penetration 
of  the  liquids,  and  a  variation  of  the  specific  gra- 
vity of  the   mixture   by  every  variation  of  the 
proportions,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  various 
compounds  of  alcohol  and  water  cannot  be  de- 
duced by  calculations  from  medium  observations, 
but  must  be  ascertained  by  experiment  in  each 
individual  case.   Lowitz,  as  above  stated,  having 
purified  alcohol   to  791  of  specific   gravity,  at 
temperature  68°,  preceded  to  ascertain  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  various  mixtures  of  this  highly 
rectified  alcohol  with   different   proportions  of 
water.    The  importance  of  this  object  for  reve- 
nue and  commerce,  induced  the  British  govern- 
ment to  employ  Sir  Charles  Blagden  to  execute 
a  very  minute  series  of  experiments  on  this  sub- 
ject, which  were  published  in  the  Philosophical 
Transaction,  1 790 ;  and  the  result  of  these  were 
exhibited  by  Gilpin,  in  the  same  work,  1794, 
in   a   set  of  tables.     The  standard  alcohol  em- 
ployed at  temperature  60°  was  0-825  of  specific 
gravity,  of  which,  according  to  Mr.  Gilpin,  100 
parts  contained  4'5  of  water ;  but  according  to 
Lowitz's  experiments,  it  must  have  contained 

89  pure  alcohol, 
11  water. 

100 

1517.  For  an  account  of  the  hydrometer  used 
to  determine  the  strength  of  alcohol,  and  for 
several  other  particulars  relating  to  this  subject, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  ALCOHOL, 
taken  principally  from  Dr.  lire's  Dictionary. 

1518.  Alcohol  is  not  altered  by  air  or  oxygen 
ga?  at  a  moderate  temperature ;  but  when  kindled 
it  I mrns  in  them  with  great  violence,  and  leaves 
no  residuum.     Boerhaave  first  observed  that  the 
condensed  vapor  of  burning  alOehol  consisted  of 
water;  and  Dr.  Black  ascertained  that  the  weight 
of  this  water  exceeded  that  of  the  alcohol  con- 
sumed.    Lavoisier  found  that  the  weight  of  the 
water  exceeded  that  of  the  alcohol,  by  about  one- 
seventh  part ;  from  which  he  inferred  that  hydro- 
gen formed  a  considerable  constituent  of  alcohol. 
Dr.  Ingenhousz  first  observed,  that  if  the  vapor 
of  alcohol  be  mixed  with  a  due  proportion  of 
oxygen  gas,  and  fired  by  a  lighted  taper,  or  by 
the  electric  spark,   it   detonates  with  violence, 
and  the  products  are  water  and  carbonic  acid. 

1519.  When  assisted  by  heat,  alcohol  dis- 
bolves  a  little  phosphorus ;  and  when  this  solution 
is  dropped  into  a  glass  of  water,  in  the  dark,  a 
beautiful  jet  of  flame  rises  above  the  surface, 


which  is  owing  to  sulphureted  hydrogen  gas 
escaping  from  the  water.  Alcohol  hardly  com- 
bines with  sulphur  except  when  the  two  bodies 
are  mixed  in  a  state  of  vapor.  This  is  done 
by  placing  a  phial  containing  alcohol  in  the  bot- 
tom of  a  large  glass  cucurbite  surrounded  by 
flowers  of  sulphur.  A  head  being  adjusted,  and 
the  heat  of  a  sand-bath  applied,  both  bodies  rise 
in  vapor  at  once,  and  form  a  red  liquor  in  the 
head  of  the  cucurbite.  Water  precipitates  the 
sulphur  from  this  combination.  Very  strong  al- 
cohol dissolves  a  little  sulphur  if  digested  upon 
its  flowers  some  time,  especially  if  assisted  by 
heat ;  and  the  quantity  dissolved  is  in  proportion 
to  the  strength  of  the  alcohol. 

1520.  Alcohol  dissolves  the  fixed  alkalis  very 
readily,  forming  an  acrid  reddish  colored  liquor, 
which  was  formerly  called  the  acrid  tincture  of 
tartar.    This  liquor  may  be  distilled  over,  though 
it  is  partly  decomposed  during  the  process.    It  is 
only  by  solution  in  alcohol  that  these  alkalis  can 
be  obtained  in  a  state  of  purity.     Ammonia  also 
dissolves   in  alcohol,    with  the  assistance  of  a 
moderate  heat ;  but  a  greater  heat  expels  the  al- 
kali in  the  form  of  gas,  with  some  of  the  alcohol 
in  union  with  it. 

1521.  Of  the   earths,   alcohol   ouly   acts   on 
strontia  and  baryta.    It  absorbs  its  own  weight  of 
nitrous  gas.     The  sulphuric  and   nitric   acids, 
and  also  chlorine,  decompose  alcohol.  It  dissolves 
all  the  other  acids  except  the  metallic,  phospho- 
ric, and  prussic  acids. 

1522.  Alcohol  dissolves  a  great  variety  of  sa- 
line substances,  and  hence  proves  a.  valuable  in- 
strument in  the  hands  of  the  chemist,  not  only 
for  obtaining  the  alkalis  in  a  state  of  purity,  but 
for  separating  salts  from  each  other,  and  from 
other  bodies,  with  a  view  to  investigate  their 
properties.     For  this  purpose  tables  have  been 
constructed,  exhibiting  the  proportions  of  the 
several  salts  that  are  soluble  in  alcohol,  with  the 
temperature  at  which  the  solution  takes  place ; 
and  also  the  salts  that  are  not  soluble  at  any 
temperature.     Such  tables  are  highly  useful  for 
assisting  the  investigations  of  the  chemist;  they 
will  be  found  in  the  article  ALCOHOL,  to  which 
we  have  already  referred. 

1523.  When  the  solutions  of  salts  in  alcohol 
are  set  on  fire,  the  flame  varies  in  color  according 
to  the  salt :  and  this  property  might  be  improved 
into  a  test  of  the  genus  of  salt  held  in  solution. 
Thus  the  flame  from  solution  of  nitrate  of  stron- 
tia is  purple;  that  from  the  cupreous  salts  is 
green;   that  from  muriate  of  lime  is  of  a  red 
color,  8cc. 

1524.  Various  opinions  have  been  entertained 
concerning  the  composition  of  alcohol.    Formerly 
it  was  supposed  to  be  phlogiston  combined  with 
water  by  means  of  an  acid,  or  phlogiston  com 
bined  with  water  alone.     Lavoisier  endeavoured 
to  solve  this  problem  by  burning  alcohol  in  a 
lamp,  in  a  close  vessel  over  mercury,  to  which 
was  introduced  through  a  pipe,  a  regulated  quan- 
tity of  oxygen  gas,  to  support  the  combustion. 
The  products  were  carbonic  acid  gas  and  water, 
the  amount  of  which  being  ascertained,  and  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  alcohol  and  oxygen  gas 
consumed,  he  calculated  that  76-7083  grains  of 
alcohol  consumed,  were  composed  of 


CHEMISTRY. 


507 


22-840  carbon,  Proportion  of  Spiri- 

6-030  hydrogen,  ,    Port                                     ^   .~SZ 

^•830  water.  •  Ditto :  :  :  : :  ;  ;  :  :  :  £8 

7fi-nf.                                                          Ditto 23-71 

76  7°°  Ditto    ...                                    ,  23-39 

1525.  Subsequent    experiments    nave    been  Ditto              •  22'30 
made  on  the  composition  of  alcohol;  and  the  Ditto    .  21-40 
most  satisfactory,    according   to   Mr.    Brande's  Ditto  19-00 
statement,  are  those  of  Saussure,  as  quoted  by  '  Average          '.  22-96 
Dr.  Thomson.     Saussure  passed  alcohol  through  S.Madeira                                              '  24-42 
a  red  hot  tube  made  of  porcelain,  and  terminal-  Ditto  23-93 
ing  in  a  glass  tube  six  feet  long,  and  surrounded  Ditto  (Sercial)    .                               '.  21-40 
by  ice ;  all  the  products  were  carefully  weighed.  Ditto    .  19-24 
The  result  of  this  analysis  was,  that  100  parts  of  'Average     '  2227 
pure  alcohol  consist  of                                                 6.  Currant  wine '.     '.  20-55 

Hydrogen          .     .           x3'70                     7.  Sherry        19-81 

Carbon              .     .     .     51-98                            Ditto 19-83 

Oxygen    .         ...     34-32                            Ditto 18-79 

Ditto 18.25 

100-00  Average     .     .  19-17 

These  numbers  approach  to  3  proportionals  of      8.  Teneriffe 19.79 

hydrogen  rr  3;  2  of  carbon  —  11-4;  and  1  of      9.  Colares 19-75 

oxygen  — 7-5;  or  it  may  be  regarded  as  com-    10-  Lachryma  Chrtsti 19-70 

posed  of                                                                      11-  Constantia,  white 19-75 

Olefiant  gas         .     .     61-63                    12.  Ditto,  red 18-92 

Water              .     .     .     38-37                     13«  Lisbon       18-94 

14.  Malaga      .     • 18-94 

100-00                     15.  Bucellas 18-49 

1526.  If  we  consider  it  as  composed  of  1  volume    16.  Red  Madeira 22-30 

of  olefiant  gas,  and  1  volume  of  the  vapor  of  water,  ltto •     •     •     •     • 

the  2  volumes  being  condensed  into  one,    the  n        ,                         Average     .     .  1 

specific  gravity  of  the  vapor  of  alcohol,  compared    \7'  ^ape  ™chat 

with  common  air,  will  be  1-599,  or,  according    18.  Cape  Madeira 22-94 

to  Gay  Lussac,  1-613.                                                        ^!tto 20-50 

Mr.  Brande,  from  whom  we  have  extracted                   3 •     •     •     •     •  18'n 

xhe  above,  some  time  since  made  some  experi-  .                      Average     .     .  20-51 

ments  on  alcohol,  in  order  to  determine  the  agi-    19-  ^rfPe  wme 

tated    and    interesting    question,    whether   the    20'  Cwwdk       •          ; 

alcohol  which  distillation  elicits  existed  before-                    * 18-10 

hand  in  the  fermented  liquors,  or  whether  it  is  .                         Average     .     . 

actually  formed  by  the  process  of  distillation.    JJ'   ;,     nu 

These  experiments  are  related  in  the  Philosophi-    *•*•  -JJba  Flora 17'26 

cal  Transactions  for  1811  and  1813,  and  they    23-  Ma  aga, 

seem  to  prove  that,  in  the  language  of  Mr.  B.,    24.  White  hermitage 17-4: 

« alcohol  is  a  real  educt,  and  not  formed  by  the    25-  Rousillon       19'0( 

action  of  heat  upon  the  elements  existing  in  the  Ditto . 

fermented  liquor.'     He  has  proved,  indeed,  that  p                                  Average     .     . 

'  alcohol  may  be  obtained  from  fermented  liquors    26>  tl!aret 

without  the  intervention  of  heat,  by  processes  in  3 

which  nothing  more  can  be  effected  than  the  ^!tto 

separation  of  water.'  Ultto 

1527.  We  shall  take  the  liberty  of  extracting  Average     .     .  15-10 

the  following  table  from  the  Manual  of  Chemis-  27>  f?n,te         •     •     •     •    -     •     •     •     •  17<05 

try,  showing  the  different  proportions  of  spirit,    28'  Malmsey  Madeira 16-4O 

&c,   existing  in   different   kinds   of  fermented    29'  LLunel 15"52 

liquors.                                                                        30.  Sheraaz 15-52 

Proportion  of  Spirit    31.  Syracuse 15-28 

per  cent,  by  measure.      32.   Sauterne     .                   14*22 

1-  Lissa 26-47     33.  Burgundy 16-60 

Ditto 24-35             Ditto 15-22 

Average     .     .     25'41             Ditto    . 14'53 

2.  Raisin  wine 26-40             Ditto 11-95 

Ditto 2;>-77  Average     .     .  14-57 

Ditto 23-20     34.  Hock .     .  14-37 

Average     .     .     25-12             Ditto 13-00 

3.  Marsala 26-03             Ditto  (old  in  cask) 8-88 

Ditto 25-05  Average     .     .  12-08 

Average     .     .     25'09     35.  Nice 14-63 


608 


CHEMISTRY. 


Proportion  of  Spirit 
per  cent,  by  measure. 

36.  Barsac 13'86 

37.  Tent 13-30 

38.  Champagne  (still;   ......  13-80 

Ditto  (sparkling) 12-80 

Ditto  (red) 12'56 

Ditto  (ditto) 11-30 

Average     .     .     12-61 

39.  Red  hermitage 12-32 

40.  Vin  de  Grave 13-94 

Ditto  ..........     12-80 

Average     .     .     13-37 

41.  Frontignac  (Rivesalte)      ....     12'79 

42.  Cote  Rotie 12'32 

43.  Gooseberry  wine 11-84 

44.  Orange  wine — average  of  six  samples 

made  by  a  London  manufacturer    .  11-26 

45.  Tokay        9'88 

46.  Elder  wine    ,     .    > 8'79 

47.  Cider,  highest  average 9'87 

Ditto,  lowest  ditto 5-21 

48.  Perry,  average  of  four  samples   .     .  7'26 

49.  Mead         .     .     .     * 7-32 

50.  Ale  (Burton) 8'88 

Ditto  (Edinburgh) 6-20 

Ditto  (Dorchester)  , 5-56 

Average     .     .  6-87 

51.  Brown  Stout       6'80 

52.  London  Porter  (average)  ....  4 '20 

53.  Ditto  small  beer  (average)    ...  1*28 

54.  Brandy 53'39 

55.  Rum 53-68 

56.  Gin 51-60 

57.  Scotch  Whiskey 54'32 

58.  Irish  ditto 53-90 

ETHER. 

1528.  This  liquid  is  alcohol  decomposed,  and 
converted  into  a  volatile  fragrant  substance  by 
the  action  of  acids,  assisted  by  heat.  The  proper- 
ties of  ether  are  somewhat  different  according  to 
the  acid  employed  in  its  preparation,  and  it  is 
hence  distinguished  into  sulphuric  ether,  nitric 
ether,  muriatic  ether,  &c. 

SULPHURIC  ETHER. 

1529.  Sulphuric   ether   is   thus  prepared : — 
Equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  sulphuric  acid  are 
mixed  and  put  into  a  retort,  to  which  a  large 
receiver  is  luted,  and  surrounded  with  ice,  or  the 
coldest  water  that  can  be  procured.     A  gradual 
heat  is  applied  to  the  retort,  and,  when  the  mix- 
ture boils,  ether  comes  over  and  trickles  down 
the  sides  of  the  receiver.     When  the  product  is 
equal  to  the  half  of  the  alcohol  employed,  the 
process  must  be  stopped. 

1530.  This  ether  contains  a  portion  of  sulphu- 
rous acid,  which  may  be  separated  by  distilling 
it  a  second  time,  with   a  very   moderate  heat, 
from  a  little  potassa.    Mr.  Dide  recommends,  as 
a  more  perfect  purification,  digesting,  and  after- 
wards distilling  it  from  black  oxide  of  mangan- 
ese in  powder.     The  sulphurous  is  converted 
into  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  combines  with  the 
manganese,  and  the  ether  should  be  distilled  by 
the  heat  of  a  water-bath.     Another  process,  and 
which  is  reckoned  the  best,  was  employed  by 
Mr.  Wolfe.    A  bottle,  being  three-fourths  filled 


with  the  impure  ether,  and  a  little  water  and 
slaked  lime  added,  is  violently  agitated,  and 
kept  some  time  in  water  before  taking  out  the 
cork.  If  still  the  smell  of  the  acid  remain,  more 
lime  must  be  added,  and  the  bottle  agitated  as 
before.  The  acid  combines  with  the  lime,  and 
the  mixture  being  allowed  to  settle,  the  ether  is 
drawn  off  by  a  syphon,  and  distilled  by  a  very 
gentle  heat  as  before.  This  is  called  the  rectifi- 
cation of  ether. 

1531.  This  ether  still  contains  a  portion  of 
alcohol  in  its  composition,  and  is  seldom  lighter 
than  0-775.     Mr.  Lowitz  separated  a  great  part 
of  the  alcohol  by  throwing  in  dry  powdered  salt 
of  tartar,  or  dry  powdered  muriate  of  lime,  in 
small  portions,  as  long  as  the  alcohol  continued 
to  dissolve  these  salts.    The  alcohol  formed  a 
liquid  solution  at  bottom,  while  the  ether  swam 
at  top.   Its  specific  gravity  was  now  only  0-746, 
after  being  treated  with  the  salt  of  tartar,  and 
0-632  with  the  muriate  of  lime,  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  60°.  This  ether  contained  a  small  portion 
of  the  salts  that  had  been  mixed  with  it,  from 
which  it  might  be  separated  by  distillation  ;  but 
this  causes  much  of  it  to  assume  the  gaseous 
form.     The  common  method  of  separating  the 
alcohol  from  rectified  ether  is  by  mixing,  and 
afterwards  distilling  it  from  water,  which  is  not 
so  effectual  as  the  process  of  Mr.  Lowitz. 

1532.  Ether  thus  obtained  is  a  light  colorless 
liquid,  of  a  very  fragrant  smell,  and  a  hot  pun- 
gent taste.     It  is  so  volatile  that  it  cannot  be 
poured  from  one  vessel  to  another,  without  a 
considerable  portion  being  evaporated.     When 
poured  on  a  table  it  quickly  evaporates,  and  so 
much  cold  is  generated  by  the  evaporation,  that 
if  a  phial  filled  with  water  be  covered  with  a 
cloth,  and  dipped  twice  or  thrice  in  ether,  and 
exposed  to  the  air,  the  water  will  be  frozen. 
Ether  boils  at  98°  in  the  open  air,  and  at  20° 
below  0  in  vacuo.     Hence,  were  it  not  for  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  this  substance  would 
always  exist  in  the  form  of  a  gas.     It  speedily 
assumes    the   gaseous  form   in  the   open   air. 
When  exposed  to  a.  cold  of  46°,  it  freezes  and 
crystallises. 

1533.  Ether   is   a   highly  inflammable   sub- 
stance, and  when  kindled  in  contact  with  oxygen 
gas,  or  common  air,  it  rapidly  burns  with  a  fine 
white  flame,  leaving  behind  some  traces  of  char- 
coal and  of  sulphuric  acid.  During  combustion, 
carbonic  acid  gas  is  generated. 

1534.  Dr.  Priestley  observed  that  if  ether  be 
thrown  in  among  any  gaseous  body,  standing 
over  mercury,  it  always  doubles  the  bulk  of  the 
gas.     If  oxygen  gas  be  expanded  by  ether,  and 
kindled,  it  burns  slowly,  but  without  explosion. 
But  Mr.  Cruickshanks  observed,  that  if  one  part 
in  bulk  of  this  mixed  gas  be  added  to  three  parts 
of  pure  oxygen  gas,  and  kindled  by  a  taper,  or 
the  electric  spark,  a  very  loud  explosion  takes 
place,  and  the  products  are  water,  and  2J  parts 
of  carbonic  acid.     He  ascertained  that  one  part 
of  the  vapor  of  ether  requires  6-8  parts  of  oxy- 
gen gas  to  consume  it  completely,  and  from  the 
relative  proportions  of  the  products  he  infers 
that  the  carbon  contained  in  ether  is  to  its  hydro- 
gen as  five  to  one. 

1535.  Dr.  Ingenhousz  discovered  that  if  one 


CHEMISTRY. 


509 


drop  of  ether  be  thrown  into  a  bottle,  for  every 
ten  inches  of  air  it  contains,  it  detonates  on  ap- 
plying a  lighted  taper.  The  same  method  suc- 
ceeds with  oxygen  gas;  but,  when  too  much  ether 
is  added,  it  burns  slowly  without  detonation. 

1536.  When   the   vapor  of  ether   is   passed 
through   a  red  hot  porcelain  tube,  it  is  wholly 
decomposed,  and  a  great  quantity  of  carbureted 
hydrogen  gas  is  produced. 

1537.  Ten  parts  of  water  only  take  up  one 
part  of  ether,  but  this  fluid  combines  with  alco- 
hol in  all  proportions.     Ether  dissolves  a  small 
proportion  of  phosphorus,  but  the  addition  of  a 
little  alcohol  renders  it  milky;  and  by  this  we 
may  discover  whether  ether  be  adulterated  with 
alcohol.     Twelve  parts  of  ether  dissolve  one  of 
sulphur,  when  long  digested  on  flowers  of  sul- 
phur in  a  cold  state.     The  solution  is  colorless, 
and  has  the  taste  and  smell  of  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen.    Ether  also  combines  with  sulphur  when 
they  are  brought  to  act  upon  each  other  in  the 
state  of  vapor.    Upon  the  other  simple  combus- 
tibles it  is  not  known  to  act. 

1538.  Ether  does  not  act  upon  metals,  but  it 
revives  gold  and  silver  when  dropped  into  their 
solutions.     It  dissolves  muriate  of  gold,  and  the 
chloride  of  mercury.     It  absorbs  nitrous  gas  in 
great  quantity. 

1539.  Sulphuric  acid   converts  ether  into  a 
peculiar  oil,  called  the  sweet  oil  of  wine,  and 
this  oil  is  also  formed  during  the  process  by 
which  ether  is  made,  and  comes  over  if  the  dis- 
tillation be  continued.     If  a  small  quantity  of 
ether,  or  a  paper  dipped  in  ether,  be  introduced 
into    a   bottle    filled   with    chlorine   gas,   from 
which  water  has  been  abstracted,  it  first  produces 
a  white  vapor,  and  then  explodes  and  inflames 
spontaneously.  A  considerable  quantity  of  char- 
coal  is  deposited,   and   carbonic   acid    gas   is 
formed.  The  action  of  the  other  acids  upon  ether 
has  not  been  minutely  examined. 

1540.  Ether  dissolves  the  fixed   and  volatile 
oils,  resins,  and  the  fluid  bitumens;  but  it  does 
not  act  upon  gums. 

1541.  Much  difference  of  opinion  has  been 
entertained  respecting  the  composition  of  ether. 
Macquer  supposed  it  to  be  alcohol,  which  the 
sulphuric   acid  had  deprived  of  all  its  water. 
Scheele  supposed  it  to  be  alcohol  deprived  of 
part  of  its  phlogiston.    Pelletier  concluded  from 
his  experiments,  that  it  is  alcohol  combined  with 
oxygen.     Dabit   supposed    ether   to  contain   a 
greater  proportion  of  oxygen  and  carbon,  and  a 
smaller  proportion  of  hydrogen  than  alcohol. 
The   experiments   of  Fourcroy  and  Vauquelm 
tended  to  subvert  these  opinions. 

1542.  They  remarked   three  periods   in   the 
action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  alcohol.     First, 
when  a  small  quantity  of  ether  and  water  are 
formed   without   the   assistance   of  heat.     The 
second,  when  all  the  ether  which  can  be  obtained 
is  disengaged  by  the  assistance  of  heat,  without 
the  accompaniment   of  sulphurous  acid.     The 
third,  when  the  sweet  oil  of  wine,  olefiant  gas, 
acetous  acid,  sulphurous  acid,  and  carbonic  acid, 
are  afforded.  The  olefiant  gas  has  been  described, 
and  they  observed  that  the  formation  of  water  is 
common  to  all  these  stages.     They  hence   in- 
ferred, that  alcohol  was  decomposed  during  this 


process,  in  the  same  way  as  if  it  had  been  passed 
through  an  ignited  tube.  Ether  they  supposed 
to  be  alcohol,  from  which  part  of  its  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  had  been  abstracted,  and  formed  into 
water.  The  sweet  oil  and  olefiant  gas  to  be  a 
continuation  of  this  process,  and  not  to  differ 
from  the  ether,  except  in  containing  a  greater 
proportion  of  carbon.  The  sulphurous  and  car- 
bonic acids  they  supposed  to  arise  from  the 
decomposition  of  part  of  the  sulphuric  acid,  by 
means  of  carbon,  towards  the  conclusion  of  the 
process. 

1543.  Saussure  considers  the  component  parts 
of  ether  to  be 


Hydrogen 
Carbon  . 
Oxygen  . 


14-40 
67-98 
17-62 

100-00 


1544.  Contrasting,  says  Dr.  Henry,  the  com- 
position of  alcohol,  and  that  of  ether,  it  will  be 
easy  to  perceive  what  takes  place  when  the  for- 
mer is  converted  into  the  latter. 


Alcohol  consists  of 
Olefiant  gas,      4  atoms 
Aqueous  vapor,  2  ditto 

Or  in  volumes. 
Olefiant  gas,  4  volumes 
Aqueous  vapor,  4  ditto 


Ether  consists  of 
Olefiant  gas,     4  atoms 
Aqueous  vapor,  1  atom 

In  volumes. 
Olefiant  gas,  4  volumes 
Aqueous  vapor,  2  ditto 


To  change  alcohol  into  ether,  all  that  is  ne- 
cessary is  to  take  away  one  atom,  or  two  volumes, 
of  aqueous  vapor;  and  in  this  removal  of  one- 
half  of  the  water,  which  forms  an  element  of  al- 
cohol, it  seems  to  be  universally  agreed  that 
etherification  consists,  even  among  those  who 
differ  as  to  the  precise  number  of  atoms  consti- 
tuting those  fluids.  If  then  the  conversion  could 
be  made  without  any  loss,  46  parts  of  absolute 
alcohol  should  give  37  parts  of  ether,  or  100 
parts,  by  weight,  of  alcohol  should  give  very 
nearly  80^  of  ether,  a  proportion  which,  owing 
to  a  variety  of  causes,  can  never  be  obtained  in 
practice. 

1545.  When  we  act  upon  alcohol  with  a  pro- 
portion of  sulphuric  acid,  sufficient  to  take  away 
the  whole  of  the  water,  we  obtain  little  or  no 
ether.     Olefiant  gas  is  in  this  case  the  principal 
product,  mixed,  however,  with  some  sulphurous 
and  carbonic  acid  gases,  which  are  formed  by  the 
too  energetic  action  of  the  sulphuric  acid  on  the 
carbon  of  the  alcohol.     We  can  at  pleasure  then 
convert  alcohol  either  into  ether  or  olefiant  gas, 
though  each  of  those  products  is  always  accom- 
panied by  others,  resulting  from  a  still  further 
decomposition  of  that  fluid  into  its  ultimate  ele- 
ments. 

NITRIC  ETHER. 

1546.  Nitric   ether   was   first   discovered   by 
Kunkel  in  1681 ;  afterwards  by  Navier  in  1742; 
and  by  Sebastiani  in  1746. 

1547.  It  was  first  prepared  as  follows  : — Into 
a  strong  bottle,  immersed  in  cold  water  or  ice, 
twelve  parts  of  alcohol  are  put,  and  eight  parts  of 
nitric  acid  are  poured  in  at  intervals,  in  small 
quantities  at  a  time,  and  the  bottle  shaken  at  each 
addition  of  the  acid.     The  bottle  is  well  corked, 
and  the  cork  secured  by  leather.     After  five  or 


510 


CHEMISTRY. 


six  days,  ether  is  formed,  which  floats  on  the 
surface  of  the  liquor.  The  cork  must  first  be 
pierced  with  a  needle,  to  allow  a  quantity  of 
nitrous  gas  to  escape ;  after  which  it  may  be 
pulled  out,  and  the  ether  drawn  off  from  the  sur- 
face by  a  glass  syphon. 

1548.  As  the  bottle  is  very  apt  to  burst,  by  the 
quantity  of  nitrous  gas  generated  during  this 
process,  Dr.  Black   adopted  a  very   ingenious 
method   of  preventing   this.     Having   put   the 
proper  quantity  of  acid  into  a  bottle,  he  gently 
poured  upon  its  surface  a  quantity  of  water,  and 
upon  the  water  the  proper  proportion  of  alcohol, 
without  agitation  or  mixture.     Thus  he  had  a 
stratum  of  water  interposed  between  the  stratum 
of  acid  and  alcohol,  with  which,  each  combining 
slowly,  they  met  and  acted  upon   each   other 
without  violence,  and  thus  formed  ether. 

1549.  The  most  expeditious  method  of  ob- 
taining nitric  ether  is  that  which  was  proposed 
by  Chaptal,  and  improved  by  Proust : — A  mix- 
ture of  32  parts  of  alcohol  and  24  of  nitric  acid, 
of  specific  gravity  1-3,  is  put  into  a  retort.     A 
large  globular  glass  retort  is  luted  to  the  receiver, 
furnished  with  a  tube  of  safety.     A  tube  con- 
nects this  with  a  second  vessel,  which  is  also 
furnished  with  a  tube  of  safety.    Three  of  Wolfe's 
bottles,  half  full  of  alcohol,  are  connected  by 
tubes  with  this  second  vessel.     The  apparatus 
being  thus  disposed,  heat  is  applied  in  a  chaffing 
dish  to  the  retort,  and  removed  as  soon  as  the 
effervescence  commences.     The  undecomposed 
acid  which  passes  over  is  condensed  in  the  two 
receivers,  and  the  ether  combines  with  the  alcohol 
in  Wolfe's  bottles,  and  chiefly  in  the  first ;  while 
the  tubes  of  safety  prevent  the  nitrous  gas  from 
bursting  the  vessels.    To  separate  the  ether  from 
the  alcohol,  saturate  the  latter  with  pure  potassa, 
and  distil  with  a  gentle  heat. 

1550.  The  nitrous  ether,  thus  obtained,  con- 
tains a  considerable  portion  of  nitrous  gas,  and  is 
hence  very  volatile.    It  contains  also  some  nitric 
acid  and  oil,  to  which  it  owes  its  yellow  color. 
Mixing  it  with  water  separates  the  nitrous  gas; 
and  the  oil  may  be  abstracted  by  repeated  distil- 
lation from  potassa  or  sugar.     When  kept  some 
time,  the   nitric   acid   is   decomposed,  forming 
water  and  oxalic  acid,  which  go  to  the  bottom. 

1551.  Nitric  ether  is  heavier  than   sulphuric 
ether,  its  specific  gravity  being  0-9000.    Its  taste 
and  odor  are  nearly  the  same,  though  not  quite  so 
pleasant,  owing  probably  to  an   admixture  of 
foreign  matter,  from  which  the  means  have  not 
been  discovered  of  separating  it. 

1552.  Nitric  ether,  according  to  Thenard,  is 
composed  of 


Oxygen     . 

Carbon 
Nitrogen  . 
Hydrogen 


48-52 

28-45 

14-49 

8-54 


100-00 

ETHERISED  NITROUS  GAS. 

1553.  If  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  nitric  acid 
be  mixed,  a  violent  effervescence  ensues,  or,  if 
the  acid  be  weak,  when  heat  is  applied.  Much 
gas  escapes,  which  may  be  collected  in  a  vessel 


over  water,  and  is  a  compound  of  nitrous  gas 
and  ether. 

1554.  This  gas  has  a  disagreeable  odor,  mixed 
with  that  of  ether.     It  is  absorbed   by  water, 
alcohol,  and  solution  of  potassa ;   burns  with  a 
yellow  flame,  and   detonates  when  fired  along 
with  oxygen  gas.     It  is  decomposed  by  the  sul- 
phuric, sulphurous,  nitric,  and  muriatic  acids, 
which  combine  with  the  ether,  and  leave  the 
nitrous  gas  unchanged.    The  residuum,  after  this 
gas  is  extricated,  consists  chiefly  of  acetic  acid 

1555.  A  mixture  of  one   part   alcohol    and 
three  parts  nitric  acid  of  the  specific  gravity 
1-261,  effervesces  and  emits  the  same  etherised 
nitrous  gas.     When  the  residuum,  after  the  gas 
is  extricated,  is  allowed  to  cool,  it  deposits  cry- 
stals of  oxalic  acid. 

1556.  When  one  measure  of  nitric  acid  is 
poured  upon  its  own  weight  of  alcohol,  and  the 
same  measure  of  sulphuric  acid  is  added  soon 
after,  the  mixture  takes  fire,  and  burns  with  great 
violence.     In  this  case,  if  the  products  be  col- 
lected, they  are  found  to  be  ether  and  oil,  which 
pass  over  when  performed  in  a  retort,  or  other 
close  vessel. 

MURIATIC  ETHER. 

1557.  Muriatic  ether  may  be  made  from  the 
chloride  of  mercury,  iron,  arsenic,  and  antimony; 
but  the  salt  which  answers  best  is  the  chloride  of 
tin.     Courtanvaux  first  formed  ether  from  this 
salt  in  1759.     Three  parts  of  fuming  chloride  of 
tin,  and  one  part  of  alcohol  are  mixed  together ; 
and,  after  the  heat  and  effervescence  have  ceased, 
the  mixture  is  put  into  a  retort  to  which  two 
large  receivers  are  luted,  and  immersed  in  the 
coldest  water  that  can  be  got,  or  in  ice ;  on  ap- 
plying a  moderate  heat,  there  first  comes  over  a 
little  alcohol,  then  ether. 

The  liquid  muriatic  acid  contains  too  much 
water  to  act  upon  alcohol  so  as  to  form  ether. 
But  ether  may  be  formed  by  causing  the  acid  in 
its  gaseous  form,  when  as  much  divested  of  water 
as  possible,  to  act  upon  alcohol.  For  this  pur- 
pose common  salt  should  be  kept  at  least  an 
hour  in  a  state  of  fusion,  in  order  to  expel  its 
water  of  crystallisation.  Having  put  20  parts  of 
this  dried  salt  into  a  tubulated  retort,  which  is 
connected  by  a  bent  tube,  with  a  Wolfe's  bottle 
containing  10  parts  of  the  strongest  alcohol,  pour 
through  the  tube  of  the  retort  10  parts  of  the 
most  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  Having  al- 
lowed the  air  in  the  vessels  to  escape,  distil  over 
the  muriatic  acid  gas  by  the  heat  of  a  sand-bath, 
while  the  Wolfe's  bottle  is  kept  as  cool  as  pos- 
sible. The  muriatic  acid  passes  over,  and  incor- 
porates with  the  alcohol  in  the  bottle.  This  pro- 
duct being  put  into  a  retort,  should  be  distilled 
over  to  about  one-half.  The  product  thus  ob- 
tained is  ether  mixed  with  alcohol,  which  being 
saturated  and  agitated  with  an  alkaline  lee,  the 
ether,  which  is  usually  2J  parts,  floats  on  the 
surface,  and  may  be  drawn  off  by  a  syphon. 

1558.  Muriatic  ether  only  differs  from  the  sul- 
phuric, in  exhaling  an  acrid  odor,  similar  to  that 
of  sulphurous  acid,  when  burnt;  and  in  having 
an  astringent  taste  like  alum.     Its  specific  gra- 
vity is  about  0-719.     An  improved  method  of 
preparing  this  ether,  and  an  account  of  its  pro- 


CHEMISTRY. 


511 


perties,  by  Thenard,  may  be  found  in  Nicholson's 
Journal  xviii.  177,  or  in  the  Philosophical  Ma- 
gazine xxx.  101.  Its  nature  has  been  a  subject 
of  doubt.  Boullay  considers  it  as  a  compound 
of  muriatic  acid  and  alcohol.  But  Robiquet  and 
Colen,  with  great  probability,  regard  it  as  a  com- 
pound of  olefiant  gas  with  muriatic  acid.  Henry. 

ACETIC  ETHER. 

1559.  Count  de  Lauraguais,  in  1759,  disco- 
vered that  ether  may  be  formed  by  the  action  of 
acetic  acid  on  alcohol.     For  this  purpose  equal 
quanties  of  alcohol,  and  of  acetic  acid  from  ace- 
tite  of  copper,  are  mixed  and  distilled.     The  al- 
cohol comes  over,  and  it  must  be  poured  back, 
and  distilled  a  second  and  third  time.    The  pro- 
duct of  this  third   distillation  is  a  mixture  of 
acetic  acid  and  ether.     The  acid  being  saturated 
with  potash,  and  the  compound  again  distilled 
with  a  moderate  heat,  the  ether  comes  over  pure. 

1560.  Bucholz  obtained  this  ether  by  putting 
into  a  retort  16  parts  of  dry  acetate  of  lead,  6 
parts  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  9  parts  of  al- 
cohol.    Ten  parts  being  distilled  over,  the  pro- 
duct was  agitated  with  a  third  of  its  bulk  of 
lime  water.    This  caused  the  ether  to  rise  to  the 
surface  where  it  could  be  drawn  off. 

1561.  Scheele  obtained   acetic  ether  by  dis- 
solving one  part  of  dry  acetate  of  potash  in  three 
parts  of  alcohol,  adding  more  sulphuric  acid  than 
was  necessary  to  saturate  the  potash,  and  then 
distilling.  Acetioether  exhales  a  perceptible  smell 
of  the  acetic  acid,  and  probably  differs  only  from 
the  sulphuric  ether  in  containing  a  portion  of 
acetic  acid  hi  its  composition.     For  further  in- 
formation on  the  subject  of  ether,  &c.  formed 
from  vegetable  acids,  see  Thenard,  Mem.  d'Ar- 
cueil,  ii.  5,  or  37  Phil.  Mag.  216. 

1562.  Chloric  ether  is  directed  to  be  formed 
by  causing  a  current  of  olefiant  gas  and  another 
of  chlorine  to  meet  in  a  glass  balloon,  by  which 
a  condensation  of  an   oily  fluid  is  occasioned, 
which  burns  with  a  green  flame,  giving  out  a 
smell  of  muriatic    acid  arid  much  soot.      See 
OLEFIANT  GAS  and  CARBURETED  HYDROGEN. 

1563.  Hydriodic  ethtr. — This  was  first  pre- 
pared by  Gay  Lussac  by  distilling  two  measures 
of  alcohol  with  one  of  concentrated  hydriodic 
acid.     This  ether  is  not  inflamed  by  bringing  a 
body  in  a  state  of  inflammation  near  it. 

1564.  Phosphoric  ether  is  to  be  obtained  by 
mixing  thick  phosphoric  acid  and  alcohol.   '  The 
first  product  is  a  portion  of  unchanged  alcohol. 
After  this  a  liquid  passes  over  which  has  an 
ethereal  smell  and  a  specific  gravity  inferior  to 
that  of  alcohol.     It  is  very  volatile,  requires  for 
its  solution  eight  or  ten  parts  of  water,  boils 
at  100°,  and  burns  with  a  white  flame,  without 
leaving  any  trace  of  acid. 

1565.  Fluoric  and  Jiuoboric  ethers  have  also 
been  formed,  as  well  as  ethers,  with  the  vegetable 
acids,  but  these  last  require  the  intervention  of 
the  mineral  acids,  so  that  there  is  some  doubt  in 
respect  to  their  existence  as  distinct  principles. 
The  alkaline,  earthy,  and   metallic  substances, 
which  are  referred  to  in  the  above  arrangement, 
beyond  what  have  been  included  in  the  account 
already    given,    can    scarcely   be    admitted   as 
proximate  principles,  since  their  abstract  pre- 


sence is  exceedingly  small  and  often  equivocal, 
as  to  their  constituting  essential  parts  of  the  sub- 
stance from  which  they  have  been  extracted. 


PART  VI. 

ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES. 

1566.  The   main   difference   between  animal 
and  vegetable  matter,  considering  the  subject  in  a 
chemical  point  of  view,  and  in  reference  to  their 
elemental  condition,  consists  in  the  greater  pro- 
portion of  nitrogen  or  azote  which  enters  into  the 
composition  of  that  class  of  organised  existence 
which  is  now  to  be  the  subject  of  consideration. 
To   the   three   great   components   of   vegetable 
matter,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon  (says  an 
author  whom  we  have  already  so  freely  quoted), 
a  fourth  is  in  animal  substances  added,  and  con- 
stitutes a  large  proportion  of  their  structure.   To 
the  nitrogen  which  they  contain  are  owing  some 
of  the  most  important  qualities  that  distinguish 
this  class  of  compounds.     Hence  it  is  that  in- 
stead of  passing  through  the  vinous  or  acetous 
fermentations  they  are  peculiarly  prone  to  un- 
dergo putrefaction,  and  that  during  this  change 
they  yield  among  other  products  both  nitrogen 
gas  and  ammonia. 

1567.  Animal  matters,  continues  this  author, 
such  as  fibrin,  albumen,  gelatine^  Sac.  are  com- 
posed of  charcoal,  of  hydrogen,  and  of  oxygen, 
in  the  proportions  required  to  form  water  ;  and 
of  hydrogen  and  azote  in  the  proportions  neces- 
sary to  constitute  ammonia.    They  therefore  hold 
among  animal  matters  the  same  rank  that  sugar, 
gum,  lignin,  &c.  possess  among  vegetable  sub- 
stances. The  animal  acids  again  consist  probably 
of  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  azote,  in  such 
proportions  that  the  oxygen  and  azote  are  in 
excess  relatively  to  the  hydrogen ;  and  the  animal 
oils  on  the  other  hand  will,  in  all  probability,  be 
shown  to  contain  more  hydrogen  than  is  suffi- 
cient to  convert  their  oxygen  into  water,  and 
their  azote  into  ammonia.     Thus  animal  sub- 
stances will  be  divided  into  three  great  classes, 
relatively  to  the  quantity  of  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
and  azote,  which  they  contain. 

1568.  In  addition  to  the  four  elementary  bodies, 
already  mentioned,  as  constituting  the  main  in- 
gredients of  animal  matter,  other  elementary  sub- 
stances are  found  occasionally  in  small  propor- 
tions,  such  as  sulphur,  phosphorus,  iron,  and 
manganese.     Some  of  the  salts,  as  phosphate  of 
lime,  occur  in  large  quantities,  and  others,  such 
as  muriate  of  soda,  and  potassa,  &c.  are  sparingly 
diffused  through  a  few  only  of  the  animal  fluids. 

The  proximate  animal  compounds  are  stated 
to  be  as  follows  : — 


Gelatine 

Albumen 

Mucus 

Fibrin 

Urea 


Saccharine  matter 

Oil 

Resin 

Acids. 


1569  Gelatin.— This  substance  is  yielded  by 
the  bones,  ligaments,  tendons,  muscles,  skin, 
hoofs,  and  most  parts  of  animals.  In  order  to  ob- 
tain it  in  purity,  it  is  only  necessary  to  take  part 
of  the  skin  of  an  ox,  and,  after  the  hair  is  re- 
moved, to  wash  it  repeatedly  in  cold  water,  until 
the  water  comes  oft"  colorless.  The  purified  skm 


512 


CHEMISTRY. 


being  now  boiled  in  pure  water,  a  considerable 
time,  oart  of  it  will  be  dissolved.  The  solution 
being  then  evaporated  to  a  proper  consistence, 
and  set  aside  to  cool,  becomes  solid,  and  forms 
the  tremulous  substance,  called  jelly.  This  being 
allowed  to  dry  slowly,  becomes  hard,  semitrans- 
parent,  its  fracture  vitreous,  and  is  what  is  known 
under  the  name  of  glue. 

1570.  When  pure,  gelatine  is  colorless  and  se- 
mitransparent ;  hard  and  brittle.  In  cold  water 
it  swells  very  much,  and  becomes  again  gelati- 
nous, but  does  not  dissolve.  If  put  into  hot 
water,  in  its  soft  gelatinous  state,  it  very  soon 
dissolves,  forming  an  opal  colored  solution, 
opaque  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  gelatine. 
When  allowed  to  cool,  the  solution  resumes  its 
original  appearance  of  tremulous  gelatine;  and 
when  passing  into  this  state,  if  agitated  in  cold 
water,  it  becomes  completely  soluble.  When 
kept  dry  it  remains  unchanged ;  but  when  dis- 
solved in  water  it  soon  putrefies.  An  acid  is 
evolved,  a  fetid  odor  exhaled,  and  ammonia  is 
formed. 

1571.  Exposed  to  heat  when  dry,  it  whitens, 
then  blackens,  and  gradually  consumes  to  a  coal. 
Distilled,  it  yields  a  watery  liquid  impregnated 
with  ammonia,  a  fetid  empyreumatic  oil,  and 
leaves  a  bulky  charcoal. 

1572.  Acids   readily   dissolve   gelatine    even 
when  diluted,  especially  when  assisted  by  heat. 
When  nitric  acid  is  digested  upon  it,  some  azotic 
gas,  and  then  abundance  of  nitrous  gas,  are  disen- 
gaged ;  the  gelatine  is  dissolved  and  converted 
into  the  oxalic  and  malic  acids,  excepting  a  small 
quantity  of  oil  which  floats  on  the  surface.     Mu- 
riatic acid  forms  with  glue  a  brown  solution, 
•which  gradually  lets  fall  a  white  powder.      This 
solution  precipitates  tan  from  water,  and  is  used 
as  a  test  to  detect  the  presence  of  tan,  even  when 
combined  with  an  alkali.     Sulphuric  acid  slowly 
dissolves  tan  with  emission  of  sulphurous  acid. 
Chlorine   gas,  when    passed    through    a    solu- 
tion of  gelatine,  converts  it  into  a  white  insoluble 
substance,  lighter  than  and  insoluble  in  water. 
It  is  soluble  in  alkalis,  especially  with  heat,  but 
the  solution  does  not  possess  the  properties  of  soap. 

1573.  Several  metallic  oxides,  when  agitated 
in  solution  of  gelatine,  combine,  and  form  with 
it  an  insoluble  compound.     Some  metallic  salts 
likewise  form  a  precipitate  with  gelatine.     When 
a  solution  of  tannin  is  dropped  into  a  solution 
of  gelatine,  a  copious  white  precipitate  ensues. 
This  soon  dries  in  the  open  air,  forming  a  brittle 
substance,  unsusceptible  of  putrefaction,  and  re- 
sisting most  of  the  chemical  agents.  It  resembles 
over-tanned  leather ;  and  it  is  the  combination  of 
tannin  with  the  gelatine  in  skins  that  converts 
them  into  leather.     See  TANNING.     This  preci- 
pitate is  again  soluble  in  solution  of  gelatine. 
The  solution  of  gelatine,  or  glue,  is  used  to  detect 
tannin  in  vegetable  juices,  as  the  decoction  of 
tannin  is  used  to  detect  gelatine  in  animal  juices, 
from  the  precipitation  which  ensues  when  these 
solutions  are  mixed.     A  solution  of  gelatine  so 
strong  that  it  gelatinises  when  cold,  answers  best 
for  throwing  down  tannin,  and  the  gelatine  so- 
lution when  applied  to  detect  tannin,  should  be 
used  while  hot.     Wrhen  triturated  with  water  and 
oils,  gelatine  forms  a  sort  of  emulsion. 


1574.  Glue  is  a  species  of  gelatine  which  may 
be  made  from  most  parts  of  animals,   but  the 
best  is  made  from  parings  of  hides,  pelts  from 
furriers,  the  hoofs  and  ears  of  oxen,  sheep,  calves, 
&c.     The  skins  of  animals  yield  the  best,  and 
those  of  old  animals  yield  better  glue  than  those 
of  young.     The  skins  are  first  cleaned  by  diges- 
tion, in  lime-water,  then  steeped  in  clean  water, 
and  laid  in  heaps  to  drain.     They  are  afterwards 
boiled     in    copper    caldrons,    the     impurities 
skimmed  from  the  surface,  and  a  little  alum  or 
finely  powdered  lime  thrown  in.     The  liquid  is 
then  drained  through  baskets,  allowed  to  settle ; 
and  the  clear  part  being  restored  to  the  caldron 
is  boiled  and  skimmed  until  it  attains  the  proper 
consistency.     It  is  then  let  into  large  horizontal 
coolers,  where  it  forms  a  jelly  on  cooling.     This 
is  cut  in  slices  with  spades,  which  are  afterwards 
cut  into  thin  cakes  with  wires.     These  cakes  are 
laid  upon  coarse  horizontal  nettings,  under  an 
open  shed,  where  they  dry  by  the  lateral  circula- 
tion of  air.     When  glue  is  soluble  in  cold  water 
it  is  not  good.     But  in  cold  water  it  swells  and 
becomes  gelatinous.     Its  color  is  dark  brown, 
with   a   degree  of  transparency.     It   is  chiefly 
used  for  cementing  pieces  of  wood  together. 

1575.  Size  is  prepared  in  the  same  way,  but 
with  more  care,  from  the  skins  of  eels,  horses, 
cats,  rabbits,  from  vellum,  parchment,  and  some 
kinds  of  white  leather.     It  is  transparent,  though 
of  inferior  strength  to  glue.     It  enters  into  the 
composition    of    paper ;    is   employed   by  the. 
bleachers  of  linen,  to  give  smoothness  and  ele- 
gance to  cloth ;    likewise  by  gilders,  polishers, 
and  by  painters,  to  give  adherence  to  what  are 
called  water,  or  size  colors. 

1576.  Isinglass  is  an  article  of  food   in   the 
countries  where  it  is  produced.    It  is  chiefly  ob- 
tained from  the  sturgeon,  and  otl.sr  large  fishes, 
which  abound  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  Wolga, 
and  other  great  rivers  which  disembogue  them- 
selves into  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.     Several 
large  fishes  in  these  quarters  yield  it ;  but  the 
sturgeon  yields   the   best.      It  consists   of  the 
air-bladder  or  soom  of  the  fish,  which   being 
clean  washed,  the  exterior  membrane  is  removed . 
The  body  of  the  bladder  is  then  cut  lengthways, 
formed  into  rolls,  and  dried  in  the  air.     Isinglass 
is  more  difficult  of  solution  in  water  than  glue. 
The  solution  is  transparent,  and  it  is  used  for  a 
great  variety  of  purposes.     In  this  country  it  is 
chiefly  used  for  clarifying,  or  giving  transparency 
to  wines,   porter,  and  other  fermented  liquors. 
But  the  way  it  operates  in  these  cases  has  not 
been  satisfactorily  explained  by  chemists.     An 
inferior  kind  of  isinglass  is  prepared  by  boiling 
the  heads,  fins,  tails,  8cc.  of  fishes  without  scales, 
such  as  whales,  cuttle  fish,  sharks,  porpoises, 
&c.      The  boiling   liquor   must   be   frequently 
skimmed,  and  when  properly  concentrated  it  is 
thrown  into  flat  coolers,  where  it  consolidates. 

1577.  Portable  Soup  may  be  regarded   as  a 
species  of  gelatine  :  it  is  boiled  from  the  flesh  of 
animals,  skimmed,  and  after  attaining  the  proper 
consistence,  is  let  into  coolers  to  consolidate.   It 
is  then  cut  into  slices  and  dried  like  glue.     But 
it  is  not  necessary  to  be  over  anxious  to  separate 
all  foreign  ingredients  from  it,  and  some  salt  and 
spiceries  are  always  mixed  with  it  to  prevent  its 


C  II  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y. 


513 


putrefaction,  even  though  it  should  be  exposed 
to  dampness.  In  fact  gelai'ne  is  the  basis  of  all 
soups  ;  and  animal  jelly  fc  :•  ns  a  pleasant,  as  well 
as  nutritive,  species  of  fooil 

1578.  Gay  Lussac's  and  Thenard's  analysis  of 
gelatine  gives — 

Carbon  .  .  .  47-881 

Oxygen  .  .  .  27-207 

Hydrogen  .  .  .  7'914 

Azote  16-998 


100-000 

See  Hatchett's  Observations  on  Animal  Membrane, 
in  Philos.  Trans.  1800. 

ALBUMEN. 

1579.  This  is  the  Latin  name  for  the  white  of 
an  egg,  and  it  has  been  extended  to  all  substances 
possessing   similar   properties.      The  whites  of 
eggs  form  a  glary  viscid  liquid,  which  is  soluble 
in  water,  and  the  solution  gives  a  green  color  to 
vegetable  blues,   in  consequence  of  containing 
soda.     At  16.5°  albumen  coagulates  into  a  white 
mass,  which  is  solid  in  proportion  to  the  time  the 
heat  has  been  applied.     The   coagulum   is   no 
longer  soluble  either  in  hot  or  in  cold  water. 
Acids  and  alcohol  coagulate  albumen  as  well  as 
heat ;  but  if  it  be  sufficiently  diluted  with  water 
it  does  not  coagulate  by  these  agents.     The  coa- 
gulum is  of  the  same  weight,  and  occupies  pre- 
cisely the  same  space,  with  the  liquid  albumen, 
and  it  does  not  appear  that  the  consolidation  is 
caused  either  by  the  emission  or  absorption  of 
any  aerial  fluid.     Liquid  coagulum  dries  in  the 
air,  and  forms  a  transparent  varnish,  which  is 
used  by  book-binders.     The  dried  varnish  is  so- 
luble in  water.     The  acid   metallic  salts,  when 
dropped  into  a  filtered  solution  of  albumen,  oc- 
casion precipitates  of  various  colors,  the  metallic 
oxides  forming  insoluble  compounds  with  albu- 
men.    The  chloride  of  mercury  is  a  very  deli- 
cate test  of  the  presence   of   albumen  in  ani- 
mal fluids.     Tannin   forms  with  it  a  yellowish 
precipitate,  which  is  insoluble  in  water.     When 
coagulated  albumen  is  dried  at  212°,  it  becomes 
hard  and  semitransparentlike  horn ;  but  becomes 
again   soft  and   opaque  after  being  digested  in 
water.     Mr.  llatchett  found  that  nitric  acid  con- 
verts coagulated  albumen  into  gelatine.     Boiling 
solution  of  potassa  converts  albumen  into  soap. 
This  substance  enters  largely  into  the  composition 
of  animals,  and   in  their  solid  parts  it  is  in  its 
coagulated  state.     Its  property  of  coagulating  by 
heat  renders  it  useful  for  clarifying  liquids.     The 
serum  of  blood,  whites  of  eggs,  or  other  liquids, 
containing  albumen,  are  mixed  with  the  liquid  to 
be  clarified,  and  being  heated  it  carries  down  all 
the  loose  particles  which  were  diffused  through 
the  liquid. 

1580.  Albumen   is  said  by  Gay  Lussac  and 
Thenard,  to  consist  of — 

Carbon  .  .  .  52-883 

Oxygen  .  .  .  23-872 

Hydrogen  .  .  .  7-540 

Azote  15-705 


Mucus 

1581.  Maybe  obtained  by  evaporating  saliva, 
or  by  macerating  oysters  in  water,  and  then  eva- 
porating to  dryness.     It  is  soluble  in  water,  does 
not  coagulate,  and  in  its  properties  very  much 
resembles  the  acacia  gum.    Its  ultimate  elements 
have  not  been  ascertained. 

FIBRIN. 

1582.  This  substance  exists  only  in  the  blood 
and  in  the  muscles  of  animals.     When  blood  is 
allowed  to  settle,  a  thick  red  clot  forms  in  it,  and 
falls  to  the  bottom.     This  clot  being  separated, 
put  into  a  linen  cloth,  and  washed  until  the  wa- 
ter comes  off  without  either  color  or  taste,  what 
remains  on  the  cloth   is  fibrin.     Mr.  Hatchett 
having  minced  some  lean  beef,  during  cold  wea- 
ther, steeped  it  in  water  during  fifteen  days,  each 
day  changing  and  squeezing  out  the  water.     The 
shreds  of  muscle,    amounting   to   about   three 
pounds  in  weight,  were  now  boiled  in  six  quarts 
of  fresh  water  during  five  hours  each  day,  for 
three   weeks,    the    water    being    changed    and 
pressed  out  each  day.     What   remained   being 
dried  by  the  heat  of  a  water-bath,  was  fibrin 
nearly  pure. 

1583.  This  substance  is  of  a  white  color,  is  in- 
soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  and  has  neithei 
taste  nor  smell.     It  is  not  apt  to  putrefy,  even 
when  kept  under  water.     It  contracts  suddenly 
by  heat,  emitting  a  smell  of  burning  feathers. 
With  a  stronger  heat  it  melts,  and  exposed  to 
destructive  distillation  it  yields  water,  carbonate 
of  ammonia,   a  heavy  fetid  oil,  carbonic  acid, 
and  carbureted  hydrogen  gas.     A  more  copious 
charcoal    is  left  than  by  gelatine  or  albumen, 
which  contains  phosphates  of  soda  and  of  lime. 
Acids  dissolve  fibrin,  and  many  of  its  acid  solu- 
tions are  gelatinous.     The  vegetable  acids   re- 
quire to  be  aided  with  heat.     Weak  nitric  acid 
disengages  from  it  much  azotic  gas.     Concen- 
trated potassa   and  soda,  by  boiling,  convert  it 
into  a  brown  soap,  from  which  muriatic  acid 
precipitates  the  fibrin  in  a  form  resembling  tallow. 
In  its  properties  it  seems  much  to  resemble  coa- 
gulated albumen,  with  perhaps  an  excess  of  car- 
bon.    Nitric  acid  converts  both  into  gelatine. 

1584.  Analysis  of  fibrin  : — 

Carbon  .  .  .  53360 

Oxygen  .  .  .  19-685 

Hydrogen  .  .  .  7-021 

Azote  19-934 


100-000 


UREA 


100-000 


1585.  Is  obtained  by  slowly  evaporating  to 
the  consistence  of  thick  syrup,  a  quantity  of  hu- 
man urine  that  had  been  voided  several  hours 
after  a  meal.  By  cooling  it  concretes  into  a 
crystalline  mass;  upon  which  pour,  at  different 
times,  four  times  its  weight  of  alcohol,  and  apply 
a  gentle  heat.  The  urea  dissolves  in  the  alcohol, 
and  the  solution  being  separated  from  the  undis- 
solved  salts,  is  put  into  a  retort  and  distilled 
with  a  gentle  heat,  until  it  acquires  the  consis- 
tence of  thick  syrup.  The  alcohol  is  now  se- 
parated, and  what  remains  is  urea,  which  crys- 
tallises on  cooling  in  the  form  of  thick  plates 

•J  1. 


514 


CHEMISTRY. 


crossing  each  other.  It  is  of  the  consistence  of 
thick  honey,  of  a  yellowish-white  color,  and  its 
smell  resembles  that  of  garlic  or  arsenic.  It 
deliquesces,  and  is  more  soluble  in  water  than 
in  alcohol.  Nitric  acid  precipitates  from  its 
watery  solution  a  great  number  of  bright  pearl- 
colored  crystals,  composed  of  the  acid  and  urea. 
When  heated  it  melts,  swells,  and  emits  a  most 
disagreeable  smell.  When  distilled  it  yields  first 
oenzoic  acid,  then  crystals  of  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, carbureted  hydrogen  gas,  with  some 
prussic  acid  and  oil.  There  remain  charcoal, 
muriate  of  ammonia,  and  of  soda.  When  long 
boiled  in  water,  which  is  replaced  as  it  evapo- 
rates, urea  is  also  decomposed.  A  great  quantity 
of  carbonate  of  ammonia  separates,  acetic  acid 
is  formed,  and  charcoal  precipitated.  Its  solu- 
tion in  water,  especially  if  a  little  gelatine  be 
added,  is  subject  to  a  gradual  spontaneous  de- 
composition, with  disengagement  of  much  am- 
monia. From  the  experiments  of  Fourcroy  and 
Vauquelin,  it  was  inferred  that  urea  was  com- 
posed of 

Oxygen  .  .  .  39-5 
Azote  .  .  .  32-5 
Carbon  .  .  .  14-7 
Hydrogen  .  .  .  13'3 

100-0 

1586.  Dr.  Prout  gives  the  following  as  the 
proportion  of  the  elements  of  purified  urea  : — 
Oxygen     .     .     .     26  66 
Nitrogen  .     .     .     46-66 
Carbon     .     .     .     1999 
Hydrogen      .     .       6  66 
Deficient  .          .       0-03 


100-00 

SACCHARINE  MATTER. 

The  saccharine  matters,  or  sugars,  found  in 
animals,  are 

1.  Sugar  of  milk 

2.  Honey 

3.  Diabetic  urine. 

1587.  Sugar  of  milk  is  obtained  by  evapora- 
ting  fresh  whey   to   the  consistence   of  honey, 
allowing  it  to  concrete  by  cooling,  and  then  dis- 
solving it  in  water.     The  solution  being  clarified 
•with  white  of  eggs,  filtered,  and  evaporated  to 
the  consistence  of  syrup,  it  deposits  on  cooling 
semi-transparent  parallelepiped  crystals,   which 
are  terminated  by  four-sided  pyramids.     These 
crystals  are  sugar  of  milk,  which  differs  in  some 
cf  its  properties  from  other  kinds  of  sugar. 

1588.  Honey,  according  to  Cavezzali,  is  com- 
posed of  sugar,   mucilage,  and   an  acid.      To 
separate  the  sugar,  the  honey  is  melted,    and 
carbonate  of  lime   in  powder  added  as  long  as 
effervescence  appears ;  the  liquid  being  frequently 
skimmed  while  hot.     On    cooling    it    deposits 
crystals  of  sugar.      It  seems  doubtful  whether 
honey,  which  bees  collect  from  vegetables,  should 
be  ranked  as  an  animal  or  _vegetable  product. 
Proust  thinks  there  are  two  kinds  of  honey,  one 
always  liquid,   the   other   solid    and   not  deli- 
quescent, and  that  they  may  be  separated  by 
alcohol.' 


'1589.  Diabetic  sugar  is  extracted  from  the 
urine  of  persons  who  labor  under  the  disease 
called  diabetes.  Such  urine  yields  a  considerable 
proportion  of  sugar,  commonly  about  a  twelfth 
of  its  weight.  Its  color,  taste,  and  granulation, 
are  such  that  it  cannot  be  distinguished  from  the 
raw  or  muscovado  sugar  of  the  West  Indies. 
But  it  is  said  not  to  crystallise  like  common 
sugar,  and  hence  seems  to  differ  from  it  in  some 
respects. 

1590.  Dr.  Henry  however  tells  us  that  he  has 
been  able  to  obtain  beautiful  white  crystals  from 
diabetic  sugar,  not  inferior  to  those  of  vegetable 
sugar.     Chevreul  also  states  the  same  ;  and  Dr. 
Prout  finds  its  composition  precisely  the  same 
as  vegetable  sugar. 

OILS. 

1591.  Spermaceti  or  cetine,  which  is  chiefly 
extracted  from  the  cranium  of  the  physeter  ma- 
crocephalus,    or   spermaceti   whale,   an    animal 
which  abounds  in  the  Southern  Ocean.    It  is  se- 
parated from  a  liquid  oil  by  means  of  a  woollen 
bag,  the  remainder  of  which   is  extracted  by  an 
alkaline  lee,    and  the  spermaceti  is  afterwards 
fused.    It  forms  a  beautiful  white  scaly  substance, 
brittle,  with  scarcely  taste  or  smell.     It  makes 
excellent  candles,  and  is  much  used  in  medicine. 
It  melts  at  1 12°,  and  is  said  to  dissolve  caoutchouc 
when  liquid,  and  that  the  compound  forms  an 
excellent  luting  for  vessels. 

1592.  Fat,  tallow,  suet,  hog's  lard,  butter. — 
These  differ  in  some  particulars,  from  each  other; 
but  they  all  seem  to  be  only  varieties  of   the 
fixed  oils.     When  hog's-lard   is  distilled  it  first 
yields  water,  then  a  white  oil,  with  some  acetic 
and  sebacic  acids.     Abundance  of  the  carbureted 
hydrogen  and  carbonic  acid  gases  come  over  with 
a  most  offensive  smell.     When  the  vessels  are 
unluted  the  smell   is  detestable  and  intolerable. 
There  remains  in  the  retort  a  black  coaly  mass. 
When  a  little  nitric  acid  is  poured  upon  fat,  and 
a  moderate  heat  applied,  it  is  converted  into  a 
yellow  ointment,  which  Fourcroy   considers  as 
oxide  of  fat.     This  is  said  to  have  been  success- 
fully employed  in  France,   in  external  venereal 
affections. 

1593.  Train  oil  is  extracted  from  the  blubber 
of  the  whale  and  other  fishes.     The  livers  of  the 
dog-fish  yield  a  much  more  pure   oil  than  that 
obtained  from  whales.     At  first  it  is  thick,  but 
after  depositing  a  mucilaginous  matter,  it  becomes 
transparent,  and  of  a  reddish-brown-color.    This 
oil  is  much  used  for  burning  in  lamps,  and,  as  it 
has  a  disagreeable  smell,  it  may  be  purified  by 
agitation  with  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  and  then 
mixing  it  with  water.     After  being  allowed  to 
settle,  the  oil  swims  on  the  surface,  of  a  lighter 
color  than  before,  the  water  continues  milky,  and 
a  curdled  matter  is  seen  between  the  water  and 
the  oil .     The  oil  being  drawn  off  has  no  disagree- 
able smell  when  burned  in  lamps. 

1594.  The  animal  oil  of  Dippel  is  a  species  of 
volatile  and  aromatic  oil   which  is  obtained  by 
distillation,  chiefly  from  the  horns  and  albumen 
of  animals.     The  product  of  the  first  distillation 
is  mixed  with  water,  and  distilled  a  second  time. 
It  changes  syrup  of  violets  to  green,  owing  to 
its  containing  ammonia.     It  was  formerly  much 


CHEMISTR  Y, 


515 


celebrated  as  a  medicine  but  is  now    in    little 
repute. 

1595.  Adipocire. — When    muscular    flesh    is 
confined  in  a  stream  of  running  water  it  is  partly 
converted  into  a  substance  having  many  of  the 
properties  of  fat  combined  with  a  portion  of  am- 
monia, or  the  effect  is  more  speedily  accomplished 
by  digesting  mucsle  in  strong  nitric  acid.     Chev- 
reul  has  supposed  that  this  change  of  muscular 
flesh  into  what  the  French  chemists  have  called 
adipocire,  is  a  mere  separation  of  the  oleaginous 
or  fatty  matter  from   the  muscular  fibre.     Dr. 
Thomson,  on  the  contrary,  thinks  that  new  matter 
is  rather  formed.      This  substance  has  a  near 
resemblance  to  spermaceti. 

1596.  Fat  has  been  shown  by  the  experiments 
of  Braconnot  and  Chevreul  to  contain  two  dis- 
tinct substances,  to  which  they  have  given  the 
name  of  Stearine  and  Elaine,  the  former  solid  at 
the  common  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
latter  liquid.     These  separate  principles  are  ob- 
tainable by  boiling  hog's  lard  in  alcohol. 

1597.  When  soap  formed   of  hog's-lard  and 
potassa  is  put  into  water,  a  portion  only  is  dis- 
solved, the  remainder  consists  of   white   scales 
composed  of  the  alkali  united  to  a  peculiar  acid, 
called  by  Chevreul  margaritic  acid,  and  separable 
from  the  above  combination  by  muriatic  acid. 

1598.  The  portion  of  hog's-lard  soap  which  is 
soluble  in  water,  consists  of  another  acid  com- 
bined with  potassa,  this  Chevreul  has  named  oleic 
acid.     This  acid  unites  with  salifiable  bases  into 
oleates. 

1599.  Berard,  by  mixing  one  volume  of  car- 
bonic acid,  with  ten  of  carbureted  hydrogen  and 
thirty  of   hydrogen,    and   passing    the  mixture 
through  a  red  hot  porcelain  tube,  produced  a  sub- 
stance in  small  white  crystals,  having  many  of  the 
properties  of  fat.     Dobeirener  is  said  to  have  ob- 
tained the  same  product  by  igniting  a  mixture  of 
coal  gas  and  aqueous  vapor. 

ANIMAL  RESINS. 

1600.  The  principal  animal  resins  are,  Resin 
of  bile. — This  is  obtained  by  pouring  one  part 
of  concentrated  muriatic  acid  into  thirty-two  parts 
of  fresh  ox  bile.     After  the  mixture  has  settled 
it  is  passed  through  a  filter,  and  the  filtered  liquor 
evaporated  in  a  glass  vessel  with  a  moderate  heat. 
After  it  is  sufficiently  concentrated,  a  green  sub- 
stance falls  down.     The  liquid  part  being  poured 
off,  and  the  precipitate  washed  with  water,  it  is 
resin  of  bile.     It  is  of  a  dark  brown  color,   but 
when  spread  upon  wood  or  paper,   is  of  a  fine 
grass  green,  and,  mixed  with  essential  oil,  might 
form  a  beautiful  green  varnish.     It  is  of  a  very 
bitter   taste ;  is  soluble   in  water  and   alcohol, 
and   alkalis    form     it    into    a    soap.        When 
treated   with  chlorine,  it  loses   its  green   color, 
and    is    converted    into    a     substance     resem- 
bling  tallow.     Ear-wax    also  contains  a   resin, 
which  has  not  been  particularly   examined,  as 
nature  only   furnishes   this  substance    in   small 
quantity.      It  is  abhorred  by  insects,  and  placed 
as  a  sentinel  to  defend  the  drum  of  the  ear  against 
iheir  attacks. 

1601.  Ambergris  is  now  generally  understood 
to  be  a  concretion  formed  in  the  stomach  of  the 
spermaceti  whale.     It  is  often  found  floating  on 


the  coasts  of  India,  Africa,  and  Brasil,  in  small 
pieces ;  but  sometimes  in  masses  of  fifty  or  100  Ibs. 
Great  quantities  of  it  have  been  occasionally  found 
upon  the  shores  of  some  of  the  Hebridian  isles, 
where  the  floating  productions  of  the  torrid  zone 
are  often  conveyed  by  currents  in  the  ocean,  and 
the  people  not  knowing  its  value,  used  it  for 
rush-lights. — It  is  of  an  ash-gray  color,  with  white 
and  brownish-yellow  streaks.  It  has  no  taste, 
but  an  agreeable  smell,  which  improves  by 
keeping.  It  melts  at  122°,  and  rises  in  vapor  at 
212°.  Distilled  it  yelds  a  white  acid  liquor,  and 
a  light  volatile  oil ;  while  a  bulky  charcoal  re- 
mains behind.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  solu- 
ble in  ether  and  alcohol.  It  is  soluble  in  nitric 
acid,  and  in  the  alkalis,  which  convert  it  into 
soap. — According  to  Bouillon  La  Grange,  100 
parts  of  ambergris  are  composed  of 

52'7  adipocire 

30-8  resin 

11-1  ben  zoic  acid 
5'4  charcoal 


100-0 

1602.  Pelletier  and  Caventon  consider  amber- 
gris not  an  animal  resin,  but  as  consisting  chiefly 
of  a  substance  similar  to  that  found  by  Chevreul 
in  biliary  calculi,  and  called  by  him  cholesterine. 
They  have  called  the  principle  ambreine.      It  is 
said  not  to  be  convertible  into  soap,  but  to  yield 
an  acid  to  which  the  name  ambreic  acid  has  been 
given. 

1603.  Castor  is  obtained  from  two  bags  situa- 
ted in  the  inguen  of  the  beaver,  the  smallest  bag 
yielding  the  best.     It  has  been  much  used  in  me- 
dicine.     According  to  Bouillon  La  Grange  it  is 
composed  of 

1 .  Carbonate  of  potassa 

2.  Carbonate  of  lime 

3.  Carbonate  of  ammonia 

4.  Iron 

5.  Resin,  similar  to  that  in  bile 

6.  Extractive  mucilage 

7.  Volatile  oil. 

1604.  Civet  is  obtained  from  the  inguen  of  the 
civet  cat.     In  color  and  consistence  it  resembles 
butter.     Its  smell  is  so  strong  that  it  is  insuffer- 
able unless  it  be  diminished  by  mixture  with  other 
bodies.     It  is  used  as  a  perfume. .  It  combines 
with  oils,  but  not  with  alcohol. 

1605.  Musk  is  obtained  from  the  quadruped 
called  moschus  moschiferus.  It  conveys  its  smell 
to  water,  and  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  the  com- 
bination has. not  the  smell  of  musk.     The  same 
is  the  case  with  its  solutions   in   the  nitric  and 
sulphuric  acids.     This  substance  is  also  used  as 
a  perfume. 

1606-  Animal  acids  have  been  enumerated  a* 
follow : — 

Phosphoric  Lithic  or  Uric 

Sulphurir  Pyro  Uric 

Muriatic  Purpnric 

Carbonic  Rosacic 

Benzoic  Amniotic 

Acetic  Lactic 

Malic  Saclacti^ 

Oxalic  Sebacic 

Hydrocyanic  Formic. 

3         *  2  L  2 


518 


CHEMISTRY. 


Thefirst  nine  of  these  have  been  subjects  of  dis- 
quisition in  former  parts  of  the  present  treatise, 
and  it  only  remains  for  us  to  treat  of  the  others 
in  the  present  place. 

1607.  The  uric  acid,  or  lithic,  exists  pretty 
abundantly  in  the  urine,  even  in  its  healthy  state, 
but  it  is  combined  generally  with  ammonia ;  it 
constitutes  one  of  the  most  common  ingredients 
of  urinary  calculi,  and  the  red  gravel  which  is 
occasionally  discharged  with  the  urine  is  com- 
posed principally  of  this  acid. 

1608.  When  the  uric  acid  is  pure  it  is  nearly 
colorless  and  without  smell ;  it  reddens  infusion 
of  litmus,  is  readily  soluble  in  caustic  potassa, 
but  not  soluble  in  the  carbonate  of  that  alkali. 
Its  combination  with  soda  constitutes  the  princi- 
pal portion  of  those  concretions  which  are  formed 
in  gouty  individuals,  and   called  chalk  stones. 
It  dissolves  in  nitric  acid,  and  when  the  solution 
is  evaporated,  a  residuum  is  obtained  which  has 
a  fine  red  or  carmine  color,  and  which  Dr.  Hrout 
has  lately  shown  possesses  distinct  acid  proper- 
ties: he  has  named  it  purpuric  acid,  and  of  this 
acid  he  gives  the  following  components  :— 

Carbon  .  .  .  27-17 

Oxygen  .  .  .  36'36 

Hydrogen  .  .  4-54 

Azote  .  .  „  31-81 


99-88. 

1609.  Pi/ro-uric   acid. — When  uric   acid    is 
distilled,  per  se,  a  yellow  sublimate  arises ;  this 
dissolved  in  water,  and  subacetate  of  lead  added 
to  it,  gives  a  white  precipitate,  which  washed 
with   water,    and   decomposed    by   sulphureted 
hydrogen,   yields  the   acid    in  question.     This 
acid,  when  passed  through  a  red  hot  glass  tube, 
is  decomposed  and  converted  into  the  common 
products  of  animal  matter. 

1610.  Rosacic  acid.— This  differs  but  little  from 
the  uric  acid,  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  operating 
nearly  the  same  effects  upon  it  as  upon  the  uric 
acid. 

1611.  Amniot ic  .acid. — This  was  detected  by 
Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin  in  the  liquor  of  the 
amnios  of  the  cow.     It  forms  white  crystals  by 
slow  evaporation,  which  have  acid  properties.    It 
does  not,  however,  decompose  alkaline  carbonates, 
nor  does  it  throw  down  salts  with  earthy  bases. — 
If  treated  with  a  strong  heat  it  is  decomposed, 
emits  ammonia  and  prussic  acid,  and  leaves  a 
large  quantity  of  charcoal. 

1612.  Lactic    acid   forms    a    component   of 
sour  milk ;  and  from  this  it  may   be  obtained 
by  evaporating   it  gently  to   about   one-eighth, 
filtering  and  adding  lime  water;  by  which  a  lac- 
tate  of  lime  is  fornted,  and  from  which  oxalic 
acid  will  separate  the  lactic. 

1613.  This  acid  in  its  properties  nearly  re- 
sembles the  acetic.     Fourcroy,  indeed,  supposed 
it  to  be  merely  that  acid  with  some  of  the  com- 
ponents of  the  milk ;  but  Berzelius  contends  for 
its  distinct  essential  existence,  and  supposes  it  to 
exist  in  all  animal  fluids,  either  in  a  free  state  or 
in  combination  with  soda. 

1614.  Saclactic  acid  may  be  formed  by  digest- 
ing sugar  of  milk  with  nitric  acid,  diluting  the 
liquid  with  water,  and  thereby  preventing  crys- 


tals of  oxalic  acid  from  being  formed,  and  pro- 
ducing a  white  sediment,  which  is  the  acid  in 
question.  The  same  substance  is  procurable  by 
treating  powder  of  gum  arabic  with  nitric  acid. 
This  acid  reddens  the  color  of  litmus,  and  at  a 
boiling  heat  effervesces  with  the  alkaline  carbo- 
nates. It  forms  also  saclactates  with  several 
bases. 

1615.  Sebaac  acid. — The  acid  which  is  obtained 
by  adding  finely  powdered  quicklime  to  melted  fat, 
and  disengaged  by  adding  sulphuric  acid,  has 
been  supposed  by  some  to  be  a  distinct  acid ; 
but  Thenard  has  contended  that  it  is  merely 
acetic  acid  with  a  little  admixture  of  sulphurous. 
Besides  this,  however,  we  are  told  '  a  different 
acid  may  be  procured  by  first  distilling  hog's  lard, 
and  washing  the  product  with  hot  water.  The 
watery  solution,  poured  into  one  of  acetate  of  lead, 
gives  a  flaky  precipitate,  which  is  to  be  heated 
along  with  sulphuric  acid  in  a  retort.  No  acid  is 
distilled  over,  but,  on  the  surface  of  the  matter 
in  the  retort,  there  floats  a  substance  resembling 
fat,  which  may  be  separated  and  washed  with, 
boiling  water.  The  water  entirely  dissolves  it, 
and  becomes  concrete  on  cooling.' 

1616. — This  acid  has  great  resemblance  to  the 
benzoic,  which  indeed  Berzelius  considers  it  to 
be,  'impregnated  with  other  products  of  the  dis- 
tillation by  which  it  has  been  obtained,'  and  it  is 
extremely  probable,  says  Dr.  Henry,  that  his 
opinion  is  well  founded. 

1617.  A  zoomic  acid  has  been  described,  but 
Thenard  has  proved  this  to  be  merely  the  acetous, 
holding  some  animal  matter  in  solution. 

1618.  formic  acid  (acid  of  ants).— It  has  been 
alleged  also  that  this  is  merely  disguised  acetic 
acid,  or  rather  a  mixture  of  acetic  and  malic  acid. 
It   is,   however,    considered   by    Berzelius   and 
others  to  be  a  peculiar  acid ;  if  approaches  very 
nearly  to  the  oxalic,  and  is  said  only  to  differ 
from  it  one  proportional  of  hydrogen  additional 
to  the  carbon  and  oxygen. 

PARTS  OF  ANIMALS. 

1619.  The  parts  of  which  animals  are  com- 
posed are   divided  into  solid  and  fluid.    The 
solid  parts  are 

1.  Bones,  shell?,  crusts, 

2.  Horns,  nails,  scales, 

3.  Muscles, 

4.  Skin, 

5.  Membranes, 

6.  Tendons  and  ligaments, 

7.  Glands, 

8.  Brain  and  nerves, 

9.  Hair  and  feathers, 
10.  Silk,  &c. 

BONES,  SHELLS,  Cnusxs. 

1620.  The  bones  of  animals  are  their  most 
solid  parts,  and  they   are  generally   concealed 
from  view.     When  bones  are  reduced  to  small 
pieces,  and  sufficiently  boiled  in  water,  they  yield 
a  portion  of  fat,  which  swims  on  the  surface,  and 
of  gelatine  which  remains  dissolved  in  the  water, 
but  when  sufficiently  concentrated  it  consolidates 
on   cooling.     Hence   bones,   when    reduced   to 
powder,  and  boiled,  yield  excellent  soup.     If  an 
entire  bone  have  its  fat  and  gelatine  removed  by 


C  II  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y. 


517 


boiling,  and  be  afterwards  steeped  in  a  diluted 
acid,  the  earthy  basis  of  the  bone  is  withdrawn, 
and  there  remains  a  soft  white  elastic  substance, 
of  the  figure  of  the  bone,  which  has  obtained  the 
name  of  cartilage.  Mr.  Hatchett  has  shown  that 
this  substance  possesses  all  the  properties  of  co- 
agulated albumen.  This  cartilage  is  the  first  part 
of  the  bone  that  is  formed,  and  hence  bones  are  at 
first  soft  and  flexible,  and  the  earthy  salts  which 
give  them  hardness  are  deposited  afterwards. 
Gelatine  and  fat  convey  toughness  and  strength 
to  bones,  and  without  them,  especially  the  first, 
they  are  extremely  brittle.  The  earthy  salts 
which  convey  hardness  and  solidity  to  bones, 
are,  1.  Phosphate  of  lime,  which  is  by  far  the 
most  abundant.  2.  Carbonate  of  lime.  3.  Phos- 
phate of  magnesia,  in  the  bones  of  inferior  ani- 
mals. 4.  Sulphate  of  lime,  detected  by  Mr. 
Hatchett  in  very  minute  proportion. — The  fol- 
lowing is  the  analysis  of  ox  bones  by  Fourcroy 
and  Vauquelin. 


Solid  gelatine  .  .  . 
Phosphate  of  lime  .  . 
Carbonate  of  lime  .  . 
Phosphate  of  magnesia  . 


51 
37-7 
10 
1-3 


100-0 


The  enamel  of  the  teeth  contains  no  cartilage, 
and,  according  to  Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin,  is 
composed  of. 

Phosphate  of  lime     .     .     .     72'9 
Gelatine  and  water  .     .     .     27'1 


100-0 
to  Mr.  Pepys,  and  Hatchett,  it  is 


But  accordin 
composed  of 

Phosphate  of  lime 
Carbonate  of  lime 
Loss  and  water  . 


78 

6 

16 

100 


Carbonate  of  lime  ...  66 
Membrane 34 

100 

Pearl  is  a  globular  concretion  often  formed  in 
these  shells.  It  is  a  beautiful  bluish-white  color, 
and  is  composed  of  alternate  and  concentric  coats 
of  membrane  and  carbonate  of  lime.  Its  lamellar 
structure  renders  it  iridescent. 

1621.  Crusts  are  the  external  covering  of  crabs, 
lobsters,  prawns,  cray-fish,  echini,  and  various 
similar  fishes.  From  Mr.  Hatchett's  experiments 
they  seem  to  be  intermediate  between  bones  and 
shells.  They  agree  with  bones  in  containing 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  they  agree  with  shells  in 
the  predominance  of  carbonate  of  lime.  They 
also  contain  cartilage,  possessing  the  properties 
of  coagulated  albumen. — From  lobster  crust 
Merat-Guillet  obtained 

Carbonate  of  lime  ...  60 
Phosphate  of  lime  ...  14 
Cartilage 26 


From  crust  of  cray  fish 
Carbonate  of  lime 
Phosphate  of  lime 
Cartilage     .     .     . 


Mr.  Hatchett  found  some  fossil  bones  from  the 
rock  of  Gibraltar  to  consist  of  phosphate  of  lime, 
with  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  interstices.  Hence 
they  resemble  bones  that  have  been  burnt. 

1620*.  Shells  are  the  bones  or  covering  of  a 
great  variety  of  fishes.  Shells  consist  chiefly  of 
carbonate  of  lime  united  to  a  soft  animal  matter. 
The  carbonate  of  lime  predominating  in  shells 
distinguishes  them  from  bones,  in  which  phos- 
phate of  lime  predominates.  Shells  are  divided 
into  two  genera,  the  porcellanous,  and  mother- 
of-pearl.  The  porcellanous,  such  as  veluta,  cy- 
prea,  &c.  are  compact,  and  break  like  porcelain ; 
and  consist  of  carbonate  of  lime  united  to  a  soft 
animal  matter.  The  mother-of-pearl  shells,  such 
as  the  fresh  water  muscle,  the  haliotis  iris,  the 
turbo  olearius,  &c.  consist  of  alternate  layers  of 
carbonate  of  lime  and  fine  membranes  composed 
of  coagulated  albumen.  Acids  extract  the  car- 
bonate of  lime,  leaving  the  membranes,  and  the 
form  of  the  shell  entire.  The  oyster  shell  con- 
tains a  very  small  proportion  of  the  albuminous 
membrane,  while  the  real  mother-of-pearl  shell 
contains,  according  to  Mr.  Hatchett,  to  whom 
we  have  been  under  so  many  obligations,  * 


From  shells  of  hens'  eggs 
Carbonate  of  lime 
Phosphate  of  lime 
Animal  matter 


100 

60 
12 
28 

100 

89-6 
5-7 
4-7 

1000 


HORNS,  NAILS,  SCALES. 
1622.  These  substances  are  flexible,  elastic, 
and  soften  by  heat,  which  is  not  the  case  with 
those  just  described.  Horns  may  be  cut  with  a 
knife,  or  rasped  with  a  file ;  but  are  so  tough  that 
they  cannot  be  pounded.  When  heated  they 
become  soft  and  pliable,  and  may  be  formed  into 
almost  any  shape.  When  formed  into  thin 
plates,  they  possess  a  degree  of  transparency, 
and  are  often  used  instead  of  glass  for  windows 
and  lanterns.  When  strongly  heated  in  a  Papin's 
digester  they  are  said  to  be  converted  into  a  sub- 
stance resembling  gelatine.  Mr.  Hatchett  burnt 
500  grains  of  ox  horn.  The  residuum  was  only 
1  -5  grains,  not  one-half  of  which  was  phosphate 
of  lime.  Hence  horns  contain  very  little  earthy 
matter.  They  seem  to  consist  chiefly  of  coagu- 
lated albumen,  and  probably  also  of  gelatine. 
The  only  exception  is  the  horn  of  the  hart  and 
buck,  which  seem  intermediate  between  bone 
and  horn. — The  hoofs,  talons,  and  claws  of  ani- 
mals seem  to  be  the  same  with  horns.  To  the 
same  class  may  also  be  referred  the  bills  of  birds, 
the  weapons  of  the  sword  and  saw-fish,  though 
many  of  these  seem  much  harder  than  horns. 
They  all  agree  in  uniting  a  fibrous  with  a  lamel- 
lated,  or  membranous  texture. 

1623.  Nails  defend  the  extremities  of  the 
fingers,  are  attached  to  the  epidermis,  and  come 
off  along  with  it.  Water  softens,  but  concen- 
trated acids  and  alkalis  dissolve  and  decompose 
them.  Mr.  Hatchett  ascertained  that  they  coo- 


518 


CHEMISTRY. 


sist  of  coagulated  albumen,  and  a  small  propor- 
tion of  phosphate  of  lime.  Tortoise  shell  seems 
to  approach  to  the  nature  of  nail.  When  burnt, 
500  grains  of  it  yield  three  of  earthy  matter,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  soda, 
with  a  little  iron. 

1624.  Scales  are  of  two  kinds.     Those  of  ser- 
pents and  other  amphibious  animals,  bear  a  strik- 
ing resemblance  to  horn ;  while  those  of  fishes 
resemble   mother-of-pearl.     The    crusts    which 
cover  certain  insects  seem  to  resemble  the  scales 
of  serpents. 

MUSCLES. 

1625.  Muscles  consist  of  bundles  of   fibres, 
which  maybe  subdivided  into  smaller  fibres ;  and 
the  minutest  fibre,  until  it  ceases  to  be  seen  by 
the  best  microscope,  is  always  invested  with  a 
coating   of  cellular   substance,   or  fat.     As  the 
muscles  are  the  moving  powers  of  the  animal 
frame,  the  intention  of  this  fat  is  to  prevent  the 
friction  of  the  muscular  fibres  upon  each  other, 
which  would  instantly  prove  fatal  to  the  animal. 
When  a  piece  of  flesh  is  minced  down,    and 
treated  as  was  explained  when  discussing  fibrin, 
the  muscle  is  converted  into  a  white  fibrous  sub- 
stance, composed  chiefly  of  fibrin.     Its  other  in- 
gredients are 

1.  Albumen, 

2.  Gelatine, 

3.  Extractive, 

4.  Phosphate  of  soda, 

5.  Phosphate  of  ammonia, 

6.  Phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime. 

It  is  obvious  that  when  meat  is  boiled,  the  gela- 
tine, the  extractive,  and  some  of  the  salts  will  be 
dissolved  in  the  water;  and  from  these  the  nou- 
rishment and  flavor  of  soups  are  partly  derived. 
When  meat  is  roasted,  these  substances  continue 
in  it ;  and  hence  the  superior  flavor  of  roasted 
meat.  But  much  of  the  nourishment  of  roasted 
meat  is  expelled  by  excessive  heat ;  and  the  most 
economical  mode  of  dressing  meat  is  by  long 
and  slow  boiling. 

SKIN.      • 

1626.  This  is  a  coating  which  covers  all  ani- 
mals excepting  those  which   are  covered   with 
shells,  and  it  has  properties  in  common  with  the 
bark  of  trees.     It  consists  of  three  membranes. 

1627.  The   epidermis    may  be    separated   by 
steeping  in  hot  water.     It  is  elastic,  and  insolu- 
ble in  water  and  alcohol,  but  soluble  in  alkalis 
and  lime.     It  is  tinged  yellow  by  nitric  acid, 
which  volatile  alkali  changes  to  a   deep  orange 
color.     The  epidermis  seems  to  be  a  particular 
modification  of  coagulated  albumen. 

1628.  The  retc  mucosum  is  a  very  thin  mem- 
brane below  the  epidermis,  in  which  the  color  of 
the   skin   resides.     The   negroes   acquire   their 
blackness   from  a  pigment  lodged  in  this  mem- 
brane.    If  a  negro  keep  his  hand  or  foot  some 
time  in  water  impregnated  with  chlorine,  it  be- 
comes nearly  white ;  but  the  former  color  after- 
wards returns.     The  composition  of  this  mem- 
brane is  not  known,  as  its  quantity  is  very  small. 

1629.  The  cutis,  or  real  skin,  is  a  thick  dense 
membrane,  composed  of  fibres  interwoven  simi- 
lar to  those  of  a  hat.     It  consists  chiefly  of  gela- 
tine so  compact  as  to  resist  the  action  of  cold 


water;  but  when  long  boiled  in  water  it  dissolves 
and  forms  glue.  Those  skins  make  the  best  glue 
which  are  of  most  difficult  solution  in  boiling 
water. — To  form  skins  into  leather,  they  are  first 
steeped  in  lime  and  water,  and  the  hair  and  cu- 
ticle scraped  off.  They  are  then  well  washed  in 
water.  To  make  sole  leather,  the  thickest  and 
strongest  skins  are  steeped  in  saturated  infusion 
of  bark  ;  or  the  skins  and  bruised  bark  are  placed 
in  alternate  layers,  and  as  much  water  added  as 
covers  them.  The  skins  are  afterwards  steeped 
in  water  slightly  impregnated  with  sulphuric 
acid,  or  in  the  acid  obtained  from  the  fermenta- 
tion of  barley  or  rye,  which  Sir  H.  Davy  thinks 
produces  a  triple  compound  of  skin,  tan,  and 
acid.  Oak  bark  contains  tannin  and  extractive, 
and,  when  a  strong  infusion  of  it  is  made,  the 
tannin  superabounds.  This  renders  the  skin  hard, 
but  apt  to  crack,  and  a  different  process  is  adopt- 
ed for  making  pliable  leather.  For  this  purpose 
the  thin  skins  of  cows,  calves, '  &c.  are  first 
steeped  some  days  in  a  lixivium  of  pigeon's  dung, 
which  renders  them  thinner  and  softer.  They 
are  then  steeped  at  first  in  weak  infusions  of  oak 
bark,  and  are  gradually  removed  to  those  which 
are  stronger  and  stronger  until  they  be  com- 
pletely impregnated ;  which  takes  from  two  to 
four  months.  From  this  process  they  imbibe  a 
greater  proportion  of  extractive  than  the  sole  lea- 
ther, and  are  thus  rendered  pliable  and  tough. 
Sir  H.  Davy  found  that  skins  whilst  tanning  ab- 
sorb about  one-third  of  their  weight  of  vegetable 
matter.  The  tannin  combines  with  the  gelatine 
in  the  skin,  renders  it  insoluble  in  water,  and  not 
disposed  to  putrefy.  He  found  also  that  skins 
absorb  the  whole  vegetable  matter  from  infusion 
of  bark,  leaving  nothing  but  pure  water. 

MEMBRANES,  TENDONS,  LIGAMENTS,  GLANDS. 

1630.  Membranes  are  thin,    semitransparent 
substances,  which  envelope  the  viscera,  and  other 
parts  of  the  body,  such  as  the  dura  and  pia  mater, 
the  pleura,  the  peritoneum,  the  periosteum,  &c. 
They  also  form  reservoirs  for  the  reception  of 
juices  which  are  to  be  afterwards  discharged,  of 
which  we  have  examples  in  the  gall  and  urinary 
bladders.  Though  little  is  known  of  their  chemi- 
cal composition,  they  seem  to  be  perfectly  analo- 
gous to  skin.     A  bladder  being  tanned  is  con- 
verted into  leather. 

1631.  Tendons  are  strong  pearl  colored  bodies, 
in  which  the  muscles  terminate,  and  by  whicli 
they  are  inserted  into  the  bones.  By  long  boil  ing 
they  are  converted  into  gelatine,  and  seem  to  be 
of  the  same  nature  with  skin. 

1632.  Ligaments  bind  the  bones  together  at 
the  joints.     When  long  boiled  they  yield  a  poi- 
tion  of  gelatine ;  but  the  remainder  resists  the 
action  of  boiling  water,  and  seems  to  consist  ot 
coagulated  albumen. 

1633.  Glands  operate  in  forming  or  in  alter- 
ing  different   liquids.     They  are  divided    into 
conglobate,  which  are  small,  and  situated  in  the 
course  of  the  lymphatics,  and  conglomerate,  such 
as  the  liver,  kidneys,  &c.      Of  their  chemical 
composition  nothing  is  known. 

BRAIN  AND  NERVES. 

1634.  The  substance  composing  these  organs 
seems  to  be  quite  peculiar,  and  to  be  constituted 


C  H  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y. 


519 


of  a  fatty  matter,  which  has  been  named  by  The- 
nard,  ostnazome ;  this  matter  upon  its  cooling  after 
solution  in  heated  alcohol,  deposits  itself  in  scales. 
In  many  respects  it  appears  analogous  to  the 
principle  called  cholesterine. 

HAIR,  WOOL,  FEATHERS. 
1635.  Hair  and  wool  grow  on  various  parts  of 
animals,  and  are  intended  to  defend  them  from 
the  cold.  Their  surfaces  are  not  smooth,  but 
covered  with  scales  consisting  of  imbricated 
cones,  which  give  them  a  rough  feel,  occasion 
them  to  entangle  and  have  given  rise  to  the  pro- 
cesses of  felting  and  fulling.  When  hair  is  long 
boiled  in  water  it  yields  gelatine,  to  which  it 
owes  its  flexibility  and  toughness.  What  re- 
mains is  brittle,  and  seems  to  consist  of  coagu- 
lated albumen.  The  softest  hair  yields  gelatine 
most  readily.  Vauquelin  dissolved  human  hair 
of  various  colors  in  water  in  a  Papin's  digester. 
If  the  heat  was  too  great  it  was  decomposed, 
and  ammonia,  carbonic  acid,  and  empyreumatic 
oil  formed.  After  being  dissolved  it  slowly  de- 
posited a  bituminous  oil,  which  was  black  when 
black  hair,  and  yellowish-red  when  red  hair  was 
employed.  It  would  seem  that  the  color  of  hair 
is  owing  to  an  oil.  When  the  oil  is  separated 
by  nitration,  the  solution  is  nearly  colorless,  and 
infusion  of  nutgalls,  and  chlorine,  occasion  co- 
pious precipitates  in  it.  But  though  it  be  much 
reduced  by  evaporation,  it  does  not  gelatinise. 
The  alkaline  lixivia  readily  dissolve  hair,  and 
hence  wool  was  proposed  by  Chaptal  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  oil  in  the  composition  of  soap.  The 
sulphuric,  muriatic,  and  nitric  acids  dissolve 
hair,  with  a  separation  of  oil.  Alcohol  digested 
on  hair  separates  two  kinds  of  oil,  the  first 
white,  the  second  of  the  color  of  the  hair.  When 
hair  is  burnt  to  ashes,  it  yields  iron  and  man- 
ganese, phosphate,  sulphate,  and  carbonate  of 
lime,  muriate  of  soda,  and  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  silica.  The  ashes  of  white  hair  contain 
least  iron,  but  some  magnesia,  which  is  wanting 
in  hair  of  other  colors.  From  the  experiments 
of  Vauquelin  it  appears  that  black  hair  is  com- 
posed of  the  following  substances  : 

1.  Animal  matter,  constituting  the  greatest  part 

2.  White  solid  oil,  in  small  quantity 

3.  Grayish-green  oil,  more  abundant 

4.  Iron 

5.  Oxide  of  manganese 

6.  Phosphate  of  lime 

7.  Carbonate  of  lime,  very  scanty 

8.  Silica 

9.  Sulphur. 

Vauquelin  considers  the  animal  matter  to  be 
chiefly  a  variety  of  inspissated  mucus,  but  its 
precipitation  by  tannin  seems  to  contradict  that 
opinion.  Mr.  Hatchett  thinks  the  quills  of 
feathers  consist  chiefly  of  coagulated  albumen, 
and  their  other  parts  to  be  nearly  of  the  same 
composition  with  hair,  though  when  boiled  they 
yield  no  gelatine.  Dr.  Ure  states  the  ultimate 
analysis  of  wool  to  give  the  following  : 

Carbon    .     .     .     55'00 

Oxygen    .     .     .     29'40 

Hydrogen     .     .       2-80 

Azote       .  12-80 


SILK. 


100-00 


1636.  The  silk-worm  is  a  native  of  China, 
and  there  the  preparation  and  manufacture  of 
silk  have  been  known  from  the  remotest  times. 
It  was  first  brought  to  Rome  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus, and  it  continued  to  be  carried  over  land, 
ind  sold  to  the  luxurious  Romans  for  its  weight 
in  gold.      In  555  two  Persian   monks  brought 
some  eggs  of  the  insect  to  Constantinople,  con- 
cealed in  the  hollow  of  a  cane.     Being  carefully 
propagated,   the  manufacture  of  silk  soon   ex- 
tended itself  in   Greece.     In  1130  Roger  King 
of  Sicily  forcibly  carried  off  silk  weavers  from 
Greece,  and  settled  them  in  Sicily,  from  which 
the  manufacture  extended  into  Italy,  and  after- 
wards into    France.      The    revocation    of   the 
Edict  of  Nantes  extended  the  silk  manufacture 
into  Britain. 

1637.  Silk  is  produced  by  various  species  of 
the  caterpillar.     The  phalaena  bombyx   is  com- 
monly propagated  in  Europe  ;  but  the  phalaena 
atlas  yields  a  greater  quantity.     The  insects  feed 
on  the  leaves  of  the  white  mulberry  tree.     It  is 
protruded  from  two  small  bags,  in  fine  threads, 
formed   into  the  shape  of  a  clue,  to  cover  the 
insects  in  their  crysalis  state.     The  threads  and 
webs  of  spiders  are  of  the  same   nature  with 
silk,  and  Reaumur  ascertained  that  the  threads 
of  the  larger  spiders  were  neither   inferior  in 
beauty  nor  strength  to  those  of  the  silk-worm. 
Attempts  were  made  to  establish  manufactories 
of  this  kind  of  silk,  but  the  spiders  attacked  and 
destroyed  each  other. 

1638.  Raw  silk  varies  in  color  from  white  to 
a  reddish-yellow.     The  surface  of  its  fine  threads 
is  covered  with  a  varnish,  which  may  be  extracted 
by  boiling  in  water,  or  by  soap,  when  it  assumes 
a  fine  white  color.     This  varnish  seems  to  be 
intermediate  between  gum  and  gelatine.  It  agrees 
with  gum  in  not  being  acted  on  by  alcohol,  and 
with  gelatine  in  being  precipitated  from  water 
by  tannin.     When  the  water  is  evaporated  this 
varnish  is  obtained  of  a  black  color,  brittle,  and 
of  a  shining  fracture,  and  its  weight  is  nearly 
one  third  of  that  of  the  raw  silk   from  which  it 
was  extracted.     Its  soapy  solution  soon  putrefies. 
Yellow  silk  contains  a  resin,  which  is  soluble  it? 
alcohol,  or  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol,  with  mu 
riatic  acid,  and  when  deprived  of  it,  the  silk  ac- 
quires a  fine  white  color. 

1639.  Silk  itself  is  not  soluble  in  water  or  al- 
cohol, and  is  not  very  combustible,  though  fire 
blackens  and  decomposes  it.     Distilled  it  yields 
a  very  great  proportion  of  ammonia.     Heated 
alkalis  dissolve,  and  convert  it  into  soap.     The 
sulphuric,  muriatic,  and  nitric  acids  also  dis- 
solve it ;    the   latter   with  evolution  of  oxalic 
acid,  and  a  fatty  matter  which  swims  on  the  sur- 
face.     When   kept  in  a  damp  place,    it   rots 
sooner  or   later  ;    but  Dr.  Wilson   of   Falkirk 
found  a  riband  wrapped  round  the  bone  of  an 
arm,  which  had  lain  more  than  eight  years  in  the 
church-yard  of  that  town.     The  body  of  the  de- 
ceased had  mouldered  into  earth,  leaving  nothing 
but  the  bones.     This  shows  that  silk  is  capable 
of  resisting  putrefaction,  when  not  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  air.     Dr.  Ure  obtained  the  fal- 
lowing results  from  the  bleached  limes  of  silk : 


520 


CHEMISTRY. 


Carbon 
Oxygen 
Hydrogen  . 
Nitrogen    . 


50-8 

34-0 

3-4 

11-8 

100-0 


Cadet  analysed  spiders'  webs,  which  seem  to  be 
nearly  allied  to  silk,  by  treating  them  with  water, 
alcohol,  and  incineration,  and  obtained  the  fol- 
lowing products.  1.  Brown  extract  soluble  in 
water,  and  not  altered  by  exposure  to  the  -air. 
2.  Resinous  matter,  soluble  in  alcohol.  3.  Alu- 
mina. 4.  Sulphate  of  lime.  5.  Carbonate  of 
soda.  6.  Muriate  of  soda.  7.  Carbonate  of 
lime.  8.  Iron.  9.  Silica. 

1640.  We  now  proceed  to  the  consideration 
of  the  fluid  parts  of  an  animal.     The  fluid  parts 
of  animals  are  the  blood,  which  is  the  great  re- 
servoir from  which  all  the  other  fluid  as  well  as 
solid  parts  of  animals  are  extracted.     The  other 
fluid  parts  are  called  secretions,  because  they  are 
secreted  from  the  blood.     The  morbid  concre- 
tions which  are  formed  in  various  parts  of  the 
body,  and  the  morbid  fluids,  shall  be  afterwards 
considered.     At  present  we  only  consider  those 
solid  and  fluid  parts  of  animals  which  are  formed 
while  they  are  in  a  healthy  state.    These  fluids 
may  be  reduced  to  the  following : 

BLOOD. 
Sec-etions. 

1.  Milk 

2.  Eggs 

3.  Saliva 

4.  Pancreatic  juice 

5.  Bile 

6.  Cerumen 

7.  Tears 

8.  Liquor  of  the  pericardium 

9.  Humors  of  the  eye 

10.  Mucus  of  the  nose,  &c. 

11.  Synovia 

12.  Semen 

13.  Liquor  of  the  amnios 

14.  Animal  poisons. 

Some  fluids  are  secreted  from  the  blood,  and  af- 
terwards ejected  from  the  body.  These  are 
called  excretions,  the  principal  .of  which  are 

15.  Urine 

16.  Feces. 

1641.  When  blood  is  drawn  from  an  animal, 
it  gradually  separates  into  two  parts.     One  of 
these   remains   liquid,  and  has  the  color,   and 
nearly   the  consistence  of  fresh  whey,   and  is 
hence  called   serum.      The  other  from  its  red 
color,  being  supposed  to  carry  all  the  essence  of 
the  blood  along  with  it,  has  obtained  the  name 
of  cruor.      The   cruor  has  the   consistency  of 
curds    when     immediately    precipitated     from 
milk  ;    and  hence  the  older  physicians  distin- 
guished the  ingredients  into  which  blood  volun- 
tarily separated  by  terms  which  denoted  what 
ook  place  in  milk ;  that  is  into  curds  and  whey. 
This  separation  takes  place  though  the  blood  be 
Kept  at  the  same  temperature  which  it  had  in 
the  body  of  the  animal ;   though  it  should  be 
mixed    with   water,   or    be   placed    in   vacuo. 
Though  we  are  entirely  ignorant  of  what  takes 
place  in  thebodbsof  *nimals,  it  seems  to  follow, 


from  these  facts,  that  the  decomposition  of  blood, 
in  animals,  is  prevented  by  the  peculiar  powers 
of  life  which  pervade  all  parts  of  the  system, 
and  by  the  muscular  power  of  the  heart  and 
arteries.  But  we  have  two  substances  in  blood 
which  deserve  attention;  the  serum  and  the 
cruor. 

1642.  The   serum    of   blood   is   of    a   light 
greenish-yellow  color,   and  converts   syrup   of 
violets  to  a  green,  owing  to  soda  dissolved  in  it. 
At  the  temperature  of  156°  'it  coagulates,  and 
also  when  boiling  water  is  mixed  with  it.     But 
if  previously  mixed  with  six  parts  of  cold  water, 
it  does  not  coagulate  by  heat.     The  coagulum 
resembles  the  boiled  white  of  an  egg;  and,  if 
cut  into  small  pieces,  a  muddy  fluid,   termed 
serosity,  may  be  squeezed  from  it.     If  the  resi- 
duum, after  this  fluid  is  separated,  be  washed  in 
boiling  water,  it  is  found  to  possess  all  the  pro- 
perties of  coagulated  albumen.     The  serum  also 
contains  gelatine,  for  if  mixed  with  six  times  its 
weight  of   water,  and  boiled  to  coagulate  the 
albumen,  gelatine  remains  in  the  liquor,  which 
may  be  obtained  by  concentration,  and  setting  it 
to  cool.     Proust  ascertained  that  it  contains  sul- 
phur, combined  with  ammonia  in  the  state  of 
hydro-sulphuret.    Besides  albumen,  gelatine,  hy- 
dro-sulphuret  of  ammonia,  it  also  contains  soda 
in  a  caustic  state,  apparently  combined  with  ge- 
latine and  albumen  :  muriate  of  soda,  phosphate 
of  soda,  and  phosphate  of  lime. 

1643.  Cruor,  or  the  clot  as  it  is  often  called, 
is  of  a  red  color  and  considerable  consistence. 
If  thrown   upon  a  sieve,   and  washed  with  a 
small  jet  of  water  falling  upon  it,  the  coloring- 
matter  is   carried    through,   and   there  remains 
upon  the  sieve  a  white  elastic  substance  which 
has  all  the  properties  of  fibrin.     What  passes 
through  the  sieve   is   of   a  red  color,   and,   if 
slowly  evaporated  to  dryness,  is  found  to  con- 
sist of  albumen  and  iron,  part  of  which  may  be 
separated  from  it  by  the  magnet.     Neither  the 
serum  nor  fibrin  have  been  found  to  contain  any 
iron.     Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin  have  supposed 
that  the  iron  exists  in  the  blood  in  the  state  of 
sub-phosphate  of  iron. 

1644.  When  new  drawn  blood  is  well  stirred 
with  a  stick,  the  fibrin  collects  upon  it,  and  may 
thus   be   removed.      What   remains  no  longer 
coagulates  unless  exposed  to  heat.     When  blood 
is  slowly  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  then  sub- 
jected to  destructive  distillation,  new  compound-; 
are  formed  which  did  not  previously  exist ;  and 
this  takes  place  with  regard  to  many  animal  and 
vegetable  substances.     The  following  ingredients 
have  been  detected  in  its  composition 

1.  Water 

2.  Fibrin 

3.  Albumen 

4.  Gelatine 

5.  Hydro-sulphate  of  ammonia 

6.  Soda 

7.  Sub-phosphate  ot  iron 

8.  Muriate  of  soda 

9.  Phosphate  of  soda 

10.  Phosphate  of  lime 

11.  Benzoic  acid,  detected  by  Front. 
164.5.    JJei/elius   finds   the  crassamentum  cf 

the  blood  to  consist  of 


C  H  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y. 


Coloring  matter 
Albumen  and  Fibrin 


64 
36 


100 


The  coloring  matter  when  incinerated  affords  a 

residue  consisting  of 

Oxide  of  iron         50'0 

Subphosphate  of  iron       .     .     .  7'5 

Phosphate  of  lime  with  magnesia  6-0 

Lime. 20'0 

Carbonic  acid  and  loss     .     .     .  16-5 


100-0 

1646.  AVhen   blood  is  drawn   from  an  indi- 
vidual in  some  circumstances  of  diseased  action, 
fibrin  collects  on  its  surface,  forming  the  buffy 
coat. 

1647.  By  Berzelius,  the  red  color  of  the  blood 
>s  supposed  to  be  dependent  upon  the  iron  which 
enters  its  composition,  but  Brande  and  Yauque- 
lin  consider  its  color  referable  to  a  peculiar  ani- 
mal principle,  independently  of  the  presence  of 
iron. 

SECRETIONS. 

MILK. 

1648.  Milk  is  secreted  from  the  blood  by  that 
class  of  animals  which  has  obtained  the  name  of 
mammalia,  and  is  intended  for  the  nourishment 
of  their  offspring.  The  milk  chiefly  used  by  man 
as  an  article  of  food  is  that  of  the  cow.      It  is  a 
white  opaque   fluid,  of  an  agreeable  sweetish 
taste,  and  reddens  vegetable  blues.    It  is  heavier 
than  water,  and  lighter  than  blood ;  but  its  spe- 
cific gravity  varies  at  different  times.     It  boils 
nearly  at  the  same  temperature  with  water. 

1649.  When  allowed  to  remain  some  time  at 
rest,  it  throws  up  a  yellowish  colored  substance 
to  its  surface,  known  by  the  name  of  cream.  The 
remaining  milk  is  much  thinner  than  it  was  be- 
fore, and  is   of  a  bluish-white  color.     If  it  be 
heated  to  100°  and  have  a  little  rennet,  formed 
by  digesting  water  on  the  inner  coat  of  a  calf's 
stomach  and  preserved  with   salt,  well  mixed 
with  it,  the  milk  coagulates.     It  also  coagulates 
when  treated  with  alcohol,  with  acids,  with  infu- 
sion of  the  flowers  of  artichoke  and  of  the  this- 
tle, and  a  variety  of  other  plants.    It  also  coagu- 
lates if  as  much  of  any  neutral  salt  as  it  can  dis- 
solve be  added  to  it  while  boiling ;  or  gum-ara- 
bic, or  sugar.  If  the  coagulum  be  broken,  it  soon 
separates  into  a  white  solid  part  called  curd,  and 
a  greenish  liquid  part  called  whey.     Thus  milk 
may  be  separated  into  three  parts,  cream,  curd, 
and  whey.    See  BUTTER,  MANUFACTURE  OF. 

1650.  Cream  is  of  a  yellow  color,  and  gradu- 
ally becomes  thick  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere. 
If  placed  in  a  vessel  of  no  great  depth,  it  soon 
becomes   solid  ;  mucus  and  byssi  form  upon  its 
surface,  and  it  no  longer  retains  the  properties  of 
cream,  but  of  a  very  fat  cheese.     In  this  way 
cream  cheeses  are  made  in  this  country.     Thus 
cream  contains  a  peculiar  oil,  curd,  and  some 
serum.     The  oil  is  separated  from  it  by  the  pro- 
cess of  churning,  which  divides  cream  into  two 
parts,  the  one  solid  called  butter,  the  other  fluid, 
which  resembles  creamed  milk. 

1651.  Butter  is  of  a  yellow   color,  melts   at 
96°  and  becomes  transparent.     If  kept  melted 


for  some  time,  it  deposits  curd  and  whey,  and 
assumes  the  appearance  of  an  oil,  but  loses  its 
peculiar  flavor.  If  kept  some  time  it  becomes 
rancid  ;  but  if  it  be  well  washed,  and  sufficiently 
purged  of  these  foreign  ingredients,  it  remains 
sweet  much  longer  that  when  this  precaution  is  not 
adopted.  Distilled,  it  yields  water,  an  acid,  an 
oil  at  first  fluid,  and  afterwards  concrete.  A 
small  quantity  of  charcoal  remains  in  the  retort. 
1652.  When  cream  is  churned  it  is  commonly 
kept  some  time  until  it  becomes  sour.  Fresh 
cream  requires  at  least  four  times  as  much  churn- 
ing to  make  it  yield  butter,  as  sour  cream  does. 
Milk  warm  from  the  cow  yields  more  butter  than 
can  be  obtained  from  the  cream  it  throws  up ; 
but  it  requires  proportionally  mora  churning 
than  the  cream,  especially  if  the  latter  be  previ- 
ously soured.  When  very  sour  cream  is  churned, 
the  butter  milk  that  is  left  is  not  nearly  so  sour 
as  the  creara  had  been  ;  though  the  butter  re- 
mains perfectly  sweet.  This  shows  that  the  acid 
which  had  been  formed  in  the  cream  is  partly 
decomposed  during  the  churning.  Young  and 
Thenard  have  shown  that  sour  cream  may  be 
churned,  and  butter  obtained,  although  atmos- 
pheric air  be  excluded.  But  in  the  Agricultural 
Survey  of  Mid-Lothian,  an  experiment  on  churn- 
ing is  recorded  which  was  conducted  by  Messrs. 
Robertson  and  Headrick.  They  operated  on 
milk  fresh  drawn  from  the  cow ;  and  it  appeared 
that  atmospheric  air  constantly  entered  into,  and 
combined  with  the  milk  during  the  whole  pro- 
cess. The  butter  was  perfectly  sweet,  and  the 
milk  acquired  that  degree  of  acidity  which  dis- 
tinguishes- new  churned  milk.  We  are  therefore 
inclined  to  think  that  the  oil  in  milk,  like  other 
vegetable  oils,  is  originally  in  A  liquid  state ;  but 
that  it  consolidates  into  butter  in  consequence  of 
absorbing  oxygen,  either  from  an  acid  previously 
formed  in  the  cream,  or  formed  by  agitating  the 
liquid  in  contact  with  air  during  the  process  of 
churning.  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  sometimes  extri- 
cated during  churning,  and  the  temperature  gene- 
rally increases  about  four  degrees.  Butter  may 
be  churned  from  whey  after  the  curd  is  extracted 
from  it ;  some  persons  are  in  the  practice  of 
gradually  heating  whey  to  about  150°  when  it 
throws  up  its  cream.  This,  being  skimmed  off, 
is  churned  into  butter. 

1653.  Curd  may  be  separated  from  creamed 
milk,  or  from  butter  milk,  by  the  addition  of  ren- 
net.    It  is  white  and  solid,  and  possesses  many 
of  the  properties  of  coagulated  albumen.    When 
the  moisture  is  squeezed  out,  it  becomes  hard 
and  brittle.     It  is  soluble  in  water,  but  readily 
combines  with  pure  alkalis,  especially  when  as- 
sisted by  heat.   With  fixed  alkalis  much  ammonia 
is  evolved,  and,  if  the  heat  be  strong,  charcoal  is 
deposited.     Wrhen  precipitated  by  an  acid,  it  is 
of  a  black  color,  melts  like  tallow,  and  never  ac- 
quires the  consistence  of  curd.     Hence  alkalis 
appear  to  decompose  curd,  and  to  convert  it  into 
ammonia  and  oil,  or  rather  fat.     The  mineral 
acids,  when  much  diluted,  dissolve  fresh  undried 
curd,  when  assisted  by  heat.  The  vegetable  acids 
only  dissolve  it  when  they  are  concentrated. 

1654.  Curd   is  the   basis  of  cheese,  and  tiie 
best  cheese  is  that  from  which  as  little  as  possible 
of  the  cream  is  abstracted.     For  this  reason  it 


522 


CHEMISTRY. 


should  be  subjected  to  as  little  pressure  as  possi- 
ble in  abstracting  the  whey.  For  this  purpose 
it  is  first  cut  in  various  directions  with  a  wooden 
knife,  and  the  whey  which  spontaneously  sepa- 
rates is  laved  off.  When  the  curd  has  acquired 
a  firm  consistence,  it  is  repeatedly  cut  into  small 
fragments  by  a  four-edged  knife,  and  thrown  into 
a  drainer.  It  is  then  repeatedly  cut  in  the  same 
manner,  and  subjected  to  a  gentle  pressure  in 
the  cheslet.  By  this  process  the  oil  in  the  curd 
attracts  oxygen,  and  is  converted  into  butter, 
which  remains  in  union  with  the  curd.  The  last 
portions  of  the  whey  are  expelled  by  subjecting 
the  cheese  to  violent  pressure.  If  the  soft  curd 
be  subjected  to  violent  pressure,  much  of  the 
cream  goes  off  with  the  whey.  Cheese  of  this 
sort  melts  when  exposed  to  heat;  but  cheese 
from  skimmed  milk,  or  from  butter-milk,  dries 
and  shrivels  up  like  horn.  Much  of  the  cream 
is  also  expelled  by  overheating  the  milk  before 
the  rennet  is  applied.  The  heat  should  not  ex- 
ceed 100°. 

1655.  Whey  contains  a  portion  of  curd,  which 
may  be  separated  by  filtration  or  by  boiling.     In 
the  latter  case  the  curd  rises  and  forms  a  thick 
scum  on  the  surface,  which  may  be  skimmed  off, 
and  is  called    in  the  north  float  whey.     Fresh 
whey  is  of  a  yellowish-green  color,  and  of  an 
agreeable   sweet   taste.      But  after  the  curd  is 
carefully  skimmed,  and  is  allowed  to  settle  some 
hours,  it  may  be  decanted  off  colorless  like  water. 
If  this  liquid  be  slowly  evaporated,  it  deposits 
at  last  white  crystals,  which  are  sugar  of  milk. 
Whey  also  contains  acetic  acid,  and  hence  red- 
dens vegetable  bines.    It  also  contains  some  mu- 
riate of   potassa  and  of   soda.     Fourcroy  and 
Vauquelin  discovered  in  it  some  phosphate  of 
magnesia  and  of  iron,  sulphate  of  potassa,  and 
a  peculiar  extractive  matter. 

1656.  Milk  is  capable  of  undergoing  the  vi- 
nous fermentation  spontaneously,  and  then  yields 
alcohol  by  distillation.     Before  this  takes  place 
it  must   previously  become  sour,  and  then  be 
placed  in  the  proper  temperature.     In  this  way 
the  Tartars  obtain  a  vinous  liquor  from  mare's 
milk,  to  which  they  give  the  name  of  koumiss. 
The  inhabitants  of  Orkney  and  Shetland  prepare 
a  vinous  liquor  from  cow's  milk  by  a  process 
nearly  similar. 

1657.  When  milk  is  distilled  there  first  comes 
over  water  containing  animal  matter,  which  soon 
putrefies.     After   being   concentrated   the  milk 
coagulates,  like  albumen,  into  a  thick  unctuous 
yellowish-white   substance.     By   increasing   the 
heat  this  substance  yields  a  transparent  liquid, 
which   becomes   gradually  colored ;  some  very 
fluid  oil,  then  ammonia,  an  acid,  and  lastly  a  very 
thick  black  oil.     At  the  same  time  carbureted 
hydrogen  gas  is  emitted.     There  remains  a  coal, 
which  contains  carbonate  and  muriate  of  potash, 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  sometimes  magnesia,  iron, 
and   muriate  of  soda.     The  contents  of  cows' 
milk  have  been  given  as  follow  : — 

1.  Water 

2.  Oil 

3.  Curd 

4.  Extractive 

5.  Sugar  of  milk 

6.  Acetic  acid 


7.  Muriate  of  soda 

8.  Muriate  of  potassa 

9.  Sulphate  of  potassa 

10.  Phosphate  of  lime 

11.  Phosphate  of  magnesia 

12.  Phosphate  of  iron. 

1658.  Berzelius  has  recently  stated  the  follow- 
ing to  be  the  constituents  of  skimmed  cows' 
milk : — 

Water 928-75 

Cheese  with  a  trace  of  butter   .     .       28-00 

Sugar  of  milk 35-00 

Muriate  of  potassa 1-70 

Phosphate  of  potassa       ....         0'25 
Lactic  acid,  lactate  of  potassa,  and  a  )  fi  _ 

trace  of  lactate  of  iron  J 

Earthy  phosphates 0-30 


Cream  consists  of 
Butter 
Cheese 
Whey 


1000-00 


4-5 
3-5 

92-0 


100-0 

1659.  Women's   milk   contains   much   more 
sugar  than  cows'  milk.     It  throws  up  abundance 
of  white  cream,  and  when  this  is  separated,  it 
becomes  very  thin,  and  of  a  bluish-white  color. 
Women's  milk  has  not  been  coagulated  except 
by  boiling ;  nor  can  the  cream  be  formed  into 
butter  by  churning.     Asses'  milk  very  much  re- 
sembles women's  milk.    Goats'  milk  differs  little 
from  cow's  milk,  except  in  containing  less  cream 
and  more  curd.   It  derives  a  peculiar  flavor  from 
the    wild    herbs   on   which   the   animals   feed. 
Ewes'  milk  is  thicker  than  cows'  milk,  and  makes 
a  pungent  species  of  cheese.     Mares'  milk  is 
thicker  than  women's  milk,  and  contains  more 
curd,  but  not  so  much  as  the  milk  of  the  cow. 
All  these  milks  contain  nearly  the  same  ingredi- 
ents, though  their  proportions  vary  considerably ; 
and  those  of  cows'  milk  vary  with  their  food, 
and  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

EGGS. 

1660.  Dr.  Prout  has  lately  examined  with 
attention  the  nature  and  composition  of  eggs  in 
the  progress  of  incubation.     Eggs  lose  a  little  of 
their  weight  by  being  boiled,  and  the  water  be- 
comes impregnated   with   about   0'3   grains  of 
saline  matter  from  an  egg  of  common  size.   This 
saline  fluid  is  found  on  evaporation  to  be  strongly 
alkaline,  and  to  contain  also  animal  matter,  sul- 
phuric and  phosphoric  acids,  chlorine, lime,  mag- 
nesia, and  carbonates  of  those  earths,  all  of  which 
substances  exist  both  in  the  white  and  the  yolk. 

1661 .  The  shell  contains  about  two  per  cent,  of 
animal  matter,  with  one  per  cent,  of  phosphates 
of  lime  and  magnesia,  the  rest  being  carbonate 
of  lime  with   a   little   carbonate   of   magnesia. 
Vauquelin  also  found  in  the  burnt  shells  traces 
of  iron  and  sulphur. 

1662.  The  yolk  of  the  egg,  besides  the  more 
common  ingredients  of  animal  fluids,  contains 
a  considerable   portion   of   uncombined   phos- 
phorus, which,  when  the  dried  yolk  is  burnt, 
forms  a  glassy  coating  of  phosphoric  acid,  that 
effectually  defends  the  charcoal  from  combus- 
tion.    In  the  white  of  an  egg,  which,  as  has  beea 


CHEMISTRY. 


523 


already  stated,  consists  chiefly  of  albumen,  sul- 
phur exists  in  a  free  state.  In  one  instance  the 
yolk  weighing  316'5  grains,  contained  170'2 
water,  55'3  albumen,  and  91  yellow  oil.  But 
these  proportions  varied  in  different  instances. 
Henry.  See  Philosophical  Transactions,  1818. 

'^  SALIVA 

1663.  According  to  the  most  recent  analysis  of 
Berzelius  consists  of 

Water 992-9 

A  peculiar  animal  matter  .     .         2'9 

Mucus .»,    .     .          1'4 

Alkaline  muriates  .     .     .         1*7 

Lactate  of  soda  and  animal  matter      09 
Pure  soda    .  ...       0  2 


1000-0 


Mr.  Brande  has  found  albumen,  though  not  in- 
dicated by  common  tests,  still  to  be  indicated  by 
galvanic  agency.  lie  supposes  that  it  exists  in 
saliva,  combined  with  soda. 

BILE 

1664.  Is  secreted  by  the  glandular  substance 
called  the  liver,  and  is  collected  in  a  reservoir, 
until  needed  for  use,  called  the  gall-bladder. 
The  ancient  physicians  paid  much  attention  to 
the  bile  juice,  imputing  to  its  sanity  or  the  re- 
verse, the  health  or  diseases  which  afflict  the  hu- 
man kind.  The  poets,  who  embalm  and  perpe- 
tuate all  the  nonsense  which  prevails  in  their 
times,  ascribed  to  it  a  domineering  influence  on 
the  intellectual  vigor,  the  temper  and  dispositions 
of  the  mind.  The  bile  with  which  we  are  best 
acquainted  is  ox-bile.  It  is  of  a  yellowish-green 
color,  bitter  taste,  and  peculiar  smell.  When 
violently  stirred  it  lathers  like  soap,  and  hence 
has  been  called  animal  soap.  It  combines  with 
water  in  any  proportion,  but  not  with  oil ;  though 
it  readily  combines  with  soap,  and  is  used  by 
fullers  to  take  greasy  stains  out  of  cloth.  The 
latest  analysis  of  human  bile  with  which  we  are 
furnished,  is  that  of  Thenard,  who  in  1100  t>arts 
of  bile  found  the  following  products. 

Water 1000 

Undissolved  yellow  matter  10 

Do.  solution a  trace. 

Albumen 42 

Resin 41 

Soda 5-6 

Phosphates  of  lime  and  soda, 
sulphate   and   muriate    oi 

soda,  and  oxide  of  iron  4-5 

CERUMEN  OF  THE  EAR. 

16(35.  This  is  a  yellow-colored  liquid  secreted 
from  glands  in  the  auditory  canal,  which  gradu- 
ally hardens  by  exposure  to  the  air.  Its  object 
is  to  guard  against  insects,  which  would  soon  de- 
stroy the  tympanum  or  drum  of  the  ear.  Whe- 
ther it  acts  as  a  poison  to  insects  is  not  ascer- 
tained ;  but  it  is  certain  that  no  insect  likes  to 
approach  it  if  the  contact  can  be  avoided.  Vau- 
quelin,  from  his  own  experiments  and  those  of 
others  on  this  substance,  concludes  that  it  con- 
sists of 

1.  Albumen 

2.  An  inspissated  oil 


3.  A  coloring  matter 

4.  Soda 

5.  Phosphate  of  lime. 

TEARS  AND  Mucus. 

1666.  Tears  are  transparent  and  colorless  like 
water,  but  always  exhibit  a  salt  taste.  Exposed 
to  the  air,  the  liquid  becomes  thicker,  and  at  last 
deposits  cubical  crystals  in  the  midst  of  mucilage. 
Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin  state  their  composition 
to  be 

1.  Water 

2.  MUCUS 

3.  Muriate  of  soda 

4.  Soda 

5.  Phosphate  of  lime 

6.  Phosphate  of  soda. 

Berzelius's  more  recent  analysis  gives 

Water 933'T 

Mucus  matter  ......       53-0 

Muriates  of  potassa  and  soda  5-6 

Prepared  lactate  of  soda     .     .         09 
Albumen,  and  animal  matter  in- 
soluble in  water  but  soluble 
in  alcohol  3'5 


1000-0 

The  saline  parts  scarcely  amount  to  one  per  cent, 
of  the  whole.  The  mucus  absorbs  oxygen  from 
the  atmosphere,  becomes  thick  and  viscid,  and 
assumes  a  yellow  color.  It  then  becomes  in- 
soluble in  water,  though  fresh  tears  are  miscible 
with  water  in  any  proportion.  The  mucus  of  the 
nose  is  of  the  same  properties  with  that  which 
drops  from  the  eyes,  though,  being  longer  sus- 
pended, and  exposed  to  the  air,  it  acquires 
greater  consistency.  Indeed  the  mucus  of  the 
eyes  passes  into  the  nostrils  by  particular  aper- 
tures, which,  being  obstructed,  the  eyes  become 
diseased.  The  mucus  which  lubricates  various 
other  parts  of  the  body,  has  been  supposed  to 
consist  of  liquid  albumen.  Dr.  Bostock  has 
pointed  out  a  difference  in  these  substances. 

LIQUOR  OF  THE  PERICARDIUM. 

1667.  This  liquor  is  enclosed  in  a  membrane 
which  invests  the  heart,  and  is  intended  to  lu- 
bricate this  organ,  and  to  prevent  the  dangerous 
consequences  of  friction.    Dr.  Bostock  examined 
this  liquor  taken  from  a  boy  who  died  suddenly. 
It  very  much  resembled  the  serum  of  blood,  and 
was  composed  of 

Water 92-0 

Albumen      ....  5-5 

Mucus 2-0 

Muriate  of  soda     .     .  0-5 

100-0 
HUMORS  OF  THE  EYE. 

1668.  There  are  three  humors  which  compose 
the  lens  by  which  vision  is  affected ;  and  their 
different  degrees  of  refracting  power  correct  each 
other,  and  prevent  the  aberration  of  the  rays  of 
light.     These  humors  are  included  within  the 
cornea,   and  have   obtained  the  names  of   the 
aqueous,  the  crystalline,  and  the  vitreous  humor. 
The  vitreous  is  the  interior  humor,  and  is  by  far 


524 


CHEMISTRY 


the  largest  in  proportion.  Mr.  Chenerix  ex- 
amined the  eyes  of  sheep,  and  found  their  aque- 
ous and  vitreous  humors  not  to  differ  sensibly  in 
their  composition,  except  that  the  latter  was 
rather  of  more  specific  gravity  than  the  former. 
He  found  them  to  consist  of 

1.  Water 

2.  Albumen 

3.  Gelatine 

4.  Muriate  of  soda. 

Nicholas  also  detected  a  little  phosphate  of  lime. 
The  crystalline  humor,  or  lens,  is  solid  and  trans- 
parent, and  is  composed  of  concentric  coats,  the 
densest  of  which  are  next  the  centre.  It  is  com- 
posed of  albumen  and  gelatine  united  with  water, 
and  the  quantity  of  gelatine,  accord  ing  to  Nicho- 
las, diminishes  as  we  approach  the  centra  of  the 
lens.  It  is  nearly  soluble  in  water,  but  coagu- 
lates in  hot  water.  The  humors  of  the  human 
eye,  of  those  of  oxen,  and  of  birds,  do  not  differ 
sensibly  from  those  of  sheep,  except  in  possessing 
a  small  degree  more  specific  gravity. 

SYNOVIA. 

1669.  This  liquid  is  secreted  between  the 
moving  joints  of  animals,  and  is  evidently  in- 
tended to  lubricate  the  parts,  and  to  prevent 
friction.  Mr.  Margueron  examined  synovia 
taken  from  the  joints  of  the  lower  extremities  of 
oxen.  When  fresh  from  the  joint  it  is  a  viscid, 
greenish  colored,  semitransparent  fluid,  having 
a  smell  not  unlike  that  of  frog  spawn.  It  soon 
acquires  the  consistence  of  jelly,  but  afterwards 
recovers  its  fluidity,  and  deposits  a  thready-like 
matter.  It  combines  with  water  and  renders  it 
viscid.  Alcohol  precipitates  from  it  albumen, 
and  acids  precipitate  a  fibrous  matter,  which  has 
the  smell,  color,  taste,  and  elasticity  of  vegetable 
gluten.  When  distilled  there  first  comes  over 
water  which  soon  putrefies ;  then  water  contain- 
ing ammonia ;  then  empyreumatic  oil  and  car- 
bonate of  ammonia.  The  coal  contains  muriate 
and  carbonate  of  soda,  and  some  phosphate  of 
ammonia.  From  Mr.  Margueron's  analysis,  it 
appears  that  the  synovia  of  the  ox  is  composed  of 

11-86  fibrous  mattter 

4-52  albumen 

1-75  muriate  of  soda 

0-71  soda 

0-70  phosphate  of  lime 
80-46  water. 


100-00 


SEMEN. 


1670.  Of  this  Vauquelin  published  an  analy- 
sis in  1791.  When  newly  emitted  it  consists  of 
two  substances,  one  fluid  and  milky,  supposed 
to  be  secreted  by  the  prostate  gland  ;  the  other 
thick  and  mucilaginous,  in  which  numerous 
shining  filaments  may  be  discovered,  is  supposed 
to  be  secreted  by  the  testes.  It  has  a  disagree- 
able smell,  an  acrid  irritating  taste,  and  a  greater 
specific  gravity  than  water.  Rubbed  in  a  mor- 
tar it  becomes  frothy.  It  converts  paper  stained 
with  the  blossoms  of  mallows  or  violets  to  a 
green  color,  and  hence  contains  an  alkali.  After 
some  time  the  whole  becomes  perfectly  liquid, 


and  then  it  readily  dissolves  in  water,  which 
does  not  take  place  when  newly  emitted.  It 
readily  combines  with  acids  and  alkalis .  When 
exposed  to  the  air  at  the  temperature  of  60°  it 
assumes  a  transparent  pellicle,  and  deposits 
small  transparent  crystals  of  phosphate  of  lime. 
If  kept  in  very  moist  air  at  77°  it  acquires  the 
color  of  the  yolk  of  an  egg;  its  taste  becomes  acid, 
it  exhales  the  odor  of  putrid  fish,  and  its  surface 
is  covered  by  the  byssus  septica.  According  to 
Vauquelin,  semen  is  composed  of 
90  water 

6  mucilage 

3  phosphate  of  lime 

1   soda. 

100 

LIQUOR  OF  THE  AMNIOS. 

1671.  The  amnios  is  a  membrane  which  enve- 
lopes the  foetus  in  the  uterus,  and  it  is  filled  with 
a  liquor  in  which  the  foetus  is  immersed.     Only 
the  liquor  amnii  of  women  and  of  cows  have  yet 
been  examined  by  Vauquelin  and  Buniva;  and 
its  probable  this  liquor  varies  in  its  properties  in 
different  animals.     In  the  amnios  of  women  this 
liquor  is  of  a  weak  but  pleasant  odor,  of  a  saltish 
taste,  and  of  a  slightly  milky  color,  owing  to  a 
curdy  matter  suspended  in  it,  which  may  be  se- 
parated  by  filtration.     It  changes   tincture   of 
violets  to  green,  and  tincture  of  turnsole  to  red, 
which  seem  to  indicate  the  presence  both  of  an 
alkali  and  an  acid.     It  froths  when  agitated,  be- 
comes opaque  when  heated,  and  emits  the  smell 
of  boiled  white  of  egg.     Acids  render  it  more 
transparent.     Alkalis  and  alcohol  produce  flaky 
precipitates ;    the   latter,  being  dried,  becomes 
transparent,  and  much  resembles  glue.    Infusion 
of  nut  galls  produces  a  copious  brown  precipi- 
tate.    "When    slowly    evaporated    it    becomes 
slightly  milky,  and  leaves  a  residuum  not   ex- 
ceeding 0'012  of  the  whole.     Thus  the  liquor  in 
women's  amnios  has  been  found  to  consist  of 

98-8  water, 

<  albumen, 

l-2<  muriate  of  soda,  soda, 
(.phosphate  of  lime,  lime. 

100-0 

1672.  The   curdy  matter   suspended   in   this 
liquor  is  often  found  deposited  upon  the  skin  of 
the   foetus,  and  is  supposed  by  Vauquelin  and 
Buniva  to  be  formed  from  the  albumen  of  that 
liquid,  which   has   undergone    some   unknown 
changes.     It  has  a  strong  resemblance  to  fat. 

1673.  The  liquor  in  the  amnios  of  the  cow  is 
of  a  brownish-red  color,  a  bitter  and  acid  taste, 
a  viscidity  similar  to  gum-arabic,  and  a  peculiar 
smell.  It  reddens  tincture  of  turnsole,  and  hence 
contains  an  acid.     Muriate  of  baryta  separates 
from  it  sulphuric  acid.    Alcohol  separates  a  red- 
dish colored  matter.     By  evaporating  the  liquor 
to  a  fourth  part  of  its  bulk,  and  allowing  it  to 
cool,  it  deposits  crystals  of  amniotic  acid.     Thus 
the  liquor  of  the  amnios  of  cows  contains 

1.  Water 

2.  A  peculiar  animal  matter,  supposed 

a  species  of  mucilage 


CHEMISTRY. 


525 


3.  Amniotic  acid 

4.  Sulphate  of  soda. 

!674.  Dr.  Prout's  very  recent  analysis  gave 
only 

Water  977 

Albumen  ....  2'6 

Substances  soluble  in  alcohol    16' 6 
Saline  substances  and  sugar  of 
milk  ,     .      3.8 


1000-0 
ANIMAL  POISONS. 

1675.  For  what  is  known  concerning  these 
liquids  we  are  principally  indebted  to  Fontana. 
When  poured  into  a  fresh  wound  they  occasion 
the  disease  or  death  of  an  animal.     These  poi- 
sonous juices  are  elaborated  by  serpents,  bees, 
wasps,  scorpions,  spiders,  &c.     It  seems  now  to 
be  agreed  among  naturalists  that  the  toad  is  not 
a  poisonous  reptile,  and  that  he  has  been  indebted 
for  this  unfavorable  opinion  to  his  disgusting  ap- 
pearance alone.    Yet  dogs  who  have  incautiously 
bitten  toads,  have   been   known  to  swell  very 
much,  and   to   labor  under  great  pain.     Little 
progress  has  yet  been  made  in  investigating  the 
properties  of  animal  poisons.     The  investigation 
is  attended  with  extreme  difficulty  ;  but  could  it 
be  fully  accomplished  it  would  suggest  an  anti- 
dote against  their  deleterious  effects. 

1676.  The  poison  of  the  viper  is  a  yellow  li- 
quid lodged  in  two  small  vesicles  in  the  ani- 
mal's mouth.      When  it  bites  the  vesicles  are 
compressed  and  the  poison  is  forced  through  a 
tube  into  the  wound  by  the  crooked  fangs.     If 
the  vesicles  or  the  fangs  be  extracted  the  bite  is 
harmless.      If  the   poison   be   inserted   into   a 
wound  by  sharp  instruments  it  proves  equally 
fatal  as  when  it  is  inserted  by  the  animal  itself. 
The  quantity  in  a  single  vesicle  scarcely  exceeds 
a   drop;    and    Fontana    having    collected    the 
poison  of  many  hundred  vipers,    found   it  had 
no  taste,  but  conveyed  numbness  to  the  tongue. 
It  has  the  appearance  of  oil  before  the  micros- 
cope, though  it  combines  with  water.     It  does 
not  alter  vegetable  blues ;  hence  seems  to  con- 
tain no  uncombined  acid.     Exposed  to  the  air 
its  water  evaporates ;    and   Fontana  could  not 
distinguish    between    the    residuum    and  gum 
Arabic.     Both  are  of  the  same  color  and  taste, 
both  are  equally  soluble  in  water ;  but  whether 
the  venom  still  retains  its   poisonous  property 
after  being  evaporated  into  a  gum,  and  again  dis- 
solved in  water,  has  not  been  ascertained.  Indeed 
the  simple  act  of  tasting  could  be  of  no  use  in 
deciding  such  a  question,  because   there  have 
been  men  who  swallowed  wine  glasses  nearly 
full  of  the  venom  fresh  drawn  from  vipers  and 
rattle-snakes.      They   found   it   an   exhilarating 
sort  of  juice,  and  to  produce  the  same  effects 
upon  them  as  a  dram  of  brandy,  or  rather  a  dose 
of  opium.     Had  there  been  any  ruptured  blood- 
vessels in  their  gums,  mouth,  throat,  or  intestines, 
the  experiment  would  have  proved  immediately 
fatal. 

1677.  Dr.  Russel,  from  his  experiments,  thinks 
that  the  poison  of  all  other  serpents  is  precisely 
the  same  with  that  of  the  viper.  This  seems  to 
'je  an  erroneous  opinion,  for  it  is  known  that  the 


effect  of  the  bite  of  serpents  in  this  country, 
taking  a  general  average,  depends  upon  the  size 
and  strength  of  the  serpent  which  inflicts  the 
wound,  compared  with  the  size  and  strength  of 
the  animal  upon  whom  the  wound  is  inflicted. 
Against  this  general  rule  there  are  many  ex- 
ceptions, for  it  is  well  known  that  there  are  se- 
veral species  of  serpents  in  this  country  which 
never  attain  a  large  size,  but  which  inflict  a  more 
fatal  wound  than  others  of  more  than  three  times 
their  length,  and  more  than  ten  times  their 
weight.  The  cobra  di  capello  is  a  serpent  which 
abounds  in  India.  Its  length  varies  from  the 
size  of  a  man's  little  finger,  to  from  ten  to  thir- 
teen inches.  The  bite  of  this  serpent  does  not  de- 
pend upon  the  correlative  size  of  its  body  and 
that  of  the  animal  bitten.  Its  bite,  unless  reme- 
dies are  applied,  always  effects,  sooner  or  later, 
the  destruction  of  the  animal  bitten.  It  should 
appear  that  much  ignorance  still  prevails  respec- 
ting the  principle  upon  which  the  agency  depends 
of  animal  poisons ;  it  is  pretty  certain  however 
that  there  is  a  difference  in  the  composition,  as 
there  is  an  ascertained  difference  in  the  effect,  of 
the  venom  of  serpents. 

1678.  Dr.  Mead  imagined  the  poison  of  ser- 
pents to  consist  of  acids,  and  therefore  recom- 
mended ammonia,  or  volatile  alkali,  as  a  certain 
cure.  But  we  have  seen  that  it  exhibits  no  acid 
properties ;  and  the  numerous  ineffectual  trials 
of  Fontana  robbed  this  application  of  all  its  ce- 
lebrity. Dr.  Ramsay  attempted  to  revive  its 
credit  as  a  cure  for  the  bite  of  the  rattle-snake. 
Others  having  observed  that  swine  eat  serpents, 
and  seem  not  to  be  affected  by  their  bite,  have 
concluded  that  the  grease  with  which  these  ani- 
mals are  invested  operated  as  an  antidote  against 
the  poison.  They  have  hence  recommended 
hogs'  lard,  or  sweet  oil,  as  an  infallible  remedy. 
It  appears  that  these  applications  can  have  no 
other  effect  than  washing  part  of  the  venom  out 
of  the  wound,  before  it  enters  the  blood-vessels. 
The  reason  why  swine  do  not  seem  to  be  hurt  by 
the  bite  of  serpents  is,  that  the  fat  with  which 
they  are  invested  prevents  the  venom  from  en- 
tering their  blood-vessels.  In  man  and  other 
animals  the  effect  depends  much  upon  the  part 
of  the  body  where  the  poison  is  inserted.  Thus 
the  bite  of  a  viper  seldom  proves  fatal  to  a  sheep 
upon  its  legs,  but  if  the  animal  should  lie  down 
upon  a  serpent  and  be  bitten  in  the  udder,  or 
genitals,  it  always  dies  in  consequence.  If  a  man 
should  incautiously  swallow  a  wasp,  and  be 
stung  by  it  in  the  throat,  it  proves  fatal.  Per- 
sons who  have  been  bitten  by  serpents,  though 
it  did  not  prove  fatal,  have  assured  us  that  they 
always  experienced  a  numbness  and  debility  in 
the  limb  that  had  been  bitten.  As  chemistry 
does  not  furnish  us  any  certain  knowledge  01 
the  properties  of  animal  poisons  the  only  an- 
tidote that  appears  infallible  is  an  immediate  ex- 
cision of  the  part,  and  preventing  the  venom 
from  entering  into  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
For  further  information  see  the  article  POISONS. 

URINE. 

1679.  This  has  attracted  more  of  the  attention 
of  physicians  than  almost  any  other  animal  fluid. 
The  alchemists  believing  it  to  be  a  microcosm,  or 


5'26 


CHEMISTRY. 


concentrated  essence  of  matter,  labored  to  ex- 
tract from  it  their  grand  elixir,  or  philosopher's 
stone.  It  was  by  following  out  such  projects 
that  phosphorus  was  first  discovered. 

1680.  Healthy  urine,  when  fresh,  is  generally 
transparent,  of  a  light  amber  color,  emits  a  smell 
resembling  that  of  violets,  and  has  a  disagreeable 
taste.     When  it  cools  its  smell  is  that  which  is 
termed  urinous ;  and  in  a  few  days  it  emits  a 
fetid  alkaline   smell.     Lime   water   precipitates 
from  fresh  urine  phosphate  of  lime.     Hence  this 
salt  in  urine  contains  an  excess  of  acid ;  and  this 
is  the  reason  why  fresh  urine  reddens  turnsole, 
and  paper  stained  with  the  juice  of  radishes. 
The  super-phosphate  of  lime  abounds  most  in  the 
urine  of  sick  and  of  gouty  persons.     There  is 
also  present  in  urine  a  little  of  the  phosphate  of 
magnesia.     Prout  observed  that  urine  contains 
some  carbonate  of  lime,  and  its  presence  seems 
inconsistent  with  that  of  super-phosphate  of  lime. 
Urine  generally  when  it  cools,  and  always  after 
it  has  been  reduced  by  evaporation,  deposits  a 
brick-colored  precipitate,  which  is  uric  acid  in 
crystals.    During  fevers,  and  some  other  diseases, 
a  brick-red  sediment  is  deposited  from  urine, 
which,  as  before  observed,  is  the  rosacic  acid  of 
Prout.      If  urine,  especially  that  of  horses  and 
cows,  be  evaporated  to  the  consistence  of  a  syrup, 
'  and  have  muriatic  acid  poured  into  it,  a  deposi- 
tion takes  place  of  benzoic  acid.     Infusion  of 
tannin  precipitates  from  diseased  urine  gelatine 
or  albumen.     If  urine  be  evaporated  to  a  thick 
syrup,  it  consolidates  on  drying.   Alcohol  poured 
upon  this  mass  dissolves  urea,  and  being  decanted 
off,  and  slowly  distilled,  the  urea  is  obtained  in 
a  crystallised  form.    It  is  to  urea  that  urine  owes 
its  peculiar  properties.     Prout  also  detected  a 
small  quantity  of  bile  in  urine.     Urine  likewise 
contains  muriate  of  soda,  and  the  fusible  salt  of 
urine,  or  microcosmic  salt.     It  frequently  also 
contains  muriate  of  ammonia.     These  latter  suits 
have  the  form  of  their  crystals  altered  in  conse- 
quence of  holding  urea   in   their  composition. 
But  the  properties  of  these  salts,  and  of  urea, 
having  been  already  illustrated,  it  seems  unneces- 
sary to  recapitulate  what  was  already  stated.     A 
silver  basin  is  blackened  if  urine  be  boiled  in  it, 
and  therefore  it  contains  sulphur.  When  the  urine 
putrefies,  the  sulphur  escapes  with  carbonic  acid, 
and  blackens  paper  stained  with  acetate  of  lead, 
when  exposed  to  its  fumes.    Healthy  urine  there- 
fore contains  the  following  ingredients.    Though 
their  portions  vary  from  circumstances,  and  often 
some  of  these  ingredients  cannot  be  detected. 


remains  several  days  without  putrefying;  but 
diseased  urine  frequently  putrefies  the  moment  it 
is  voided .  This  is  supposed  to  be  o%ving  to  the  great 
proportion  of  albumen  and  gelatine  it  contains, 
which  acting  on  the  urea,  new  products  are  pro- 
duced. Ammonia  is  produced,  which  saturates 
the  phosphoric,  uric,  and  benzoic  acid ;  while- 
part  of  the  gelatine  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of 
white  flakes,  and  the  phosphates  of  lime  and  of 
magnesia  form  crystals  on  the  sides  of  the  vessel. 
The  distillation  of  urine  produces  nearly  the 
same  changes  as  are  effected  by  its  putrefaction, 
and  from  both  are  obtained 

1.  Ammonia 

2.  Carbonate  of  ammonia 

3.  Phosphate  of  ammonia 

4.  Phosphate  of  magnesia  and  ammonia 

5.  Urate  of  ammonia 

6.  Acetate  of  ammonia 

7.  Benzoate  of  ammonia 

8.  Muriate  of  soda 

9.  Muriate  of  ammonia 

1682.  Considerable  differences  take  place  in  the 
color    and   ingredients    of  urine   from    various 
diseases,  which  have  lately  become  the  objects 
of  much  attention  with  physicians  and  with  che- 
mists.   The  urines  of  various  animals  differ  from 
each  other,  and  from  that  of  man.    In  general  the 
urine  of  graminivorous   quadrupeds   has   been 
found  to  agree  with  that  of  men,  in  containing 
urea;  but  differs  from  it  in  being  destitute  of 
pnosphoric  acid,  the  phosphates,  and  uric  acid. 

1683.  Mr.  Brande  says  the  substances  that  are 
always  found  in  urine,  according  to  his  own  ex- 
periments, are  the  following : 

1.  Water 

2.  Carbonic  acid 

3.  Phosphoric  acid 

4.  Uric  acid 

5.  Phosphate  of  lime 

6.  Phosphate  of  ammonia 

7.  Phosphate  of  soda 

8.  Phosphate  of  magnesia 

9.  Common  salt 

10.  Sulphate  of  soda 

11.  Albumen 

12.  Urea. 


1.  Water 

2.  Phosphoric  acid 

3.  Phosphate  of  lime 

4.  Phosphate  of  mag- 

nesia 

5.  Carbonic  acid 

6.  Carbonate  of  lime 

7.  Uric  acid 

8.  llosacic  acid 

9.  Benzoic  acid 


10.  Gelatine 

men 

11.  Urea 

12.  Resin  of  bile 

13.  Muriate  of  soda 

14.  Phosphate  of  soda 

15.  Phosphate    of  am- 

monia 

16.  Muriate  of  ammonia 

17.  Sulphur. 


1684.  With  regard  to  the  proportion  of  tlie 
different  ingredients  of  urine,  says  Dr.  Henry, 
Berzelius  finds  that  it  differs  essentially  in  the 
same  individual,  even  from  causes  which  have 
little  influence  on  health.  The  following  table 
and  albu-  may  be  considered  as  showing  its  average  com- 
position. 


Water       .     .          ... 

Q33-00 

30  10 

Sulphate  of  potassa       .     . 

3-71 

^•1  A 

Phosphate  of  soda         .     . 

2-94 
1  *fiK* 

Muriate  of  soda       .     .     . 

4-45 

1 681 .  Several  other  salts  have  been  occasionally 
detected  in  urine.  No  substance  putrefies  more 
rapidly  than  urine,  or  exhales  a  more  disagreeable 
sineil  during  putrefaction.  Healthy  urine  often 


Free  lactic  acid  ^ 

Lactate  of  ammonia  I 

Animal  matter  soluble  in  al-% 

cohol,   and  accompanying! 

the  lactates 


17-14 


CHEMISTRY. 


527 


Animal   matter  insoluble  in 

alcohol 
Urea  not  separable  from  the 

above 
Earthy  phosphates  with  a  trace 

of  fluate  of  lime        .     . 

Uric  acid        , 

Mucus  of  the  bladder        .     , 
Silica 


17-14 


1-00 

1-00 
0-32 
0-03 


of 


1000-00 
1685.  Urea  consists,  according  to  Dr.  Prout, 


Oxygen 
Nitrogen 
Carbon 
Hydrogen 


28-2 


FECES. 


1686.  These  are  voided  per  anum  by  animals, 
after  all  the  useful  materials  of  their  food  are  ex- 
tracted, and  sent  into  circulation  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  their  bodies.     They  consist  of  the  indi- 
gestible parts  of  the  food,  mixed  with  various 
liquids,  which  are  discharged  upon  them  during 
their  passage  through  the  intestines.     Vauquelin 
and  Berzelius,  Thaer  and  Einhof,  have  made  ex- 
periments upon  them  with  a  view  to  ascertain 
the  changes  produced  on  food  by  digestion,  or 
the  cause  of  the  fertility  produced  by  feces  when 
applied  as  a  manure. 

1687.  Fresh  human  feces  do  not  alter  vegetable 
colors,  and  hence  contain  no  uncombined  acid 
nor  alkali.     Their  taste  is  sweetish  bitter  ;  their 
smell  is  known  to  every  one.     Their  consistency 
varies,  and  they  lose  about  three-fourths  of  their 
weight  when  dried  on  a  water  bath.     They  may 
be  diffused  by  agitation  and  maceration  in  water, 
and  the  liquid,  being  passed  through  a  linen 
cloth,  leaves  a  grayish  brown  matter,  of  a  peculiar 
smell,  which  adheres  long  to  the  cloth.  When  dried, 
this  substance  amounts  to  about  seven  per  cent, 
of  the  feces,  and  it  exhibits  remains  of  the  vege- 
table, and  perhaps  animal,  matters  used  as  food. 

1688.  The  liquid  which   passes  through  the 
cloth,  deposits,  after  standing,  a  yellowish-green 
matter,  which  may  be  separated  by  the  filter. 
When  dry,  it  amounts  to  about  fourteen  per  cent, 
of  the  feces.  Alcohol  separates  from  it  a  substance 
resembling  the  resin  of  bile.     When  this  is  re- 
moved, water  dissolves  a  yellow  substance,  which 
seems  to  consist  of  mucus,  with  perhaps  a  little 
gelatine.    Tannin  makes  it  muddy,  but  forms  no 
precipitate.     This  substance  soon  putrefies,  and 
emits  the  smell  of  putrid  urine.     There  remains 
a  greenish -gray  substance,  insoluble  in  water  and 
alcohol,  which,  when  burnt,  leaves  some  silica 
and   phosphate  of  potassa.     The  liquor  which 
passes  through  the  filter,  is  at  first  yellow,  but 
becomes  brown  and  muddy  by  exposure  to  the 
air.     It  was  found  to  contain  albumen,  mixed 
with  phosphoric  salts,  bile,  or  rather  the  resin 
of  bile    combined   with   soda,   a  peculiar  sub- 
stance of  a  reddish-brown  color,  soluble  both  in 
water  and  alcohol,  to  which  acids  give  an  intense 
brown  color.    A  small  quantity  of  tannin  throws 


it  down  in  the  form  of  a  red  powder ;  but  a  large 
quantity  in  grayish-brown  flakes.  The  liquor 
also  contained  various  salts,  of  which  ammonio- 
phosphate  of  magnesia  is  the  principal. — Human 
feces  then,  according  to  Berzelius  consist  of  the 
following  ingredients : — 

Water           73-3 

Vegetable  and  animal  remains  7-0 

Bile               0-9 

Albumen            0*9 

Peculiar  extractive  matter     .     .  2-7 

Salts              1-2 

Slimy  matter;  consisting  of  resin 
of  bile,  peculiar  animal  matter, 

and  insoluble  residue   .     .     .  14'0 

100-0 

1689.  Thaer  and  Einhof  operated  on  the  dung 
of  oxen  that  were  fed  on  turnips.     It  putrefied 
readily,  and  changed  the  oxygen  of  the  air  into  car- 
bonic acid,  as  takes  place  in  the  putrefaction  of  ve- 
getables.   When  freuh,  and  dried  on  a  steam-bath, 
100   parts   leave   28  J    of  solid    matter.     Eight 
ounces,  diffused  through  water,  let  fall  forty-five 
grains   of  sand.     The  liquid,  on  standing,  de- 
posited a  slimy  substance,  which  was  separated 
by  the  filter,  and  weighed,  when  dry,  480  grains. 
It  was  of  the   peculiar  color  and  smell   of  the 
feces,  and  was  considered  by  Einhof  as  the  re- 
mains of  vegetable  matter  used  as  food  by  the 
cattle.     It  probably  contained  also  some  resin  of 
bile.     The  filtered  solution  was  at  first  colorless, 
but  soon  became  yellow,  and  then  brown.     Eva- 
porated to  dryness  it  left  a  brownish  matter  of  a 
bitterish  taste,  weighing  ninety  grains,  which  was 
soluble  in  water,  but  not  in  alcohol.     It  soon 
putrefied,   exhaling   ammonia,   and    burnt   like 
animal  matter.     It  contained  some  phosphoric 
salts.     When  fresh  cows'  dung  was  dried  and 
burnt,  it  left  an  ash  composed  of  the  following 
earths  and  salts,  and  in  the  following  propor- 
tions : — 

Lime 12 

Phosphate  of  lime 12-5 

Magnesia 2 

Iron 5 

Alumina  and  some  magnesia.     .  14 

Silica 52 

Muriate  and  sulphate  of  potassa  .  1-2 

1690,  Vauquelin  having  calculated  the  amount 
of  fixed  matters  taken  in  by  hens  as  food,  and 
having  ascertained  the  amount  of  fixed  matters 
given  out  by  eggs  and  excrement,  during  the  same 
period,  found  the  fixed  matters  given  out  consi- 
derably to  exceed   the  fixed   matters  taken  into 
their  stomachs.     The  fixed  parts  taken  in  by  a 
hen  in  ten  days  while  she  was  was  fed  on  oats, 
amounted  to  356-057  grains,  consisting  of  phos- 
phate of  lime  and  silica.     But  during  that  time 
she  gave  out  971 '482  grains,  consisting  of  phos- 
phate and  carbonate  of  lime  and  silica,  making 
the  surplus  given  out  615-425  grains  above  what 
was  taken  in.     Of  this  surplus  511-9H  consisted 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  of  which  none  was  taken 
in  with  the  food.     The  quantity  of  phosphate  of 
lime  given  out,  exceeded  that  taken  in  by  137-796 
grains ;  but  the  silica  given  out-  was  less  than 


528 


CHEMISTRY. 


that  taken  in  by  34-282  grains.  It  is  possible 
the  animal  may  have  picked  up  carbonate  of 
lime  from  the  plaster  of  the  room.  But  if  not, 
and  if  this  experiment  be  found  correct,  it  will 
prove  that  neither  phosphorus,  nor  lime,  nor 
perhaps  any  of  the  earths  are  simple  substances, 
and  that  animals  have  a  power  of  forming  them 
by  the  process  of  digestion.  Indeed  this  fact 
seems  now  to  be  verified  by  the  splendid  dis- 
coveries of  Sir  H.  Pavy  so  often  alluded  to,  which 
have  incontestably  proved  that  the  bases  of  the  al- 
kalis and  alkaline  earths  are  metallic  substances. 
It  seems  very  probable  that  plants  and  animals 
have  a  power  of  forming:  the  earths,  &c.  from 
their  principles  absorbed  by  their  roots  or  sto- 
machs, or  from  the  atmosphere. 

MORBID  CONCRETIONS. 

1691.  Such  of  these  as  have  been  hitherto  ob- 
served have  been  divided  into 

OSSIFICATIONS. 

1602.  Of  these  the  first  that  occur  are  pineal 
concretions,  which  are  formed  in  the  pineal 
gland,  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  brain.  They 
resemble  particles  of  sand,  and  can  hardly  be 
called  morbid,  because  we  believe  they  occur  in 
all  adults.  2.  Salivary  concretions  are  often 
formed  in  the  salivary  glands,  especially  the 
parotid  and  sublingual.  3.  Pancreatic  concre- 
tions are  often  found  in  the  pancreas.  4.  Pul- 
monary concretions  are  often  coughed  up  by 
persons  laboring  under  consumption,  and  the 
lungs  of  such  persons  contain  many  similar 
bodies.  5.  Hepatic  concretions.  These  are 
sometimes  formed  in  the  liver,  and  are  commonly 
of  a  more  irregular  shape,  and  of  a  much  larger 
size  than  any  of  the  former.  6.  Concretions  in 
the  prostate  are  sometimes  formed  in  the  prostate 
gland.  7.  The  extremities  of  the  muscles,  of  the 
larger  b  ood  vessels,  together  with  the  valves  of 
the  heart  and  aorta,  often  harden  and  assume  the 
appearance  of  bone.  This  happens  chiefly  to 
aged  persons,  and  unfits  the  organs  for  dis- 
charging their  functions.  Dr.  Wollaston  found 
pineal  concretions  to  consist  chiefly  of  phosphate 
of  lime.  Perhaps  their  composition  may  vary 
with  the  age  of  the  person,  or  they  may  some- 
times contain  a  mixture  of  phosphate  of  lime 
with  silica.  It  was  thought  they  were  silicious, 
because  such  as  were  tried  scratched  glass,  and 
were  insoluble  in  every  acid  they  applied.  The 
other  concretions  which  have  been  examined  have 
been  found  to  consist  chiefly  of  phosphate  of 
lime,  and  tough  animal  membrane.  Some- 
times they  contain  a  portion  of  carbonate  of  lime ; 
and  a  pulmonary  concretion,  examined  by  Mr. 
Crompton,  contained  no  phosphate,  but  con- 
sisted of 


Carbonate  of  lime  .     . 
Animal  matter  and  water 


18 


100 


INTESTINAL  CONCRETIONS. 
1693.  These,  sometimes  of  considerable  size, 
are  occasionally  found  in  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines, seldom  indeed  of  man,  but  more  frequently 
in  those  of  inferior  animals.     Some  of  tl-em  are 


called  bezoars,  and  their  medical  virtues  were 
much  extolled,  though  they  seem  now  to  have 
lost  their  celebrity.  The  principal  of  these,  as 
pointed  out  by  Fourcroy  and  Vauquelir,,  «re, 
1.  Superphosphate  of  lime,  which  is  arranged  in 
concentric  layers,  very  brittle,  and  easily  sepa- 
rable from  each  other.  They  are  partially  so- 
luble in  water,  redden  vegetable  blues,  and 
were  found  in  the  intestines  of  different  mam- 
malia. 2.  Phosphate  of  magnesia  forms  an 
uncommon  concretion,  semi-transparent,  and 
usually  of  a  yellowish  color.  It  is  arranged  in 
layers  not  so  easily  separable  as  the  former. 
3.  Phosphate  of  ammonia  and  magnesia. — This  is 
the  most  common  of  any,  is  of  a  gray  or  brown 
color,  is  composed  of  crystals  diverging  like 
radii  from  a  centre,  and  somewhat  resembles  spar 
of  lime.  It  contains  much  animal  matter,  and  is 
often  found  in  the  intestines  of  the  horse,  the 
elephant,  and  other  herbivorous  animals.  4.  JBi- 
liary. — These  are  sometimes  found  in  the  intes- 
tines and  gall-bladders  of  oxen.  They  are  a 
coagulated  mass,  of  a  reddish-brown  color. 
Painters  use  them  as  an  orange-yellow  pigment, 
and  they  do  not  seem  to  differ  much  from  the 
resinous  matter  of  bile.  5.  Resinous. — These 
are  the  oriental  bezoars  formerly  so  celebrated, 
and  are  obtained  from  animals  with  which  we 
are  unacquainted.  Fourcroy  and  Vauquelm  dis- 
tinguish two  varieties  of  them.  The  first  are  of  a 
pale  green  color,  and  seem  to  consist  of  bile  and 
resin.  The  second  of  a  brown  or  violet  color, 
and  their  composition  more  uncertain.  Botli 
are  fusible  and  combustible,  composed  of  con- 
centric layers,  smooth,  soft,  and  finely  polished. 
The  first  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  the  second  in  al- 
kalis. 6.  Hairy. — These  consist  of  halls  of 
hair,  which  are  often  of  very  large  size,  are  felted 
together  like  a  hat,  and  are  found  in  the  stomachs 
and  intestines  of  various  animals.  They  some- 
times contain  a  mixture  of  vegetable  matters, 
sometimes  are  coated  with  animal  matter.  They 
occur  frequently  in  cows,  and  are  thought  to  be 
occasioned  by  the  animals  licking  off  their  own- 
or  each  others'  hair.  By  obstructing  the  passage 
of  the  intestines,  they  frequently  occasion  the 
death  of  the  animal. 

BILIARY  CALCULI. 

1694.  This  name,  and  that  of  gall-stones,  has 
been  applied  to  certain  concretions  which  occur 
in  the  gall-bladder,  or  in  the  duct  by  which  the 
bile  passes  into  the  intestines.  They  have  long 
attracted  the  notice  of  physicians,  as,  by  obstruc- 
ting or  stopping  the  passage  of  the  bile,  they  oc- 
casion the  jaundice.  Four  kinds  of  them  have 
been  distinguished.  The  first  is  always  of  a 
white,  yellow,  or  greenish  color,  of  an  oval 
shape,  and  sometimes  as  large  as  a  pigeon's  egg  ; 
and  constantly  includes  a  nucleus  of  inspissated 
bile.  Its  specific  gravity  is  less  than  that  of 
water,  being  about  0-803.  It  is  insoluble  in 
water,  but  dissolves  in  hot  alcohol,  from  which  it 
drops  in  brilliant  plates  when  the  alcohol  cools. 
It  also  melts  by  heat,  and  crystallises  when 
cooling.  It  is  soluble  in  oil  of  turpentine,  and 
with  alkalis  forms  a  soap.  Fourcroy  describes 
the  substance  which  forms  this  ncretion  as  con- 
sisting principally  of  adipocire.  The  second  speciei 


CHEMISTRY. 


529 


is  of  a  polygonal  shape,  and  a  number  of  them  are 
always  found  in  the  same  gall-bladder  together. 
In  composition  this  species  differs  little  from  the 
former,being  almost  wholly  composed  of  adipocire . 
The  third  species  consists  entirely  of  inspissated 
bile,  and  has  not  been  found  in  the  human  species, 
though  it  is  frequent  in  oxen  and  other  inferior 
animals.  Concerning  the  fourth  species  very 
little  is  known,  except  that  it  neither  dissolves  in 
alcohol  nor  in  oil  of  turpentine. 

1695.  Chevreul,  who   has  recently  examined 
biliary  calculi,  gives  to  the  crystalline  matter, 
which  is  found  in  them,  the  name  of  cholesterine, 
being  different  in  his  opinion  both  from  sperma- 
ceti and  adipocire.     See  CALCULUS,  BILIARY. 

URINARY  CALCULI. 

1696.  These  are  the  most  frequent,  as  well  as 
the  most  formidable  of  all  morbid  concretions. 
They  obtained  the  name  of  calculi  from  a  sup- 
position they  were  stones.     They  are  either  egg- 
shaped,  or  polygonous,  or  resemble  a  cluster  of 
mulberries,  in  which  case  they  have  obtained  the 
name   of  mulberry.     Many    of  them   are   very 
small,  and  some  exceed  the  size  of  agoose-egg. 
Their  color  is  deep  brown,  white,  or  dark  gray, 
and  often  these  colors   are   intermixed.     Their 
surface  is  sometimes  smooth,  sometimes  rough 
and  unequal.     Their  specific  gravity  varies  from 
1-213  to  1-976.    The  substances  of  which  they 
are  composed  are 

1.  Uric  acid. 

2.  Urate  of  ammonia. 

3.  Phosphate  of  lime. 

4.  Phosphate  of  magnesia  and  ammonia. 

5.  Oxalate  of  lime. 

6.  Silica. 

.  Animal  matter. 

1697.  Many  of  these  calculi  are  composed  en- 
tirely of  uric  acid,  and  most  of  them  contain  a 
greater  or  smaller  proportion  of  this  acid  in  their 
composition.     The  uric  calculi  are  brown,  po- 
lished, and  resemble  wood.  They  readily  dissolve 
in  solution  of  potassa  or  soda,  from  which  any 
weak  acid  precipitates  the  uric.  The  precipitate  is 
soluble  in  nitric  acid,  and  the  solution  tinges  the 
skin  red.     2nd.  The  calculi  composed  of  urate  of 
ammonia  occur  less  frequently  than  the  former, 
though  this  substance  enters  into  the  composition 
of  various  other  calculi.     The  only  pure  concre- 
tions of  this  sort,  are  the  very  small  polygonal  cal- 
culi, several  of  which  are  found  in  the'bladder  at 
the  same  time.    They  are  composed  of  thin  layers, 
have  the  color  of  a  dish  of  coffee,  and  rapidly 
dissolve  in  fixed  alkaline  lees,  while  they  emit 
the  odor  of  ammonia  during  solution.    3rd.  The 
calculi  composed  of  phosphate  of  lime  which  oc- 
curred to  Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin,  were  white, 
and  appeared  like  chips  of  broken  chalk,  which 
were  held  together  by  gelatinous  matter.  They  were 
soluble  in  nitric,  muriatic,  and  acetic  acids ;  and 
again  precipitated  by  ammonia,  fixed  alkalis,  and 
oxalic  acid.    The  gelatinous  part  retained  the 


form  of  a  membrane  after  the  earthy  part  was  dis- 
solved by  very  diluted  acids.  4th.  Calculi  com- 
posed of  phosphate  of  magnesia  and  ammonia 
never  occur  without  combination  with  other  sub- 
stances, sometimes  phosphate  and  sometimes  oxa- 
late  of  lime,  and  sometimes  it  covers  uric  acid. 
These  calculi  consist  of  white  semitransparent, 
lamellar  layers;  and  sometimes  this  substance  is 
crystallised  on  their  surface  in  the  form  of  prisms. 
It  is  very  soluble  in  acids,  though  much  diluted  ; 
and  alkalis  decompose  it,  leaving  magnesia  undis- 
solved.  5th.  Oxalate  of  lime,  combined  with 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  usually  with  uric  acid, 
was  first  detected  in  the  mulberry  calculi  by  Dr. 
Wollaston ;  Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin  found  seve- 
ral calculi  composed  entirely  of  oxalate  of  lime 
and  animal  matter.  Such  calculi  are  of  a  dark 
green  color,  very  hard  and  difficult  to  saw  asun- 
der, and  while  sawing  emit  the  smell  of  semen. 
They  take  a  polish  like  ivory.  They  are  only 
soluble,  slowly  and  with  difficulty,  in  very  dilu- 
ted nitric  acid,  but  are  decomposed  by  the  carbon- 
ates of  potassa  and  soda.  6th.  Fourcroy  and  Vau- 
quelin, who  analysed  upwards  of  600  calculi,  only 
found  silica  in  two  instances,  in  two  mulberry 
calculi,  where  it  was  mixed  with  phosphate  of 
lime.  These  calculi  were  of  a  lighter  color  than 
usual,  very  hard,  difficult  to  saw  or  reduce  to 
powder.  Such  an  occurrence  is  very  uncommon, 
and  not  easily  accounted  for.  7th.  The  animal 
matter,  which  enters  into  the  composition  of  cal- 
culi, seems  to  be  the  cement  which  holds  the 
more  solid  particles  together.  It  may  be  easily 
known  by  the  blackening  of  the  calculi  when  ex- 
posed to  great  heat,  and  by  their  emitting  the 
smell  of  ammonia. 

1698.  The  calculi  hitherto  found  in  the  blad- 
ders of  the  inferior  animals  are  of  a  mixed  nature. 
Those  found  in  the  graminivorous  animals,  such 
as  the  horse,  rabbit,  ox,  and  sow,  are  chiefly  com- 
posed of  carbonate  of  lime,  mixed  with  animal 
matter.    For  an  account  of  the  varieties  of  cal- 
culi &c.  see  MEDICINE  and  the  word  CALCULUS. 

GOUTY  CONCRETIONS. 

1699.  These  are  formed  in  the  joints  of  persons 
laboring  under  the  gout.     From  their  whitenes 
and  softness  they  have   obtained  the  name  o 
chalk  stones  ;  and  there  have  been  persons  labor- 
ing under  this  disease  who  could  write  upon  a 
wall,  with  the  knuckles  of  their  fingers,  as  if  it 
had  been  done  by  chalk.    They  are  usually  small, 
but  have  sometimes  been  observed  of  the  size  of 
an   egg.     In   1797,  Dr.  Wollaston  ascertained 
them  to  be  composed  of  uric  acid   and  soda. 
If   uric    acid,  soda,  and    a  little  warm  water 
be  triturated  together,  a  mass  is  formed  which, 
after  the  excess  of  soda  is  washed  off,  has  all  the 
properties  of  gouty  concretions.     We  shall  nov» 
present  to  the  reader  the  following  tabular  view, 
principally  of  vegetable  compounds  which  we  ex- 
tract from  Mr.  Brande. 


VOL.  V. 


530 


CHEMISTRY. 


1700.    TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  EQUIVALENT  NUMBERS  OF  VEGETABLE 
AND  ANIMAL  PRODUCTS,  AND  THEIR  COMBINATIONS. 


SUBSTANCES. 

Equivalent 
Number. 

COMPOSITION. 

I.  GUM    .                           ... 
Bigummate  of  lead 
II.  SUGAR         ..... 
Saccharate  of  lead 
III,  STARCH      .         .         . 
Binamilate  of  lead 
IV.  TANNIN      
Tannate  of  lead  .... 
V.  WAX  

85 
274-5 
75 
179-5 
135 
374-5 
200 
304-5 
140 

47 
63 
92 
76-5 
73-5 
119-5 
99 
65-5 
83 
80-5 
87-5 
110 
114-5 
151-5 
300? 
21? 
357? 

62-5 
78-5 
107-5 
170 
186 
92 
199-5 
89 
196-5 
135 
114-5 
81 
98-5 
96 
203-5 
103 
125-5 
233 
200 
167 
274-5 
115 
222-5 
136-5 
100-5 

98 

170  gum.  4  104-5  oxide  of  lead. 
75  sugar  +  104-5  oxide  of  lead. 
270  starch  +  104-5  oxide  of  lead. 
200  tannin  +  104-5  oxide  of  lead. 

47  S.  A  4-  16ammon. 
47  S.  A.  4-  45  P. 
47  S.  A.  +  29-5  S. 
47  S.  A.  +  26-5  L. 
47  S.  A.  +  72-5  B. 
47  S.  A.  4  52  S. 
47  S.  A.  4  18-5  M. 
47  S.  A.  4-  36  O.  M. 
47  S.  A.  +  33-5  O.I. 
47  S.  A.  +  40-5  O.Z. 
47  S.  A.  +  63O.T. 
47  S.  A.  +  67-5  O.C. 
47  S.  A.  4-  104-5O.L. 

62'5  T.A.  +  16ammon. 
62-5  T.A.  +  45  P. 
125      T.A.  +  45  P. 
125     T.A.  +  45  P  4  16  amm. 
62-5  T.A.  4  29-5  S. 
125     T.A.  +  29-5  S.  +  45  P. 
62-5  T.A.  +  26-5  L. 
125     T.A.  +  26-5  L.  +  45  P. 
62-5  T.A.  +  72-5  B. 
62-5  T.  A.  +  52  S. 
62-5  T.A.  +  18-5  M. 
62-5  T.A.  +  36  O.M. 
62-5  T.A.  +  33-5  O.I. 
125     T.  A.  4-  33-5  O  I.  +  45  P. 
62-5  T.  A.  +  40-5  O.  Z. 
62-5  T.A.  +  63  O.T. 
125     T.A.  4-  63  O.T.  4-  45  P. 
125     T.A.  4-  75  perox.  C. 
62-5  T.A.  4  104-5  O.L. 
125     T.  A.  4-  104-5  O.  L.  +  45  P. 
62-5  T.  A.  4  52-5  O.  A. 
125      T.A.  4  52-5  O.A.  +  45  P. 
62-5  T.A.  4-  74  O.B. 
62-5  T.A.  4  38  O.C 

62-5  T.A.  +  35-5  O.N. 

VI.  OIL? 
VII.  CAMPHORIC  ACID? 
VIII.  SUCCINICACID     .... 
Succinate  of  ammonia          .         . 

.            ...   j^ji 

IX.  MORPHIA    ..... 
X.  MECONIC  ACID    .... 
XI.  STRICHNIA          .        .               •  .' 
XII.  BRUCIA? 
XIII.  DELPHIA? 
XIV.  MELLITIC  ACID? 
XV.  TARTARIC  ACID  .... 
Tartrate  of  ammonia   . 

Bi-tartrate  of  potassa  . 
Tartrate  of  potassa  and  ammonia 

•                  potassa  and  soda 
Tartrate  of  lime  .         .         .        . 

•  baryta         .         . 

•  strontia       .      '   .  k  •:  . 

•  manganese 

ziuc    .        .        .•  [I  .  ff 

i  copper 

lead    .        .  -•;•'    .  ;   ..^ 

bismuth      .        .      r, 
coba\t 
•  uranium? 
titanium? 
cerium? 

CHEMISTRY. 


531 


SUBSTANCES. 

Equivalent 
Number. 

COMPOSITION. 

206 
367-5 
172-5 
280 
355 
51-5 
80-5 
65 
62 
108 
87-5 
54 
71-5 
69 
76 
98-5 
146 
197-5 
226-5 
211 
140 
88 
129-5 
73-5 

71 
233 
145-5 
55-5 
71-5 
100-5 
85 
82 
128 
107-5 
74 
91-5 
89 
96' 
118-5 
186 
160 

129-5 
93-5 

90 
253 
165-5 
66 
«0 
112 
128 
157 
141-5 
138-5 
184-5 
216-5 
48 
64 
93 
77 
74-5 
120-5 
100 
66-5 

62-5  T.  A.  +  197-5O.M. 
125     T.  A.  +  197-5  O.  M.  +  45  P. 
62-5  T.  A.  +  110  O.  S. 
125     T.A.  +  110O.S.  +  45  P. 

35-5  O.  A.  +  16  am. 
35-5  O.  A.  +45  P. 
35-5  O.  A.  4-  29-5  S. 
35-5  O.  A.  +  26-5  L. 
35-5  O.  A.  +  72-5  B. 
35-5  O.  A.  4-  52  S. 
35-5  O.  A.  4-  18-5  M. 
35-5  O.  A.  +  36  O.M. 
35-5  O.  A.  4  33-5  O.  I. 
35-5  O.  A.  4-  40-5  O.Z. 
35-5  O.  A.  +  63O.T. 
71  O.  A.  4  75  perox.  C. 
146  Ox.  Cop.  4-  51-5  oxal.  am. 
146  Ox,  Cop.  4-  80-5  ox.  pot. 
146  Ox.  Cop.  -1-  65  ox.  sod. 
35-5  O.  A.  4-  104-5  O.  L. 
35-5  O.  A.  4-  52-5  O.  ant. 
35-5  O.  A.  +  74  O.  B. 
35-5  O.  A.  +  38  O.  C. 

35-5  O.  A.  4-  35-5  O.  N. 
35-5  O.  A.  +  197-5  O.M 
35-5  O.  A.  4-  110O.  S. 

55-5  C.  A.  +  16  am. 
55-5  C.  A.  4-  45  P. 
55-5  C.  A.  4  29-5  S. 
55-5  C.  A.  4-  26-5  L. 
55-5  C.  A.  +  72-5  B. 
55-5  C,  A.  4  52  S. 
55-5  C.  A.  +  18-5  M. 
55-5  C.  A.  +  36  O.M. 
55-5  C.  A.  +  33-5  O.I. 
55-5  C.  A.  4  40-5  O.  Z. 
55-5  C.  A.  4-  63  O.  T. 
111C.  A.  4-  75  per  ox.  C. 
55-5  C.  A.  4-  104-5  O.L. 

55-5  C.  A.  4-  74  O.  B. 
55-5  C.  A.  4-  38  O.  C. 

55-5  C.  A.  +  55-5  O.N. 
55-5  C.  A.  4-  197-5  O.M. 
55-5  C.  A.  4-  110O.  S. 

112  B.  A.  4-  16amm. 
112  B.  A.  4-  45  P. 
112B.A.  4-  29-5  S. 
112B.  A.  +  26-5  L. 
112B.A-  4-  72-5  B. 
112  B.  A.  4-  104-5  OL. 

48  A.  A.  +  16  amra. 
48  A.  A.  4-  45  P. 
48  A.  A.  +  29-5  S 
48  A.  A.  +  26-5  L 
48  A.  A.  +  72-5  B. 
48  A.  A.  4  52  S. 
48  A.  A.  4  18-5  M. 

silver  and  potassa. 
XVI.  OXALIC  ACID      .... 
Oxal  ate  of  ammonia    . 

soda    . 

iron     .         .         .         . 

antimony     . 

XVII.  CITRIC  ACID 
Citrate  of  ammonia 

•  iron     . 

.  *in 

•                copper 

•  nickel  . 
•  mercury 
silver  . 
XVIII.  MALIC  ACID 
XIX.  GALLIC  ACID 
XX.  BENZOIC  ACID    .... 
Benzoate  of  ammonia  . 

XXI.  ACETIC  ACID       .... 
Acetate  of  ammonia  . 

2  M  2 


532 


CHEMISTRY. 


SUBSTANCES. 

Equivalent 
Number. 

COMPOSITION. 

Acetate  of    manganese 

84 
81-5 
88-5 
111 
171 
152-5 
122 
245-5 
158 

mpound  of  ma 
33 

48  A.  A.  +  36  O.  M. 
48  A.  A.  +  33-5  O.  I. 
48  A.  A.  +  40-5  O.  Z. 
48  A.  A.  +  63  O.  T. 
96  A.  A.  +  75  Perox.  C. 
48  A.  A.  +  104-5  O.  L. 
48  A.  A.  +  74  O.  B. 
48  A.  A.  +  197-5  O.M. 
48  A.  A.  +  110  O.  S. 

ic  and  acetic  acids. 

•  '    •    tin 

XXII.  FORMIC  ACID?      .       Probably  a  co 
XXIII.  URIC  ACID?        . 

APPENDIX 


1701.  The  duty  of  an  encyclopsediast  is  of  a 
humble  nature.     It  is  for  him  to  collect,  and  di- 
gest, and  collate,  and  concentrate.     Although 
humble,  it  is  however,  an  important  and  respon- 
sible undertaking  in  which  he  engages.     He  is 
required  not  only  to  give  a  succinct  account  of 
all  that  is  known  respecting  the  science  and  sub- 
ject of  which  he  treats,  but  also  to  render  the 
conception  of  that  subject,  and  the  acquirement 
of  that  science,  as  facile  to  his  readers  as  is  con- 
sistent with  its  nature. 

1702.  In  looking  over  what  we  have  written 
and  extracted  on  the  subject  of  chemistry,  it  ap- 
pears to  us  that  the  reader  may  occasionally  be  at 
a  loss,  especially  in  understanding  the  tables  of 
components,  without  a  more  ample  and  detailed 
account  than  will  be  found  of  the  doctrine  of 
equivalents  as  connected  with  the  atomic  theory, 
or,  as  it  ought  to  be  named,  that  of  definite  pro- 
portions. 

1703.  Under  this  feeling  we  present  our  rea- 
ders with  the  following  able  and  ample  disquisi- 
tion on  this  most  interesting  topic  from  Dr.  Ure's 
Dictionary.    We  act  in  this  particular  under  per- 
mission, and  have  thought  it  better  at  once  to 
give  the  whole  paper,  proportionately  long  though 
it  may  bt  found,  than  to  attempt  its  abridgment. 

1704.  CHEMICAL  EQUIVALENTS,  a  term  hap- 
pily introduced  into  chemistry  by  Dr.  Wollaston, 
to  express  the  system  of  definite  ratios,  in  which 
the  corpuscular  subjects  of  this  science  recipro- 
cally combine,  referred  to  a  common  standard, 
reckoned  unity.     If,  with  this  profound  philoso- 
pher, we  assume  oxygen  as  the  standard,  from 
its  almost  universal  relations  to  chemical  matter, 
then  calling  it  unity,  we  shall  have,  in  the  follow- 
ing examples,  these  ratios  reduced  to  their  lowest 
terms,  in  which  the  equivalents  will  be  prime 
ratios  : 

The  lowest    ratio,    or  equivalent    prime  of 
oxygen  being 1-000 

That  of  hydrogen  will  be  .  0.125 

Fluor    .  .  '.  '-_•;.  '    .  0-375 

Carbon        .'    '.'.  '   .  0-750 

Phosphorus        .  .  1-500 

Azote    .      '.'      .  .  1-750 

Sulphur      ';  '    .  •   .  2-000 

Calcium  .  2550 


Sodium 

Potassium 

Copper 

Barium 

Lead 


3-000 
5-000 
8-00 
8-75 
13-00,  &c. 


1705.  The  substances  in  the  above  table,  sus- 
ceptible of  reciprocal  saturation,  can   combine 
with  oxygen  or  with  each  other,  not  only  in  pro- 
portions corresponding  to  these   numbers,  but 
also  frequently  in  multiple  or  sub-multiple  pro- 
portions.    We  have  therefore  two  distinct  pro- 
positions on  this  interesting  subject. 

1706.  i.  The  general  reciprocity  of  the  satu- 
rating proportions. 

1707.  ii.  The  multiple  and  submultiple  pro- 
portions of  prime  equivalents,  in  which  any  one 
body  may  unite  with  any  other  body,  to  consti- 
tute successive  binary  compounds. 

1708.  The  first  proposition,  or  grand  law  of 
chemical  combination,  was  discovered  by  J.  B. 
Richter,  of  Berlin,  about  the  year  1792.    The 
second,  of  equal  importance,  and  more  recon- 
dite, was  discovered  so  early  as  the  year  1788,  by 
Mr.  W.  Higgins. 

1709.  Richter  inferred  his  from  the  remark- 
able and  well  established  fact,  that  two  neutral 
salts,  in  reciprocally  decomposing  each  other, 
give  birth  to  two  new  saline  compounds,  always 
perfectly  neutral.     Thus  sulphate  of  soda  being 
added  to  muriate  of  lime  will  produce  perfectly 
neutral  sulphate  of  lime  and  muriate  of  soda. 
The  conclusions  he  drew  were,  First,  that  the 
quantities  of  two  alkaline  bases,  adequate  to  neu- 
tralise equal  weights  of  any  one  acid,  are  pro- 
portional to  the  quantities  of  the  same  bases,  re- 
quisite to  neutralise  the  same  weights  of  every 
other  acid.     For  example,  six  parts  of  potash,  or 
four  of  soda,  neutralise  five  of  sulphuric  acid ; 
and  4-4  of  potash  are  adequate  to  the  saturatioH 
of  five  of  nitric  acid.     Therefore,  to  find  the 
quantity  of  soda  equivalent  to  the  saturation  o 
this  weight  of  nitric  acid,  we  need  not  make  ex 
periments,  but  merely  compute  it  by  the  proper 
tional  rule  of  Richter.      Thus,  as  6  :  4-4  :  :  4  . 
2-93 ;  or,  in  words,  as  the  potash  equivalent  to 
the  sulphuric  acid,  is  to  the  potash  equivalent  to 
the  nitric  acid,  so  is  the  soda  equivalent  to  the 
first  to  the  soda  equivalent  to  the  second.     Anr> 
again,  if  6-5  potash  saturate  five  of  muriatic  gas, 
how  much  soda,  by  Richter's  rule,  will  be  re- 


CHEMISTRY. 


533 


quired  for  the  same  effect?  We  say  6  :  6-5  :  :  4 
:  4-3.  Thirdly,  if  10-9  potash  combine  with  five 
of  carbonic  acid,  how  much  soda  will  be  equi- 
valent to  that  effect?  Now,  6  :  10'9  :  :  4  :  7-26. 
Here,  therefore,  we  have  found  that  if  six  potash 
be  equivalent  to  four  soda,  in  saturating  five  of 
sulphuric  acid,  this  ratio  of  six  to  four,  or  three 
to  two,  will  pervade  all  the  possible  saline  com- 
binations ;  so  that  whatever  be  the  quantity  of 
potash  requisite  to  saturate  five,  ten,  &c.  of  any 
other  acid,  two-thirds  of  that  quantity  of  soda 
will  suffice. 

1710.  In  the  same  manner  let  us  find  out  for 
five  of  sulphuric,  or  of  any  one  standard  acid, 
the  saturating  quantity  of  ammonia,  magnesia, 
lime,  strontites,  barytes,  peroxide  of  copper,  and 
the  other  bases ;  then  their  proportions  to  potash 
thus  ascertained  for  this  acid  will,  by  arithme- 
tical reduction,  give  their  saturating  quantity  of 
every  other  acid,  whose  relation  to  potash,  or  in- 
deed to  any  one  of  these  bases,  is  known. 

1711.  The   experimental   verification   of  this 
most  important  law  occupied  llichter  from  the 
year  1791  to  the  year  1802,  in  which  period  he 


published,  in  successive  parts,  a  curious  work, 
entitled  the  Geometry  of  the  Chemical  Elements, 
or  Principles  of  Stechiometry.  We  might  havo 
expected  greater  accuracy  in  his  investigations, 
from  the  circumstance  that  Dr.  Wollaston  se- 
lected his  statement  of  the  constituents  of  nitre,  in 
preference  to  those  of  all  other  chemists,  in  the 
construction  of  his  admirable  table  of  chemical 
proportions. 

1712.  With   indefatigable  zeal  Richter  exa- 
mined, by  experiment,  each  acid  in  its  relation 
to  the  bases,  and  then  compared  the  results  witfi 
those  given  by  calculation,  presenting  both  in  an 
extensive  series  of  tables. 

1713.  It  is  curious  that  he  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  aware  that  all  his  tables  might  have 
been  reduced  into  a  single  one,  of  twenty-one 
numbers,  divided  into  two  columns,  by  means  of 
which,  every  question  relating  to  the  included 
articles  might  be  solved  by  the  rule  of  three,  or 
a  sliding  scale.     The  following  table,  computed 
by  Fischer  from  Richter's  last  tables,  was  inserted 
by  the  celebrated  Berthollet  in  a  note  to  his  che- 
mical statics. 


Bases. 

Oxygen  —  1. 

Acids. 

Oxygen  —  1. 

Alumina 

525 

2-625 

Fluoric           427 

2-135 

Magnesia 

615 

3-075 

Carbonic        577 

2-885 

Ammonia 

672 

3-36 

Sebacic           706 

3-530 

Lime 

793 

3-965 

Muriatic         712 

3-560 

Soda 

859 

4-245 

Oxalic         .  755 

3-775 

Strontian 

1329 

6-645 

Phosphoric    979 

4-895 

Potash 

1605 

8-025 

Formic           988 

4-94 

Baryte 

2222 

1-111 

Sulphuric     100Q 

5-000 

Succinic       1209 

6-045 

Nitric            1405 

7-025 

Acetic           1480 

7-400 

Citric            1683 

8-415 

Tartareous   1694 

8-470 

1714.  1  have  added  the  two  columns  under 
oxygen,  from  which  we  see  at  once,  that  with  the 
exception  of  the  bases,  lime,  strontian,  and  soda, 
and  the  acids  carbonic,  muriatic,  sulphuric,  nitric, 
citric,  and  tartaric ;  the  numbers  given  by  Richter 
do  not  form  tolerable  approximations  to  the  true 
proportions.     The  object  of  the  above  table  was 
to  give  directly  the  quantities  of  acid  and  alkali 
requisite  for  mutual  saturation.     For  example, 
1605,  opposite  to  potash,  is  the  quantity  of  that 
alkali   equivalent   to   neutralise   427  of  fluoric 
acid,  577  carbonic,  712  muriatic,  1000  sulphuric, 
&c.     Each  column  affords  also  progressively  in- 
creasing numbers.     Those  nearest  the  top  have 
the  greatest  acid  or  alkaline  energies,  as  mea- 
sured by  their  powers  of  saturation.  The  column 
of  Richter  gives,  therefore,  as  far  as  the  analy- 
tical mears  of  his  time  permitted,  a  table  of  the 
relative  weights  of  what  has  since  been  hypothe- 
tically  called  the  atoms. 

1715.  ii.  But  two  chemical  constituents  fre- 
quently unite   in  different  proportions,  forming 
distinct  and  often  dissimilar  compounds.     Thus 
oxygon  and  azote  constitute  in  one  proportion 
nitrous  oxide,   the   intoxicating  gas  of  Sir  H. 
Davy ;  in  a  second  proportion  nitric  oxide,  the 


nitrous  gas  of  Priestley ;  in  a  third  proportion 
nitrous  acid ;  and  in  a  fourth  proportion  nitric 
acid.  Is  there  any  law  regulating  these  various 
compounds,  so  that  knowing  the  first  proportion 
we  may  infer  the  whole  series  ?  This  question 
was  first  considered  in  a  work  containing  many 
curious  anticipations  of  discoveries,  to  which 
posterior  writers  have  laid  claim,  I  mean  Mr. 
Higgins's  Comparative  View  of  the  Phlogistic 
and  Antiphlogistic  Theory,  printed  in  1788,  and 
published  early  in  1789.  Besides  some  addi- 
tional facts,  decisively  hostile  to  the  hypothesis 
of  phlogiston,  this  publication  indicates  the  doc- 
trine of  multiple  proportion,  with  regard  to  the 
successive  compounds  of  the  same  constituents. 
This  was  likewise  interwoven  with  new  and  in- 
genious views  concerning  gaseous  and  atomical 
combination.  Mr.  Higgins  having  felt  himself 
aggrieved  at  seeing  discoveries,  first  announced  by 
him  in  1789,  brought  forward  nineteen  years 
afterwards  by  Mr.  Dalton,  in  his  own  narre,. 
published  in  1814  a  book,  entitled  Experiments 
and  Observations  on  the  Atomic  Theory  and 
Electrical  Phenomena.  la  this  work  he  give*, 
numerous  quotations  from  his  Comparative  View 
which  appear  to  establish  his  claim  of  priority  to. 


534 


CHEMISTRY. 


ne  discovery  of  multiple  proportions,  and  the 
atomic  theory  of  chemistry.  It  is  no  fault  of 
Mr.  Higgins  that  his  first  work  partook  of  the 
imperfect  analyses  of  the  day.  Indeed  we  have 
reason,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  surprised  at  his 
rejection  of  many  errors  then  sanctioned  by  high 
authority,  and  his  promulgation  of  many  new 
truths  whicli  might  appear  to  contemporary 
writers  insulated  or  of  little  consequence,  but  to 
which  subsequent  researches  have  given  a  due 
place  and  importance  in  the  system  of  chemical 
knowledge.  Who  would  deny  to  Columbus  the 
glory  of  discovering  a  new  world,  merely  because 
the  means  of  research  placed  within  his  power 
did  not  permit  him  to  explore  its  extensive 
coasts  ?  «  Is  not  that  glory,  on  the  contrary, 
greatly  enhanced  by  the  very  early  period  at 
which  the  discovery  was  achieved,  while  naviga- 
tion as  a  science  was  still  unknown?  I  shall 
quote  a  few  passages,  as  he  gives  them,  from  his 
Comparative  View,  which  I  think  are  decisive  in 
this  historical  discussion. 

1716.  '  Hepatic  gas  (sulphureted  hydrogen,) 
as  shall  be  shown,  is  hydrogen  in  its  full  extent, 
holding  sulphur  in  solution.'     This  fact,  of  hy- 
drogen not  changing  its  volume  by  combining 
with  sulphur,  has  been  marked  among  the  valu- 
able discoveries  of  later  times. 

1717.  '  Therefore  100  grains  of  sulphur  re- 
quire only  100  or  102  of  the  dry  gravitating 
matter  of  oxygen  gas  to  form  sulphurous  acid. 
As  sulphurous  acid  gas  is  very  little  more  than 
double  the  specific  gravity  of  oxygen  gas  we 
may  conclude  that  the  ultimate  particles  of  sul- 
phur and  oxygen  contain  the  same  quantity  of 
matter ;  for  oxygen  gas  suffers  no  considerable 
diminution  of  its  bulk  by  uniting  to  the  quantity 
of  sulphur  necessary  for  the  formation  of  sul- 
phurous acid.     It  contracts  1-llth,  as  shall  be 
shown  hereafter.'    Sir  H.  Davy  has  since  proved, 
by  accurate  experiments,  that  hydrogen,  in  its 
conversion  into  sulphureted  hydrogen,  does  not 
change  its  bulk  agreeably  to  Mr.  Higgins's  early 
enunciation. 

1718.  The  elementary  proposition  of  Mr.  Dai- 
ton's  atomical  hypothesis  seems  to  be  most  ex- 
plicitly announced   in  the  following  paragraph 
of  Mr.  Higgins. 

1719.  '  As  two  cubic  inches  of  hydrogen  gas 
require  but  one  cubic  inch  of  oxygen  gas  to  con- 
dense them  to  water,  we  may  presume  that  they 
contain  an  equal  number  of  divisions,  and  that 
the  difference  of  the  specific   gravity  of  those 
gases  depends  on  the  size  of  their  respective  par- 
ticles ;  or  we  may  suppose  that  an  ultimate  par- 
ticle of  hydrogen  requires  two  or  three  or  more 
particles  of  oxygen  to  saturate  it.    Were  this  the 
case,  water,  or  its  constituents,  might  be  ob- 
tained in  an  intermediate  state  of  combination, 
like  those  of  sulphur  and  oxygen,  or  azote  and 
oxygen,  &c.      This  appears  to  be  impossible; 
for  in  whatever  proportion  we  mix  hydrogen  or 
oxygen  gases,  or  under  whatever  circumstances 
we  unite  them,  the  resuH  is  invariably  the  same. 
Water  is  formed  and  the  surplus  of  either  of  the 
gases  is  left  behind  unchanged.'     '  From  these 
circumstances  we  have  sufficient  reason  to  con- 
clude that  water  is  composed  of  a  single  ultimate 
particle  of  oxygen,  and  an  ultimate  particle  of 


hydrogen,  and  that  its  atoms  are  incapable  of 
uniting  to  a  third  particle  of  either  of  its  con- 
stituents.' 

1720.  Mr.  Higgins  inculcates  very  strongly 
that  when  a  body  is  capable  of  combining  with 
another  in  two  proportions,  the  third  particle  in- 
troduced is  held  by  a  much  weaker  affinity  than 
that  which  unites  the  particles  of  the  first  or  true 
binary  compound. 

1721.  'In  my  opinion  the  most  perfect  nitrous 
acid  contains  five  of  oxygen  and  one  of  azote. 
Nitrous  gas,  according  to  Kirwan,  contains  two 
volumes  of  oxygen  gas  and  one  of  azotic  gas. 
According  to  Lavoisier,   100  grains  of  nitrous 
gas  contain  thirty-two  grains  of  azote,  and  sixty- 
eight  of  oxygen.     I  am  of  the  former  philoso- 
pher's opinion.     I  also  am  of  opinion  that  every 
primary  particle  of  azote  is  united  to  two  of 
oxygen,  and  that  the  molecule  thus  formed  is 
surrounded  with   one   common    atmosphere   of 
caloric. 

1722.  '  As  this  requires  demonstration,  let  A 
in  the  annexed  diagram  represent  an  ultimate 
particle  of  azote,  which  attracts  oxygen  with  the 
force  of  three ; 


Let  a  be  a  particle  of  oxygen,  whose  attraction 
to  A  we  will  suppose  to  be  three  more ;  hence 
they  will  unite  with  the  force  of  six :  the  nature 
of  this  compound  will  be  hereafter  explained. 
Let  us  consider  this  to  be  the  utmost  force  of  at- 
traction that  can  subsist  between  oxygen  and 
azote.  We  will  now  suppose  a  second  particle 
of  oxygen  b  to  combine  with  A ;  they  will  only 
unite  with  the  force  of  4J.'  '  This  I  consider  to 
be  the  real  structure  of  a  molecule  of  nitrous  gas. 
Let  a  third  particle  of  oxygen  c  unite  to  A,  it 
will  combine  only  with  the  force  of  four.  This  is 
the  state  of  the  red  molecules  of  nitrous  vapor,. 
orT  when  condensed,  the  red  nitrous  acid.'  '  We 
will  suppose  a  fourth  particle  of  oxygen  d,  to 
combine  with  A ;  it  will  unite  with  the  force  of 
3 1,  and  so  on  with  the  rest  of  the  particles  of 
oxygen  as  the  diagram  represents-.  This  I  con- 
sider to  be  the  state  of  a  molecule  of  the  pale  or 
straw-colored  nitrous  acid. 

1723.  '  When  a  fifth  particle  of  oxygen,  er 
unites,  the  force  of  union  existing  between  the 
particles  of  the  molecule  is  still  diminished,  as  is 
represented  by  the  diagram.    The  fractions  show 
that  the  chemical  attraction  of  azote  for  oxygen  is 
nearly  exhausted.    This  is  the  state  of  colorless 
nitrous  acid,  and,  in  my  opinion,  no  more  oxygen 
can  unite  to  the  azote,  having  its  whole  force  of 
attraction  expended  in  the  particles  a,  6,  ct  d,  e. 
This  illustrates  the  nature  of  saturation  or  de- 
finite proportions. 

1724.  '  We  can  readily  perceive,  from  the  fore- 
going demonstrations,  that  oxygen  is  retained 
with  less  force  in  the  colorless  nitrous  acid  than 
in  the  straw-colored;  and  the  latter  acid  retains 
it  with  less  force  than  the  red  nitrous  acid ;  and 
nitrous  gas  holds  it  with  still  more  force  than  the 
red  nitrous  acid.     This  accounts  for  the  sepa- 
ration of  oxygen  gas  from  the  colorless  nitrous 
acid  (nitric  acid)  when  exposed  to  the  sun,  at 
the  same  time  that  the  acid  becomes  colored. 


CHEMISTRY. 


535 


Nitrous  acid  in  any  other  state  will  afford  no 
oxygen,  when  exposed  to  the  sun. 

1725.  'Why  the  gaseous  oxide  should  be  more 
soluble  in  water  than  the  nitrous  gas,  is  what  I 
cannot  account  for,  unless  it  be  occasioned  by 
the   smaller  size  of  its   calorific   atmospheres, 
which  may  admit  its  atoms  to  come  within  the 
gravitating  influence  of  that  fluid.' 

1726.  It  is  impossible  to  deny  the  praise  of 
singular  ingenuity  and  justness  to  the  above  pas- 
sages ;  and  every  one  must  be  struck  with  their 
analogy,  both  as  to  atomical  doctrines,  and  the 
calorific  atmospheres  of  gases,  single  and  com- 
pound, with  the  language  and  views  expanded 
at  full  length  in  Mr.  Dalton's  new  system  of 
Chemical  Philosophy,   first   framed   about  the 
year  1803,  and  published  in  1808.     It  appears 
that  this  philosopher,  after  meditating  on  the 
definite  proportions  in  which  oxygen  was  shown 
by  M.  Proust  to  exist  in  the  two  oxides  of  the 
same  metal,  on  the  successive  combinations  of 
oxygen  and  azote,  and  the  proportions  of  various 
other  chemical  compounds,  was  finally  led  to 
conclude,  that  the  uniformity  which  obtains  in 
corpuscular  combinations,  results  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  they  consist  of  one  atom  of  the 
one  constituent,  united  generally  with  one  atom 
of  the  other,  or  with  two  or  three  atoms.     And 
he  further  inferred,  that  the  relative  weights  of 
these  ultimate  atoms  might  be  ascertained  from 
the  proportion  of  the  two  constituents  in  a  neu- 
tral compound. 

1727.  Chemistry  is  unquestionably  under  the 
greatest  obligations  to  Mr.  Dalton,  for  the  pains 
with  which  he  collated  the  various  analyses  of 
chemical  bodies  by  different  investigators;  and 
for  establishing,  in  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of 
indefinite  affinity  taught  by  the  illustrious  Ber- 
thollet,  that  the  different  compounds  of  the  same 
principles  did  not  pass  into  each  other  by  imper- 
ceptible gradations,  but  proceeded,  per  saltum, 
in  successive  proportions,  each  a  multiple  of  the 
first.     Mr.  Dalton  has  thus  been  no  mean  con- 
tributor to  the  advancement  of  the  science.     It 
is  difficult  to  say  how  far  his  figured  groups  of 
spherical  atoms  have  been   beneficial   or  not. 
They  may  have  had  some  use  in  aiding  the  con- 
ception  of  learners,  and  perhaps  in  giving  a 
novel  and  imposing  air  to  the  atomical  fabric. 
But  their  arrangement,  and  even  their  existence, 
are  altogether  hypothetical,  and  therefore  ought 
to  have  no  place  in  physical  demonstrations. 

1728.  That  water  is  a  compound  of  an  atom 
of  oxygen  and  an  atom  of  hydrogen,  is  assumed 
by  Mr.  Dalton  as  the  basis  of  his  system.     But 
two  volumes  of  hydrogen  here  combine  with  one 
of  oxygen.     He  therefore  infers,  that  an  atom  of 
hydrogen  occupies  double  the  bulk,  in  its  gaseous 
state,  of  an  atom  of  oxygen.    These  assumptions 
are   obviously   gratuitous.      I   agree   with    Dr. 
Prout  in  thinking  that  Sir  H.  Davy  has  taken  a 
more  philosophical  view  of  this  subject.  Gnided 
by  the  strict  logic  of  chemistry,  he  places  no 
hypothesis  at  the  foundation  of  his  fabric. 

1729.  Experiment  shows,  1st,  That  in  equal 
volumes  oxygen  weighs  sixteen  times  more  than 
hydrogen ;  and  2dly,  Triat  water  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  one  volume  of  the  former,  and  two  vol- 
umes of  the  latter  -ras,  or  by  weight  of  eight  to  one. 


We  are  not  in  the  least  authorised  to  infer  from 
this,  that  an  atom  of  oxygen  weighs  eight  times 
as  much  as  an  atom  of  hydrogen.  For  aught  we 
know,  water  may  be  a  compound  of  two  atoms 
of  hydrogen,  and  one  of  oxygen ;  in  which  case 
we  should  have  the  proportion  of  the  weights  of 
the  atoms,  as  given  by  equal  volumes,  namely,  1 
to  16.  There  is  no  good  reason  for  fixing  on 
one  compound  of  hydrogen,  more  than  on 
another,  in  the  determination  of  the  basis  of  the 
equivalent  scale.  If  we  deliberate  on  that  com- 
bination of  hydrogen,  in  which  its  agency  is  ap- 
parently most  energetic,  namely,  that  with 
chlorine,  we  would  surely  never  think  of  pitch- 
ing on  two  volumes  as  its  unity  or  least  propor- 
tion of  combination;  for  it  is  one  volume  of 
hydrogen  which  unites  with  one  volume  of  chlo- 
rine, producing  two  volumes  of  muriatic  gas. 
Here,  therefore,  we  see  that  one  volume  of  hy- 
drogen is  quite  adequate  to  effect,  in  an  active 
gaseous  body  of  equal  bulk,  and  thirty-six  time* 
its  weight,  an  entire  change  of  properties. 
Should  we  assume  in  gaseous  chemistry,  two 
volumes  of  hydrogen  as  the  combining  unit,  or 
as  representing  an  atom;  then  it  should  never 
unite  in  three  volumes,  or  an  atom  and  a  half 
with  another  gas.  Ammonia,  however,  is  a  com- 
pound of  three  volumes  of  hydrogen  with  one  of 
azote;  and,  if  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  to  one  of 
oxygen  be  called  an  atom  to  an  atom,  surely 
three  volumes  of  hydrogen  to  one  of  azote  should 
be  called  an  atom  and  a  half  to  an  atom.  Yet 
the  Daltonian  commentator,  on  the  second  occa- 
sion, counts  one  volume  an  atom  of  hydrogen, 
and,  on  the  first,  two  volumes  an  atom. 

1730.  We  would  steer  clear  of  all  these  gra- 
tuitous   assumptions     and    contradictions,    by 
making  a  single  volume  of  hydrogen  represent 
its  atom,  or  prime  equivalent.    'There  is  an  ad- 
vantage,' says  Dr.    Prout,  '  in  considering  the 
volume  of  hydrogen  equal  to  the  atom,  as,  in  this 
case,  the  specific  gravities  of  most,  or  perhaps  all 
elementary   substances   (hydrogen   being  one), 
will  either  exactly  coincide  with,  or  be  some 
multiple  of  the  weights,  of  their  atoms;  whereas, 
if  we  make  the  volume  of  oxygen  unity,  the 
weights  of  the  atoms  of  most  elementary  sub- 
stances, except  oxygen,  will  be  double  that  of 
their  specific  gravities,  with  respect  to  hydrogen. 
The  assumption  of  the  volume  of  hydrogen  be- 
ing equal  to  the  atom,  will  also  enable  us  to  find 
more  readily  the  specific  gravities  of  bodies  in 
their  gaseous  state  (either  with  respect  to  hydro- 
gen or  atmospheric  air),  by  means  of  Dr.Wollas- 
ton's  logometric  scale. 

1731.  'If  the   views  we   have   ventured   to 
advance  be  correct,  we  may  almost  consider  the 
Trpwrij  i5\ij  of  the  ancients  to  be  realised  in  hy- 
drogen ;  an  opinion,  by  the  by,  not  altogether 
new.     If  we  actually  consider  this  to  be  the 
case,  and  further  consider  the  specific  gravities 
of  bodies,  in  their  gaseous  state, to  represent  the 
number  of  volumes  condensed  into  one;  or,  in 
other  words,  the  number  of  the  absolute  weight 
of  a  single  volume  of  the  first  matter  (irpia-tf 
t'Xq)  which  they  contain,  which    is   extremely 
probable;  multiples  in  weight  must  always  indi- 
cate multiples  in  volume,  and  vice  versa ;  and 
the   specific   gravities   or   absolute   weights    of 


536 


CHEMISTRY. 


all  bodies  in  a  gaseous  state,  must  be  multiples 
of  the  specific  gravity,  or  absolute  weight  of  the 
first  matter  (irpwrti  v\»j),  because  all  bodies  in  a 
gaseous  state,  which  unite  with  one  another, 
unite  with  reference  to  their  volume." 

1732.  From  these  ingenious  observations,  we 
perceive  the  singular  felicity  of  judgment,  with 
which  Sir  H.  Davy  made  choice  of  the  single 
volume  of  hydrogen,  for  the  unit  of  primary 
combination,  in  his  Elements  of  Chemical  Phi- 
losophy. 

1733.  Mr.  Dalton's  prelections  on  the  atomic 
theory,  and  even  the  first  volume  of  his  new  sys- 
tem of  chemical  philosophy,  excited  no  sensation 
in  the  chemical  world  adequate  to  their  merits. 
That  part  of  his  system  which  treated  on  caloric 
was  blended  with  so  much  mere  hypothesis,  that 
chemists  transferred  a  portion  of  the  scepticism 
thus  created,  to  his  collation  of  primary  and  mul- 
tiple combinations.      It  was  Dr.  Wollaston  who 
first  decided  public  opinion  in  favor  of  the  doc- 
trine  of  multiple   proportions,  by  his  elegant 
paper  on  super-acid  and  sub-acid  salts,  inserted 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1808.  The 
object  of  the  atomic  theory  has  been  nowhere 
so  happily  stated  as  by  this  philosopher,  in  the 
following  sentence; — 

1734.  'But,  since  the  publication  of  Mr. Dal- 
ton's  theory  of  chemical   combination,  as  ex- 
plained and  illustrated  by  Dr.  Thomson  (System, 
3rd  edition),  the  enquiry  which  I  had  designed 
appears   superfluous,   as    all   the   facts   I   had 
observed  are  but  particular  instances  of  the  more 
general  observation  of  Mr.  Dalton,  that  in  all 
cases  the  simple  elements  of  bodies  are  disposed 
to  unite  atom  to  atom  singly,  or,  if  either  is  in 
excess,  it  exceeds  by  a  ratio  to  be  expressed  by 
some  simple  multiple  of  the  number  of  its  atoms.' 

1735.  It  is  evident  from  this  passage,  that  the 
principle  which  presented  itself  to  Mr.  Dalton, 
on  a  review  of  the  labors  of  other  chemists,  had 
really  occurred  to  Dr.  Wnllaston.  from  his  own, 
and  that  he  would  unquestionably  have  been 
speedily  led  to  its  full  development. 

1736.  Dr.  Wollaston,  in  the  above  decisive 
paper,  demonstrates,  that  in  the  sub-carbonate 
and  crystallised  carbonate  of  potassa,  the  relation 
of  the  carbonic  acid  to  the  base,  in  the  first,  is 
exactly  one-half  of  what  it  is  in  the  second.  The 
same  law  is  shown  to  hold  with  regard  to  the 
two  carbonates  of  soda,  and  the  two  sulphates  of 
potassa;  and, being  applied  to  his  experiments 
on  the  compounds  of  potassa  and  oxalic  acid, 
leads  him  to  conclude  that  the  neutral  oxalate 
may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  two  particles 
potassa  to  one  acid ;  the  binoxalate  as  one  and 
one,  or  two  potassa  with  two  acid ;  the  quadrox- 
alate  as  one  and  two,  or  two  potassa  with  four 
acid. 

1737.  We  cannot  withhold  from  our  readers 
the  following  masterly  observations,  which  must 
make  every  one  regret  that  the  full  development 
of  the  atomic  theory  had  not  fallen  within  the 
scope  of  his  researches. ' 

1738.  'But  an  explanation  which  admits  a 
double  share  of  potassa  in  the  neutral  salts  (the 
oxalates),  is  not  altogether  unsatisfactory ;  and  I 
am  farther  inclined  to  think,  that  when  our  views 
»re  sufficiently  extended  to  enable  us  to  reason 


with  precision  concerning  the  proportions  of  ele- 
mentary atorrs,  we  shall  find  the  arithmetical 
relation  alone  will  not  be  sufficient  to  explain 
their  mutual  action,  and  that  we  shall  be  obliged 
to  acquire  a  geometrical  conception  of  their  rela- 
tive arrangement,  in  all  the  three  dimensions  of 
solid  extension. 

1739.  'For  instance,  suppose  the  limit  to  the 
approach  of  particles  to  be  the  same  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  hence  their  virtual  extent  to  be  sphe- 
rical (which  is  the  most  simple  hypothesis) ;  in 
this  case,  when  different  sorts  combine  singly, 
there  is  but  one  mode  of  union.     If  they  unite 
in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one,  the  two  particles 
will    naturally  arrange  themselves  at  opposite 
poles  of  that  to  which  they  unite.     If  they  be 
three,  they  might  be  arranged  with  regularity  at 
the  angles  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  in  a  great 
circle  surrounding  the  single  spherule;  but  in 
this  arrangement,  for  want  of  similar  matter  at 
the  poles  of  this  circle,  the  equilibrium  would 
be  unstable,  and  would  be  liable  to  be  deranged 
by  the  slightest  force  of  adjacent  combinations ; 
but,  when  the  number  of  one  set  of  particles  ex- 
ceeds in  the  proportion  of  four  to  one,  then,  on 
the  contrary,  a  stable   equilibrium  may  again 
take  place,  jf  the  four  particles  are  situated  at 
the  angles  of  the  four  equilateral  Triangles  com- 
posing a  regular  tetrahedron. 

1 740.  '  But  as  this  geometrical  arrangement  of 
the  primary  elements  of  matter  is  altogether  con- 
jectural, and  must  rely  for  its  confirmation  or  re- 
jection upon  future  enquiry,  I  am  desirous  that 
it  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  results  of 
the  facts  and  observations  related  above,  which 
are  sufficiently  distinct  and  satisfactory  with  re- 
spect to  the  existence  of  the  law  of  simple  mul- 
tiples.    It  is  perhaps  too  much  to  hope,  that  the 
geometrical   arrangement   of   primary   particles 
will  ever  be  perfectly  known ;  since,  even  admit- 
ting that  a  very  small  number  of  these  atoms 
combining   together  would  have  a  tendency  to 
arrange  themselves  in  the  manner  I  have  ima- 
gined, yet,  until  it  is  ascertained  how  small   a 
proportion  the  primary  particles  themselves  bear 
to  the  interval  between  them,  it  may  be  supposed 
that  surrounding  combinations,  although  them- 
selves analogous,  might  disturb  this  arrangement  ; 
and,  in  that  case,  the  effect  of  such  interference 
must  also  be  taken  into  the  account,  before  any 
theory  of  chemical  combination  can  be  rendered 
complete.' 

1741.  I  am  not  aware  that  any  chemist  has 
adduced  experimental  e\idence,  to  prove  that  a 
'  stable  equilibrium   may  again  take   place,    if 
the  four  particles  are  situated  at  the  angles  of  the 
four  equilateral  triangles  composing  a  regular  te- 
trahedron.'    I  have,  therefore,  much  pleasure  in 
referring  to  my  researches  on  the  constitution  of 
liquid  nitric  acid,  as  unfolding  a  striking  confir- 
mation  of  Dr. '  Wollaston's  true  philosophy  of 
atomical  combination.     When  I  wrote  the  fol- 
lowing sentence,  I  had  no  recollection  whatever 
of  Dr.  Wollaston's  profound  speculations  on  te- 
trahedral  arrangement. — '  We  perceive,  that  the 
liquid  acid  of  1-420,  composed  of  4  primes  of 
water  +  1  of  dry  acid,  possesses  the  greatest  power 
of  resisting  the  influence  of  temperature  to  change 
its  state.     It  requires  the  maximum  heat  to  boil 


CHEMISTRY. 


537 


it,  when  it  distils  unchanged  ;  and  the  max  mum 
cold  to  effect  its  congelation. 

1742.  Here  we  have  a   fine  example  of  the 
stability  of  equilibrium,  introduced  by  the  com- 
bination of  four  atoms  with  one.     The  discovery 
which  I  had  also  the  good  fortune  to  make  with 
regard  to  the  constitution  of  aqueous  sulphuric 
acid,  that  the  maximum  condensation  occurred 
when  one  atom  of  the  real  acid  was  combined 
with  three  atoms  of  water,   is  equally  consonant 
to  Dr.  Wollaston's  views.    '  But  in  this  arrange- 
ment,' says  Dr.  Wollaston,  '  for  want  of  similar 
matter  at  the  poles  of  this  circle,  the  equilibrium 
would  be  unstable,  and  would  be  liable  to  be  de- 
ranged by  the  slightest  force  of  adjacent  combi- 
nations.'    Compare  with  this  remark  the  follow- 
ing sentence  from  my  paper  on  sulphuric  acid, 
as  published  in  the  Journal  of  Science,  October 
1817: — '  The  terms  cf  dilution   are,  like  loga- 
rithms, a  series  of  numbers  in  arithmetical  pro- 
gression, corresponding  to  another  series,  namely, 
the  specific  gravities,  in  geometrical  progression. 
For,  a  little  distance  on  both  sides  of  the  point 
of  greatest  condensation,  the  series  converges  with 
accelerated  velocity,  whence  the  10  or  12  terms 
on  either  hand  deviate  a  little  from  experiment.' 
Page  126.     Or,  in  other  words,  a  small  addition 
of  water  or  of  acid  to  the  above  atomic  group, 
produces  a  great  change  on  the  degree  of  con- 
densation ;    which    accords    with    the    position 
'  that  the  equilibrium  would  be  liable  to  be  de- 
ranged by  the  slightest  force  of  adjacent  combi- 
nations.' 

1743.  While   considering   this   part   of    Dr. 
Wollaston's  important  paper,  let  me  advert  to 
the  curious  facts  pointed  out  in  the  article  NITRIC 
ACID,  relative  to  the  compound  of  one  atom  of 
dry  acid,  and  seven  atoms  of  water.     In  my  pa- 
per on  the  subject,  published  in  the  eighth  num- 
ber of  the  Journal  of  Science,  I  showed  that  this 
liquid  combination  was  accompanied  with  the 
greatest  condensation  of  volume,  and  the  greatest 
disengagement  of  heat.     In  composing  this  Dic- 
tionary, I  calculated,  for  the  first  time,  the  ato- 
mical  constitution  of  the  nitric  acids  employed 
by  Mr.  Cavendish  for  cong'elation ;  and  found 
with  great  satisfaction,  that  the  same  proportion 
which  had   exhibited,   in    my  experiments,  the 
most  intense  reciprocal  action,  as  was  indicated 
both  by  the  aggregation  of  particles  and  produc- 
tion of  heat,  was  likewise  that  which  most  fa- 
vored  solidification.      Such  acid    congeals    at 
—  2° ;  but,  when  either  stronger  or  weaker,  it 
requires  a  much   lower    temperature    for    that 
effect. 

1744.  iii.  The  next  capital  discovery  in  mul- 
tiple proportions,  was  made  by  M.  Gay  Lussac, 
in  1808,  and  published  by  him   in  the    second 
volume  of  the  Memoires  d'Arcueil.     After  de- 
tailing a  series  of  fine  experiments,  he  deduces 
the  following  important  inferences  : — '  Thus  it 
evidently  appears,  that  all  gases,  in  their  mutual 
action,   uniformly  combine  in   the  most  simple 
proportions ;  and  we  have  seen,   in  fact,  in  all 
the  preceding  examples,  that  the  ratio  of  their 
union  is  that  of  1  to  1,  of  1  to  2,  or  of  1  to  3,  by 
volume.     It  is  important  to  observe,  that  when 
we  consider  the  weights,  there  is  no  simple  and 
definite  relation  between  the  elements  of  a  first 


combination  ;  it  is  only  when  there  is  a  second 
between  these  same  elements,  that  the  new  pro- 
portion of  that  body  which  has  been  added  is  a 
multiple  of  the  first.  Gases,  on  the  contrary, 
in  such  proportions  as  can  combine,  give  rise 
always  to  compounds  whose  elements  are  in 
volume,  multiples  the  one  of  the  other. 

1745.  'Not  only  do  the  gases   combine  in 
very  simple  proportions,  as  we  have  just  seen, 
but  moreover,  the  apparent  contraction  of  volume 
which  they  experience  by  combination,  has  like- 
wise a  simple  relation  with  the  volume  of  the 
gases,  or  rather  with  the  volume  of  one  of  them.' 

1746.  By  supposing  the  contraction  of  volume 
of  the  two  gaseous  constituents  of  water  to  be 
only  equal  to  the  whole  volume  of  oxygen  added, 
he  found  the  ratio  of  the  density  of  steam  to  be 
to  that  of  air  as  10  to  16  ;    a  computed  result  in 
exact    correspondence  with    the    experimental 
result  lately  obtained  in  an  independent  method 
by  the  same  excellent  philosopher.     '  Ammonia- 
cal  gas  is  composed  in  volume,'  says  he,    '  of  3 
parts  of  hydrogen  and  1  of  azote,  and  its  density, 
compared  to  that  of  air,  is  0'596  ;  but,  if  we  sup- 
pose the  apparent  contraction  to  be  one-half  of 
the  total  volume,  we  find  0'594  for  its  density. 
Thus  it  is  demonstrated,  by  this  nearly  perfect 
accordance,  that  the  apparent  contraction  of  its 
elements  is  precisely  one-half  of  the  total  volume, 
or  rather  double  the  volume  of  azote.'     M.  Gay 
Lussac  subjoins  to  his  beautiful  memoir  a  table 
of  gaseous  combination,  which,  with  some  modi- 
fications derived    from    subsequent   researches, 
will  be  inserted  under  the  article  GAS. 

1747.  The  same  volume  of  the  Memoires  pre- 
sents  another  important  discovery  of  M.  Gay 
Lussac,  on  the  subject  of  equivalent  proportions. 
It  is  entitled,  On  the  Relation  which  exists  be- 
tween the  Oxidation  of  Metals,  and  their  Capa- 
city of  Saturation  for  the  Acids.  He  here  proves,  by 
a  series  of  experiments,  that  the  quantity  of  acid 
which  the  different  metallic  oxides   require  for 
saturation,  is  in  the  direct  ratio  of  the  quantity 
of  oxygen  which  they  respectively  contain.     '  I 
have  arrived  at  this  principle,'  says  he,  '  not  by 
the  comparison  of  the  kno%vn  proportions  of  the 
metallic  salts,  which  are  in  general  too  inexact  to 
enable  us  to  recognise  this  law,  but  by  observing 
the  mutual  precipitation  of  the  metals  from  their 
solutions  in  acids. 

1748.  When  we  precipitate  a  solution  of  ace- 
tate of  lead  by  a  plate  of  zinc,  there  is  formed  a 
beautiful  vegetation  known  under  the  name  of 
the  Tree  of  Saturn  ;    and  which  arises  from  the 
reduction  of  the  lead  by  a  galvanic  process,  a? 
was  first  shown  by  Silvester  and  Grotthus.     We 
obtain  at  the  same  time  a  solution  of  acetate  of 
zinc,  equally  neutral  with  that  of  the  lead,  and 
entirely  exempt  from  this  last  metal.     No  hydro- 
gen, or  almost  none,  is  disengaged  during  the 
precipitation  ;    which   proves,   that    the   whole 
oxygen  necessary  to  the  zinc,  for  its  becoming 
dissolved  and  saturating  the  acid,  has  been  fur- 
nished to  it  by  the  lead. 

1749.  If  we  put  into  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper,  slightly  acidulous,  bright  iron  turnings  in 
excess,  the  copper  is  almost  instantly  precipi- 
tated ;  the  temperature  rises,  and  no  gas  is  dis- 
engaged.    The  sulphate  of  iron  which  we  obtain, 


538 


CHEMISTRY. 


is  that  in  which  the  oxide  is  at  a  minimum,  and 
its  acidity  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the  sul- 
phate of  copper  employed. 

1750.  We  obtain  similar  results  by  decom- 
posing the  acetate  of  copper  by  lead,  especially 
with  the  aid  of  heat.     But  since  the  zinc  preci- 
pitates the  lead  from  its  acetic  solution,  we  may 
conclude,  that  it  would  also  precipitate  copper 
from  its  combination  with  the  acetic  acid.      Ex- 
perience  is  here  in    perfect   accordance  with 
theory. 

1751.  We   know  with   what  facility  copper 
precipitates  silver  from  its  nitric  solution.     All 
the  oxygen  which  it  needs  for  its  solution  is  fur- 
nished to  it  by  the  oxide  of  silver;  for  no  gas  is 
disengaged,  and  the  acidity  is  unchanged.     The 
same  thing  happens  with  copper  in  regard  to 
nitrate  of  mercury,   and  to  cobalt  in  regard  to 
nitrate  of  silver.     In  these  last  examples,  as  in 
the  preceding,  the  precipitating  metal  finds,  in 
the  oxide  of  the  metal  which  it  precipitates,  all 
the  oxygen  which  is  necessary  to  it  for  its  oxi- 
disement,  and  for  neutralising  to  the  same  degree 
the  acid  of  the  solution. 

1752.  These  incontestable  facts  naturally  con- 
duct to  the  principle  announced  above,  that  the 
acid  in  the  metallic  salts  is  directly  proportional 
to  the  oxygen  in  their  oxides.     In  the  precipita- 
tion of  one  metal  by  another,  the  quantity  of 
oxygen  in  each  oxide  remains  the  same,  and  con- 
sequently the  larger  dose  of  oxygen  the  precipi- 
tating metal  takes,  the  less  metal  will  it  precipi- 
tate. 

1753.  M.  Gay  Lussac  next  proceeds  to  show, 
with  regard  to  the  same  metals  at  their  different 
stages  of  oxidisement,  that  they  require  of  acid 
a  quantity  precisely  proportional  to  the  quantity 
of  oxygen  they  may  contain ;  or  that  the  acid  in 
the  salts  is  exactly  proportional  to  the  oxygen  of 
the  oxides.     A  very  important  result  of  this  law 
is,  the  ready  means  it  affords  of  determining  the 
proportions  of  all  the  metallic  salts.     The  pro- 
portions of  one  metallic  salt,  and  the  oxidation 
of  the  metals  being  given,  we  may  determine 
those  of  all  the  salts  of  the  same  genus ;  or  the 
proportions  of  acid,   and   of  oxide,  of  all  the 
metallic  salts,  and  the  oxidation  of  a  single  metal 
being  given,  we  can  calculate  the  oxidation  of 
all  the  rest.     Since  the  peroxides  require  most 
acid,  we  can  easily  understand  how  the  salts  con- 
taining them  should  be,  in  general,  more  soluble 
than  those  with  the  protoxide. 

1754.  M.  Gay  Lussac  concludes  his  memoir 
with  this  observation.     When  we  precipitate  a 
metallic    solution,    by    sulphureted    hydrogen, 
either  alone  or  combined  with  an  alkaline  base, 
we  obtain  a  sulphuret  or  a  metallic  hydrosul- 
phuret.     In  the  first  case,  the  hydrogen  of  the 
sulphureted    hydrogen    combines  with   all   the 
oxygen  of  the  oxide,  and  the  sulphur  forms  a  sul- 
phuret with  the  metal :  in  the  second  case,  the 
sulphureted   hydrogen    combines    directly  with 
the  oxide,  without  being  decomposed ;  and  its 
proportion  is  such  that  there  is  sufficient  hydro- 
gen to  saturate  all  the  oxygen  of  the  oxide.    The 
quantity  of  hydrogen  neutralised,  or  capable  of 
being  so,  depends  therefore  on  the  oxidation  of 
the  metal,  as  well  as  the  quantity  of  the  sulphur 
which  can  combine  with  it.     Of  consequence, 


the  same  metal  forms  as  many  distinct  sulphu- 
rets,  as  it  is  susceptible  of  distinct  stages  of  oxi- 
dation in  its  acid  solutions.  And,  as  these  de- 
grees of  oxidation  are  fixed,  we  may  also  obtain 
sulphurets,  of  definite  proportions,  which  we  can 
easily  determine,  according  to  the  quantity  of 
oxygen  to  each  metal,  and  the  proportions  of 
sulphureted  hydrogen. 

1755.  The  next  chemist  who  contributed  es- 
sentially to  the  improvement  of  the  equivalent 
ratios  of  chemical  bodies,  was  Berzelius.     By  an 
astonishing  number  of  analyses,  executed  for  the 
most  part  with  remarkable  precision,  he  enabled 
chemical  philosophers  to  fix,  with  corresponding 
accuracy,  the  equivalent  ratios  reduced  to  their 
lowest  terms.    He  himself  took  oxygen  as  the 
unit  of  proportion. 

1756.  The  results  of  all  this  emulous  cultiva- 
tion were  combined,  and  illustrated  with  original 
researches,  by  Sir  H.  Davy,  in  his  Elements  of 
Chemical   Philosophy  published   in  1812.     In 
this  system  of  truths,  which  will  never  become 
obsolete,  we  find  the  claims  of  Mr.  Higgins  to  , 
the  discovery  of  the  atomic  theory  justly  advo- 
cated. 

1757.  But  what  peculiarly  characterises  this 
chemical   work,   is   the   sound   anrihypothetical 
doctrines  which  it  inculcates  on  chemical  combi- 
nation.    'Mr.  Higgins,'  says  Sir  H.,  'has  sup- 
posed that  water  is  composed  of  one  particle  of 
oxygen  and  one  of  hydrogen,  and  Mr.  Dalton  of 
an  atom  each ;  but,  in  the  doctrine  of  proportions 
derived  from  facts,  it  is  not  necessary  to  consider 
the  combining  bodies,  either  as  composed  of  in- 
divisible particles,  or  even  as  always  united,  one 
and  one,  or  one  and  two,  or  one  and  three  pro- 
portions.    Cases  will  be  hereafter  pointed  out, 
in  which  the  ratios  are  very  different ;  and  at  pre- 
sent, as  we  have  no  means  whatever  of  judging 
either  of  the  relative  numbers,  figures,  or  weights, 
of  those  particles  of  bodies  which  are  not  in  con- 
tact, our  numerical  expressions  ought  to  relate 
only  to  the  results  of  experiments.' 

1758.  He  conceives  that  the  calculations  will 
be  much  expedited,.and  the  formulae  rendered 
more  simple,  by  considering  the  smallest  propor- 
tion of  any  combining  body,  namely,  that  of  hy- 
drogen, as  the  integer.     This  radical  proportion 
of  hydrogen,  is  the  Trpwrij  v\»j  of  the  ancient 
philosophers. 

1759.  It  has  been  objected  by  some,  to  our 
assuming  hydrogen  as  the  unit,  that  the  numbers 
representing  the  metals  would  become  inconve- 
niently large.     But  this  could  never  be  urged  by 
any  person  acquainted  with  the  theory  of  num- 
bers.    For  in  what  respect  is  it  more  convenient 
to  reckon  barium  8'75  on  the  atomic  scale,  or 
8'75  X  16  zr  140  on  Sir  II.  Davy's  scale  of  ex- 
periment ;  or  is  it  any  advantage  to  name,  with 
Dr.  Thomson,  tin  —  7-375,  or  to  call  it  118,  on 
the   plan  of  the   English  philosopher?     If  the 
combining  ratios  of  all  bodies  be  multiples  of 
hydrogen,  as  is  probable,  why  not  take  hydrogen 
as  the  unit?     I  think  this  question  will  not  be 
answered  in  the  negative,  by  those  who  practise 
the  reduction  of  chemical  proportions.     The  de- 
fenders of  the  Daltonian  hypothesis,  that  water 
consists  of  one  atom  oxygen  to  one  atom  hydro- 
gen, may  refer  to  Dr.  Wollaston's  scale,  as  au- 


CHEMISTRY. 


539 


thority  for  taking  oxygen  as  the  unit.  But  that 
admirable  instrument,  which  has  at  once  sub- 
jected thousands  of  chemical  combinations  to  all 
the  despatch  and  precision  of  logometric  calcula- 
tion, is  actually  better  adapted  to  the  hydrogen 
unit  than  to  the  oxygen.  For  if  we  slide  down 
the  middle  rule,  till  10  on  it  stand  opposite  to  10 
hydrogen  on  the  left  side,  everything  on  the 
scale  is  given  in  accordance  with  Sir  H.  Davy's 
system  of  primary  proportions,  and  M.  Gay 
Lussac's  theory  of  gaseous  combination.  This 
valuable  concurrence,  as  is  well  pointed  out  by 
Dr.  Prout,  we  lose  by  adopting  the  volume  of 
oxygen  as  radix. 

1760.  In  the  first  part  of  the  Phil.  Trans,  for 
1814,  appeared  Dr.  Wollaston's  description  of 
his  scale  of  chemical  equivalents, — an  instrument 
which  has  contributed  more  to  facilitate  the  ge- 
neral study  and  practice  of  chemistry  than  any 
other  invention  of  man.     His  paper  is  further 
valuable,  in  presenting  a  series  of  numbers  de- 
noting the  relative  primary  proportions,  or  weights 
of  the  atoms  of  the  principal  chemical  bodies, 
both   simple   and  compound,  determined  with 
singular  sagacity,  from  a  general  review  of  the 
most  exact  analyses  of  other  chemists,  as  well  as 
his  own. 

1761.  The  list  of  substances  which  he  has  es- 
timated, are  arranged  on  one  or  other  side  of  a 
scale  of  numbers,  in  the  order  of  their  relative 
weights,  and  at  such  distances  from  each  other, 
according  to  their  weights,  that  the  series  of  num- 
bers placed  on  a  sliding  scale  can  at  pleasure  be 
moved,  so  that  any  number  expressing  the  weight 
of  a  compound,  may  be  brought  to  correspond 
with  the  place  of  that  compound  in  the  adjacent 
column.    The  arrangement  is  then  such,  that  the 
weight  of  any  ingredient  in  its  composition,  of 
any  re-agent  to  be  employed,  or  precipitate  that 
might  be  obtained  in  Us  analysis,  will  be  found 
opposite  the  point  at  which  its  respective  name 
is  placed. 

1762.  If  the  slider  be  drawn  upwards,  till  100 
corresponds  to  muriate  of  soda,  the  scale  will  then 
show  how  much  of  each  substance  contained  in 
the  table  is  equivalent  to  100  common  salt.     It 
shows,  with  regard  to  the  different  views  of  this  salt, 
that  it  contains  46'6  dry  muriatic  acid,  and  53-4 
of  soda,  or  39'8  sodium,  and  13-6  oxygen  ;  or,  if 
viewed  as  chloride  of  sodium,  that  it  contains 
60-2  chlorine,  and  39'8  sodium.    With  respect  to 
re-agents,  it  may  be  seen,  that  283  nitrate  of  lead, 
containing  191  of  litharge,  employed  to  separate 
the  muriatic  acid,  would  yield  a  precipitate  of 
237  muriate  of  lead,  and  that  there  would  then 
remain  in  solution  nearly  146  nitrate  of  soda. 
It  may  at  the  same  time  be  seen,  that  the  acid  in 
this  quantity  of  salt  would  serve  to  make  232 
corrosive  sublimate,  containing  185'5  red  oxide 
of  mercury  ;  or  make  91'5  muriate  of  ammonia, 
composed  of  62  muriatic  gas  (or  hydromuriatic 
acid),  and  29'5  ammonia.    The  scale  shows  also, 
that  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  whole  of  the 
acid  in  distillation,  the  quantity  of  oil  of  vitriol 
required  is  nearly  84,  and  that  the  residuum  of 
this  distillation  would  be  122  dry  sulphate  of 
soda,  from  which  might  be  obtained,  by  crystal- 
lisation, 277  of  Glauber  salt,  containing  155  water 
of  crystallisation.     These,  and  many  more  such 


answers,  appear  at  once,  by  bare  inspection,  as 
soon  as  the  weight  of  any  substance  intended  for 
examination  is  made,  by  motion  of  the  slider, 
correctly  to  correspond  with  its  place  in  the  ad- 
jacent column.  Now,  surely,  the  accurate  and 
immediate  solution  of  so  many  important  prac 
tical  problems,  is  an  incalculable  benefit  con- 
ferred on  the  chemist. 

1763.  With  regard  to  the  method  of  laying 
down  the  divisions  of  this  scale,  those  who  are 
accustomed  to  the  use  of  other  sliding  rules,  and 
are  practically  acquainted  with  their  properties, 
will  recognise  upon  the  slider  itself,  the  common 
Gunter's  line  of  numbers  (as  it  is  called),  and 
will  be  satisfied  that  the  results  which  it  gives 
are  the  same  that  would  be  obtained  by  arithme- 
tical computation. 

1764.  Those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  doc- 
trine of  ratios,  and  with  the  use  of  logarithms  as 
measures  of  ratios,  will  understand  the  principle 
on  which  this  scale  is  founded,  and  will  not  need 
to  be  told,  that  all  the  divisions  are  logometric ; 
consequently,  that  the  mechanical  addition  and 
subtraction  of  ratios  here  performed  by  juxtapo- 
sition, correspond  in  effect  to  the  multiplication 
and  division  of  the  numbers,  by  which  those 
ratios   are   expressed   in   common    arithmetical 
notation. 

1765.  In  his  Essay  on  the  cause  of  Chemical 
Proportions,   Berzelius    proposed  a  system   of 
signs,  to  denote  atomical  combinations,  which  it 
may  be  proper  briefly  to  explain.     This  sign  is 
the  initial  letter,  and  by  itself  always  expresses 
one  atom,  volume,  or  prime  of  the  substance. 
When  it  is  necessary  to  indicate  several  volumes, 
or  primes,  it  is  done  by  prefixing  the  number ; 
for  example,  the  cuprous  oxide,  or  protoxide  of 
copper,  is  composed  of  a  prime  of  oxygen  and  a 
prime  of  metal;  its  sign  is  therefore  Cu  +  O. 
The  cupric  oxide,  or  deutoxide  of  copper,  is  com- 
posed of  1  prime  metal,  and  2  primes  oxygen  ; 
therefore  its  sign  is  Cu  +  2  O.     In  like  manner 
the  sign  for  sulphuric  acid  is  S  +  3  O ;  for  car- 
bonic acid,  C  -j-  2  O ;  for  water,  2  H  +  0,  &c. 

1766.  When  we  express  a  compound  prime 
of  the  first  order,  or  binary,  we  throw  away  the 
+,  and  place  the  number  of  primes  above  the 
letter,  as  the  index  or  exponent  is  placed  in 
arithmetic.     For  example,  CuO  +  SO3  ~  sul- 
phate of  copper ;  CuO2  -f-  2SO3  =.  bi-deutosul- 
phate  of  copper,  or  persulphate.    These  formula? 
have  this  advantage,  that  if  we  take  away  the 
oxygen,  we  see  at  once  the  ratio  between  the 
radicals.     As  to  the  primes  of  the  second  order, 
or  ternary  compounds,  it  is  but  rarely  of  any  ad- 
vantage  to  express  them   by  formulae,  as  one 
prime ;  but  if  we  wish  to  express  them  in  that 
way,  we  may  do  it  by  using  the  parenthesis,  as  is 
done  in  algebraic  formulae  :  for  example,  accord- 
ing to  Berzelius,  alum  is  composed  of  3  primes 
of  sulphate  of  alumina,  and  1  of  sulphate  of  pot- 
ash.    Its  symbol  is  3  (Al  O2  +  2SO3)  +  (Po2 
+  2SO3).    The  prime  of  ammonia  is  3HN  ;  viz. 
3  primes  hydrogen  +  1  nitrogen.    We  shall  use 
some  of  these  abbreviations  in  our  table  of  equi- 
valent primes,  at  the  article  SALT. 

1767.  To  reduce  analytical  results,  as  usually 
given  for  100  parts,  to   the   equivalent   prime 
ratios,  or,  in  hypothetical  language,  to  the  atomic 


540 


CHEMISTRY. 


proportions,  is  now  a  problem  of  perpetual  re- 
currence, with  which  students  are  perplexed,  as 
no  rule  has  been  given  for  its  ready  solution. 
We  shall  here  explain  it  in  detail. 

1768.  As  in  all  reasoning  we  must  proceed 
from  what  is  known  or  determinate,  to  what  is 
unknown  or  indeterminate,  so,  in  every  analysis, 
there  must  be  one  ingredient  whose  prime  equi- 
valent is  well  ascertained.  This  is  employed  as 
the  common  measure,  and  the  proportions  of  the 
rest  are  compared  to  it.  Let  us  take,  for  in- 
stance, Sir  H.  Davy's  analysis  of  fluate  of  lime, 
to  determine  the  unknown  number  that  should 
denote  the  prime  of  fluoric  acid.  We  know,  first 
of  all,  that  2  primes  of  oxygen  —  2,  combine 
with  1  of  carbon  —  0-75,  to  form  the  compound 
prime  2-75  of  carbonic  acid.  We  likewise  know 
that  carbonate  of  lime  consists  of  43-6  carbonic 
acid  +  54-4  lime.  We  therefore  make  this  pro- 
portion to  determine  the  prime  equivalent  of 
lime. 

i.  43-6  :  54-4::  2-75  :  3-56  =.  prime  of  lime. 

ii.  We  know  that  100  parts  of  dry  sulphate  of 
lime  consists  of  41 '6  lime  and  58-4  acid.  Hence, 
to  find  the  prime  of  sulphuric  acid,  we  make  this 
proportion : — 

41-6  :  58-4  ::  3-56  :  5  z=  prime  of  sulphuric 
acid. 

iii.  Sir  H.  Davy  obtained  from  100  grains  of 
fluor  spar  in  powder,  acted  on  with  repeated 
quantities  of  sulphuric  acid  and  ignited,  175-2 
grains  of  sulphate  of  lime.  Now,  since  100 
grains  of  sulphate  of  lime  contain,  as  above,  41-6 
of  lime,  we  have  this  proportion  : — 

100  ;  41-6;:  175-2  :  72-88  =  lime,  correspond- 
ing to  175'2  grains  of  sulphate,  and  which  pre- 
viously existed  in  the  100  grains  of  fluor  spar. 
If  from  100  we  subtract  72'88,  the  difference 


27-12  is  the  fluric  acid,  or  the  other  ingredient 
of  the  fluor,  which  saturated  the  lime.  Now  to 
find  its  prime  equivalent  we  say, 

72-88  :  3-56  : :  27-12  ;  1'325  —  the  prime  or 
atom  of  fluoric  acid  from  Sir  H.  Davy's  experi- 
ment. 

1769.  We  shall  give  another  example,  derived 
from  a  more  complex  subject. 

1770.  M.  Vauquelin  found  that  33  partsot  lime, 
saturated  with  sorbic  acid,  and  carefully  dried, 
weighed  100  grains.      Hence  the  difference,  67 
grains,  was  acid.     To  find  its  equivalent  prime, 
we  say, 

As  33  :  67!  *.  3-56=  the  prime  of  lime  :  7-23 
—  the  prime  of  the  acid.  But  as  he  brought  it 
to  absolute  neutrality,  by  a  small  portion  of 
potash,  we  may  take  7-5  for  the  prime. 

1771.  M.  Vauquelin  subjected  the  acid, as  it 
exists  in  the  dry  sorbates  of  lead  and  copper,  to 
igneous  analysis ;    and  obtained  the  following 
results. — 

Hydrogen  .  .  .  16-8 
Carbon  ....  28'3 
Oxygen  ....  54-9 

100-0 

1772.  Now  we  must  find  such  an  assemblage  of 
the  primes  or  atoms  of  these  elements  as  will  form 
a  sum  total  of  7'5,  and  at  the  same  time  be  to 
each  other  in  the  above  proportions.      The  fol- 
lowing very  simple  rule  will  give  a  ready  ap- 
proximation ;  and,  with  a  common  sliding  scale, 
it  may  be  worked  by  inspection. 

1773.  Multiply  each  proportion  per  cent,  by 
the  compound  prime,  and  compare  the  products 
with  the  multiples  of  the  constituent  primes.   You 
can  then  estimate  the  number  of  each  prime  re- 
quisite to  compose  the  whole.    Thus, 


0-168  x  7-5=  1-2600  or  10  hydrogen  n  1'25 
0-283  X  7-5=  2-1225  3  carbon  =,  2'25 
0-549  X  7-5=4-1175  4  oxygen  —  4-00 


7-50 


Theory.  Experiment, 
16-7  16-8 

30-0  28-3 

53-3  54-9 

100-0  -        100-0 


1774.  The  differences  between  these  theoreti- 
cal and  experimental  proportions,  are  probably 
within  the  limits  of  the  errors  of  the  latter  in  the 
present  state  of  analysis. 

1775.  If,  on  Dr.Wollaston's  scale,  we  mark  with 
a  type  or  pen  2h,  3h,  &c.  up  to  lOh ;  2c,  3c,  4c, 
5c ;   and  2n,  3n,  4n ;   respectively  opposite  to 
twice,  thrice,  &c.  the  atoms  of  hydrogen,  carbon, 
and  nitrogen,  as  is  already  done  for  oxygen  (with 
the  exception  of  the  fourth,  where  copper  stands\ 
we  shall  then  have  ready  approximations  to  the 
prime  components,  by  inspection  of  the  scale. 
Move  the  sliding  part  so  that  one  of  the  quan- 
tities per  cent,  may  stand  opposite  the  nearest 
estimate  of  a  multiple  prime  of  that  constituent. 
Thus  we  know  that  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  oxy- 
gen, bear  the  relation  to  each  other  of  1,  6,  8 ; 
and,  of  course,  the  latter  two  that  of  3  to  4.    But 
54-9  oxygen,  being  more  than  one-half  of  100, 
the  weight  of  oxygen  in  the  compound  prime  is 
more  than  the  half  of  7'5,  and  therefore  points  to 
4.     Place  54-9  opposite  4  oxygen  (where  copper 
stands),  we  shall  find  18  opposite  10  hydrogen, 


and  30-7  opposite  3  carbon.  Here  we  see  the 
proportions  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  are  both 
greater  than  by  Vauquelin's  analysis.  Try  51 
opposite  4  oxygen,  then  opposite  3  carbon  we 
have  28-7,  and  opposite  10  hydrogen  16-9.  The 
proportions  I  have  calculated  arithmetically, 
above,  seem  somewhat  better  approximations; 
they  were  deduced  from  hydrogen  0125,.  and 
carbon  0'75,  instead  of  0'132  and  0'754,  as  on 
the  scale. 

1776.  If  the  weight  of  the  compound  prime 
is  not  given,  then  we  must  proceed  to  estimate 
the  nearest  prime  proportions,  after  inspection  of 
those  per  cent.     The  scale  may  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage, as  just  now  explained. 

1777.  The  following  case  has  been  reckoned 
difficult  of  solution,  and  has  been  involved  in  an 
algebraic  formula.     Let  us  suppose  a  vegetable 
acid,  containing  combined  water,  whose  prime 
equivalent  is  to  be  determined  by  experiment. 
A  crystallised  salt  is  made  with  it,  for  example,  and 
a  determ.nate  quantity  of  soda.      Suppose  the 
alkali  to  form  twenty-six  per  cent,  of  the  salt. 


CHEMISTRY 


541 


The  rest  is  water  and  acid.  Dissolve  100  grains 
and  add  them  to  an  indefinite  quantity  of  the 
solution  of  any  salt,  with  whose  base  the  vegeta- 
ble acid  forms  an  insoluble  compound.  Dry  and 
weigh  this  precipitate.  Without  decomposing 
the  latter  we  have  sufficient  data  for  determining 
the  prime  equivalent  of  the  real  acid.  We  make 
this  proportion: — As  the  weight  of  soda  is  to  its 
prime  equivalent,  so  is  the  weight  of  the  pre- 
cipitate to  the  prime  of  the  compound.  Suppose 
148  grains  of  an  insoluble  salt  of  lead  to  have 
been  obtained ;  then  26  :  3'95  : 1  148  :  22'1  = 
the  prime  of  the  salt  of  lead.  From  this,  if  we 
deduct  the  weight  of  the  prime  equivalent  of 
oxide  of  lead~  14,  we  have  8'1  for  the  prime 
equivalent  of  the  acid.  And  the  crystallised  salt 
must  have  consisted  of, 


Diy  acid 
Soda 
Water    . 


53-3 
260 
20-7 

100-0 


1778.  As  the  above  numbers  were  assumed 
merely  for  arithmetical  illustration,  the  water  is 
not  atomically  expressed.      Indeed  the  problem 
of  finding  the  acid  prime  does  not  require  the 
salt  to  be  either  dried  or  weighed.      A  solution 
would  suffice.      Saturate  a  known  weight  of  al- 
kali with  an  unknown  quantity  of  the  crystallised 
acid.     Add  this  neutral  solution  to  a  redundant 
quantity  of  solution  of  nitrate  of  lead.     Wash, 
dry,  and  weigh  the  insoluble  precipitate,  and  ap- 
ply the  above  rule. 

1779.  There  are  three  systems  of  equivalent 
numbers  at  present  employed  :  1st,  That  having 


oxygen  as  the  radix;  2nd,  that  having  one 
volume  of  hydrogen  as  the  radix;  3rd,  thaj 
having  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  as  the  radix, 
on  the  Daltonian  supposition  that  two  volumes 
of  hydrogen  contain  the  same  number  of  atoms 
as  one  volume  of  oxygen.  As  this  hypothesis  is 
destitute  of  proof,  it  evidently  should  be  dis- 
carded from  physical  science.  Since  the  volume 
of  hydrogen  is  equal  in  weight  to  l-16th  the 
weight  of  the  volume  of  oxygen,  the  former  two 
systems  are  mutually  convertible,  by  multiplying 
the  number  in  the  oxygen  ratio  by  sixteen,  or 
4  X  4,  to  obtain  the  number  in  the  hydrogen 
scale  ;  and  this  is  reconverted  by  the  inverse 
operation,  namely,  dividing  by  sixteen,  or  by 
4X4. 

1780.  Dr. Wollaston's scale, and  SirH.  Davy's 
proportional  numbers,  are  adapted  to  the  idea 
that  water  is  a  compound  of  1  hydrogen  +  7-5 
oxygen  by  weight,  or  15  +  1  by  volume.  Their 
mutual  conversion  is  therefore  very  easy ;  for  if 
we  add  to  Dr.  Wollaston's  number  its  half,  the 
sum  is  Sir  H.  Davy's;  and,  of  course,  if  we  sub- 
tract from  the  number  of  the  latter  its  third,  the 
remainder  is  Dr.  Wollaston's  number.  There  is 
one  very  frequent  variation  in  the  weights  of  the 
primes  among  the  best  writers,  namely,  doubling 
or  halving  the  number.  This  difference  is  occa- 
sioned generally  by  an  uncertainty  about  the  first 
term  or  proportion  in  which  the  body  combines 
with  oxygen;  some  chemists  reckoning  that  a 
protoxide  which  others  consider  a  deutoxide. 
Thus  Sir  H.  Davy  gives  103  as  the  number 
representing  iron;  from  which,  if  we  deduct 
i2i=  34-3,  the  remainder  68-  7  is  nearly  double 
of  34-5,  the  number  of  Dr.  Wollaston. 


I. — DR.  WOLLASTON'S  NUMERICAL  TABLE  OF  CHEMICAL  EQUIVALENTS. 
Dr.  Wollaston's  numbers  represent  the  weights  of  the  atoms  of  bodies,  oxygen  being  called  ten. 


1.  Hydrogen 1-32 

2.  Oxygen 10-00 

3.  Water          .         .  *                .         .  11-32 

4.  Carbon 7-54 

5.  Carbonic  acid  (20  oxygen)    .         .  27'54 

6.  Sulphur 20-00 

7.  Sulphuric  acid  (30  oxygen)  .         .  50-00 

8.  Phosphorus          ....  17-40 

9.  Phosphoric  acid  (20  oxygen)         .  '37-40 
10.  Azote  or  nitrogen          .         .         .  17-54 

11  Nitric  acid  (50  oxygen)          .         .  67-54 

12  Muriatic  acid,  dry        .          .         .  34-10 

13.  Oxymuriatic  acid  (10  oxygen)       .  44-10 

14.  Chlorine  44-10  +  1-32  hydrogen 

—  muriatic  acid  gas           .         .  45-42 

15.  Oxalic  acid           ....  47-00 

16.  Ammonia             ....  21 '50 

17.  Soda 39-10 

18.  Sodium  (above  — 10  oxygen,)        .  29-10 

19.  Potassa 49-10 

20.  Potassium  (  above — 10  oxygen)  .  49'10 

21.  Magnesia             ....  24-60 

22.  Lime 35-46 

23.  Calcium  (above — 10  oxygen)      .  25-46 

24.  Strontites 69-00 

25.  Barytes 97-00 


26.  Iron             .         .         .                  .  34'50 
Black  oxide  (10  oxygen)       .         .  44-50 
Red  oxide  (15  oxygen)          .         .  49*50 

27.  Copper 40-00 

Black  oxide  (10  oxygen)       .         .  50-00 

28.  Zinc             41-00 

Oxide  (10  oxygen)       .         .         .  51-00 

29.  Mercury 125-50 

Red  oxide  (10  oxygen)         .         .  135-50 

Black  oxide  (125-5  mercury)          .  261-00 

30.  Lead 129-50 

Litharge  (1 0  oxygen)    .         .         .  139-50 

31.  Silver 135-00 

Oxide  (10  oxygen)        .         .         .  145-00 

32.  Sub-carbonate  of  ammonia  .         .  49'00 
Bi-carbonate  (27'5  carbonic  acid) .  76-50 

33.  Sub-carbonate  of  soda          .         .  66-60 
Bi-carbonate  (27-5  C.  A.  +  11-3 

water) 105-50 

34.  Sub-carbonate  of  potash        .         .  86-00 
Bi-carbonate  (27-5  C.  A.   +  11'3 

water) 125-50 

35.  Carbonate  of  lime         .         .         .  63-00 

36.  barytes     .         .         .  124-50 

37. lead          .         .         .  167-00 

38.  Sulphuric  acid,  d-y                .         .  50-00 


542 


CHEMISTRY. 


39.  Sulphuric  acid  sp.  gr.  1-850   (50 

+  11-3  water) 

40.  Sulphate  of  soda  (10  water  zr 

113-2) 

41.  Sulphate  of  potash 

42.  Sulphate  of  magnesia,  dry    . 
Do.  crystallised  (7  water  =  79'3)  . 

43.  Sulphate  of  lime,  dry  . 
Crystallised  (2  water  =.  22-64,)     . 

44.  Sulphate  of  strontites 


45. 
46. 

47. 
48. 
49. 


•  barytes 

copper  (1    acid 

oxide  +  5  water)   . 

iron  (7  water)   . 

zinc  (do) 

lead 


50.  Nitric  acid,  dry 

Nitric  acid.  sp.  gr.  1-50  (2  water 
—  22-64)         . 


61-30 

202-30 
109-10 

74-60 
155-90 

85-50 
108-10 
119-00 
147-00 

156-60 
173-80 
180-20 
189-50 
67-54 

90-20 


51. 
52. 
53. 
54. 
55. 
56. 
57. 
58. 

59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
63. 
64. 

65. 
66. 
67. 


Nitrate  of  soda    . 

potash  .  . 

lime 

barytes  .  '     . 

Muriate  of  ammonia  . 

potash  .  ". 

Oxymuriate  of  do.  (60  oxygen) 

Muriate  of  lime 

— barytes  .  . 

•  lead    .  .  '  *" ':' 


Sub-muriate  of  do.  (1  acid  -(-  1 
oxygen  +  2  mercury)      .    •"•>-. 
Phosphate  of  lead 
Oxalate  of  lead  .         .   :     . 

Bin-oxalate  of  potash .      .  .        . 


106-60 

126-60 

103-00 

164-50 

20700 

66-90 

73-20 

93-20 

153-20 

169-60 

131-00 

173-60 

179-10 

170-10 

296-10 
176-90 
185-50 
153-00 


II. — TABLE  CONSISTING  OF  FRIGORIFIC   MIXTURES,    HAVING   THE  POWER  OF  GENERATING  OB 

CREATING    COLD,     WITHOUT   THE    AID    OF    ICE,     SUFFICIENT    FOR    ALL    USEFUL   AND    PHILOSO- 
PHICAL   PURPOSES,    IN    ANY    PART    OF    THE    WORLD    AT    ANY    SEASON. 

Frigorific  Mixtures  without  Ice. 


Mixtures. 

Thermometer  sinks. 

Deg.  of  cold 
produced. 

Muriate  of  ammonia 
Nitrate  of  potash 
Water 

5  parts 
5 
.       16 

From  +  50°  to  +  10° 

40° 

Muriate  of  ammonia 
Nitrate  of  potash 
Sulphate  of  soda 
Water 

5  parts 
5 
8 
.       16 

From  +  50°  to  -f  4° 

46 

Nitrate  of  ammonia 
Water 

1  part 
1 

From  -f-  50°  to  +  4° 

46 

Nitrate  of  ammonia 
Carbonate  of  soda 
Water 

1  part 
1 
1 

From  -f  50°  to  —  7° 

57 

Sulphate  of  soda 
Diluted  nitric  acid 

3  parts 
2 

From  +  50°  to  —  3° 

53 

Su.phate  of  soda 
Muriate  of  ammonia 
Nitrate  of  potash 
Diluted  nitric  acid 

6  parts 
4 
2 
4 

From  +  50°  to  —  10* 

60 

Sulphate  of  soda 
Nitrate  of  ammonia 
Diluted  nitric  acid 

6  parts 
5 
4 

From  +  50°  to  —  14° 

64 

Phosphate  of  soda 
Diluted  nitric  acid 

9  parts 
4 

From  +  50°  to  —  12° 

62 

Phosphate  of  soda 
Nitrate  of  ammonia 
Diluted  nitric  acid 

9  parts 
6 
4 

From  +  50  to  —  21° 

71 

Sulphate  of  soda 
Muriatic  acid 

8  parts 
5 

From  +  50°  to  0° 

50     ' 

Sulphate  of  soda 
Diluted  sulphuric  acid     . 

5  parts 
4 

From  +  50°  to  +  8° 

47 

N.B. — If  the  materials  are  mixed  at  a  winner  temperature  than  that  expressed  in  the  Table, 
the  effect  will  he  proportionably  greater ;  thus,  if  the  most  powerful  of  these  mixtures  be  made 
when  the  air  is  -f  85  ,  it  will  sink  die  thermometer  to  +  2°. 


CHEMISTRY. 


543 


1789.  III. — TABLE  CONSISTING  or  FRIGORIFIC  MIXTURES,  COMPOSED  OP  ICES  WITH  CHEMICAL 

SALTS  AND  ACIDS. 

Frigorific  Mixtures  'with  Ice. 


MIXTURES. 

Thermometer  sinks. 

Deg.  of  cold 
produced. 

Snow,  or  pounded  ice                             2  parts 
Muriate  of  soda            ...         1 

to  —  5° 

* 

Snow,  or  pounded  ice                            5  parts 
Muriate  of  soda            ...         2 
Muriate  of  ammonia              .         .        1 

a 

2                    to  —  12° 

• 

Cu 

* 

Snrvw,  or  pounded  ice           .         .       24  parts 
Muriate  of  soda            .         .        .10 
Muriate  of  ammonia             .         .         5 
Nitrate  of  potash           ...         5 

|J 

£M            to  —  is0 

• 

* 

Snow,  or  pounded  ice           .         .12  parts 
Muriate  of  soda            .                  .         5 
Nitrate  of  ammonia      ...         5 

is 

fn 
to  —  25° 

* 

Snow           3  parts 
Diluted  sulphuric  acid          .         .        2 

From  +  32°  to  —  23° 

55 

Snow          8  parts 
Muriatic  acid      .        ...         .        5 

From  +  32°  to  —  27° 

59 

Snow           .....         7  parts 
Diluted  nitric  acid       ...         4 

From  +  32°  to  —  30° 

62 

Snow          4  parts 
Muriate  of  lime           ...         5 

From  —  32°  to  —  40° 

72 

Snow          2  parts 
Crystallised  muriate  of  lime          .         3 

From  4-  32°  to  —  50° 

82 

Snow           .....         3  parts 

Potash        4 

From  +  32°  to  —  51° 

83 

N.  B. — The  reason  for  the  omissions  in  the  last  column  of  this  Table,  is,  the  thermometer  sinking 
in  these  mixtures  to  the  degree  mentioned  in  the  preceding  column,  and  never  lower,  whatever  may 
be  the  temperature  of  the  materials  at  mixing. 


1790.  IV. — TABLE   CONSISTING  OF   FRIGORIFIC   MIXTURES  SELECTED  FROM  THE  FOREGOING 
TABLES,  AND  COMBINED  so  AS  TO  INCREASE  OR  EXTEND  COLD  TO  THE  EXTREMEST  DEGREES. 

Combinations  of  Frigorific  Mixtures. 


MIXTURES. 

Thermometer  sinks. 

Deg.  of  cold 
produced. 

Phosphate  of  soda 
Nitrate  of  ammonia 
Diluted  nitric  acid 

5  parts 
3 
4 

From  0°  to  —  34° 

34 

Phosphate  of  soda 
Nitrate  of  ammonia 
Diluted  mixed  acids 

3  parts 
2 
4 

From  —  34°  to  —  50° 

16 

3  parts 

Diluted  nitric  acid 

2 

From  0°  to  —  46° 

46 

Snow           ..... 
Diluted  sulphuric  acid 
Diluted  nitric  acid 

8  parts 
3 
3 

From  —  10°  to  —  56° 

46 

Snow           
Diluted  sulphuric  acid 

1  part 
1 

From  —  20°  to  —  60° 

40 

1 

644 


CHEMISTRY. 


TABLE  IV. — Continued. 

Combinations  of  Frigorific  Mixtures. 


MIXTURES. 

Thermometer  sinks. 

Deg.  of  coli  I 
produced. 

Snow           .... 
Muriate  of  lime   .         .        «•; 

3  parts 
4 

From  +  20°  to  —  48° 

68 

Snow           .... 
Muriate  of  lime           .         . 

3  parts 
4 

From  +  10°  to  —  54° 

64 

Snow           .... 
Muriate  of  lime 

2  parts 
3 

From  —  15°  to  —  68° 

53 

Snow           .... 
Crystallised  muriate  of  lime 

1  part 
2 

From  0°  to  —  66° 

66 

Snow           .... 
Crystallised  muriate  of  lime 

1  part 
3 

From  —  40°  to  —  73° 

33 

Snow-          .... 
Diluted  sulphuric  acid 

8  parts 
10 

From  —  68°  to  —  91° 

23 

N  B. — The  materials  in  the  first  column  are  to  be  cooled,  previously  to  mixing,  to  the  tempera- 
ture recuired,  by  mixtures  taken  from  either  of  the  preceding  tables. 

V. — TABLE  OF  CAPACITIES  OF  DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES  FOR  CALORIC. 

In  this  Table,  the  authorities  are  marked  by  the  initials  of  the  respective  authors'  names. — C.  Crawford  : 
K.  Kirwan  :  Ir.  Irvine  :  G.  Gadolin  :  L.  Lavoisier  :  W.  Wilcke  :  M.  Meyer. 


1.  Hydrogen  gas 

2.  Oxygen  gas 

3    Atmospheric  air 


GASES. 

21-4000  C.     4.  Aqueous  vapour 
4'7490  —     5.  Carbonic  acid  gas 
1-7900  —    6.  Nitrogen  gas 


1-5500  C. 

1-6454  — 

•7936  — 


LIQUIDS. 


7. 

Solution  of  carbonate  of  am- 

27. 

monia 

1-8510  K. 

8. 

Solution  of  brown  sugar 

1-0860  — 

28. 

9. 

Alcohol  (15-44)     . 

1-0860  — 

10. 

Arterial  blood 

1-0300  C. 

29. 

11. 

1-0000 

12. 

Cow's  milk     .... 

•9999  C. 

30. 

13. 

Sulphuret  of  ammonia   . 

9940  K. 

31. 

14. 

Solution  of  muriate  of  soda, 

1  in  10  of  water 

•9360  G. 

32. 

15. 

Alcohol  (9-44)       .         .         . 

•9300  Ir. 

16. 

Sulphuric  acid,    diluted  with 

33. 

10  of  water 

•9250  G. 

17. 

Solution  of  muriate  of  soda  in 

34. 

6-4  of  water      .  •.  ,  .      t.,^l-, 

•9050  G. 

18. 

Venous  blood         .         .         .  .« 

•8928  C. 

35. 

19. 

Sulphuric  acid,  with  5  parts  of 

36. 

water         .... 

•8760  G. 

37. 

20. 

Solution  of  muriate  of  soda  in 

38. 

5  of  water         .         .         .  •  = 

•8680  — 

21. 

Nitric  acid  (39)     . 

•8440  K. 

39. 

22. 

Solution  of  sulphate  of  mag- 

40. 

nesia  in  2  of  water    . 

•8440  — 

41. 

23. 

Solution  of  muriate  of  soda  in 

8  of  water 

•8320 

42. 

24. 

Solution  of  muriate  of  soda  in 

3-33  of  water     . 

•8200  G. 

43. 

25. 

Solution  of  nitrate  of  potash  in 

8  of  water 

•8167  L. 

44. 

26. 

Solution  of  muriate  of  soda  in 

45. 

2'8  of  water       .             "  ".  " 

•8020  G. 

46. 

Solution  of  muriate  of  ammo- 
nia in  1-5  of  water     .         .         -7980  K. 

Solution  of  muriate  of  soda  sa- 
turated, or  in  2-69  of  water         '7930  G. 

Solution    of    supertartrate   of 

potash  in  237-3  of  water     .         -7650  K. 

Solution  of  carbonate  of  potash         '7590  — 

Colourless  sulphuric  acid 

(51-55,56,57)     .          .         .         '7580  — 

Sulphuric  acid,  with  2  parts  of 

water         .         .  -7490  G. 

Solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  in 

2-5  of  water      .         .         .         '7340  K. 

Solution  of  sulphate  of  soda  in 

2-9  of  water       .         .         .         '7280  — 

Olive  oil        ....         -7100  — 

Water  of  ammonia,  sp.  gr.  0-997     -7080  — 

Muriatic  acid,  sp.  gr.  1-122   .     .     '6800  — 

Sulphuric  acid,  4  parts  with  5  of 

water -6631   L. 

Nitric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1-29895         .     '6613  — 

Solution  of  alum  in  4-45  of  water     "6490  M. 

Mixture  of  nitric  acid  with  lime, 

9$  to  1          .         .         .         .     -6189  L. 

Sulphuric  acid,  with   an  equal 

weight  of  water     .         .         .     -6050  G. 

Sulphuric  acid,  4  parts  with  3  of 

water '6031  L. 

Alcohol  (9-15)  .  '6021   C. 

Nitrous  acid,  sp.  gr.  1-35  .     -5760  K. 

Linseed  oil  -5280  — 


LIQUIDS.- 

47.  Spermaceti  oil  (53)    .         .        .  -5000  C. 

48.  Sulphuric    acid,    with    half    of 

water  ....  '5000  G. 

49.  Oil  of  turpentine  (52)        .         .  '4720  K. 

50.  Sulphuric  acid,  with  £  of  water  .  -4420  G. 

51.  Sulphuric  acid  (31-55,56,57)      .  '4290  C. 

52.  Oil  of  turpentine  (49)        .         .  '4000  Ir. 

53.  Spermaceti  oil  (47)    .       «  -*   .  '3990  K. 

54.  Red  wine  vinegar      .       -,   .     .  -3870  — 


CHEMISTRY. 

-Continued. 


55.  Sulphuric  acid,  concentrated  and 

colorless  (31) 

56.  Sulphuric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1-87053 

57.  Sulphuric  acid  (31-51) 

58.  Spermaceti  melted 

59.  Quicksilver,  sp.gr.  13-30  . 

60.  Quicksilver        .... 

62.    


SOLIDS. 

63.  Ice 

64.  — 

65.  Ox-hide  with  the  hair     '. 

66.  Sheep's  lungs  . 

67.  Beef  of  an  ox  .         .      -  , 

68.  Scotch  fir  wood        . 

69.  Lime  tree  wood 

70.  Spruce  fir  wood 

71.  Pitch  pine  wood     ,.       '. 

72.  Apple  tree  wood 

73.  Alderwood      ... 

74.  Sessile-leaved  oak    . 

75.  Ash  wood 

76.  Pear-tree  wood 

77.  Rice        .     '    .       *; 

78.  Horse-beans    . 

79.  Dust  of  the  pine-tiee 

80.  Peas        .... 

81.  Beech     .... 

82.  Hornbeam  wood 

83.  Birch-wood 

.  84.  Wheat     .... 

85.  Elm        .... 

86.  White  wax 

87.  Pedunculated  oak  wood  . 

88.  Prune  tree 

89.  Ebony- wood   . 

90.  Quicklime  with  water,  in  the  pro- 

portion of  16  to  9 

91.  Barley 

92.  Oats 

93.  Charcoal  of  birch  wood  (99)     . 

94.  Carbonate  of  magnesia     . 

95.  Prussian  blue 

96.  Quicklime  saturated  with  water 

and  dried      .... 

97.  Pit  coal  .... 

98.  Artificial  gypsum 

99.  Charcoal  (93) 

100.  Chalk  (108)     .... 

101.  Rust  of  iron     .... 
1C2.  White  clay      .... 
1(/3.  White  oxide  of  antimony 

washed          .... 
1D4.  Oxide  of  copper 

105.  Quicklime  (107) 

106.  Muriate  of  soda  in  crystals 

107.  Quicklime  (105) 

JOS.  Chalk  (100)    .... 

109.  Crown  glass    .... 

110.  Agate,  sp.  gr.  2-648 

111.  Earthen-ware  .... 

112.  Crystal  glass  without  lead 

The  above  capacities  of  the  gases  arc  all  erroneous  ; 
more  or  less  incorrect. 
VOL.  V. 


545 


•3390  G. 
•3345  L. 
•3330  Ir. 
•3200  — 
•0330  K, 
•0290  L. 
•0290  W. 
•0280  Ir, 


•9000  K. 

113. 

Cinders           .... 

•1923   C. 

•8000  Ir. 

114. 

Sulphur           .... 

•1890  Ir. 

•7870  C. 

115. 

Ashes  of  cinders 

•1855  C. 

•7690  — 

116. 

White  glass,  sp.  gr.  2-386 

•1870  W. 

•7400  — 

117. 

White  clay  burnt     . 

•1850  G. 

•6500  M. 

118. 

Black  lead       .... 

•1830  — 

•2600  — 

119. 

Sulphur  ..... 

•1830  K. 

•6000  — 

120. 

Oxide  of  antimony,  nearly  free 

•5800  — 

•1666  C. 

•5700  — 

121. 

Rust  of  iron,  do.  do. 

•1666  — 

•5300  M. 

122. 

Ashes  of  elm  wood  . 

•1402  — 

•5100  — 

123. 

Iron  (125-127,128-132)    . 

•1450  Ir. 

•5100  — 

124. 

Oxide  of  zinc,  nearly  freed  from 

•5000  — 

air        .         .         • 

•1369  C. 

•5060  C. 

125. 

White  cast  iron 

•1320  G. 

•5020  — 

126. 

White  oxide  of  arsenic 

•1260  — 

•5000  — 

127. 

Iron  (123-132) 

•1269  C. 

•4920  — 

128. 

Iron,  sp.  gr.  7876     . 

•1260W. 

'4900  M. 

129. 

Cast  iron  abounding  in  plum- 

•4800 — 

bago     ..... 

•1240  G. 

•4800  — 

130. 

Hardened  steel 

•1230  — 

4770  C. 

131. 

Steel  softened  by  fire 

•1200  — 

•4700  M. 

132. 

Soft  bar  iron,  sp.  gr.  7'724 

•1190  — 

•4500  G. 

133. 

Brass,  sp.  gr.  8-356  (135) 

•1160  W. 

•4500  M. 

134. 

Copper,  sp.  gr.  8-785  (136)      . 

•mow. 

•4400  — 

135. 

Brass  (133)      .... 

•1123  C. 

•4300  — 

136. 

Copper  (133) 

•1111  — 

137. 

Sheet  iron        .... 

•1099  L. 

•4391   L. 

138. 

Zinc,  sp.gr.  7-154  (143)  . 

•1020  W. 

•4210  C. 

139. 

White  oxide  of  tin,  nearly  free 

•4160  

•990  C. 

•3950  G. 

140. 

Cast  pure  copper,  heated  be- 

•3790 — 

tween   charcoal,   and   cooled 

•3300  — 

slowly,  sp.  gr.  7'907      . 

•990  G. 

141. 

Hammered  copper,  sp.  gr.  9'150 

•970  G. 

•2800  G. 

142. 

Oxide  of  tin     . 

•960  K. 

•2777  C. 

143. 

Zinc  (198)       . 

•943  C. 

•2640  G. 

144. 

Ashes  of  charcoal     . 

•909  — 

•2631  C. 

145. 

Sublimated  arsenic 

•840  G. 

•2564  — 

146. 

Silver,  sp.gr.  10-001 

•820  W. 

•2500  — 

147. 

Tin.  (152)         . 

•704  C. 

•2410  G. 

148. 

Yellow  oxide  of  lead 

•680  — 

149. 

White  lead      .... 

•670  G. 

•2272  C. 

150. 

Antimony         .... 

•645  — 

•2272  — 

151. 

Antimony,  sp.  gr.  6'  107  . 

630  W. 

•2239  — 

152. 

Tin,  sp.  gr.  7380  (147)     . 

•600  — 

•2260  G. 

153. 

Red  oxide  of  lead    . 

•590  G. 

•2168   L. 

154. 

Gold,  sp.  gr.  19-04 

•500  W. 

•2070  G. 

155. 

Vitrified  oxide  of  lead     . 

•590  G.. 

•2000  Ir. 

156. 

Bismuth,  sp.  gr.  9'861 

•430  W. 

•1950  W. 

157. 

Lead,  sp.  gr.  11-45 

•420  — 

.  i  Q  er>    ir 

1  *5R 

•352  C. 

i  you   IY. 
•1929   L. 

1  iJO. 

and  those  of  the  other  bodies  are  probably 


646 


CHEMISTRY. 


TABLE  VI. — CORRESPONDENCE  OF  THE  THERMOMETERS  OF  FAHRENHEIT  AND  REAUMUR,  AND  THAT  o? 
CELSIUS  OR  THE  CENTIGRADE  THERMOMETER  OF  THE  MODERN  FRENCH  CHEMISTS. 


Fahr. 

Heaum. 

Celsi. 

Fahr.   Reaum. 

Celsi. 

Fahr. 

Reaum. 

Celsi. 

Fahr. 

Reaum. 

Celd. 

212 

80 

100 

148 

51-5 

64-4 

85 

23-5 

29-4 

22 

4-4 

5-5 

211 

79-5 

99-4 

147 

51-1 

63-8 

84 

23-1 

28-8 

21 

4-8 

6-1 

210 

79-1 

98-8 

146 

50-6 

63-3 

83 

22'6 

28-3 

20 

5-3 

6-6 

209 

78-6 

98-3 

145 

50-2 

62-7 

82 

22-2 

27-7 

19 

5-7 

7-2 

208 

78-2 

97-7 

144 

49-7 

62-2 

81 

21-7 

27'2 

18 

6-2 

7-7 

207 

77-7 

97-2 

143 

49-3 

61-6 

80 

21-3 

26-6 

17 

6-6 

8-3 

206 

77-3 

96-6 

142 

48-8 

61-1 

79 

20-8 

26-1 

16 

7-1 

8-8 

205 

76-8 

96-1 

141 

48-4 

60-5 

78 

20-4 

25-5 

15 

7-5 

9-4 

204 

76-4 

95-5 

140 

48 

60 

77 

20 

25 

14 

8 

10 

203 

76 

95 

139 

47-5 

59-4 

76 

19-5 

24-4 

13 

8-4 

10-5 

202 

75-5 

94-4 

138 

41-1 

58'8 

75 

19-1 

23-8 

12 

8-8 

11-1 

201 

75-1 

93-8 

137 

46-6 

58-3 

74 

18-6 

23-3 

11 

9-3 

11-6 

200 

74-6 

93-3 

136 

46-2 

57-7 

73 

18-2 

22-7 

10 

9'7 

12-2 

199 

74-2 

92-7 

135  '  45-7 

57-2 

72 

17-7 

22-2 

9 

10-2 

12-7 

198 

73-7 

92-2 

134  j  45-3 

56-6 

71 

17-3 

21-6 

B 

10-6 

13-3 

197 

73-3 

91-6 

133  •  44-8 

56-1 

70 

16-8 

21-1 

7 

11-1 

13-8 

196 

72-8 

91-1 

132 

44-4 

55-5 

69 

16-4 

20-5 

6 

11-5 

14-4 

195 

72-4 

90-5 

131 

44 

55 

68 

16 

20 

5 

12 

15 

194 

72 

90 

130 

43-5 

54-4 

67 

15-5 

19-4 

4 

12-4 

15-5 

193 

71-5 

89-4 

129 

43-1 

53-8 

66 

15-1 

18-8 

3 

12-8 

16-1 

192 

71-1 

88-8 

128 

42-6 

53-3 

65 

14-6 

18-3 

2 

13-3 

16-6 

191 

70-6 

88-3 

127 

42-2 

52-7 

64 

14-2 

17-7 

1 

13-7 

17-2 

190 

70-2 

87-7 

126 

41-7 

52-2 

63 

13-7 

17-2 

0 

14-2 

17-7 

189 

69-7 

87-2 

125 

41-3 

51-6 

62 

13-3 

16-6 

1 

14-6 

18-3 

188 

69-3 

86-6' 

124 

40-8 

51-1 

61 

12-8 

16-1 

2 

15-1 

18-8 

187 

68-8 

86-1 

123 

40-4 

50-5 

60 

12-4 

15'5 

3 

15-5 

19-4 

186 

68-4 

85-5 

122 

40 

50 

59 

12 

15 

4 

16 

20 

185 

68 

85 

121 

39-5 

49-4 

58 

11-5 

14-4 

5 

16-4 

20-5 

184 

67-5 

84-4 

120 

39-1 

48-8 

57 

11-1 

13-8 

6 

16-8 

21-1 

183 

67-1 

83-8 

119 

38-6 

48-3 

56 

10-6 

13-3 

7 

17-3 

21-6 

182 

66-6 

83-3 

118 

38-2 

47-7 

55 

10-2 

12'7 

8 

17-7 

22-2 

181 

66-2 

82-7 

117 

37-7 

47-2 

54 

9-7 

12-2 

9 

18-2 

22-7 

180 

65-7 

82-2 

116 

37-3 

46-6 

53 

9-3 

11-6 

10 

18-6 

23-3 

179 

65-3 

81-6 

115 

36-8 

46-1 

52 

8-8 

11-1 

11 

19-1 

23-8 

178 

64-8 

81-1 

114 

36-4 

45-5 

61 

8-4 

10-5 

12 

19-5 

24-4 

177 

64-4 

80-5 

113 

36 

45 

50 

8 

10 

13 

20 

25 

176 

64 

80 

112 

35-5 

44-4 

49 

7-5 

9'4 

14 

20-4 

25-5 

175 

63-5 

79-4 

111 

35-1 

43-8 

48 

7-1 

8-8 

15 

20-8 

26-1 

174 

63-1 

78-8 

110 

34-6 

43'3 

47 

6-6 

8'3 

16 

21-3 

26-6 

173 

62-6 

78-3 

109 

34-2 

42'7 

46 

6-2 

7-7 

17 

21-7 

27-2 

172 

62-2 

77-7 

108 

33-7 

42'2 

45 

5-7 

7-2 

18 

22-2 

27-7 

171 

61-7 

77-2 

107 

33-3 

41-6 

44 

5-3 

6-6 

19 

22-6 

28-3 

J70 

61-3 

76-6 

106 

32-8 

41-1 

43 

4-8 

6-1 

20 

33-1 

28-8 

169 

60-8 

76-1 

105 

32-4 

40-5 

42 

4-4 

5-5 

21 

23-5 

29-4 

168 

60-4 

75-5 

104 

32 

40 

41 

4 

5 

22 

24 

30 

167 

60 

75 

103 

31-5 

39'4 

40 

3-5 

4-4 

23 

24-4 

30-5 

166 

59-5 

74-4 

102 

3i-l 

38-8 

39 

3-1 

3-8 

24 

24-8 

3M 

165 

59-1 

73-8 

101 

30-6 

38-3 

38 

2-6 

3-3 

25 

25-3 

31-6 

164 

58-6 

73-3 

100 

30-2 

37-7 

37 

2-2 

2-7 

26 

25-7 

32-2 

163 

58-2 

72-7 

99 

29-7 

37-2 

36 

1-7 

2-2 

27 

26-2 

22-7 

162 

57-7 

72-2 

98 

29-3 

36-6 

35 

1-3 

1-6 

28 

26-6 

33-3 

161 

57-3 

.  71-6 

97 

28-8 

36-1 

34 

0-8 

1-1 

29 

27-1 

33-8 

160 

56-8 

71-1 

96 

28-4 

35-5 

33 

0-4 

0-5 

30 

27-5 

34-4 

159 

56-4 

70-5 

95 

28 

35 

32 

0 

0 

31 

28-4 

35 

158 

56 

70 

94 

27-5 

34-4 

31 

0-4 

0-5 

32 

28 

35-5 

157 

55-5 

69-4 

93 

27-1 

33-8 

30 

0-8 

1-1 

33 

28-8 

36-1 

156 

55-1 

68-8 

92 

26-6 

33-3 

29 

1-3 

1-6 

34 

29-3 

36-6 

155 

54-6 

68-3 

91 

26-2 

32-7 

28 

1-7 

2-2 

35 

29-7 

37-2 

154 

54-2 

67-7 

.90 

25-7 

32-2 

27 

2'2 

2-7 

36 

30-2 

37-7 

153 

53-7 

67-2 

89 

25-3 

31-6 

26 

2'6 

3-3 

37^ 

30-6 

38-3 

152 

53-3 

66-6 

88 

24-8 

3M 

25 

3'1 

3-8  . 

38 

31-1 

38-8 

151 

52-8 

66-1 

87 

24-4 

30-5 

04 

3'5 

4-4 

39 

31-5 

39-4 

150 

52-4 

65-5 

86 

24 

30 

23 

4 

5 

40 

32 

40 

149 

52 

65 

CHEMISTRY. 


547 


TABLE  VII. — OF  THE  ELASTIC  FORCE  OF  THE  VAPOR  OF  WATER  IN    INCHES   OF  MERCURY 

BY  DR.  URE. 


Temp. 

Force. 

Temp. 

Force. 

Temp. 

Force. 

Temp. 

Force. 

Temp. 

Force. 

Temp. 

Force. 

24° 

0-170 

115° 

2-820 

195° 

21-100 

242° 

53-600 

270° 

86-300 

295° 

129-000 

32 

0-200 

120 

3-300 

200 

23-600 

245 

56-340 

271-2 

88-000 

295-6 

130-400 

40 

0-250 

125 

3-830 

205 

25-900 

245-8 

57-100 

273-7 

91-200 

297-1 

133-900 

50 

0-360 

130 

4-366 

210 

28-880 

248-5 

60-400 

275 

93-480 

298-8 

137-400 

55 

0-416 

135 

5-070 

212 

30-000 

250 

61-900 

275-7 

94-600 

300 

139-700 

60 

0-516 

140 

5-770 

216-6  33-400 

251-6 

63-500 

277-9 

97-800 

300-6 

140-900 

65 

0-630 

145 

6-600 

220 

35-540 

254-5 

66-700 

279-5 

101-600 

302 

144-300 

70 

0-726 

150 

7-530 

221-6 

36-700 

255 

67-250 

280 

101.900 

303-8 

147-700 

75 

0-860 

155 

8-500 

225 

39-110 

257-5 

69-800 

281-8 

104-400 

305 

150-560 

80 

1-010 

160 

9-600 

226-3 

40-100 

260 

72-300 

283-8 

107.700 

306-8 

154-400 

85 

1-170 

165 

10-800 

230 

43-100 

260-4 

72-800 

285-2 

112-200 

308 

157-700 

90 

1-360 

170 

12-050 

230-5 

43-500 

262-8 

75-900 

287-2 

114-800 

310 

161-300 

95 

1-640 

175 

13-550 

234-5 

46-800 

264-9 

77-900 

289 

118-200 

311-4 

164-800 

100 

1-860 

180 

15.160 

235 

47-220 

265 

78-040 

290 

120-150 

312 

167-000 

105 

2-100 

185 

16-900 

238'5 

50-300 

267 

81-900 

292-3 

123-100 

Another  Exper. 

110 

2-456 

190 

19-000 

240 

51-700 

269 

84-900 

294 

126-700 

312°  1165-5 

TABLE  VIII. — OF  THE  ELASTIC   FORCES  OF  THE  VAPORS  OF  ALCOHOL,   ETHER,  OIL  OF  TUR- 
PENTINE, AND  PETROLEUM,  OR  NAPHTHA,  BY  DR.  URE. 


Ether. 

Alcoh.  sp.  gr.  0-813 

Alcoh.  sp.  gr.  0-813 

Petroleum. 

Temp. 

Force  of 
Vapor. 

Temp. 

Force  of 
Vapor. 

Temp. 

Force  of 
Vapor. 

Temp. 

Force  of 
Vapor. 

34° 

6-20 

32° 

0-40 

193-3° 

46-60 

316° 

30-00 

44 

8-10 

40 

0-56 

196-3 

50-10 

320 

31-70 

54 

10-30 

45 

0-70 

200 

53-00 

325 

34-00 

64 

13-00 

50 

0-86 

206 

60-10 

330 

36-40 

74 

16-10 

55 

1-00 

210 

65-00 

335 

38-90 

84 

20-00 

60 

1-23 

214 

69-30 

340 

41-60 

94 

24-70 

65 

1-49 

216 

72-20 

345 

44  10 

104 

30-00 

70 

1-76 

220 

78-50 

350 

46-86 

75 

2-10 

225       i     87-50 

355 

50.20 

2d.  Ether. 

80 

Q  C 

2-45 

2.f\O 

230 

o  o  o 

94-10 

O7.  1  A 

360 

^^^ 

53-30 

*i^-on 

105° 

30-00 

o5 

90 

9o 
3-40 

232 
236 

y/  10 
103-60 

ooo 
370 

oo  yu 
60-70 

110 

32-54 

95 

3-90 

238 

106-90 

37<J 

61-90 

115 

35.90 

100 

4-50 

240 

111-24 

375 

64-00 

120 

39-47 

105 

5-20 

244 

118-20 

125 
130 

43-24 
47-14 

110 
115 

6-00 
7-10 

247 
248 

122-10 
126-10 

Oil  of  Turpentine. 

135 

51-90 

120 

8-10 

249-7 

131-40 

Force  of 

140 

56-90 

125 

9-25 

250 

132-30 

Temp. 

Vapor. 

145 

62"  10 

130 

10'60 

252 

138'60 

150 

67-60 

135 

12-15 

254-3 

143-70 

304° 

30-00 

155 

73-60 

140 

13-90 

258-6 

151-60 

307-6 

32-60 

160 

80-30 

145 

15-95 

260 

155-20 

310 

33-50 

165 

86-40 

150 

18-00 

262 

161-40 

315 

35-20 

170 

92-80 

155 

20-30 

264 

166-10 

320 

37-06 

175 

99-10 

160 

22-60 

322 

37-80 

180 

108-30 

165 

25-40 

326 

40.20 

185 

116-10 

170 

28-30 

330 

42-10 

190 

124-80 

173 

30-00 

336 

45.00 

195 

133-70 

178-3 

33-50 

340 

47-30 

200 

142-80 

180 

34-73 

343 

4940 

205 

151-30 

182-3 

36-40 

347 

51-70 

210 

166-00 

185-3 

39-90 

350 

53-80 

190 

43-20 

354 

56-60 

357 

58-70 

360 

60-80 

362 

62-40 

2  N  2 


>48  CHEMISTRY. 

TABLE  IX. — OF  THE  SOLUBILITY  OF  SOME  SOLIDS  IN  WATER. 


NAMES  OF  SALTS. 

Solubility  in  100  pts.  water. 

NAMES  OF  SALTS. 

Solubility  in  100  pts.  water. 

At  60°. 

At  212°. 

At  603. 

At  2120. 

Muriate  of  lead 

4-5 

ACIDS. 

lime 

200 

magnesia 

100 

Arsenic     .         .         . 

150 

mercury    . 

5 

50 

Benzoic     . 

0-208 

4-17 

potash 

33 

Botacic 

2 

silver 

o-A 

Camphoric 

1-04 

8-3 

soda 

35-42 

36-16 

Citric 

133      . 

200 

Strontites 

150 

Unlimited 

Gallic 

8-3 

66 

Nitrate  of  ammonia    . 

50 

200 

Mucic        .         . 

0-84 

1-25 

barytes 

8 

25 

Molybdenic 

o-i 

lime  . 

400 

Oxalic 

50 

100 

magnesia    . 

100 

+100 

Suberic 

0-69 

50 

potash 

14-25 

100 

Succinic    . 

4 

50 

soda  . 

33 

+  100 

Tartaric     . 

Very  soluble 

Strontites    . 

100 

200 

Oxalate  of  Strontites 

O'-A 

SALIFIABLE   BASES. 

Phosphate  of  ammonia 

25 

+25 

Barytes 

5 

50 

barytes 
lime 

0 

o 

0 

o 

crystallised 
Lime 
Potash       .        ..-•". 

57 
0-2 
Very  soluble 

Unlimited 

magnesia 
potash  . 
soda 

6-6 
Very  soluble 
25 

50 

Sorla 

ditto 

OUUCL                   •                   .                  • 

Strontites 

0 

o 

Strontites 
crystallised 

0-6 
1-9 

50 

Phosphite  of  ammonia 
barytes  . 

50 

o-i 

+50 

potash    . 

33 

+  33 

SALTS. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia 

50 

100 

Acetate  of  ammonia  . 

Very  soluble 

barytes    . 

0-002 

barytes 

ditto 

copper     . 

25 

50 

lime 

ditto 

iron 

50 

+  100 

magnesia  . 

ditto 

lead 

o-A 

potash 

100 

lime 

0-2 

0-22 

soda 

Very  soluble 

magnesia 

100      . 

133 

Strontites  . 

40 

potash 

6-25 

20 

Carbonate  of  ammonia 

-j-30 

100 

soda 

37 

125 

barytes 

Insoluble 

Strontites 

0 

0-02 

lime 

ditto 

Sulphite  of  ammonia 

100 

magnesia 

2 

lime 

0-125 

potash  . 

25 

83 

magnesia 

5 

soda 

50 

-f-100 

potash     • 

100 

Strontites 

Insoluble 

soda 

25 

100 

Camphorate  of  ammonia 

1 

33 

Saccholactate  of  potash 

12 

barytes 

0-16 

soda 

20 

lime   . 

0-5 

Sub-borate  of  soda,borax 

8-4 

16-8 

potash 

33 

+33 

Super-sulph.  of  potash 

50 

+  100 

Citrate  of  soda  . 

60 

alumina 

lime  .        .  ; 

Insoluble 

and  potash  (alum) 

5 

133 

Chloiate  of  barytes     . 

25 

+25 

Super-oxalate  of  potash 

10 

mercury 

25 

tartrate  of  potash 

11 

31 

potash 

6 

40 

Tartrate  of  potash 

25 

soda 

35 

+  35 

&soda 

20 

Muriate  of  ammonia 

33 

100 

antimony  and 

barytes 

20 

+20 

potash   . 

6-6 

33 

~ 

J 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  I. 

Fig.  1.  RETORT  AND  RECEIVER,  a,  Retort. 
6,  Receiver.  The  material  is  put  into  the  body 
of  the  retort,  heat  applied,  if  necessary,  and  the 
vaporised  matter  passes  into  the  receiver. 

Fig.  2.  GLASS  ALEMBIC,  a,  Head.  6,  Body. 
c,  Pipe  for  the  receiver.  An  alembic  differs  from 


a  still,  inasmuch  as  it  provides  for  the  conden- 
sation of  the  vaporised  material  in  itself,  while 
a  still  has  an  apparatus  appended  for  this 
purpose. 

Fig.  3.  KNIGHT'S  MODIFICATION  OF  WOOLFE'S 
APPARATUS,  a,  a,  a,  Three  vessels,  each  ground 
into  the  mouth  of  the  one  below  it.  b,  b,  b,  Glass 


VO.L.O  .I>A.GK  548. 


J~ondorv.Puljliahsfl.fiy  Thit 


uiayf  JJf!3(>.  .).  Sliu  i-y  s.-ul|>  . 


VO1..5.PAGB54O. 


r  IT  K;V[  us 


.London '.fublisfhrd/  ly  JTAoma*f  JfffSf. 


CHEMISTRY. 


549 


tubes  ;  the  middles  of  which  are  ground  into  the 
neck  of  their  respective  vessels,  the  upper  ex- 
tremity standing  above  the  surface  of  the 
liquor  in  the  vessel,  and  the  lower  extremity 
reaching  to  near  the  bottom  of  the  vessel 
beneath,  e,  Welter'?  tube,  to  prevent  absorp- 
tion. /*,  an  adopter  ground  to  fit  the  receiver, 
to  which  any  retort  may  be  joined  and  luted 
before  it  is  put  into  its  place.  c,  Tube  for 
conveying  the  gas  into  a  pneumatic  trough.  The 
foot  of  the  lowest  vessel,  d,  slides  in  between 
two  grooves  in  a  square  wooden  foot,  to  secure 
the  apparatus  from  oversetting.  A  stopple  fitted 
to  the  upper  vessel,  instead  of  the  adopter,  f, 
converts  it  into  a  Nooth's  apparatus,  the  materials 
being  put  into  the  vessel,  a,  and  in  this  case  it 
has  the  advantage  of  not  having  a  valve  liable  to 
be  out  of  order. 

Fig.  4.  At  the  side  of  the  instrument  is  a  form 
of  one  of  the  glass  tubes  employed. 

Fig.  5.  AN  ALEMBIC,  with  its  capital  inserted 
into  a  vessel  of  water. 

Fig.  6.  MEUSMIER'S  INSTRUMENT,  to  ascertain 
the  quantity  of  water  yielded  by  the  combustion 
of  a  given  weight  of  alcohol,  a,  b,  c,  d,  Cooler. 
e,f,  Worm  contained  in  it.  g,  h,  Chimney,  k, 
a.  glass  tube,  m,  I,  Argand's  lamp.  Things  being 
properly  disposed,  and  the  lamp  being  filled  with 
a  determinate  quantity  of  alcohol,  it  is  set  on 
fire,  the  water  which  is  formed,  during  com- 
bustion, rises  in  the  chimney,  k,  e,  and  being 
condensed  in  the  worm,  runs  out  at  its  extremity, 
f,  ifciO  the  bottle,  p.  The  use  of  the  outer  chim- 
ney, g,  h,  and  of  the  sand  between  it,  and  in  the 
inner  one,  is  to  prevent  the  lamp  which  proceeds 
from  the  worm  from  being  cooled  during  com- 
bustion, which  would  occasion  the  water  formed 
by  the  burning  to  fall  back  on  the  lamp,  instead 
of  passing  on  into  the  worm. 

Fig.  7.  FORM  OF  AN  ALEMBIC,  a,  Body,  b, 
The  neck,  c,  The  capital. 

Fig.  8.  JARS  FOR  PRECIPITATION. 

Fig.  9.  EVAPORATING  VESSEL. 

Fig.  10.  TUBULATED  RETORT,  luted  to  b,  a 
quilled  receiver,  the  bottle  c,  standing  on  a 
block  of  wood,  receiving  the  neck  of  the  re- 
ceiver. 

Fig.  11.  GLASS  BOTTLE,  WITH  SIGMOID  TUBE, 
used  for  obtaining  gaseous  products  from  ad- 
mixtures, such  as  hydrogen  gas  from  iron  filings 
and  diluted  sulphuric  acid. 

Fig.  12.  AN  APPARATUS  FOR  PROCURING  GAS, 
and  at  the  same  time  precluding  the  possibility  of 
its  escape ;  the  bottle,  a,  is  to  receive  the  material 
acted  upon ;  b,  the  holder  of  the  acid,  or  other 
liquid,  which  is  to  act  upon  the  material ;  c,  a 
stop-cock ;  d,  a  bent  tube,  which  is  to  terminate 
under  a  receiver,  filled  with,  and  inverted  in 
water. 

Fig.  13.  AN  EUDIOMETER,  for  ascertaining  the 
purity  of  a  mixture  of  gases,  containing  oxygen 
gas,  by  means  of  nitrojs  gas. 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  II. 

Fig.  1.  DR.  HOPE'S  EUDIOMETER.  It  consists 
of  a  small  bottle,  of  the  capacity  of  twenty  or 
twenty-four  drachms,  destined  to  contain  the 
eudiosnetric  liquid,  arM  having  a  small  stopper 
at  b.  Into  the  neck  of  the  bottle  a  tube  is  ac- 


curately fitted  by  grinding,  which  holds  precisely 
a  cubic  inch,  and  is  divided  into  100  equal  pans. 
To  use  the  apparatus  the  bottle  is  first  filled  with 
the  liquid  employed,  which  is  best  prepared  by 
boiling  a  mixture  of  quicklime  and  sulphur  with 
water,  filtering  the  solution,  and  agitating  it  for 
some  time  in  a  bottle  half  filled  with  common 
air.  The  tube  filled  with  the  gas  under  exami- 
nation (or  with  atmospherical  air  when  the  quality 
of  this  compound  is  to  be  ascertained)  is  next  to 
be  put  into  its  place,  and,  on  inverting  the  instru- 
ment, the  gas  ascends  into  the  bottle  where  it  is 
to  be  brought  extensively  into  contact  with  the 
liquid  by  brisk  agitation.  An  absorption  ensues  ; 
and  to  supply  its  place  the  stopper  b  is  opened 
under  water ;  a  quantity  of  which  rushes  into 
the  bottle.  The  stopper  is  replaced  under  water, 
the  agitation  renewed,  and  these  operations  are 
performed  alternately  till  no  further  diminution 
takes  place.  The  tube  a  is  then  withdrawn,  the 
neck  of  the  bottle  being  under  water,  and  is  held 
inverted  in  water  for  a  few  minutes,  at  the  close 
of  which  the  diminution  will  be  apparent.  Its 
amount  may  be  measured  by  the  graduated  scale 
engraved  on  the  tube.  Dr.  Henry  makes  the 
following  objections  to  this  instrument.  If,  says 
he,  the  tube  a,  and  the  stopper  6,  are  not  both 
very  accurately  ground,  air  is  apt  to  make  its 
way  into  the  instrument  to  supply  the  partial 
vacuum  occasioned  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen 
gas.  This  absorption  causes  a  diminished  pres- 
sure within  the  bottle,  and  consequently  towards 
the  close  of  each  agitation,  the  absorption  goes 
on  very  slowly.  Besides  the  eudiometrical  liquid 
is  constantly  becoming  more  dilute  by  the  ad- 
mission of  water  through  b.  To  obviate  all  these 
difficulties  I  have  (says  Dr.  Henry)  substituted 
for  the  glass  bottle  one  of  elastic  gum,  the  tube 
of  which  being  ground  accurately  into  a  short 
piece  of  very  strong  tube  of  wider  bore,  the  outer 
surface  of  which  is  made  rough  by  grinding  and 
properly  shaped,  so  that  it  may  more  effectually 
retain  the  neck  of  the  elastic  bottle  when  fixed 
by  a  string. 

Fig.  2.  DR.  HENRY'S  MODIFICATION  OF  DR. 
HOPE'S  EUDIOMETER.  a,  Graduated  tube,  b, 
Bottle  of  elastic  gum  for  containing  the  eudiome- 
trical fluid. 

Fig.  3.  A  GAS  RECEIVER,  a.  A  glass  flask  b. 
This  combined  instruments  used  for  determining 
the  weight  of  gases,  the  flask  being  first  weighed, 
when  exhausted,  and  when  a  given  quantity  has 
been  received,  sav  fifty  cubic  inches,  it  is  to  be 
again  weighed,  which  of  course  will  give  the 
weight  of  fifty  cubic  inches  of  the  particular  gas 
experimented  on. 

Fig.  4.  PLAIN  JAR  FOR  RECEIVING  GAS. 

Fig.  5.  A  WIRE-STAND  WITH  A  LEADEN  FOOT, 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  above  the  surface  of 
water  within  a  jar,  any  substance  that  is  to  be. 
subjected  to.  the  action  of  a  gas. 

Fig.  6.  APPARATUS  FOR  DRYING  PRECIPI- 
TATES, supported  by  the  ring  of  a  lamp  stand, 
a,  A  vessel  of  copper  or  sheet  iron.  6,  A  conical 
vessel  of  thin  glass,  c,  A  moveablering  to  keep 
the  glass  vessel  in  its  place.  Water  being 
poured  into  the  vessel  a,  the  vessel  b,  containing 
the  substance  to  be  dried  is  immersed  into  it,  and 
the  apparatus  set  over  an  Argandxs  lamp.  The 
steam  escapes  by  the  chimney  d. 


550 


CHEMISTRY. 


Fig.  7.  PEPYS'  APPARATUS,  for  ascertaining 
ihe  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  ch  jcharged  from  any 
substance  by  the  addition  of  an  acid ;  the  twisted 
tube  from  the  bottle  performs  the  office  of  a  still 
worm,  and  condenses  any  liquid  that  may  arise 
•with  the  gas,  causing  it  to  fall  down  again  into 
the  bottle. 

Fig.  8.  A  MUFFLE  ;  an  instrument  employed 
for  the  purpose  of  submitting  substances  to  the 
continued  action  of  a  red  heat  with  a  consi- 
derable exposure  to  air  at  the  same  time. 

Fig.  9.  A  JAR  AND  GAS  RECEIVER. 

Fig.  10.  APPARATUS  for  showing  that  caloric 
exists  in  a  latent  form  in  gases,  a,  A  retort  into 
which  salt  and  sulphuric  acid  are  placed  ;  two 
ounces  of  the  former,  to  half  the  weight  of  the 
latter  :  the  gas  which  this  mixture  produces  is 
received  into  a  glass  balloon,  6,  from  this  a  tube, 
c,  descends  into  a  vessel  of  water,  d,  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  atmosphere.  The  temperature  of 
the  gas  in  the  balloon,  b,  must  be  ascertained 
before  the  vessel  is  closed  ;  this  is  to  be  done  by 
inserting  into  it  a  thermometer,  e.  In  this  ther- 
mometer the  mercury  will  rise  only  a  few  degrees, 
while  the  mercury  of  another  thermometer  inser- 
ted into  the  water,  d,  will  rise  to  the  boiling 
point ;  proving  that  the  latent  heat  of  the  gas  is 
given  out  when  condensed  by  water. 

Fig.  11.  WOOLFE'S  APPARATUS  (common  form 
of  it),  the  original  inventor  of  which  was  Glauber ; 
this  was  constructed  upon  the  principle,  that  in 
gaseous  formation  some  part  of  it  may  be  ab- 
sorbable  by  water,  while  other  parts  are  not. 
Now  the  gas  that  is  not  thus  taken  up  by  the 
water  would  increase  in  close  vessels,  so  as 
eventually  to  occasion  their  bursting.  The  earlier 
chemists  made  a  small  hole  in  the  upper  parts  of 
their  retorts  to  allow  the  escape  of  the  gas  not 
condensable ;  but,  besides  that  this  implies  the 
loss  of  a  considerable  part  of  the  product,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  collect  separately  the  gases 
that  are,  and  are  not,  condensible  by,  and  soluble 
in,  water,  so  that  it  was  necessary  to  have  several 
receivers,  or  bottles  with  tubes,  to  convey  away 
the  gases  not  condensible,  and  collect  them  ac- 
cording to  the  wish  of  the  experimenter,  a,  Retort. 
b,  First  receiver,  c,  Second  receiver,  rf,  Third 
receiver,  e,  Bent  tube  for  conveying  away  unab- 
sorbed  gas.  The  materials  introduced  into  the 
retort,  and  the  distillation  commenced,  the  vapor 
collects  in  t'i  ?  first  receiver,  and  part  is  condensed 
while  the  evolved  vapor  passes  through  the  tube 
into  the  second  receiver,  the  tube  terminating 
beneath  the  surface  of  water,  which  absorbs  the 
produced  gas  to  a  certain  extent ;  when  this  ab- 
sorption cannot  be  carried  further,  the  gas  pas- 
ses off  into  the  second  bottle,  the  water  of  which 
becomes  saturated,  and  that  which  is  not  absorb- 
able  escapes  through  the  bent  tube,  e,  and  of 
course  if  necessary  may  be  collected.  It  will  be 
perceived  that  the  bottles  have  middle  necks  to 
which  long  tubes  are  attached,  which  communi- 
cating with  the  atmosphere^  any  occasional  vac- 
cuum  is  immediately  supplied  from  without,  and 
accidents  thus  guarded  against. 

Fig.  12.  WOOLFE'S  APPARATUS,  WITH  WEL- 
TER'S TUBE  OF  SAFETY.  This  renders  the  cen- 
tral openings  from  the  bottles  unnecessary.  A 
small  quantity  of  water  being  poured  into  the 


funnel  so  as  to  about  half  fill  the  ball,  6  or  e  ; 
when  absorption  takes  place  the  water  rises  in 
the  ball  till  none  remains  in  the  tube,  and  then 
the  air  rushes  in  :  on  the  other  hand  no  gas  can 
escape,  as  it  has  to  overcome  the  pressure  of  a 
high  column  of  water  in  the  perpendicular  tube. 
To  this  instrument,  another  form  of  which  is  re- 
presented, plate  I.  fig.  3,  is  appended  a  mercurial 
trough,  d,  and  a  jar,  c,  inverted  in  mercury 
for  collecting  the  gas  that  is  not  absorbable  by 
water,  or  condensible. 

Fig.  13.  A  TUBE  BLOWN  IN  THE  MIDDLE  INTO 
A  BALL  FOR  DROPPING  LIQUIDS.  The  ball 
being  filled  by  the  suction  of  the  mouth  applied 
to  the  upper  "orifice,  while  the  lower  one  is  im- 
mersed in  the  liquid  ;  or  by  immersing  the  ball 
and  tube  at  once  into  the  liquid  with  the  point 
downwards,  then  applying  the  finger  to  the  upper 
orifice  and  cautiously  removing  it,  the  liquid  will 
pass  out  in  drops. 

Fig.  14.  The  mode  in  which  charcoal  or  any 
inflammable  body  is  introduced  into  oxygen  gas 
for  rapid  combustion. 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  III. 

Figs.  1,  2,  3.  GLASS  BOTTLES  AND  MATRASSES 
for  solutions  and  experiments  upon  a  small  scale. 

Figs.  4,  5,  6.  CRUCIBLES,  chiefly  used  for 
subjecting  substances  to  a  high  heat. 

Fig.  7.  PORTABLE  BLAST-FURNACE  OF  MR. 
AIKIN. — This  is  composed  of  three  parts,  all 
made  out  of  the  common  thin  black-lead  melting 
pots  sold  in  London  for  the  use  of  the  goldsmiths. 
The  lower  piece,  c,  is  the  bottom  of  one  of  these 
pots,  and  cut  off  so  low  as  only  to  have  a  cavity 
of  about  an  inch  deep,  and  ground  smooth  above 
and  below.  The  outside  diameter  over  the  top 
is  five  inches  and  a  half.  The  middle  piece,  or 
fire-place,  a,  is  a  larger  portion  of  a  similar  pot, 
with  a  cavity  of  about  six  inches  deep,  and  mea- 
suring seven  inches  and  a  half  over  the  top,  out- 
side diameter,  and  perforated  with  six  blast-holes 
at  the  bottom.  These  two  pots  are  all  that  are 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  furnace  for  most  ope- 
rations ;  but  when  it  is  wished  to  heap  up  fuel 
above  the  top  of  a  crucible  contained,  and  espe- 
cially to  protect  the  eyes  from  the  intolerable 
glare  of  the  fire  when  in  full  height,  an  upper 
pot,  b,  is  added,  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the 
middle  one,  and  with  a  large  opening  in  the 
side,  cut  to  allow  the  exit  of  the  smoke  and 
flame.  It  has  also  an  iron  stem  with  a  wooden 
handle  (an  old  chisel  answers  the  purpose  very 
well)  for  removing  it  occasionally.  The  bellows, 
which  are  double,  d,  are  firmly  fixed,  by  a  little 
contrivance,  which  will  take  off  and  on,  to  a 
heavy  stool,  as  represented  in  the  plate,  and  their 
handle  should  be  lengthened  so  as  to  make 
them  work  easier  to  the  hand.  To  increase  their 
force,  on  particular  occasions,  a  plate  of  lead 
may  be  firmly  tied  on  the  wood  of  the  upper 
flap.  The  nozzle  is  received  into  a  hole  in  the 
pot  c,  which  conducts  the  blast  into  its  cavity. 
Hence  the  air  passes  into  the  fire-place,  a, 
through  six  holes  of  the  size  of  a  large  gimlet, 
drilled  at  equal  distances  through  the  bottom  of  the 
pot,  and  all  converging  in  an  inward  direction 
so  that  if  prolonged  they  would  meet  about  the 
centre  of  the  upper  part  ofkhe  fire.  (Fig.  9.  shows 
the  distribution  of  these  holes  in  the  bottom. 


by  ttt 


J.Sh\ir\'scul|i. 


VOL. 5. PAGE  550. 


13 


J.Shurv 


CHEMISTRY. 


551 


The  large  central  hole  is  intended  to  receive  a 
stand  for  supporting  the  crucible.)  No  luting  is 
necessary  in  using  this  furnace,  so  that  it  may  be 
set  up  and  taken  down  immediately.  Philoso- 
phical Magazine,  vol.  xvii.  p.  166.  See  also 
Lire's  Dictionary,  article  LABORATORY,  and 
Henry's  Elements. 

Fig.  8.  A  FIXED  FURNACE,  which  may  be 
used  for  a  wind-furnace,  or  for  distillation  with 
a  sand  heat. 

Fig.  10.  MR.  AIKIN'S  FURNACE,  when  used 
for  showing  the  process  of  cupellation  in  a  lec- 
ture room.  The  method  of  using  it  consists  in 
causing  a  portion  of  the  blast  to  be  diverted  from 
the  fuel  and  to  pass  through  a  crucible  in  which 
the  cupel  is  placed,  a  a,  The  furnace,  b,  The 
perforated  stopper  for  the  central  blast,  c  c,  A 
portion  of  earthen  tube  through  which  the  air 
passes,  and  is  heated  during  this  transit,  e,  A 
piece  of  soft  brick,  perforated  to  admit  the 
earthen  tube,  f,  which  may  be  kept  open  for 
inspecting  the  process.  No  luting  is  required 
except  to  join  /to  e.  (Henry).  Improvements 
made  by  Mr.  Aikin  in  this  furnace,  may  be  seen 
and  had  of  Mr.  Knight,  in  Foster-lane. 

Fig.  11.  KNIGHT'S  PORTABLE  FURNACE,  com- 
posed of  strong  iron  plate,  lined  with  fire-lute, 
the  inside  diameter  six  inches.  «,  The  grate,  b, 
The  ash-pit  door,  d,  The  door  of  the  fire-place 
when  used  as  a  sand-heat,  e.  e,  Two  holes,  oppo- 
site to  each  other,  for  transmitting  a  tube,  g,  An 
opening  for  a  retort  neck  when  used  for  distilling 
with  the  naked  fire.  Dr.  Henry,  from  whom  we 
take  this  plate  and  description,  says  he  finds  it  a 
great  improvement  to  make  the  aperture  for  the 
chimney  at  k,  as  shown  in  the  next  figure,  in- 
stead of  directing  it  through  the  sand  bath,  ac- 
cording to  the  ordinary  construction. 

Fig.    12.    A     DIFFERENT    VlEW    OF    THE     SAME 

FURNACE,  a,  The  grate,  c,  The  register  of  the 
ash-pit.  /,  A  small  door  with  a  contrivance  for 
supporting  a  muffle. 

Figs.  13,  and  14,  are  different  views  of  a  fur- 
nace of  Mr.  Knight's  invention,  and  convertible 
to  various  purposes.  It  is  nine  inches  square  on 
its  inside,  and  sixteen  inches  deep  from  the  top 
to  the  grate.  The  face  of  the  opening  at  g,  fig. 
13,  rises  at  an  angle  which  makes  the  back  part 
five  inches  higher  than  the  front.  If  the  ash- 
pit, at  i,  be  sunk  below  the  level  of  the  ground, 
the  height  of  the  furnace  need  not  exceed  eigh- 
teen inches.  The  ash-pit,  a,  must  be  at  least 
eighteen  inches  deep  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  grate,  b,  is  formed  of  separate  bars, 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  apart,  and  of  a  triangular 
shape.  The  chimney,  f,  is  two  inches  and  a  half 
from  the  top,  and  four  and  a  half  by  two  and  a 
half  wide. 

When  we  wish  to  apply  this  furnace  to  the 
purpose  of  occasional  distillation,  an  opening,  d 
fig.  14,  is  left  on  one  side,  which,  when  not 
wanted,  is  filled  up  by  brick.  Other  pieces  of 
brick  may  likewise  be  provided,  with  arched 
openings,  one  of  them  having  a  round  hole  in  it, 
for  occasionally  transmitting  a  tube,  and  a  corres- 
ponding hole,  in  fig.  13,  must  then  be  made  in 
the  opposite  side  of  the  furnace,  to  be  closed 
when  not  wanted. 

Fig.  15.  Is  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  wind- 


furnace,  invented  also  by  Mr.  Knight,  with  an 
additional  chamber  for  supplying  the  waste  heat 
to  useful  purposes,  a,  The  internal  cavity,  ft, 
The  flue,  passing  into  a  hot  chamber,  c,  An  ap- 
pendage for  drying,  or  roasting,  &c.  d,  The  flue, 
connecting  it  with  the  vertical  chimney  e.  ff, 
covers,  formed  of  twelve-inch  Welsh  tiles,  with 
handles,  g,  The  stoke  hole,  h,  Bearing-bar,  k, 
Ash-pit,  sunk  below  the  level  of  the  ground. 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  IV. 

Fig.  1.  MR.  PEPYS'  IMPROVEMENT  OF 
WOOLFE'S  APPARATUS. — The  balloon,  a,  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  vessel,  b,  accurately  fitted  to  it, 
and  furnished  with  a  glass  valve,  allowing  gas 
freely  to  pass  into  it,  but  preventing  the  water 
which  it  contains  from  falling  into  the  balloon. 

Fig.  2.  A  GASOMETER. — This  consists  of  an 
outer  fixed  vessel  a,  and  an  inner  moveable  one  b, 
both  of  japanned  iron.  The  latter  slides  easily  up 
and  down  with  the  other,  and  cords  passing  over 
pulleys  suspend  it,  to  which  the  counterpoises 
e,e,  are  attached.  The  gas  enters  from  the  vessel 
in  which  it  has  been  formed  by  the  communicating 
pipe  d,  and  passes  along  the  perpendicular  pipe, 
indicated  by  dotted  lines  in  the  centre,  into  the 
cavity  of  the  vessel  6,  which  continues  to  rise  till 
it  is  full,  and  then  it  is  stopped  by  the  cross-bar 
to  which  the  pulleys  are  attached. 

Fig.  3.  GAS  RECEIVER. 

Fig.  4.  A  GALVANIC  TROUGH,  a  a  (see  ELEC- 
TRO-GALVANISM). The  tube  marked  b  is  the  ar 
rangement  for  decomposing  water,  a  a,  The 
trough. 

Fig.  5.  CUTHBERTSON'S  APPARATUS,  for  show- 
ing the  composition  of  water.  A  glass  receiver 
a,  with  an  aperture  at  the  bottom,  to  which  a 
piece  of  brass  is  cemented,  perforated  with  two 
holes,  one  aperture  conveying  the  oxygen  gas, 
and  one  the  hydrogen. 

Fig.  6.  A  TUBULAR  VESSEL,  for  several  pur- 
poses of  experiment. 

Fig.  7.  APPARATUS  FOR  DECOMPOSING  WATER 
over  red-hot  iron  or  charcoal. — A  retort  «,  partly 
filled  with  water,  is  to  be  affixed  to  a  gun-barrel 
b  b,  open  at  both  ends,  and  filled  up  with  iron 
wire,  coiled  up  at  both  ends ;  the  barrel  is  to  be 
placed,  nearly  horizontally,  in  a  furnace,  with  a 
small  elevation  of  that  end  nearest  the  retort.  A 
fire  is  to  be  lighted  in  the  furnace,  and,  when 
the  gun-barrel  has  become  red-hot,  a  lamp  is  to 
be  applied  under  the  retort  a,  which  will  cause 
the  water  it  contains  to  pass  through  the  tube, 
and  over  the  red-hot  iron  wire  ;  it  will  thus  be 
decomposed,  its  oxygen  uniting  with  the  iron, 
and  its  hydrogen,  passing  over  in  the  form  of 
gas,  will  be  received  in  the  pneumatic  cistern,  or 
worm  tub  c. 

Fig.  8.  A  CHEAP  INSTRUMENT  FOR  FREEZING 
QUICKSILVER  by  muriate  of  lime  and  snow,  a  <t, 
The  outer  vesse'l  of  wood,  b  b,  An  inner  tin 
vessel,  standing  on  feet,  c  c,  A  shallow  tin  pan, 
resting  on  a  projection  of  the  inner  tin  vessel. 
Beneath  this  is  a  third,  d,  made  of  untinned  iron, 
and  supported  by  feet  two  inches  high.  Into 
this  vessel  the  mercury  to  be  frozen  is  placed, 
and  the  freezing  composition  is  to  be  placed  in 
the  outer  one,  so  as  completely  to  surround  the 
inner  one. 


552 


CHEMISTRY. 


Fig.  9.  A  WIRE  STAND. 

Fig.  10.  AN  APPARATUS  for  showing  the  di- 
minution effected  in  the  volume  of  hydrogen 
ind  oxygen  gases,  by  their  slow  combustion. 
The  jar  inverted  in  f,f,  is  filled  with  oxygen 
cas ;  the  large  bladder  with  hydrogen ;  to  this 
bladder  it  will  be  seen  is  attached  a  tube  with  a 
long  brass  pipe  bent :  a  stop-cock  is  attached,  d. 
The  bladder  being  pressed,  a  stream  of  gas  issues 
through  the  pipe,  which  may  be  set  on  fire  by  a 
spark  from  an  electrical  machine;  the  combustion 
being  continued  for  a  certain  time,  the  water  will 
rise  gradually  within  the  jar  in  proportion  to  the 
consumed  oxygen. 

Fig.  11.  This  figure  lepresents  the  different 
parts  of  the  apparatus  required  for  measuring 
the  quantity  of  elastic  fluid  given  out  during  the 
action  of  an  acid  on  calcareous  soils.  The  bottle 
containing  the  soil  is  represented  at  a.  b.  The 
bottle  containing  the  acid  furnished  with  a  stop- 
cock, c,  The  tube  connected  with  a  flaccid  blad- 
der d.  f,  A  graduated  measure,  e,  The  bottle  for 
containing  the  bladder.  When  this  instrument 
is  used,  a  given  quantity  of  soil  is  introduced 
into  a.  b  is  filled  with  muriatic  acid  diluted  with 
an  equal  quantity  of  water,  and  the  stop-cock  being 
closed  is  connectedwith  the  upper  orifice  of  a,which 
is  ground  to  receive  it.  The  tube  c  is  introduced 
into  the  lower  orifice  of  «,  and  the  bladder  con- 
nected with  it,  placed  in  its  flaccid  state  ine,  which 
is  filled  with  water.  The  graduated  measure  is 
placed  under  the  tube  of  e.  When  the  stopper- 
cock  of  b,  is  turned,  the  acid  flows  into  a,  and 
acts  upon  the  soil ;  the  elastic  fluid  generated 
passes  through  e  into  the  bladder,  and  displaces 
a  quantity  of  water  in  e  equal  to  it  in  bulk  ;  and 
this  water  flows  through  the  tube  into  the  gra- 
duated measure,  the  water  in  which  gives  by  its 
volume  the  indication  of  the  proportion  of  car- 
bonic acid  disengaged  from  the  soil;  for  every 
ounce  measure  of  which  two  grains  of  carbonate 
of  lime  may  be  estimated.  See  SOIL  and  AGRI- 
CULTURE. 

Fig.  12.  A  COMMON  NOOTH'S  APPARATUS  for 
impregnating  water  with  gas.  The  lower  vessel, 
c,  contains  the  effervescing  materials;  d,  repre- 
sents a  ground  stopper  closing  an  orifice,  by 
which  additional  materials  may  be  put  into  the 
lower  vessel,  b,  The  middle  vessel  opened  both 
above  and  below  to  the  neck  of  the  lower  vessel, 
which  receives  the  inferior  neck  of  the  middle 
vessel ;  this  connexion  is  so  contrived,  that  gas 
may  pass  up.  but  fluid  cannot  return,  e,  A  cock 
to  draw  off  the  contents  of  6  ;  the  upper  vessel, 
a,  is  fitted  by  grinding  into  the  upper  neck  of 
the  middle  vessel ;  its  inferior  part  consists  of  a 
tube  that  passes  almost  as  low  as  the  centre  of  the 
middle  vessel.  A  ground  stopper  closing  the 
upper  orifice.  When  this  apparatus  is  to  be 
used,  the  effervescent  materials  are  put  into  the 
lower  vessel ;  the  middle  vessel  is  filled  with 
pure  water,  and  put  into. its  place;  and  the 
upper  vessel  is  filled  and  likewise  put  into  its 
place.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  carbonic 
acid  gas,  passing  through  the  valve  at  h,  ascends 
into  the  upper  part  of  the  middle  vessel  b,  where 
b)  its  elasticity  it  reacts  on  the  water,  and  forces 
part  up  the  tube  into  the  vessel  a  ;  part  of  the 
common  air  in  this  last  being  compressed,  and 
the  rest  escaping  by  the  stopper,  which  is  made  of 


a  conical  figure  that  it  may  be  easily  raised.  As 
more  carbonic  acid,  or  any  other  gas  is  extricated, 
more  water  rises,  till  at  length  the  water  in  the 
middle  vessel  falls  below  the  lower  orifice  of  the 
tube.  The  gas  then  passes  through  the  tube  into 
the  upper  vessel,  and  expels  more  of  the  common 
air  by  raising  the  stopper.  In  this  situation,  the 
water  in  both  vessels  being  in  contact  with  a 
body  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  it  becomes  strongly 
impregnated  with  this  gas  after  a  certain  time. 
This  effect  may  be  hastened  by  taking  off  the 
middle  and  upper  vessels  together  and  agitating 
them. 

Fig.  13.  A  BLOW-PIPE. 

Fig.  14.  VIVID  COMBUSTION  IN  OXYGEN  GAS. 

Fig.  15.  A  BOTTLE  AND  TUB£  for  directing  a 
small  stream  of  water  on  any  object.  This  pur- 
pose, says  Dr.  Henry,  from  whom  we  take  the 
figure,  may  be  very  conveniently  effected  by 
fixing  a  glass  tube  of  small  bore  two  or  thiee 
inches  long,  and  bent  at  one  end  to  an  obtuse 
angle,  into  a  hole  bored  in  a  cork,  which  may  be 
used  as  the  stopper  of  an  eight  ounce  phiaJ  filled 
with  water.  On  inverting  the  vial,  and  grasping 
the  bottom  of  it,  the  warmth  of  the  hand  expels 
either  a  few  drops,  or  a  small  stream  of  water 
which  may  be  directed  on  any  minute  object. 
When  the  flow  ceases  it  may  be  renewed  if  re- 
quired, by  setting  the  bottle  for  a  moment  with 
its  mouth  upwards  (which  admits  a  fresh  supply 
of  cool  air),  and  then  proceeding  as  before. 

Fig.  16.  The  COMMON  APPARATUS  used  for 
transferring  air  or  gas  from  one  vessel  to  another, 
a,  A  metal  trough,  k  k,  A  shelf  fixed  in  it. 
When  the  apparatus  is  used,  the  trough  is  to  be 
filled  with  water,  about  one  inch  above  the 
shelf,  t,  g,  f,  are  glass  jars  inverted  upon  the 
shelf;  these  being  filled  with  water,  and  thus 
inverted  on  the  shelf,  will  remain  so  filled  till 
displaced  by  directing  a  stream  of  air  or  gas  into 
them,  which,  by  its  superior  levity,  will  rise  in 
the  glass,  and  press  upon  and  dislodge  part  of 
the  water. 

Fig.  17.  A  GAS-HOLDER,  a  and  c,  Two  short 
pipes,  terminated  by  cocks.  6,  A  pipe  passing 
through  the  middle  of  the  cover,  reaching  within 
half  an  inch  of  the  bottom  of  the  apparatus.  The 
vessel  is  first  filled  with  water  through  the  fun- 
nel, at  the  top  of  the  apparatus;  the  cock  a, being 
left  open  and  c  shut.  The  gas  from  the  gasome- 
ter is  to  be  directed  into  the  aperture  a.  The 
cock  c  is  now  opened,  and  6  shut,  and  the  vessel 
will  thus  be  filled  with  gas  by  the  expulsion  of 
the  water  at  c ;  when  this  no  longer  flows  the 
vessel  is  full  of  the  gas,  and  now  all  the  cocks 
are  to  be  shut  till  the  contents  of  the  air-holder 
are  required  for  use,.  See  for  description  and 
figures  of  improved  gas-holders,  the  13th,  24th. 
27th,  and  44th  vols.  of  the  Philosophical  Maga- 
zine. 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  V. 

Fif  1.  A  LAMP  FURNACE,  improved  by  Mr. 
Accum.  It  consists  of  a  brass  rod,  screwed  to  a 
foot  of  the  same  metal,  loaded  with  lead.  On 
this  rod,  which  may  be  unscrewed  in  the  middle, 
slide  three  brass  sockets,  terminating  in  brass 
rings,  which  rings  are  for  supporting  alembics, 
flasks,  retorts,  &c.  By  means  of  a  thumb-screw 
acting  on  the  rod  of  the  lamp,  each  of  the  brass 


C  H  E  M  I  S  T  R  Y. 


553 


rinf;s  may  be  placed  according  to  pleasure.  Be- 
low these  rings  is  a  fountain  lamp,  on  Argand's 
plan,  which  also  slides  on  the  main  brass  rod  by 
means  of  a  socket  and  thumb-screw.  This  lamp 
may  be  used  for  producing  any  degree  of  heat 
that  the  operator  requires,  from  a  very  gentle 
one  up  to  the  high  temperature  requisite  for  dis- 
tilling mercury. 

Fig.  2.  INSTRUMENT  FOR  DIRECTING  THE  VA- 
POR OF  ALCOHOL  ON  FLAME,  a,  A  hollow  s'phere 
for  containing  'alcohol,  resting  upon  a  shoulder 
in  the  ring  o.  b,  A  bent  tube  with  a  jet  at  the 
end,  to  convey  the  alcohol  in  the  state  of  vapor 
to  the  flame  at  q ;  this  tube  is  continued  in  the 
inside  up  to  c,  which  admits  of  a  being  nearly 
filled  without  any  alcohol  running  over,  d,  A 
safety  valve,  the  pressure  of  which  is  determined 
at  pleasure,  by  screwing  higher  or  lower  on  the 
pillar  e,  the  two  milled  nuts  /and  g,  carrying  the 
steel  arm  /*,  which  rests  on  the  valve.  /,  An 
opening  for  putting  in  the  alcohol,  k,  The  lamp 
which  adjusts  to  different  distances  from  a,  by 
sliding  up  or  down  the  two  pillars  I,  I.  The  dis- 
tance of  the  flame  q  from  the  jet  is  regulated  by 
the  pipe  which  holds  the  wick  being  a  little  re- 
moved from  the  centre  of  the  brass  piece  rn,  and 
of  course  revolving  in  a  circle,  n,  The  mahogany 
stand. 

Fig.  3.  Represents  the  COMMON  LARGE  STILL, 
used  for  the  distillation  of  spirits,  a,  The  body. 
ti,  The  head,  d,  A  spiral  pipe,  called  the  worm  of 
the  still,  which  passes  through  a  tub  of  cold 
water,  and  condenses  the  vaporous  material, 
which  then  comes  out  in  a  fluid  form  at  e. 

It  is  evident  that  the  wider  and  more  shallow 
the  bottom  of  the  still,  so  will  be  its  power  of 
effecting  a  good  deal  in  a  short  time,  as  the  whole 
bottom  of  the  vessel  may  be  subjected  to  lieat, 
and  thus  vaporisation  speedily  and  copiously 
produced.  This  principle  has  been  acted  on  to 
such  an  extent,  that  a  still  of  the  capacity  of 
forty  gallons  in  the  body,  and  three  in  the  head, 
charged  with  sixteen  gallons  of  wash,  can  be 
worked  480  times  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Fig.  4.  Presents  a  vertical  section  of  this  still, 
a,  The  bottom,  joined  to  b,  the  shoulder,  with 


solder  or  rivets,  or  screws  and  lute,  c ,  The  turned 
up  edge  of  the  bottom,  against  which,  and  on  a 
level  with  a,  the  brick  work  of  the  coping  of  the 
flue  rests,  preventing  the  flames  from  jetting  up 
to  touch  c.  d.  The  discharge  pipe,  e  e,  The  body 
of  the  still.  _/',  Section  of  the  central  steam  escape 
pipe,  g,  Section  of  one  of  the  lateral  steam  escape 
pipes.  A,  Outside  view  of  another,  i  i  i  i,  Inferior 
apertures  of  lateral  steam  pipes,  kkkk,  Their 
superior  apertures.  II,  Bottom  scraper,  or  agi- 
tator, which  may  be  either  made  to  apply  close 
to  the  bottom,  or  to  drag  chains,  m,  The  upright 
shaft  of  this  engine,  as  it  is  called,  n,  The  hori- 
zontal wheel,  with  its  supporters,  o,  Its  vertical 
wheel,  p,  Its  handle  and  shaft,  g,  Support  of  the 
shaft,  r,  Froth  and  ebullition  jet  breaker,  resting 
on  the  cross  bar  s.  t,  Its  upright  shaft,  u,  Its  cup- 
mouthed  collar,  filled  with  wool  and  grease,  and 
held  down  by  a  plate  and  screws,  v,  General 
steam  escape  pipe,  or  head.  The  charge  pipe, 
and  the  sight  hole,  for  the  man  who  charges  it  to 
see  when  it  is  sufficiently  full,  are  not  seen  in 
this  view. 

Fig.  5.  A  FUNNEL  for  introducing  liquids  into 
retorts,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  their  necks. 

Fig.  6.  Another  representation  of  a  Woulfe's 
apparatus,  with  the  supplying  tube  represented 
at  h.  See  the  other  figures. 

Fig.  7.  A  BRASS  PRONG,  with  a  wooden  handle 
for  holding  an  evaporating  glass  over  a  lamp. 

Fig.  8.  SECTION  OF  AN  EVAPORATING  DISH. 

Fig.  9.  A  SEPARATOR,  for  separating  liquids 
of  different  specific  gravities,  a,  A  ground  stop- 
per. 6,  A  glass  stop  cock. "  When  the  lightest  of 
two  liquids  has  risen  completely  to  the  top,  the 
heaviest  may  be  let  out  by  opening  the  stop  cock, 
a-nd  again  shutting  it  when  all  the  heavy  liquid 
has  passed  out. 

Fig.  10.  COMMON  TROUGH,  with  an  inverted 
jar  for  collecting  gas,  with  a  retort  appended,  con- 
taining the  materials  from  which  the  gas  is  sup- 
plied. 

Fig.  11.  A  PLAIN  RETORT. 

Fig.  12.  AN   ALEMBIC,    WITH    A    RECEIVER 

ATTACHED    TO    IT. 


INDEX. 


ABSORPTION  of  heat,  245. 

ACADEMY,  Parisian,  362. 

ACETATE  of  alumina,  1480.  Ammonia,  1478. 
Baryta,  1480.  Copper,  696.  Iron,  735.  Lead, 
136,  768.  Lime  1479.  Magnesia,  1480.  Po- 
tassa,  1470.  Soda,  1471.  Strontia,  1480.  Tin, 
751.  Zinc,  807. 

ACETIC  acid,  1138.  How  procured,  1139.  Composi- 
tion of,  1144.  Properties  of,  1146.  Ether,  1528. 

ACETOUS  acid,  1142. 

ACIDITY, theory  of,  166. 

ACIDS,  1137.  Acetic,  1138.  Acetous,  1142.  Aerial, 
146.  Amniotic,  1611.  1673.  Antimonic,  829. 
Antimonious,  ib.  Arsenic,  882.  Arsenious,  881. 
Benzoic,  1199.  Boletic.  1250.  Boracic,  412. 
Camphoric,  1218.  Carbonic,  400.  Chloric,  327. 
Chloriodic,  332.  Chloro-cyanic,  529.  Chloro 
carbonic,  412.  Chromic,  895.  Citric,  1168. 
Columbic,  909.  Cyanic,  526.  Ellagic,  1254. 
Fcrro-cyanic,  536.  Ferro-prussic,  ib.  Ferruted- 
chyazic,  ib.  Fluoboric,  414.  Fluoric,  367. 


Formic,  1618.  Gallic,  1188.  Hydriodic,  363. 
Hydrocloric,  355.  Hydrocyanic,  527.  Hydro- 
fluoric, 367.  Hydrophosphorous,  455.  Hydrosul- 
phurous,  455.  Hydro-thionic,  522.  Hydro-xan- 
thic,  546.  Hypo-nitrous,  387.  Hypo-sulphuric, 
455.  Hypo-sulphurous,  ib.  Hypo-phosphorous, 
422.  Igasuric,  1254.  lodic  (oxiodic),  333.  lo- 
dous,  334.  Kinic,  1252.  Laccic,  1240.  Lactic, 
1612.  Lithic,  1607.  1679,  et  seq.  Malic,  1179. 
Manganesic,  855.  Meconic.  1253.  Mellitic, 
1232.  Molybdic,  902.  Molybdous,  ib.  Mo- 
roxylic,  1217.  Muriatic,  355,  ct  seq.  "Kitric,  388, 
et  seq.  Nitre-muriatic,  394.  Nitrous,  385,  et  seq. 
Oxalic,  1151.  Oxiodic,  333.  Perchloric,  328. 
Pemitrous,387.  Phosphoric,  423,  rt  seq.  Phos- 
phorous, 420,  et  seq.  Prussic,  527.  Prupuric, 
1608.  -  Pyro-uric,  1609.  Rosacic,  1610.  Sac- 
lactic,  1614.  Scbacic,  1615.  Selenic,  461. 
Stibic,  829.  Stibious,  ib.  Suberic  1224. 
Succinic,  533.  Sulpho-cyanic,  533.  Salphu- 
reted  chyaric,  533-  Sulphuric,  446,  ct  seq.  Sul- 


654 


CHEMISTRY. 


phuro-prussic,  533.  Sulphurous,  441,  et  seq. 
Tantalic,  910.  Tartaric,  1160.  Titanic,  927. 
Tungstic,  905.  Uric,  1607. 1679,  et  seq.  Zoomic, 
1617. 

ACIDIFYING  principle,  166. 

ADIPOCIRE,  1595. 

AFFINITY,  172,  etseq.  Aggregative,  or  cohesive, 
173,  et  seq.  Elective,  194.  Elementary,  210. 
Divellent,  198.  Quiescent,  193. 

AGGREGATION,  attraction  of,  173. 

AIR,  constituents  of,  374. 

ALBERTUS  magnus,  31, 

ALBUMEN,  properties  of,  1307.  1579.  Chemical 
composition  of,  1580.  Animal,  1579.  Vegeta- 
ble, 1307. 

ALCHEMISTS,  23,  etseq. 

ALCHEMY,  history  of,  22,  etseq. 

ALCOHOL,  preparation  of,  1509.  Conversion  of  su- 
gar into,  1501.  Quantity  of,  contained  indifferent 
wines,  1527.  Substances  soluble  in,  1522.  Com- 
position of,  1525.  Analysis  of,  ib.  Not  pro- 
duced by  distillation,  1526. 

ALGAROTTIS  powder,  830. 

ALKALIS,  properties  of,  584.     Analysis  of,  938. 

ALLOYS,  566. 

ALUM,  1116. 

ALUMINA,  properties  of  1114,  et  seq.  Sulphate  of 
potassa  and,  1116,  et  seq.  Nitrate  of,  1120-  Mu- 
riate of,  ib.  Acetate  of,  1480.  Tartrate  of, 
1487. 

ALUMINUM,  1113. 

AMALGAMS,  566. 

AMBER,  1410. 

AMBERGRIS,  1601. 

AMMONIA,  preparation  and  properties  of,  463,  et 
seq.  Analysis  of,  467.  Salts  with  base  of,  471, 
et  seq.  Subcarbonate  of,  484.  Bicarbonate  of, 
482.  Sesquicarbonate  of,  485.  Sulphate  of,  486. 
Hydrochlorate  of,  475.  Muriate  of,  476.  Chlo- 
rate of,  471.  Oxalateof,  1494.  Citrate  of,  1488. 
Acetate  of,  1478.  Phosphate  of,  486.  Succinate 
of,  1491. 

AMNIOS,  liquor  of,  1671. 

AMNIOTIC  acid,  1611. 

ANALYSIS,  proximate  and  ultimate,  1132. 

ANIMAL  substances,  1566,  etseq. 

ANTIMONIC  acid,  829. 

ANTIMONIOUS  acid,  829. 

ANTIMONY,  821.  Oxides  of,  824.  Acidifiable,  829. 
Alloys  of,  837.  Chloride  of,  830.  Salts  of, 
1834.  Sulphuret  of,  832.  Hydro-sulphureted  ox- 
ide of,  833.  Tartarised,  836.  Ores  of,  821. 
Glass  of,  832.  Butter  of,  830.  Liver  of,  832. 

ANTS.    Acid  of,  1618. 

AQUA  fortis,  385.     Regia,  394. 

AQUINAS,  31. 

ARBOR  Diana,  638. 

ARROW  root,  1281. 

ARSENIATES,  880. 

ARSENIC,  modes  of  obtaining,  878.  Properties  of, 
ib.  White  oxide  of,  ib.  Chloride  of,  884.  Io- 
dide of,  885.  Sulphurete  of,  888.  With  hy. 
drogen,  886.  Acid,  882.  Salts  of,  880. 

ARSENITES,  890. 

ARSENOUSacid,  881. 

ARSENURETED  hydrogen,  386. 

ARTEPHIUS,27. 

ASHMOLE,  42. 

ASPARAGIN,  1264. 

ASPHALTUM,  1372,  et  seq. 

ATMOSPHERE,  374. 

ATOMIC  theory,  100  et  seq. 

ATROPIA,  1326. 


ATTRACTION,  cohesive,  176.  Elective,  194.  Elec- 
trical, 282,  et  seq.  Chemical,  194.  Bergman  on, 
93.  Berthollet  on,  96.  Geoffroy  on,  91.  Mayow 
on,  84.  Newton  on,  88,  et  seq. 

AURUM  musivum,  745. 

AZOTE, 372 

AZURE,  857 

BACON,  lord,  29.     Roger,  28 

BALDWIN'S  phosphoros,  1039 

BALSAMS,  1434,  et  seq. 

BARILLA,  1002. 

BARIUM,  1061.  Chloride  of,  1074.  Oxide  of, 
1062. 

BARLEY,  how  converted  into  malt,  1503. 

BARYTA,  1061.  Chlorate  of,  1069.  Hydriodate  of, 
1070.  lodate  of,  ib.  Hypo-sulphite  of,  1066. 
Ferro-cyanite  of,  1075.  Carbonate  of,  1068.  Sul- 
phate of,  1063.  Sulphite  of,  1066.  Phosphate 
of,  1071.  Phosphite  of,  1072.  Nitrate  of,  1067 . 
Oxalate  of,  1496.  Acetate  of,  1480.  Borate  of, 
1073.  Compounds  of,  are  generally  poisonous, 
1075. 

BASIL,  VALENTINE,  47. 

BATTERY,  voltaic,  292. 

BECCHER,  78. 

BEER,  1502. 

BELL  METAL,  704. 

BENNET,  169. 

BENZOATES,  1490. 

BENZOIC  acid,  1199. 

BENZOIN,  ib. 

BERGMAN,  93  114. 

BERTHOLLET,  96. 

BILE,  1664.     Components  of,  1664.     Human,  ib. 

BILIARY  calculi,  1694. 

BIRDLIME, 1389. 

BISMUTH,  properties  of,  810.  Oxide  of,  8 12.  Chlo- 
ride of,  814.  Salts  of,  817.  Sulphuret  of,  816. 
Alloys  of,  820. 

BITTER  principle,  1308,  et  seq. 

BITUMEN,  1363,  etseq. 

BLACK,  Dr.,  113. 

BLENDE,  796. 

BLOOD,  appearances  of,  1641.  Separation  of,  ib. 
Coagulation  of,  ib.  Crassamentum,  1643.  Coloring 
matter,  ib.  Fibrin,  1644.  To  what  is  its  color 
owing?  1647.  Composition  of,  1644. 

BLUE,  Prussian.  733.  Vitriol,  690.  Dye,  1287, 
et  seq. 

BOERHAAVE,  111. 

BOILING,  theory   of,  261.      Point  of,    ib.     Varied 

by  atmospheric  pressure,  262. 
BOLETIC  acid,  1250. 
BOLOGNIAN  phosphorus,  1065. 
BONES,  of  what  constituted,  1620. 
BORACIC  acid,  412,413. 
BORAX, 1008. 
BORON,  412. 
BOYLE,  72. 
BRAIN,  1634. 
BRANDY, 1509. 
BRONZE,  704. 
BRUCIA,  1323. 
BUTTER,  1561.     Of  antimony,  830.     Bismuth,  814. 

Zinc,  794. 

CADMIUM,  786,  etseq.     Oxide  of,  788.    Compound! 

of,  789,  et  seq. 
CALAMINE,  806. 
CALCAREOUS  spar,  1042. 
CALCIUM,  1023.     Compounds  of,  1031,  et  seq. 


CHEMISTRY, 


555 


CALICO  printing,  1295. 

CALOMEL,  655,  et  seq. 

CALORIC,  219.  Cause  of  expansion,  221.  Con- 
ducting powers  of  different  bodies  of,  225.  Ab- 
sorbed in  Hquifaction,  248.  Capacity  of  different 
bodi&s  for,  245.  Radiant,  231.  Communicating, 
230.  Evolved  when  bodies  change  their  form  from 
a  more  rare  to  a  more  dense  state,  245.  Is  it  che- 
mically combined  when  latent  in  bodies  ?  246. 
Different  from  light,  269 

CALX, 1024. 

CAMPHOR,  1383.  Acidification  of,  1218.  Substances 
resembling,  1387. 

CAOUTCHOUC,  1443.     Mineral,  1378. 

CAPACITY  for  heat,  245. 

CARBON,  397.  Diamond  composed  of,  ib.  Com- 
pounds with  chlorine,  404.  Oxygen,  401.  Sub- 
chloride,  408.  Proto-chloride,  405.  Hydriodide, 
499.  Gaseous  oxide  of,  401.  Bi-hydroguret  of, 
493.  Sulphuret  of,  543.  Combination  with  iron, 
725. 

CARBONATE  of  ammonia,  481,  etseq.  Baryta,  1068. 
Cadmium,  786.  Cobalt,  867.  Copper,  694. 
Iron,  725.  Lead,  770.  Lime,  1024.  1040. 
Magnesia,  1096.  Manganese,  849.  Potassa, 
967.  Soda,  1002,  et  seq.  Stroutia,  1083.  Tin, 
753.  Zinc,  806. 

CARBONIC  acid,  400,  ad.  Its  formation,  1505. 
Chloro,  411. 

CARBONIC  oxide, '401.  Method  of  procuring,  ib. 
Properties  of,  402. 

CARBURET  of  nitrogen,  (cyanogen),  525. 

CARBURETED  hydrogen,  487.  491. 

CARTILAGE,  1620. 

CASSAVA,  1284. 

CAST  iron,  225. 

CASTOR,  1603. 

CATHARTINE,  1462. 

CAUSTIC  lunar,  637. 

CAVENDISH,  148.  On  hydrogen,  149.  Nitric  acid, 
151. 

CERIUM,  931.     Oxides  of,  933.     Salts  of,  934. 

CERUMEN  of  the  ear,  1665. 

CERUSSE,  770. 

CETINE,  1591. 

CHALK,  1024. 

CHAMELION,  mineral,  852,  et  s'eq. 

CHARCOAL,  400,  add.  how  obtained,  1457.  •  Quan- 
tities of,  different  as  prepared  from  different  woods, 
1457. 

CHEESE,  1654. 

CHEMICAL  apparatus,  page  548,  etseq.  Affinity,  194. 
How  exerted  and  modified,  196,  et  seq.  Equiva- 
lents, table  of,  1130. 

CHEMISTRY,  definition  of,  1,  et.  seq.  History  of, 
15,  et  seq. 

CHLORATE  of  ammonia,  471.  Baryta,  1069.  Cop- 
per, 686.  Lime,  1037.  Potassa,  972.  Soda, 
1006.  Strontia  (muriate),  1078.  Magnesia,  1093. 
Manganese,  849.  Silver,  631.  Tin,  750. 

CHLORIC  acid, 327.     Ether,  1562.     Oxide,  326. 

CHLORINE,  315.  Compounds  of  with  oxygen,  322. 
Davy  on,  323. 

CHLORINE  gas,  315.  How  formed,  316.  Its  pro- 
perties, 318. 

CHLORIODIC  acid,  335. 

CHLORO  prussic  acid,  529 

CHLORURE  of  iodine,  335. 

CHOKE,  damp,  510. 

CHROMATES,  896. 

CHROMIC  acid,  895. 

CHROMIUM,  891.  Oxides,  892,  etseq.  Salts  of, 
896. 

CHYAZIC  acid.  896. 


CINNABAR,  bi-sulphuret of  mercury,  673. 

CITRATES,   1488,  et  seq. 

CITRIC  acid,  1168. 

CIVET, 1604. 

CLAY,  1115.  1119. 

COAGULATION  of  blood,  1641. 

COAL,  1376.  Varieties  of,  ib.  Gas  from,  504. 
Mines,  fire  damp  of,  510,  et  seq. 

COBALT,  method  of  obtaining,  857,  etseq.  Oxides 
of,  859.  Salts  of,  864,  et  seq.  Alloys  of.  870. 

COCCULCS  Indicus,  1315. 

COCHINEAL,  ib. 

COHESION,  methods  of  overcoming,  175.  How  in- 
fluential on  chemical  action,  202. 

COLCOTHAR,  728. 

COLD,  sensation  of,  not  a  measure  of  its  degree,  220. 
Artificially  produced,  248,  et  seq,  Evaporation 
productive  of,  245.  Liquifaction  produces,  249, 
et  seq. 

COLOCYNTINE,  1463. 

COLORING  matter  of  blood,  1647. 

COLUMBIC  acid,  909,  et  seq. 

COLUMBIUM,  908. 

COLUMN,  electric,  288. 

COMBINATION,  effects  of  on  bodies,  194. 

COMBINED  heat,  246. 

COMBUSTION,  theory  of,  164.  Hooke's  theory  of, 
106 — 164.  Stahl's  theory  of,  79.  Lavoisier's 
theory  of,  164.  Oxygen  not  always  a  supporter 
of,  168. 

COMPOSITION,  aggregate,  how  different  from  chemi- 
cal, 9. 

CONCRETIONS  morbid,  1691. 

CONDUCTORS  of  electricity,  286. 

COOLING,  process  of,  how  regulated,  2!7,  et  seq. 

COPAL,  1406. 

COPPER,  method  of  purifying,  676.  Properties  of, 
677.  Oxides  of,  679,  et  seq.  Chlorides  of,  682, 
et  seq.  Salts  of,  685,  et  seq.  Sulphuret  of,  698. 
Phosphuret  of,  699.  Analysis  of  ores  of,  676. 
A  Hoys  of,  700,  etseq. 

COPPERAS,  727. 

CORK,  its  acid,  1456. 

CORROSIVE  sublimate,  654. 

COTTON, 1455. 

COURTOIS  discovered  iodine,  330. 

CRASSAMENTUM  of  blood,  1643. 

CREAM  of  tartar,  1160. 

CROCUS  metallorum,  832. 

CROLLlUS  first  described  calomel,  655. 

CRUOR,  crust  of  animals,  1621. 

CRYSTALLISATION,  177.  Theory  of,  181.  Daniell 
on.  192.  Water  of,  180.  Causes  accelerating 
and  retarding  it,  182,  ?t  ssq, 

CRYSTALS,  structure  of.  187.  et  seq.  Primitive 
t'Qnai.5,  1£2. 

CURD,  1655. 

CUTICLE,  1627. 

CYANIDES  of  iodine.,  532. 

CYANOGEN,  525. 

DALTON  on  definite  proportions,  1718,  etseq. 

DANIELL  on  crystallisation,  192. 

DAMP  fire  of  coal  mines,  510. 

DAVY  (Sir  Humphry),  on  electrico-chemical  philoso- 
phy, 301.  On  the  metallic  base  of  earths  and 
alkalis  on  the  safety  lamp  of  mines,  511. 

DECOMPOSITION,  chemical,  194.  Compound,  196. 
Electrical,  296.  Voltaic,  ib.  Of  water,  305. 

DEFINITE  proportions,  100.  Dalton  on,  102.  Richter 
on,  100.  Higgins  on,  102.  Gay  Lussac  on,  105. 
Wollziston  on,  1780. 

DELIQUESCENCE,  18J. 

DEI.PHIA  (delphine),  1324 


556 


CHEMISTRY. 


DEOXIDISING  nature  of  light,  269. 

DETONATING  powder,  964.  973.  625.  672. 

DEW,  232. 

DIABETES,  1589. 

DIABETIC  sugar,  1590. 

DIAMOND,  composition  of,  400. 

DIGBY  (Sir  Kenelm),  40. 

DILATATION  by  heat,  241. 

DIPPEL'S  animal  oil,  1594. 

DRACO  mitigatus,  655. 

DRYING  oils,  1383. 

EARTHS  are  metallic  oxides,  578. 

EAR  wax,  1665. 

EBULLITION,  pressure  regulating,  261. 

EFFLORESCENCE,  181. 

EGG,  1660.     White  of,  1579.  1662.     Yolk  of,  1662. 

ELASTIC  gum,  1443. 

ELECTIVE  affinity,  194. 

ELF.CTRICITY,  276.     Theory  of,  277.     Is  it  identical 

with  galvanism  ?  296. 
ELECTRO  negative  bodies,  304.  310.    Positive  bodies, 

304.  343. 
ELEMI,  1399. 
ELIAS  Ashmole,  39. 
EMETIC  tartar,  836. 
EMETIN,  1464. 
EPIDERMIS,  1627. 
EPSOM  salt,  1099. 
EQUIVALENTS,  doctrine  of,  1701.      Ures  essay  on, 

1704.     Table  of,  541. 
ESSENTIAL  oils,  1457. 
ETHER,    1528.      Sulphuric,   1529.       Nitric,  1546. 

Muriatic,  1557.     Chloric,  1562.    Hydriodic,  1563. 

Acetic,  1559.     Phosphoric,  1564.     Fluoric,  1565. 

Theory  of  formation  of,    1542.     Composition  of, 

1541. 

ETHIOP'S  mineral,  673. 
EUPHORBICM, 1454. 
EVAPORATION   from  heat,  262.     Cold  produced  by, 

245. 

EXCREMENTS  of  animals,  1675. 
EXPANSION  by  heat,  241. 
EXTRACT,  vegetable,  1312,  etseq. 
EXTRACTIVE  matter,  1312. 
EYE,  humors  of,  1668. 

FJECES,  1686. 
FARINA  (starch),  1275. 
FAT,  1592. 
FEATHERS,  1635. 
FECULA,  1275. 
FERMENTATION,  1500. 

FERRO-CYANIC  acid,  536.     Compounds  of,  537. 
FIBRE, 1457. 

FIBRINE,  1582.     Of  the  blood,  1643. 
FIRE,  damp   of  coal  mines,  510. 
FIXED   air,  400. 
FLAMEL  (Nicholas),  33. 
FLINT,  1127. 

FLUIDITY  produced  by  heat,  245. 
FLUIDS,  animal,  1640. 
FLOOBORIC  acid,  414. 
FLUORIC  acid,  367.  ..    • 

FLUORINE,  341. 
FORMIC  acid,  1618. 
FREEZING  n.ixture,  250. 
FP.IGORIFIC  mixtures,  ib. 

FULMINATING  Mercury,  672.  Platinum,  600.  Silver, 
625. 

GADOLIN  onyttria,  1107. 
GADOLINITE,  ib. 
GALBANUM,  1447. 


GALLIC  acid  1188. 

GALLS,  ib. 

GAMBOGE,  1452. 

GALVANI,  282. 

GALVANIC  apparatus,  287. 

GALVANISM,  how  far  identical  with  electricity,  296. 

GAS,  effect  of  heat  on,  242.  Condensible  by  pres 
sure,  262.  Absorbable  by  solid  substances.  267" 
Absorbable  by  liquids,  ib.  Ammoniacal,  463' 
Azotic  (nitrogen),  1372.  Carbonic  acid,  400' 
Oxide,  401.  Carbureted  hydrogen,  487.  Coal' 
504.  Chlorine,  315.  Euchlorine,  323.  Hy 
drocarbureted,  491.  Hydro-phosphoric,  516" 
Hydrocyanic  (Prussic),  528.  Hydrogen,  348' 
Muriatic  acid,  357.  Nitric  acid,  389.  Nitric  ox- 
ide, 377.  Nitrous,  377.  Nitrous  acid,  385' 
Nitrous  oxide,  375.  Oil,50"7.  Olefiaut,  488,  e' 
seq.  Oxygen,  310.  Oxymuriatic  acid  (chlorine)1 
359.  Phosphureted  hydrogen,  517,  et  seq.  Sul» 
phureted  hydrogen,  521.  Sulphurous  acid,  440" 

GAUZE  wire,  extinction  of  flame  by,  513. 

GEBER  the  alchemist,  26. 

GELATINE,  1569. 

GILBERT,  93. 

GLANDS,  1633. 

GLASS,  its  composition,  1129.     Of  antimony,  832. 

GLAUBER,  63.     His  salt,  67. 

GLIADINE,  133. 

GLUCINA,  1110. 

GLUCINUM,  1111. 

GLUE,  1594. 

GLUTEN,  animal.  394.     Vegetable,  1296,  et  seq. 

GOLD,  602.  Malleability  and  ductility  of,  556.  How 
these  properties  are  destroyed,  617.  Various  com- 
pounds of,  607,  et  seq.  Alloys  of,  617. 

GOLDEN  sulphuret  of  antimony,  833. 

GUAIACDM,  1432. 

GUM  arabic,  1265.  Elastic,  1443.  Resins,  1446. 
General  properties  of,  1265. 

GUNPOWDER,  composition  of,  965.  Different  kinds 
of,  ib. 

GYPSUM,  1053. 

H.EMATIN,  1465. 

HAIR,  1635. 

HALES,  the  founder  of  pneumatic  chemistiy,  107. 

HEAT,  219.  Of  communication,  229.  Of  radiation, 
230.  Blacken,  113.  Lavoisier  on,  168.  Scheele 
on,  155.  Latent,  244.  Sensible,  222. 

HELMONT  (Van),  36. 

HELVETIUS,  38. 

HERMES  (Trismegistus),  24. 

HIGGINS,  102 

HISTORY  of  chemistry,  l,ct  seq. 

HOMOGENEOUS  attraction,  172. 

HONEY, 1588. 

HOOKE,  74. 

HORN,  1622. 

HUMORS  of  the  eye,  1668. 

HYDRIODIC  acid,  363.     Ether,  1563. 

HYDROGEN.  348.  An  acidifying  principle,  363. 
Compounds  of,  355,  et  seq.  With  oxygen  forms 
water,  351.  With  carbon,  ib.  Hales  on,  487. 
Cavendish  on,  149.  Black  on,  369.  Cavallo  on, 
ib.  With  fluorine,  367. 

HYDRO-PHOSPHORUS  acid,  422. 

HYPO-PHOSPHORUS  acid,  ib. 

ICE,    principle    of    its    formation,   251.       Artificial 

methods  of  procuring,  ib. 
INDIGO,  1287,  et  seq. 

INFLAMMABLE  air,  348.       Cavendish  on,  149. 
INFLAMMATION  produced  by  electricity,  297. 
INK,  Sympathetic,  865. 


CHEMISTRY. 


557 


INSOLUBILITY,  influence  of,  on  chemical  attraction, 
203. 

INTESTINAL  concretions,  1693. 

INULIN,  1274. 

IODIC  acid,  333. 

lop  IDE  of  nitrogen,  400. 

IODINE,  discovery  of,  by  Courtois,  330.  Properties  of, 
331.  Combination  with  hydrogen  produces  an  acid 
gas,  363.  Cyanide  of,  532.  Combination  with 
oxygen,  332.  With  nitrogen,  400.  With  chlo- 
rine, 396. 

IODIC  acid,  333. 

IODOUS  acid,  334. 

IPECACUANHA,  emetic,  principle  of,  1464. 

IBIDIUM,  912. 

IRON,  properties  of,  708.  Oxides  of,  709,  et  seq. 
Hydrates  of,  712.  Chlorides  of,  720.  Salts  of, 
727,  et  seq.  Combination  of  carbon  with,  723,  et 
seq.  Alloys  of,  738. 

ISINGLAS3,  1576. 


JAMES'S  powder,  836. 
JELLY,  animal,    1569. 
JOINTS,  fluid  of,  1669. 


Vegetable,  1272. 


KALI  (potassa),  947. 

KELP,  iodine  produced  from,  329. 

KERMES  mineral,  833. 

KINIC  acid,  1252. 

KOUMISS,  1656. 

LAC,  1407,  et  seq. 

LACCIC  acid,  1240. 

LACTIC  acid,  1612. 

LAMP,  miners',  for  safety,  51 1. 

LATENT  heat,  247. 

LAUDANUM,  1402. 

LAVOISIER,  successful  opponent  of  the  phlogistic 
theory,  164.  Some  of  his  leading  principles  un- 
tenable, 168. 

LEAD,  755,  et  seq.  Oxides  of,  757,  et  seq.  Chlo- 
ride of,  760.  Iodide  of,  763.  Danger  of  keeping 
water  in,  759.  Salts  of,  765. 

LEMONS,  acid  of,  1168. 

LIGAMENTS,  1632. 

LIGHT,  nature  of,  268.  In  what  respects  different 
from  heat,  269. 

LIGNIN,  1457. 

LIME,  properties  of,  1024,  Carbonate  of,  1040. 
Salts  of.  1036,  etseq.  Water,  1030.  1041.  Stone, 
1044. 

LIQUEFACTION,  245.     Produces  cold,  247,  et  seq. 

LIQUIDS,  give  out  their  latent  heat  upon  becoming 
solid,  245.  Absorb  heat  upon  becoming  vaporous, 
ib.  Absorb  gases,  267.  Freezing  point  of,  248. 
Boiling  points  of,  261. 

LIQUORICE,  1262. 

LITHIA  (lithina),  1011. 

LITHIC  acid,  1607. 

LITHIUM,  1011.  Chloride  of,  1016.  Oxides  of,  248. 
Salts  of,  1018. 

LlVER  of  antimony,  832. 

LOAF  sugar,  1256. 

LULLY  (Raymond),  32. 

LUNA  cornea,  626. 

LUNAR  caustic,  637. 

LUPULIN,  1461. 

MAGNESIA,  analysis  of,  1090.      Properties  of,  1091. 

Carbonate  of,  1096.  Calcined,  1091.     Chloride  of, 

1093.     Salts  of,  1094,  et  seq. 
MAGNESIUM,  1090.     Oxide  of,  1091     Chloride   of, 

1093.     Iodide  of,  1094. 
MAGNETISM,  electro,  282. 


MALATES,  1489. 

MALIC  acid,  1179. 

M\LTING,  1501. 

MANGANESE,  838,  et  seq.  Oxides  of,  840.  Chlo- 
ride of,  844.  Salts  of,  846,  et  seq.  Sulphuret  of, 
845. 

MARBLE,  1624. 

MARKING  ink,  639. 

MASS,  influencing  attraction,  201. 

MASTIC,  1397. 

MAYOW,  78. 

MECHANICAL  division  contrasted  with  chemical  dis- 
union, 9. 

MEDULLIN,  1468. 

MERCURY,  645.  Congelation  of,  644.  Volatiliza- 
tion of,  ib.  Oxides  of,  646,  et  seq.  Salts  of, 
667,  et  seq.  Sulphurets  of,  673.  Alloys  of, 
674,  et  seq. 

METALS,  properties  of,  553,  efr  seq.  Arrangement 
of,  573,  et  seq.  Powers  of  conducting  heat.  554. 
Oxidation  of,  562.  Compounds  of  with  sulphur, 
569.  Sulphuretwd  hydrogen,  567.  Chlorine,  564. 
Iodine,  565.  Phosphorus,  570.  Carbon,  571. 
Alloys  of,  566.  Action  of  galvanism  on,  413. 
Symbols  of,  572.  Transmutation  of,  15,  et  seq. 

METEORIC  stones  all  contain  iron  in  combination 
with  nickel,  their  supposed  sources,  783. 

MILK,  1648.  Sugar  of,  1587. 1659.  Acid  of,  1652. 
Different  kinds  of,  1659 

MINERS'  safety  lamp,  511. 

MIXTURES,  freezing,  251. 

MOLECULE,  integrant,  11. 

MOLYBDENUM,  ore  of,  900.  Properties  of,  901. 
Oxides  of,  902.  Salts  of,  903. 

MOLYBDIC  acid,  902. 

MoLYBDOUS  acid,  ib. 

MOROXYLIC  acid,  1247. 

MORPHIA  (morphine),  1316,  et  seq. 

MUCILAGE,  1265. 

MULTIPLES,  laws  of  in  combination,  100. 

MURIATIC  acid,  355.  Oxygenated  (chlorine),  359, 
et  seq.  Acid,  355.  Ether,  1557. 

MUSCLE,  substance  of,  1625. 

MUSK,  L605. 

NAILS,  1623. 

NARCOTIN,  1316,  etseq. 

NEWTON  on  chemical  affinity,  88. 

NICKEL,  method  of  purifying,  773.  Properties  of, 
774.  Oxides  of,  776.  Chloride  of,  779.  Sul- 
phurets of,  781.  Alloys  of,  783.  Salts  of,  777. 

NICOTIN,  1459. 

NITRE,  (nitrate  of  potassa),  958.  Crude,  ib. 
Purified,  960.  Sweet  spirit  of,  1546.  One  of 
the  ingredients  of  gunpowder,  965. 

NITRIC  acid,  388.  Composition  of,  ib.  Mode  of 
obtaining,  ib.  Ether,  1546.  Oxide,  377. 

NITROGEN,  azote,  372.  How  obtained,  ib.  Pro- 
perties of,  ib.  Compounds  of  oxygen  with,  374, 
et  seq.  Carbon,  525.  Combination  with  chlorine, 
396.  With  hydrogen,  463.  With  iodine,  400. 
Gaseous  oxide  of,  375. 

NITRO  muriatic  acid,  394. 

NITROUS  acid,  385.  Composition  of,  ib.  Gas.  386, 
Oxide,  375. 

NOMENCLATURE,  164. 

NOSE,  mucus  of,  1666. 

NUCLEUS  of  crystals,  183. 

NUMBERS,  equivalent  1704. 

OIL,  Dippel's  animal,  1594.     Of  vitriol,  446.     Gas, 

507.     Olive,  1333. 
OILS,  animal,  1591,  etseq.     Drying,  1338.     Fixed, 


558 


CHEMISTRY. 


1330,  etseq.  Volatile,  1346.  Vegetable,  1330, 
et  seq.  Fat,  1340. 

OLEFIANT  gas,  488,    Action  of  chlorine  on,  498. 

OLIVE  oil,  1333. 

OLIVIN  (olivile),  1467. 

OPIUM,  1317. 

ORPIMENT,  819. 

OSMAZOME,  1634. 

OSMIUM,  911,   et   seq.     Oxides  of,  913. 

OSSIFICATIONS  1692. 

OXALATES  of  earths,  metals,  and  alkalis,  1492,  et 
seq. 

OXALIC  acid,  mode  of  obtaining,  1152.  Composi- 
tion of,  1158.  Native  in  certain  vegetables,  1151. 

OXIODIC  acid,  333. 

OXYGEN,  not  the  sole  principle  of  acidity,  313.  Not 
the  only  supporter  of  combustion,  311.  Procured 
from  various  substances,  310.  Forms  water  with 
hydrogen,  351.  Combination  with  nitrogen,  374. 
Combination  of  chlorine  with,  322. 

OXYMURIATE  acid  (chlorine),  315. 

PALLADIUM,  643.     Sulphuret  of,  ib.     Alloys  of,  ib. 

PARACELSUS,  60. 

PEARL-ASH,  967. 

PERCHLORIC  acid,  328. 

PERICARDIUM,  liquor  of  the,  1667. 

PETROLEUM,  1365,  et  seq. 

PEWTER,  754. 

PHLOGISTON,  164. 

PHOSGENE  gas,  411. 

PERPHOSPHOROUS  acid,  420. 

PHOSPHORIC  acid,  423,  et  seq.     Ether,  1564. 

PHOSPHOROUS  acid,  420. 

PHOSPHORUS,   415.     Combined  with    oxygen,  419. 

Hydrogen,  399.      Iodine,  432.      Chlorine,  427. 
PHOSPHURETTED  hydrogen  gas,  517. 
PILE,  voltaic,  293. 
PIPERINE,  1466. 
PLASTER  of  Paris,  1053. 
PLATINUM,  593.      Oxides  of,    594.      Chloride  of 

595.     Sulphuret  of,  596.      Phosphuret    of,  599. 

Alloys  of,  601.     Sulphate  of,  597.      Fulminating, 

600. 

PLUMBAGO,  726. 
POISONS,  animal,  1675. 

POLLENIN,    1460. 
POLYCHROITE,    1458, 

POTASS  A,  936,  et  seq.  Of  commerce  (potash),  967. 
Carbonates  of,  ib,  et  seq.  Hydrated,  949.  Hy- 
driodate  of,  951.  Sulphates  of,  955.  Sulphites 
of,  983.  Hydro-sulphuretted,  982,  et  seq.  Nitrate 
of,  958.  Muriate  (chloride  of  potassium),  950. 
Chlorates  of,  972,  et  seq.  lodate  of,  976.  Phos- 
phates of,  977. 

POTASSIUM,  935,  et  seq.  Mode  of  procuring,  938, 
et  seq.  Oxides  of,  947,  et  seq.  Chloride  of,  950. 
Iodide  of,  951.  Hydrurets,  952.  Hydrate  of, 
949.  Phosphuret  of,  954.  Sulphnret  of,  958. 
Amalgam  of,  952.  With  hydrogen,  ib. 

POTATOE  starch,  1280. 

PRECIPITATE,  red,  671. 

PRECIPITATION,  178. 

PRESSURE  influencing  the  boiling  point,  and  forma- 
tion of  vapor,  262.  Influencing  chemical  af- 
finity, 205. 

PRIESTI  EY,  164. 

PRINTERS' types,  837. 

PROPORTIONS,  definite,  100. 

PROUT  on  uric  acid,  &c.  1607. 

PRUSSIAN  blue,  733.     Scheele  on,  163.  - 

PRUSSIATE  of  iron,  1733.     Lime,  1059. 

PRUSSIC  acid,  hydro-cyanic,  257. 

POLVis  antimonialis,  836. 


PURPURIC  acid,  1608. 
PYRITES,  copper,  707. 

QUANTITY,  its  influence  on  affinity,  20) 
QUICKLIME,  1027. 
QUICKSILVER,  (mercury),  644. 

RADIANT  heat,  228. 

RADICAL  vinegar,  1143. 

RAYS  of  light,  238.     Heat,  ib. 

RAYMOND,  (Lully),  32. 

REDUCTION  of  metals,  561. 

RESINS,  1390.       Vegetable,  ib.    Animal,  1600.    Of 

Botany  Bay,  1403.     Black  poplar,  1404.     Green, 

1405. 

RETE  mucosum,  1628. 

RHODIUM,  918.     Oxides  of,  920.     Alloys  of,  919. 
RlCHTER  on  chemical  attraction,  100. 
RIPLEY, 34. . 
ROCHELLE  salt,  1483. 
ROSACIC  acid,  1610. 
ROSIN,  1396. 
RUM,  1501. 
RUST,  oxide  of  iron,  709. 

SACCHARINE  matter,  1587. 

SAFETY  lamp,  512. 

SAGO,  1283. 

SAL-AMMONIAC,  (muriate  of  ammonia),  475. 

SALIVA,  1663. 

SALT,  (muriate  of  soda,  or  chloride  of  sodium),  993. 
Of  sorrel  (oxalic  acid),  1151.     Rochelle,  1483. 

SANDARACH,  1398. 

SARCOCOLL,  1261. 

SATURATION,  177. 

SCALES  of  animals,  1624. 

SCHEELE,  152. 

SECRETIONS  animal,  1640. 

SELENIATBS,  461. 

SELENIC  acid,  461. 

SELENIUM,  458,  etseq. 

SEMEN,  1670. 

SERUM,  1641. 

SHELLS,  1620. 

SILICIUM,  1126. 

SILK,  1636,  et  seq. 

SILVER,  properties  of,  626.  Tarnishing  of,  623. 
Oxides  of,  624.  Chlorides  of,  627.  Salts  of,  631, 
et  seq,  Horn,  626.  Fulminating  compounds  of, 
625.  Alloys  of,  641.  Standard  of,  ib.  Sulphu- 
ret of,  629. 

SIZE,  1575. 

SKIN,  1626,  et  seq. 

SOCIETY,  Royal,  72. 

SODA,  991.  Properties  of,  ib.  Carbonate  of, 
1002.  Sulphates  of,  997.  Sulphite  of,  999.  Hy- 
dro-sulphuret  of,  1010.  Muriate  of,  1001.  Chlorate 
of,  1006.  Phosphate  of,  1007.  Other  salts  and 
compounds  of,  1008. 

SODIUM,  990.  Mode  of  procuring,  ib.  Chloride 
of,  993.  Iodide  of,  995.  Oxide  of,  991.  Sul- 
phuret of,  996.  Phosphuret  of,  ib. 

SOLIDS  expanded  by  heat,  245.  Absorb  heat  in  be- 
coming liquid,  248. 

SOLUTION,  what?  177.  Generally  produces  cold, 
248. 

SORREL,  salt  of,  (oxalic  acid),  1151. 

SOUP,  portable,  1577, 

SPECIFIC  heat,  247. 

SPERMACETI,  1591. 

SPIRIT,  proof,  1516.     Of  wine,  1507. 

STAHL,  79. 

STARCH,  1275.     Different  kinds  of,  1280,  et  seq. 

STEAM,  265.  Of  the  same  temperature  witu  boil- 
ing water,  261.  Latent  heat  of,  ib. 


CHEMISTRY. 


559 


STEEL,  a  compound  of  iron  and  carbon,  725.     Cast, 

ib. 

STIBIC  acid,  829. 
STIBIOUS  acid,  ib. 
STIBIUM  (antimony),  821. 
STONES,  meteoric,  783. 
STRONTIA,  1077.     Carbonate    of,  1083.      Salts  of, 

1081. 
STRONTIUM,  1076.     Oxide  of,  1077.      Chloride  of, 

1078.     Sulphuret  of,  1080. 
STRYCHNIA,  1322. 
SUBCHLORIDE  of  lead,  760. 
SUBER,  1456. 
SUBERIC  acid,  1224. 
SUBLIMATE  (corrosive),  649. 

SCCCINATES,  1491. 

SUCCINIC  acid,  1210. 

SUGAR,  1255.     Diabetic,  1589.     Milk,  1587. 

SULPHUR, 433. 

SULPHURETED   hydrogen,  521.     Properties  of,  522. 

SULPHURIC  acid,  440.  Modes  of  obtaining,  445. 
Ether,  1529. 

SULPHUROUS  acid,  440.  How  converted  into  sul- 
phuric acid,  443. 

SULPHUR  vivum,  435. 

SUPPORTERS  of  combustion?  168. 

SYMPATHETIC  ink,  865. 

SYNOVIA,  1669. 

TACAMAHAC,  1400. 

TALLOW,  1592. 

TANNIN,  1198. 

TANTALUM,  908. 

TAPIOCA,  1284. 

TAR,  mineral,  1372. 

TARTAR,  cream  of,  1160. 

TARTARicacid,  1160. 

TARTRATES,  1481,etseq. 

TEARS,  1666. 

TELLURETED  hydrogen  gas,  877. 

TELLURIUM,  871,  et  seq.     Oxide  of,  874.     Chloride 

of,  875.     Iodide  of,  876. 
TEMPERATURE,  22.  Not  the  measure  of  actual  heat, 

220.     Change  of,    occasioned  by  chemical  action, 

and  by  solution,  245. 
TENDONS,  1631. 
TESTS,  Bergman  on,  119. 
THERMOMETER,  240. 
THORINA,  1122. 
THORINUM,  1123. 
TIN,  739.      Oxygen   with,  740,  et  seq.      Chlorides 

of,  743,     Hydrate   of,  744.     Amalgam   of,   754. 

Alloys  of,  ib.     Salts  of,  747.     Analysis  of  ores  of, 

739, 

TINCAL, 1008. 
TINNING,  705. 

TITANIUM, 920.     Oxides  of,  927.     Chlorides,  929. 
TOMBAC,  703. 
TRAIN  OIL,  1593. 
TUNGSTATE,  907. 
TUNGSTEN,   904,     Properties  of,  905      Oxides  of, 

906.  Chlorides  of,  ib. 

ADDENDA. 

We  have  referred  to  the  word  TANNIN,  in  the 
body  of  the  Encyclopaedia,  for  an  account  of  this 
substance ;  but,  upon  reconsideration,  we  have 
thought  that  the  foregoing  article  will  scarcely 
be  allowed  to  comprehend  every  thing  that  a 
system  of  chemistry  ought  to  embrace  without  a 
little  more  notice  of-  this  principle  (tannin)  than 
will  be  found  in  the  section  on  gallic  acid. 

This  principle  is  contained  in  many  vegetables; 


TUNGSTIC  acid,  905. 
TuRBITH  mineral,  667. 
TURPENTINE,  oil  of,  1349. 
TUTENAG,  703. 
TYPE,  metal,  837. 

ULMIN,  1273. 

URANIUM,  921.     Oxides  of,  924. 

UREA,  1585. 

URIC  acid,  1687. 

URINE,  1679.  Sugar  of,  Analysis  of,  1684.  Dif- 
ferent in  different  animals.  1682.  Varied  by  die- 
ease,  ib. 

VALENTINE  BASIL,  47. 

VAN  HELMONT,  61. 

VAPORIZATION,  266. 

VAPOR,  265.  Caloric  the  cause  of,  266.  Pressure 
influence,  ib.  Latent  heat  of,  261. 

VARNISHES,  1412,  et  seq.  Copal,  1425.     Fat,  1429. 

VEGETABLE  substances,  1131.  Acids.  1272.  Jelly, 
ib.  Extract,  1312. 

VERDIGRIS,  696. 

VERDITER,  694. 

VINEGAR,  1138.  Distilled,  1142.  Radical,  1143. 
Aromatic,  1384. 

VINOUS  fermentation,  1501. 

VITRIOL,  blue,  sulphate  of  copper,  690.  Green,  sul- 
phate of  iron,  727.  White,  sulphate  of  zinc,  799. 
Oil  of,  446. 

VOLTA'S,  pile,  288. 

VOLTAIC,  battery,  292. 

VOLUMES  of  aeriform  bodies,  105. 

WATER,  composition  of,  351.  Proportion  of  its 
elements,  352.  Decomposed  by  galvanism,  351. 
Danger  of  leaden  vessels  for,  759. 

WAX,  1330,  et  seq. 

WHEAT,  starch  from,  1275 

WHEY,  1654. 

WHITE  LEAD,  770. 

WINE,  1501.  Table  of  quantity  of  alcohol  in  dif- 
ferent, 1527. 

WIRE  gauze,  lamp  of  safety,  511. 

WOLFRAM,  904. 

WOODY  fibre,  1457. 

WOOL,  1635. 

WOULFE,  44. 

XANTHAGENE,  base  of  the   hydroxanthic  acid,  546. 
YELLOW  mineral,  761. 
YTTRIA,  1107. 

ZAFFRE,  857. 

ZlMOME,  1305,  et  seq. 

ZINC,  791,  et  seq.  Oxides  of,  793.  Chloride  of, 
794.  Iodide  of,  795.  Sulphuret  of,  796.  Phos- 
phuret  of,  798.  Salts  of,  799,  et  seq. 

ZIRCONIUM,  1124.    Oxide  of,  ib. 

ZooMiCacid,  1517. 

ZUMIC  acid,  1251. 

it  is  usually  procured  from  the  gall-nut,  from  the 
oak-bark,  or  from  catechu ;  its  purest  form  we 
are  told  is  derived  from  bruised  grape  seeds,  by 
means  of  a  small  quantity  of  cold  water;  but 
upon  a  large-scale  it  is  generally  obtained  from 
the  bark  of  the  oak,  on  account  of  its  cheapness ; 
but  various  kinds  of  bark  also  afford  the  prin- 
ciple. 

Tan  or  tannin  has  the  following  properties;  when 
added  to  a  solution  of  any  animal  jelly,  it  forms 


CHE 


560 


CHE 


a  hard  insoluble  matter ;  and  it  is  upon  this  pro- 
perty the  art  of  tanning  depends.  When  evapo- 
rated to  dryness  tan  forms  a  brown  friable  mass, 
resembling  aloes  in  its  appearance.  This  mass 
is  soluble  both  in  hot  and  cold  water  ;  but  not  in 
alcohol. 

From  this  watery  solution  almost  all  the  acids 
throw  down  tan,  by  forming  with  it  an  insoluble 
compound.  But  nitric  acid  converts  it  into  a 
yellowish  brown  matter,  which  is  now  soluble  in 
alcohol.  Chlorine  produces  on  it  the  like  change ; 
and  peroxide  of  tin  converts  it  into  a  sort  of  ex- 
tractive matter,  '  probably  by  communicating 
oxygen.' 

As  tan  possesses  in  a  marked  degree  the  above 
named  property  of  changing  glue  into  a  hard  and 
insoluble  coagulum,  its  infusion  may  be  relied 
on  as  a  test  of  the  presence  of  gelatine  in  bodies ; 
and  again,  solution  of  gelatine  may  be  employed 
as  a  test  of  the  presence  of  tan,  for  which  pur- 
poses they  are  both  used. 

Mr.  Hatchetthas  shown  that  tan  may  be  formed 
artificially  by  digesting  charcoal  in  dilute  nitric 
acid  during  several  days ;  and  this  artificial 
tannin  seems  only  to  differ  from  the  natural,  in 
resisting  the  action  of  nitric  acid. 

Varieties  of  artificial  tan  may  also  be  formed 
by  distilling  nitric  acid  on  common  resin,  or 
indigo,  or  several  resinous  substances ;  as  well  as 
by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  camphor,  as- 
safastida,  &c. 

This  artificial  production  is,  in  fact,  a  purer 
variety  of  tan  than  the  natural,  since  it  is  free 
both  from  gallic  acid  and  from  the  extractive 
principle,  both  of  which  are  always  present  in 


the  natura.  tannin.  See  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions, 1805,  1806. 

The  other  omission  which  we  deem  it  proper 
to  notice  is,  the  circumstance  of  condensation 
or  contraction  by  cold,  although  a  general  not 
being  an  universal  law.  Water  by  freezing  be- 
comes actually  increased  in  bulk,  this  fluid  having 
obtained  its  maximum  of  density  at  40°,  and  if 
it  be  cooled  below  that  point  it  expands  in  pro- 
portion to  the  diminution  of  temperature ;  in 
proportion  we  say,  for  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that 
'  the  rate  of  this  expansion  is  equal  for  any 
number  of  degrees  above  or  below  this  maximum 
of  density,  so  that  the  bulk  of  water  at  32°  and 
at  48°  will  be  the  same.' 

Under  the  words  FREEZING  and  ICE  we  shall 
have  to  revert  to  this  anomalous  circumstance, 
and  shew  its  utility  in  the  economy  of  nature. 

We  may  further  state,  as  less  important  and 
regular  exceptions  to  the  principle  of  contraction 
by  cold,  that  some  salts  in  the  act  of  crystal- 
lizing expand ;  and  that  some  of  the  metals  are 
increased  in  bulk  by  congealment. 

CORRIGENDA. 

Par.  219.   Blended  for  Blinded. 

—  396.  Chloride  of  nitrogen  for  chlorine  of  ni- 

trogen. 

—  863.  Sulphur  and  cobalt  for  chlorine  and  sul- 

phur. 

—  954.  Phosphorut  and  potassium  for  phoxphuret 

and  potassium. 

—  1033.  Iodine   and   calcium  for  iodide  and  cal- 

cium 


CHEMNITZ,  an  old  fortified  town  of  Upper 
Saxony,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
marquisate  of  Meissen,  containing  three 
churches,  and  an  hospital.  Cottons,  and  other 
fine  stuffs  are  made  here ;  and  the  bleaching 
is  considerable.  It  lies  thirty-five  miles  W.S.W. 
of  Dresden,  and  thirty-two  south-west  of 
Meissen. 

CHEMNITZ  (Martin),  a  famous  Lutheran  di- 
vine, the  disciple  of  Melancthon,  was  born  at 
Britzen  in  Brandenburgh,  in  1522.  He  was 
employed  in  several  important  negociations  by 
the  Protestant  princes,  and  died  in  1589.  His 
principal  work  is  an  Examen  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  Latin. 

CHEMOSH.    SeeCHAMOSH. 

CHEMOSIS,  in  surgery,  a  disease  of  the  eye, 
proceeding  from  inflammation ;  wherein  the 
white  of  the  eye  has  a  jelly  like  appearance, 
and  swells  the  transparent  cornea.  It  may  be 
cured  by  almost  any  mild  astringent  eye-water, 
especially  if  a  very  minute  portion  of  camphor 
be  added. 

CHENIER  (Marie  Joseph),  a  time-serving 
man  of  letters  during  .the  various  revolutionary 
governments  of  France,  was  -born  at  Constanti- 
nople in  1762,  his  father  being  French  consul 
there.  He  is  said,  early  in  life,  to  have  been  in 
the  army.  He  wrote  a  drama,  Charles  the  Ninth, 
which  was  received  with  applause,  and  dedicated 
it  to  Lewis  XVI,  as, 


'Monarque  des  Francois,  roi  d'un  peuple  fidelle.* 

This  was  followed  by  the  Death  of  Galas,  Grac- 
chus, and  Timoleon.  In  the  revolution,  Chenier 
became  a  Jacobin,  and  was  member  of  the  mu- 
nicipality of  Paris  on  the  10th  of  August,  1792. 
His  odes  were  sung  on  the  anniversaries  of  the 
14th  of  July,  the  10th  of  August,  and  on  various 
occasions  of  the  kind.  In  September,  1792,  he 
was  a  deputy  of  the  national  convention,  and 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  In  May,  1795, 
he  declared  against  the  terrorists,  was  appointed 
president  of  the  convention  in  August,  when 
the  constitution  of  1795  was  completed,  and 
afterwards  became  a  member  of  the  council  of 
five  hundred.  He  was  proclaimed,  on  the  22nd 
of  September,  the  first  of  French  poets.  In 
1798  he  was  re-elected  a  member  of  the  council 
of  five  hundred,  and  in  December  1799  a  mem- 
ber of  the  tribunate.  Besides  the  above  works, 
he  wrote  An  Historical  Sketch  of  the  State  and 
Progress  of  French  Literature  since  1789.  He 
died  at  Paris  in  1811. 

CHENIER  (Andrew),  brother  of  the  foregoing, 
was  also  a  writer  during  the  revolution,  who,  in 
1794,  gave  offence  to  his  brother's  party.  Being 
tried,  and  condemned  to  the  guillotine,  Marie 
Joseph  Chenier  is  said  to  have  brutally  ex- 
claimed, '  If  my  brother  is  guilty  let  him  perish.' 
This  assertion,  however,  is  believed  to  be  a  ca- 
lumny. He  was  executed  in  1794,  at  the  age  of 


CHE 


561 


CHE 


thirty-one.  The  brother  we  are  told  received 
various  letters  from  the  departments,  with  this 
epigraph,  '  Cain,  restore  to  us  thy  brother!' 

CHENISCUS,from  xr\v,  a  goose,  in  antiquity, 
an  ornament  in  the  form  of  a  goose,  used  on  the 
prow  and  stern  of  ships. 

CHENOIEA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  order  monogynia,  class  pentandria  :  CAL. 
quinquefied  :  COR.  none.  Style  filiform  ; 
stigmas  two,  and  reflected :  CAPS,  umbilicated, 
monospermous.  Species  only  one,  a  Cape 
shrub. 

CHENOPODIUM,  goose-foot,  or  wild 
orach,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  digynia  order, 
and  pentandria  class  of  plants ;  natural  order 
twelfth,  holoraceae  :  CAL.  pentaphyllousand  pen- 
tagonal :  COR.  none,  seed  one,  lenticular,  supe- 
rior. There  are  twenty-six  species,  thirteen  of 
which  are  natives  of  Britain.  Most  of  them 
have  an  aromatic  smell.  A  species  which  grows 
near  the  Mediterranean  is  used  by  the  Egyptians 
in  sallads,  on  account  of  its  saltish  aromatic 
taste.  From  this  plant  kelp  is  made  in  other 
countries.  1.  C.  ambrosoides,  or  the  Mexican  tea 
tree,  easily  propagated  from  seeds,  and  thrives 
best  in  a  rich  soil.  2.  C.  bonus  henricus,  or  com- 
mon English  mercury,  found  growing  naturally 
in  shady  lanes,  in  many  places  in  Britain.  It 
was  foimerly  used  as  spinach.  As  an  article  of 
the  Materia  Medica,  it  once  ranked  among  the 
emollient  herbs ;  is  now  never  used.  This  plant 
is  remarkable,  according  to  M.M.  Chevalier  and 
Lasseigne,  for  containing  uncombined  ammonia, 
which  is  probably  the  vehicle  of  the  remarkably 
nauseous  odor  which  it  exhales,  strongly  resemb- 
ling that  of  putrid  fish.  When  it  is  bruised  with- 
water,  and  the  liquor  expressed  and  afterwards 
distilled,  we  procure  a  fluid  containing  the  sub- 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  an  oily  matter,  which 
gives  the  fluid  a  milky  appearance.  If  the  ex- 
pressed juice  of  the  chenopodium  be  evaporated 
to  an  extract,  it  is  found  to  be  alkaline;  there 
seems  to  be  acetic  acid  in  it.  Its  basis  is  said 
to  be  of  an  albuminous  nature.  It  is  stated 
also  to  contain  a  small  quantity  of  the  substance 
which  the  French  call  osmazome,  a  little  of  an 
aromatic  resin,  and  a  bitter  matter,  soluble  both 
in  alcohol  and  water,  as  well  as  several  saline 
bodies.  3.  C.  botrys,  or  the  oak  of  Jerusalem, 
with  oblong  sinuate  leaves,  thrives  best  in  a  rich 
light  earth,  and  may  be  easily  propagated  from 
seeds,  as  indeed  all  the  other  species  may  be. 
4.  C.scoparia,  thebelvideie,  or  annual  mock  cy- 
press, is  of  a  beautiful  pyramidal  form,  resem- 
bling a  young  cypress  tree.  This  is  a  plant  much 
esteemed  in  China.  About  the  end  of  March 
and  beginning  of  April,  the  belvidere  springs 
up ;  its  suckers  or  shoots  rise  to  the  height  of 
eight  or  nine  inches,  in  shape  of  a  child's  fist 
half  shut;  it  afterwards  extends  itself,  and  sends 
forth  a  number  of  branches  loaded  with  leaves, 
like  those  of  flax  ;  and,  as  it  grows,  its  branches 
arrange  themselves  naturally  in  the  form  of  a 
beautiful  pyramid  ;  its  leaves,  yet  tender,  abound 
with  juice,  and  have  a  very  agreeable  taste. 
\\  hen  in  its  full  beauty  its  leaves  become  hard 
and  unfit  {'or  the  table  ;  but  nourishment  is  then 
found  in  Us  root,  which  serves  as  a  resource  in 
times  of  famine  and  scarcity.  When  the  belvi- 
V 


dere  has  attained  to  its  natural  size  the  Chinese 
separate  its  principal  s*alk  from  the  rest,  and  put 
it  into  a  lye  of  ashes,  which  cleans  and  softens  it, 
and  frees  it  from  all  impurities  of  the  bark.  After 
this,  it  is  exposed  to  the  sun ;  and,  when  dry,  it 
is  baked  and  seasoned.  From  the  root,  which 
has  something  of  a  violet  color,  they  strip  the 
skin  by  filaments,  which  may  be  boiled  and 
eaten  :  but  what  is  particularly  sought  after,  is 
the  root  itself;  of  which,  when  reduced  to  pow- 
der, they  collect  only  what  remains  in  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  and  form  it  into  small  loaves,  that 
are  baked  bv  being  held  over  the  steam  of  boil- 
ing water. 

CHEN-SI,  or  SHEN-ST,  a  province  of  China, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Iloang-ho,  which  se- 
parates it  from  Chan-si,  on  the  south  by  the 
provinces  of  Se-tchuen  and  Hou-quang,  on  the 
north  by  Tartary  and  the  great  wall,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  country  of  the  Moguls.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  extensive  provinces  of  the  empire  ; 
and  has  two  viceroys,  besides  the  governors  of 
So-tcheou,  and  Kan-tcheou,  which  are  the 
strongest  places  in  the  country.  The  climate  is 
temperate,  and  the  people  civil  and  affable  to 
strangers.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  produces 
plentiful  crops  of  wheat  and  millet.  They  have 
also  honey,  wax,  musk,  rhubarb,  cinnabar,  and 
coal  mines.  Gold  dust  is  washed  down  by  the 
torrents  and  rivers.  They  have  a  vast  number 
of  deer,  bears,  musk  goats,  wild  bulls,  &c.  be- 
sides an  animal  resembling  a  tiger,  whose  skin  is 
singularly  beautiful ;  a  species  of  bats  as  large 
as  hens,  and  several  other  animals  quite  unknown 
in  Europe.  The  province  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  the  east  and  the  west,  and  contains  eight 
cities  of  the  first  rank,  and  106  of  the  second 
and  third.  Singan-fou  is  the  capital. 

CHEN-YANG,  a  mountainous  province  of 
Chinese  Tartary,  formerly  known  as  Leao-tong, 
and  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  great  wall  of 
China.  Here  are  various  mines  and  some  noble 
timber.  Wheat,  millet,  and  legumes,  and  most 
of  the  European  fruits  are  grown  here,  as  well 
as  cotton  in  abundance.  Great  numbers  of 
sheep  and  cattle  are  also  reared.  The  capital, 
is  Moukden,  or  Chen-yang,  besides  which, 
there  are  several  other  ill-built  towns  in  the 
district. 

CHEPELIO,  or  CHEPELLO,  an  island  in  the 
bay  of  Panama,  and  province  of  Darien,  South 
America,  situated  about  three  leagues  from  the 
city  of  Panama,  which  it  supplies  with  provisions. 
Lon.  79°  55'  W.,  lat.  8°  46'  N. 

CHEPSTOW,  a  sea-port  and  market  town 
of  England,  in  the  county  of  Monmouth  :  si- 
tuated neur  the  mouth  of  the  Wye,  over  which 
there  is  a  high  bridge.  It  is  a  large  and  flourish- 
ing town,  formerly  walled  round,  and  defended  by 
a  castle,  part  of  which  still  remains.  Chepstow 
is  the  port  for  all  the  towns  seated  on  the  Wye 
arid  Lug.  Ships,  of  600  tons  burden  are  built 
here,  and  even  those  of  700  tons  come  up  to  the 
town.  The  tide  comes  in  at  this  place  with 
greater  rapidity  than  at  Bristol,  and  sometimes 
rises  at  the  bridge  fifty  or  sixty  feet  perpendicular. 
This  bridge  is  of  cast-iron,  and  connects  Mon- 
mouth and  Gloucestershire,  it  was  erected  in 
1816 ;  and  is  maintained  at  their  joint  expense. 


CHERBOURG. 


It  lies  twenty-eight  miles  south-west  of  Glou- 
cester, and  135  W.N.W.  of  London. 

CHEQ,  or  CHERIF,  the  prince  of  Mecca,  who 
13  high  priest,  and  sovereign  pontiff  of  all  the 
Mahommedans  of  whatever  sect  or  country  they 
be.  The  grand  seignior,  sophis,  moguls,  khans 
of  Tartary,  &c.  send  him  yearly  presents,  and 
vast  sums  of  money  to  provide  for  all  the  pilgrims 
during  the  seventeen  days  of  their  devotion.  His 
powei  is  now  much  diminished. 

CHER,  a  department  of  France,  which  com- 
prehends part  of  the  ci-devant  province  of  Berri. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  department 
of  the  Nievre  ;  on  the  south  by  that  of  the  Allier; 
on  the  west  by  those  of  the  Indre,  Loire,  and 
Cher;  and  on  the  north  by  the  Loiret.  It 
abounds  in  corn,  wine,  hemp,  and  flax  :  the 
pasturage  is  also  excellent.  But  iron  is  the 
principal  article  of  commerce.  It  contains 
about  2,900  square  miles,  and  239,561  inhabi- 
tants. Bourges  is  the  chief  town. 

CHER,  a  river  of  France,  which  gives  name 
to  the  above  department.  It  rises  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Crease ;  is  navigable  above  Vierzon, 
and,  after  watering  Tours,  falls  into  the  Loire, 
near  Saumur. 

CHERAMIS,  from  xtpapoe,  a  hollow  place, 
an  ancient  medical  measure,  often  mentioned  by 
Hippocrates. 

CHERASCO,  a  fortified  town  and  territory 
of  Piedmont,  with  a  strong  citadel,  to  which  the 
king  of  Sardinia  retired  in  1706,  during  the 
siege  of  Turin.  The  town,  which  contains  seven 
churches  within  the  walls  and  three  without,  is 
one  of  the  strongest  in  Piedmont :  the  district 
is  about  nine  miles  in  circuit,  and  abounds  in 
corn  and  wine.  Inhabitants  of  the  town  about 
8000.  It  is  seated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Stura 
and  Tanaro,  upon  a  mountain,  fourteen  miles 
south-east  of  Turin. 

CHERAWS,  a  district  of  South  Carolina, 
about  eighty-three  miles  long,  and  sixty-three 
broad.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  north- 
east by  North  Carolina ;  on  the  south-east  by 
George-town  district,  and  on  the  south-west  by 
Lynch 's  Creek,  which  separates  it  from  Camden. 
It  is  divided  into  three  counties,  viz.  Chester- 
field, Darlington,  and  Marlborough.  This  dis- 
trict is  well  watered  by  the  river  Great  Pedee, 
and  by  Jeffrey's,  Thomson's  neck,  Lynch's,  and 
Three  Neck  Creeks.  Grenville  and  Chatham 
are  the  chief  towns. 

CHERBOURG,  a  sea-port  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  the  Channel,  and  ci-devant 
province  of  Normandy.  It  contains  about  14,000 
inhabitants,  who  are  employed  in  building  small 
vessels,  and  in  manufacturing  woollen  stuffs.  It 
is  remarkable  for  the  engagement  fought  here 
between  the  English  and  French  fleets  in  1692, 
when  the  latter  were  defeated,  and  upwards  of 
twenty  of  their  men  of  war  burnt  near  Cape  la 
Ilogue-  The  British  landed  at  Cherbourg  in  Aug. 
1758,  and  took  the  town,  with  the  ships  in  the 
basin,  demolished  the  fortifications,  and  ruined 
the  other  works  which  had  been  long  carried  on 
for  enlarging  the  harbour,  and  rendering  it  more 
safe  and  convenient.  Immense  sums  have  been 
expended  since  1783,  in  the  erection  of  piers, 
deepening  and  enlarging  the  harbour,  and  erect- 


ing fortifications.  Large  conical  masses  of  stone 
were  sunk  at  one  time  in  the  sea,  to  break  the 
force  of  the  waves.  They  were,  however,  thrown 
down,  and  the  work  was  abandoned  about  1808. 
Buonaparte  constructed  at  last  an  artificial  har- 
bour out  of  the  solid  ground,  capable  of  hold- 
ing fifty  sail  of  the  line.  It  is  fifty  miles  north- 
west of  Caen. 

CHERBOURG  BREAK-WATER.  The  history 
of  this  great  undertaking  is  creditable  to  the  en- 
terprise and  perseverance,  if  not  to  the  science, 
of  our  neighbours,  and  has  become  more  inter- 
esting at  the  present  time  from  our  own  recent 
and  triumphant  efforts  of  a  similar  description  at 
Plymouth. 

A  report  was  made  to  the  National  Assembly 
in  1791,  by  M.  Curt,  in  the  name  of  the  minis- 
try of  Marine,  as  to  the  progress  of  the  work  be- 
fore the  Revolution. 

Louis  XIV.  it  appears,  had  determined,  after 
the  misfortunes  of  La  Hogue,  to  strengthen  his 
frontiers  by  sea,  and  commissioned  the  celebrated 
M.  de  Vauban  tosurvey  the  coasts  of  Normandy, 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  all  the  bays  and  har- 
bours in  that  direction,  and  suggesting  any  prac- 
ticable improvement  in  them.  He  reported  that 
tha  roadstead  of  Cherbourg  possessed  the  means 
alike  of  protection,  of  attack,  and  of  defence  ; 
and  that  it  was  capable  of  exerting  an  important 
influence  also  in  war,  and  on  the  commercial  re- 
lations with  the  northern  powers ;  that  it  was  the 
spot  of  France  on  which  the  head-quarters  of  the 
French  should  be  established  on  the  coast  of  the 
channel ;  and  was  a  central  advance  post  with 
regard  to  England.  He  added  moreover,  that  it 
might  be  made  a  port  for  the  safe  retreat  of  a 
squadron  crippied  by  storms,  or  beaten  by  an 
enemy,  as  well  as  for  the  reception  of  a  victo- 
rious fleet  with  prizes. 

The  grand  Monarque,  and  his  advisers,  how- 
ever, remained  divided  in  their  opinions,,  be- 
tween the  ad  vantages  of  La  Hogue  and  Cherbourg, 
and  it  was  not  until  after  the  conclusion  of  the 
American  war,  in  1783,  that  Louis  XVI.  issued 
directions  to  the  secretary  of  state  for  the  marine, 
to  appoint  a  special  commission  to  consider  and 
report  which  of  these  roadsteads  combined  the 
most  advantages,  or  was  preferable  for  construct- 
ing a  port  and  naval  arsenal,  capable  of  receiving 
and  equipping  from  eighty  to  100  vessels  of  war. 
The  commissioners  decided,  at  once,  upon  Cher- 
bourg, suggpsting  at  the  same  time,  the  impor- 
tance of  a  break-water,  which  would  make  it 
capable  not  only  of  admitting  a  fleet  to  ride  se- 
curely at  anchor,  but  also  of  affording  protection 
against  a  hostile  naval  force.  Cherbourg,  it 
was  also  observed,  was  an  admirable  port  for 
watching  Portsmouth.  Forts  were  now  there- 
fore erected  at  Du  Hornet,  and  on  the  island  of 
Pelee,  to  protect  the  projected  works;  which 
were  to  consist  of  a  range  of  truncated  cones 
approximating  at  their  bases,  and  presenting  to 
the  sea,  as  they  rose  to  its  surface,  alternate  ob- 
stacles and  openings  ;  and  thus  interrupt  and 
break  down  the  waves.  M.  de  Cessart,  the  au- 
thor of  this  plan,  considered  that,  as  these  open- 
ings at  the  surface  would  not  exceed  seventy-two 
feet,  a  sufficient  barrier  would  be  formed  against 
the  passage  of  a  hostile  vessel ;  and  that  if  ne- 


CHERBOURG. 


563 


cessary,  in  time  of  war.  it  might  be  rendered 
still  more  secure  by  chains  of  iron  thrown 
across.  It  was  proposed  to  construct  these  co- 
nical caissons  of  wood,  the  number  of  which 
to  cover  a  front  of  2000  toises  would  amount  to 
ninety  :  costing  360,000  livreseach,  which  would 
cause  a  total  expense  of  32,400,000  livres.  This 
number  was  afterwards  reduced  to  sixty-four. 
Every  cone  was  to  be  150  feet  in  diameter  at 
the  base,  and  sixty  feet  at  the  top,  and  from  sixty 
to  seventy  feet  in  height ;  the  depth  of  water  at 
spring  tides,  in  the  line  in  which  they  were  in- 
tended to  be  sunk,  varying  from  about  fifty-six 
to  seventy  feet.  They  were  proposed  to  .be  sunk 
without  any  bottoms  in  them,  by  which  the  upper 
resistance  of  the  water,  acting  on  a  base  whose 
surface  was  equal  to  17,678  square  feet,  would 
be  avoided.  The  caissons,  floated  off  by  casks, 
attached  to  their  inner  and  outer  circumference, 
being  towed  to  the  spot  where  they  were  destined 
to  be  sunk,  were  then  to  be  filled  with  stones  to 
the  tops,  and  left  for  a  while  to  settle;  after 
which  the  upper  part,  commencing  with  the  line 
of  low  water,  was  to  be  built  with  masonry,  laid 
in  pozzolana,  and  encased  with  granite  stone. 
The  time  estimated  for  completing  the  work  was 
thirteen  years. 

The  first  cone  was  floated  off  and  sunk,  June 
6th,  1784;  and  the  second  on  the  7th  July  fol- 
lowing, in  presence  of  10,000  spectators  ;  but 
before  the  latter  could  be  filled,  as  proposed, 
with  stones,  a  storm,  which  continued  five  days 
of  the  following  month,  entirely  demolished  the 
upper  part  of  it.  The  quantity  of  stones  sunk 
this  summer  within  the  cavities  of  the  two  cones, 
outside  their  basis,  and  in  the  intermediate 
space,  was  4600  cubic  toises,  or  about  65,000 
tons.  Three  more  cones  were  completed  and 
sunk  in  1785  ;  at  the  end  of  that  year,  the  total 
quantity  of  stone  sunk  amounted  to  17,767 
cubic  toises,  or  about  250,000  tons.  In  1786 
five  more  cones  were  completed  and  sunk  ;  one 
of  them  in  the  presence  of  the  king;  and  the 
quantity  of  stones  thrown  within  them,  and  de- 
posited on  the  dike  connecting  the  coi.os, 
amounted,  at  the  end  of  this  year,  to  42,862 
cubic  toises,  or  600,000  tons.  Next  year  five 
•nore  cones  were  sunk  and  filled  with  stones, 
making,  in  the  whole,  fifteen  ;  and  the  distance 
between  the  first  and  fifteenth  cone  was  1203 
toises  :  the  quantity  of  stones  deposited  within ' 
these  cones  and  the  connecting  dike,  at  the  end 
of  this  year,  amounting  to  71,585  cubic  toises,  or 
more  than  1,000,000  tons.  But  the  violent  gales 
of  wind,  that  were  frequent  in  November  and 
December,  carried  away  all  the  upper  parts  of 
the  five  cones  sunk.  Three  more  were  sunk  in 
1788,  but  the  upper  parts  of  the  first  two  were 
also  carried  away  as  the  others  had  been,  and 
the  height  of  the  third  so  reduced,  as  to  be  level 
with  low  water.  In  the  following  year  the 
works  were  suspended  in  despair,  and  the  three 
cones,  then  building,  sold  by  auction. 

The  total  quantity  of  stone  sunk  from  the 
year  1784  to  December  1790,  being  seven  years, 
amounted  it  is  said  to  373,350  cubic  toises,  or 
about  5,300,000  tons,  and  occupied  a  line  of 
1950  toises  in  length.  The  distance  of  the  first 
cone  from  the  Island  Pelee,  on  the  east,  was  510, 


and  of  the  eighteenth  to  Fort  Querqueville  on 
the  west  1200  toises ;  so  that  of  the  whole  entrance 
or  opening  of  the  roadstead  of  Cherbourg,  which 
was  originally  3660  toises,  more  than  one-half 
was  now  imperfectly  protected  by  the  break- 
water. 

The  entire  expense  of  this  undertaking,  was 
never,  perhaps,  known.  M.  de  Cessart  esti- 
mates the  cost  of  the  eighteen  cones  at  6,231,407 
livres,  or  about  £260,000,  and  the  total  expense 
incurred  between  the  1st  of  April,  1783,  and  the 
1st  of  January  1791,  at  21.658,420  livres,  or 
£900,000  sterling. 

In  this  work  were  employed  250  carpenters, 
thirty  blacksmiths,  2^)0  hewers  of  stone,  and  200 
stone-masons.  The  quarry  and  carrying  men 
were  estimated  at  400  workmen,  assisted  by  100 
horses,  thirty  drivers,  and  twenty-four  chasse- 
marees  each  carrying  seven  cubic  toises,  or  about 
ninety-eight  tons,  with  100  seamen.  To  the 
whole  establishment  were  attached  3000  soldiers, 
as  supernumerary  hands,  and  guards  of  the 
works. 

The  Revolution  effectually  stopped  the  com- 
pletion of  this  mighty  undertaking;  but  between 
1791  and  1803  a  plan  for  casing  over  the  whole 
length  of  old  work,  with  blocks  of  stone,  was  so 
far  carried  into  effect,  that  in  the  latter  year, 
the  centre  of  the  dike  had  been  brought  above 
the  high  water  mark :  and  here  weie  placed  a 
battery  and  a  small  garrison  of  soldiers,  the  whole 
of  which  were  swept  away  by  a  heavy  sea,  oc- 
casioned by  a  tremendous  gale  of  wind,  in  the 
year  1809.  Small  spots  only  of  the  break-water 
are  now  visible  above  the  suriace  of  the  sea  at 
low  water  of  spring  tides,  and  such  spots  nowhere 
exceed  three  feet  in  height ;  the  intermediate 
spaces  are  from  three  to  fifteen  feet  below  the  sur- 
face ;  and,  taking  the  average,  the  whole  dike, 
from  one  end  to  the  other,  may  be  about  four 
feet  below  the  surface  of  low  water  at  the  spring 
tides.  But  near  the  middle  is  about  100  yards 
of  a  shapeless  mass,  where  the  height  rises  to 
eighteen  or  twenty  feet  above  high  water :  the 
greater  part  is  about  four  feet  below  the  surface 
at  low  water  :  it  is  sufficiently  high,  however,  to 
break  the  force  of  the  waves,  and  to  afford  tiie 
port  of  Cherbourg  secure  anchorage,  in-  some 
winds,  for  about  forty  sail  of  the  largest  vessels. 

Buonaparte,  during  the  whole  of  the  last  war, 
bestowed  great  personal  attention  on  the  navy  of 
France,  and  his  vast  plans  were  in  considerable 
forwardness  at  the  period  of  his  expedition  into 
Russia.  He  had  resolved  to  possess  a  fleet  of 
200  sail  of  the  line,  and  Cherbourg  formed,  in 
his  view,  a  grand  point  of  security  in  forming  a 
junction  between  his  two  great  projected  fleets 
of  Brest  and  Antwerp. 

Here  he  therefore  ordered  a  large  dock-yard 
to  be  established  both  for  the  construction  of  and 
for  repairing  the  largest  ships  of  war,  and  a  basin 
to  be  dug  that  should  contain  fifty  or  sixty  sail 
of  the  line;  dry-docks  and  slips  for  building  and 
repairing  were  to  crown  the  whole,  and  make 
this  a.  first-rate  naval  port.  The  noble  basin  thus 
projected  was  finished  in  1813,  at  an  expense, 
as  he  is  said  to  have  asserted,  of  £3,000,000 
British  sterling.  The  wet-dock  to  communicate 
with  it  ho  left  in  progress. 

3  O  * 


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A  printed  description  of  this  great  work,  which 
took  ten  years  in  carrying  into  execution,  is  con- 
tained in  a  letter  from  M.  Pierre- Aime  Lair, 
secretary  to  the  Society  of  Agriculture  and  Com- 
merce of  Caen,  who  was  present  at  the  ceremony 
of  opening  and  consecrating  the  great  basin,  in 
presence  of  the  empress  Maria  Louisa,  the  27th 
of  August  1813. 

He  describes  the  basin  to  be  excavated  out  of 
a  rock  of  granite,  schist,  or  gneis,  the  density 
and  hardness  of  which  increased  as  the  workmen 
descended  from  the  surface.  He  compares  it  to 
an  immense  trough  dug  out  of  a  single  stone, 
and  capable  of  containing  many  millions  of 
cubic  feet  of  water. 

*  We  now  know,  however,'  says  an  able  writer 
in  the  Supplement  to  the  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica,  article  BREAK-WATER,  '  that  Mr.  Lair  is 
mistaken,  that  it  is  not  one  mass  of  rock,  but  rock 
and  gravel  mixed,  that  the  whole  of  the  sides  are 
cased  with  a  well-constructed  wall  of  red  granite, 
and  that  a  noble  quay,  built  of  the  same  material 
and  extending  between  the  two  forts  ofGalet 
and  Hornet,  separates  the  basin  and  wet-dock 
from  the  sea.' 

The  dimensions  of  the  new  basin  are  stated  by 
Mr.  Lair  to  be  about  900  feet  in  length  by  720 
in  width,  and  the  average  depth  fifty-five  feet 
from  the  edge  of  the  quay ;  and,  as  this  edge  is 
five  feet  above  the  high  water  mark  of  the  equi- 
noctial spring-tides,  the  depth  of  water  in  the 
basin  is  then  fifty  feet,  and  the  mass  of  water, 
after  making  allowance  for  a  slope  of  the  solid 
sides  inward  in  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees 
from  the  height  of  about  twenty-five  feet, 
amounts  to  about  30,000,000  cubic  feet;  and 
is  calculated  to  contain  about  thirty  sail  of  the 
line. 

'  We  have  reason  to  think  that  it  is  considera- 
bly larger, '  says  the  above  writer,  or  '  about 
1000  feet  by  770  feet,  and  consequently  .contains 
a  surface  of  about  eighteen  acres,  which,  at  three 
per  acre,  will  contain  fifty-four  sail  of  the  line, 
and  the  adjoining  wet-dock,  when  finished,  an 
equal  number.  The  latter  is  at  this  time  about 
two-thirds  completed,  and  from  300  to  400  men 
are  employed  in  blasting  the  rock  and  building 
granite  walls.  The  dike  or  break-water  seems  to 
be  abandoned ;  the  works  having  long  been 
stopped,  and  the  stone  vessels  going  rapidly  to 
decay.  The  French  officers  say,  indeed,  that  it 
has  occasioned  the  roadstead  to  become  shal- 
lower, by  the  deposition  of  sand  that  has  taken 
place." 

The  canal  leading  from  the  harbour  into  the 
basin  is  at  right  angles  to  the  latter,  and  its  di- 
rection E.  N.  E.  It  is  196  feet  8  inches  in  width 
between  the  two  moles  in  the  direction  of  their 
axis,  308  feet  8  inches  wide  at  its  opening  into 
the  basin,  and  274  feet  long  from  the  axis  of  the 
moles  or  piers  to  the  line  of  wall  forming  the 
side  of  the  basin.  The  basin  is  without  gates,  so 
that  the  swell  of  the  road  is  uniformly  felt  with- 
in it. 

CHERIBON,  SHERIBON,  or  TCHERIBON,  a 
principality  of  Java,  in  the  middle  of  the  coast, 
on  the  north  side  of  the  island.  Its  productions 
are  timber,  coffee,  indigo,  sugar,  and  pepper,  in 
all  of  which  it  is  very  fertile.  Not  far  from  the 


coast  is  a  volcanic  mountain  which  sometime* 
discharges  smoke.  In  the  forests  theie  is  a  kind 
of  speckled  deer,  and  the  rhinoceros  is  common 
on  the  hills.  The  horses  are  also  esteemed,  but 
small.  At  present  there  are  four  native  powers, 
which  divide  the  principality  between  them ; 
but  who  were  voluntarily  under  the  dominion  of 
the  British.  The  population  has  been  estima'ed 
at  90,000. 

CHERIBON,  the  capital  of  the  above  princi- 
pality, is  situated  at  the  bottom  of  a  bay  of  that 
name.  It  was  made  a  station  of  some  importance 
by  the  Dutch,  and  was  well  peopled  on  the  arrival 
of  the  British  in  Java,  in  1812,  when  a  pestilen- 
tial disease  depopulated  it,  and  it  has  never  re- 
covered the  calamity.  Travelling  distance  from 
Batavia  178  miles  east. 

CHERILUS,  of  Samos,  a  Greek  poet,  who 
flourished  A.  A. C.  479.  He  sung  the  victory 
gained  by  the  Athenians  over  Xerxes,  and  was 
rewarded  with  a  piece  of  gold  for  every  verse. 
His  poem  had  afterwards  the  honor  of  being  re- 
hearsed yearly  with  the  works  of  Homer. 

CHETIISH,  v.  a.     ^      Fr.  cherir,  from  Lat. 
CHE'RISHEH,  n.  s.       >  chorus.     To  cheer,  nou- 
CHE'RISHMENT,  n,  s.  5 rish,    shelter;    to   sup- 
port; to  comfort. 

Now  it  fell  so  that  Fortune  list  no  lenger 
The  highe  pride  of  Nero  to  cherice .' 
For  that  he  were  strong,  yet  was  she  stronger. 

Chaucer.   The  Monkes  Tale. 

This  child  that  I  tell  of,  Berinus  was  his  name, 
Was  over  much  cherished,  which  turned   hym   into 

grame, 

As  yee  shul  here  afteir  when  time  cometh  and  spase  ; 
For  after  swete  the  soure  cometh  full  oft  in  many  a 

plase ; 

For  as  sone  as  he  coud  go  and  also  speke, 
All  that  he  set  his  ey  on,  or  after  list  to  beke, 
A  noon  he  shuld  it  have ;  for  no  man  hym  wernyd. 

Id.  Merchant's  Second  Tale. 
How  manie  great  ones  may  remembered  be, 
Which  in  their  daies  most  famouslie  did  flourish ; 
Of  whome  no  vford  we  heare,  nor  signe  now  see, 
But  as  things  wipt  out  with  a  sponge  do  perishe, 
Because  they  living  cared  not  to  cherishe 
No  gentle  wits,  through  pride  or  covetize, 
Which  might  their  names  for  ever  memorize. 

Spenser's  Ruines  of  Time. 

One  only  lives  her  age's  ornament, 
That  with  rich  bounty,  and  dear  cherishment, 
Supports  the  praise  of  noble  poesie. 

Id.  Tears  of  the  Muses. 
Whenever  Buckingham  doth  turn  his  hate 
Upon  your  grace,  and  not  with  duteous  love 
Doth  cherish  you  and  yours,  God  punish  me 
With  hate  in  those  where  I  expect  most  love. 

Shakspeare. 

Magistrates  have  always  thought  themselves  con- 
cerned to  cherish  religion,  and  to  maintain  in  the  minds 
of  men  the  belief  of  a  God  and  another  life. 

TiUotson. 

One  of  their  greatest  praises  it  is  to  be  the  main- 
tainers  and  cherishers  of  a  regular  devotion,  a  reve- 
rend worship,  a  true  and  decent  piety.  Spratt. 

But  still  the  wretched  maid  no  comfort  knows. 
And  with  resentment  cherishes  her  woes.  Gay. 

CHERLERIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  tri- 
gynia  order,  and  decandria  class  of  plants.  Na- 


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tural  order  twenty-second,  caryophylleae ;  CAL. 
pentaphyllous ;  nectaria,  five  ;  bifid,  and  petal- 
like;  antherae  alternately  barren :  CAPS,  trilocular 
and  three-valved,  one-celled,  and  many  seeded. 
Species  only  one,  a  native  of  the  Alps. 

CHERMES,  in  entomology,  a  genus  of  insects 
belonging  to  the  order  hemiptera.  The  rostrum 
is  situated  on  the  breast ;  the  feelers  are  longer 
than  the  thorax ;  the  four  wings  are  deflected  ; 
the  thorax  is  gibbous  ;  and  the  feet  are  formed  for 
jeaping.  There  are  twenty-four  species;  and  the 
trivial  names  are  taken  from  the  plants  which  they 
frequent.  The  following  are  the  most  remark- 
able: — 1.  C.  abietis,  the  fir-tree  chermes,  as 
well  as  several  other  species,  are  provided  at  the 
extremity  of  their  body  with  a  sharp-pointed  im- 
plement which  lies  concealed.  This  they  draw 
out  to  deposit  their  eggs,  by  making  a  puncture 
in  the  plant ;  and  thus  produce  that  enormous 
scaly  protuberance  that  is  to  be  found  at  the 
summit  of  the  branches  of  that  tree,  and  which 
is  formed  by  the  extravasation  of  the  juices  oc- 
casioned by  the  punctures.  The  young  larvas 
shelter  themselves  in  cells  contained  in  the  tumor. 
2.  C.  buxi,  the  box  tree  chemies,  produces  no 
tubercle ;  but  its  punctures  make  the  leaves  of 
that  tree  bend  and  grow  hollow  in  the  shape  of 
a  cap,  which,  by  the  union  of  these  inflected 
leaves,  produces  at  the  extremity  of  the  branches 
a  kind  of  knob,  in  which  the  larvae  of  that  insect 
find  shelter.  The  box  chermes,  as  well  as  some 
others,  has  yet  another  peculiarity,  viz.  that  the 
larva  and  its  chrysalis  eject  at  the  anus,  a  white 
sweet-tasted  matter,  that  softens  under  the  touch, 
and  is  not  unlike  manna.  This  substance  is 
found  in  small  white  grains  within  the  balls, 
formed  by  the  box  leaves  ;  and  a  string  of  the 
same  matter  is  often  seen  depending  from  the 
anus  of  the  insect.  3.  C.  ficus,  one  of  the  lar- 
gest of  the  genus,  is  brown  above  and  greenish 
beneath.  The  antennse,  likewise  brown,  are  large, 
hairy,  and  one-third  longer  than  the  thorax.  The 
feet  are  yellowish,  the  wings  large,  twice  the 
length  of  the  abdomen.  They  are  placed  so  as 
to  form  together  an  acute  roof.  The  membrane 
of  which  they  consist  is  thin  and  very  transparent ; 
but  they  have  brown  veins,  strongly  marked,  es- 
pecially towards  the  extremity.  The  rostrum  of 
this  species  is  black,  and  takes  its  rise  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  thorax,  between  the  first  and 
second  pair  of  feet.  It  is  an  insect  to  be  met 
with  in  great  numbers  upon  the  fig-tree. 

CHERMITES,  or  CHERNITES,  in  ancient 
natural  history,  a  species  of  very  bright  and 
white  marble  or  alabaster,  called  afterwards 
lygdinum. 

CHERNIBS,  in  antiquity,  from  xfiP>  the  hand, 
and  VITTTU,  to  wash,  a  vessel  wherein  the  people 
washed  their  hands,  before  they  went  to  religious 
service. 

CHEROKEE  MOUNTAINS,  a  name  given  to 
a  part  of  the  ALLEGA\Y  or  APPALACHIAN  moun- 
tains. See  those  articles. 

CHEROKEES,  a  once  famous  nation  of  Ame- 
rican Indians  residing  on  the  northern  parts  of 
Georgia,  and  the  southern  parts  of  the  state  of 
Tennessee.  The  men  are  robust,  well  made,  and 
taller  than  most  other  of  the  American  Indians. 
Their  complexion  is  also  brighter.  Their  women 


are  slender,  delicate,  and  well  formed.  They 
were  formerly  very  powerful,  but  do  not  at  pre- 
sent number  more  than  2000  fighting  men. 

The  Western  Gazetteer,  or  Emigrant's  Di- 
rectory, a  modern  American  publication  now 
before  us,  speaks  of  the  numbers  of  this  nation 
as  considerably  greater  than  the  above.  It  esti- 
mates the  whole  population  at  14,500,  and  the 
warriors  at  4000.  They  still  own  an  extensive 
district,  it  is  stated  in  this  work,  chiefly  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Tennessee  river,  to  the  east  of 
the  Chickasaw  possessions,  and  extending  from 
the  head  branches  of  the  Tombigbee  to  above 
the  Hiwassee  east,  and  south  as  far  as  the  Es- 
tenaury.  The  following  extract  is  from  the  pen 
of  Mr.  J.  Meiers,  sen,  who  has  long  resided  in 
the  nation  as  Indian  agent.  '  In  the  year  1809,  I 
had  a  census  taken  of  the  number  of  the  Cherokee 
nation,  which  amounted  to  12,359.  The  number 
of  males  and  females  were  nearly  equal — they 
have  considerably  increased  since  that  period,  se 
that  including  a  colony  of  Cherokees  that  went 
to  settle  on  the  river  Arkansas,  their  number  is 
about  14,500  souls — those  who  emigrated  to  Ar- 
kansas, as  well  as  those  on  their  ancient  grounds, 
have  made  considerable  advances  in  acquiring 
the  useful  arts,  particularly  in  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  and  woollen  cloth.  They  raise  the 
cotton,  and  the  indigo  for  dying  their  yarn  ;  they 
are  good  weavers,  and  have  upwards  of  500 
looms :  most  of  the  looms  are  made  by  them- 
selves ;  they  have  more  than  500  ploughs — this 
ereatly  increased  the  tillage  of  their  lands  ;  they 
have  large  stocks  of  black  cattle  and  horses, 
swine  and  some  sheep ;  they  have  domesticated 
poultry  in  plenty  :  and,  having  now  an  abundance 
of  the  necessaries  of  life,  their  population  pro- 
portionably  increases.  By  means  of  some 
schools,  many  of  their  young  people  read  and 
write.  A  great  part  of  the  men  have  adopted 
our  modes  of  dress ;  and  the  females  without  ex- 
ception dress  in  the  habits  of  the  "white  people. 
Some  of  them  who  are  wealthy,  are  richly  dres- 
sed. They  are  remarkably  clean  and  neat  in 
their  persons  :  this  may  be  accounted  for  by  their 
universal  practice  of  bathing  in  the  numerous 
transparent  streams  of  water  which  in  almost 
every  direction  run  through  their  country.  Men, 
women  and  children,  practise  bathing,  which  un- 
doubtedly contributes  to  their  health.  All  can 
swim,  and  this  is  often  of  great  convenience,  as 
no  river  can  impede  their  way  in  travelling. 
When  the  females  bathe,  they  are  never  exposed  : 
any  improper  conduct  towards  them  would  be 
held  in  detestation  by  all.  Since  I  have  been 
first  in  that  nation,  a  young  white  man  solicited 
the  hand  of  a  young  Cherokee  woman.  She 
refused  his  offer,  and  objected,  as  a  principal 
reason,  that  he  was  not  clean  in  his  appearance, 
that  he  did  not  as  the  Cherokees  do — bathe 
himself  in  the  rivers.  Ablution  with  these 
people  was  formerly  a  religious  rite.  It  is  not 
now  viewed  by  them  in  this  light,  but  it  is  nearly 
allied  to  a  moral  virtue. 

'  I  have  not  been  an  inattentive  spectator  of 
these  people  in  various  situations ;  in  their  fo- 
rests, in  their  houses,  in  their  schools,  and  in 
their  public  councils.  The  progress  of  their 
children  in  their  schools  has  been  as  great  as  that 


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of  any  other  children,  in  acquiring  the  knowledge 
of  letters  and  of  figures.  Nature  has  given  them 
the  finest  forms  ;  and  can  we  presume  that  God 
has  withheld  from  them  correspondent  intellec- 
tual and  mental  powers  of  mind.  No  man  wht> 
has  had  public  business  to  transact  with  them 
can  have  a  doubt  of  the  capacity  of  their  minds. 
Their  hospitality  in  their  houses  is  every  where 
acknowledged ;  their  bravery  in  the  field  is  also 
acknowledged  by  those  who  actedwith  them  in  the 
late  war  against  the  hostile  Creeks.  If  a  statuary 
should  want  models  for  the  human  figure,  he 
will  find  the  most  perfect  amongst  the  southern 
Indian  tribes  south  of  the  Ohio  river.  About  one- 
half  of  the  Cherokee  nation  are  of  mixed  blood  by 
intermarriages  with  the  white  people.  Many  of 
these  are  as  white  as  any  of  our  citizens.  There  are 
some  of  the  aboriginal  Cherokees,  who  have  never 
used  any  particular  care  to  guard  their  faces 
from  the  action  of  the  sun,  who  have  good  com- 
plexions. I  have  frequently  attended  at  the 
schools  for  the  instruction  of  the  Indian  chil- 
dren, and  seen  them  by  classes  go  through  their 
exercises.  On  these  occasions,  I  have  seen  tears 
of  joy  steal  down  the  cheeks  of  benevolent  men, 
men  who  rejoice  at  the  diffusion  of  knowledge 
amongst  this  long-lost  part  of  the  human  race. 
The  Cherokees  universally  believe  in  the  being 
of  God ;  they  call  him  the  Great  Spirit ;  they 
mention  him  with  reverence  ;  with  them  his  at- 
tributes are  power  and  goodness.  They  never 
profane  the  name  of  God  in  their  own  language. 
They  have  no  series  of  words  that  they  can  com- 
bine to  profane  the  name  of  God.' 

CHERON  (Elizabeth  Sophia),  a  celebrated 
painter  in  enamel,  which  was  also  her  father's 
profession,  was  the  daughter  of  Henry  Cheron, 
born  at  Paris  in  1648.  Her  father  early  observed 
her  passionate  fondness  for  his  art,  and  for  de- 
sign and  coloring  generally.  She  soon  acquired 
great  reputation  by  her  performances ;  particu- 
larly in  her  portraits,  which,  independently  of 
their  striking  resemblance,  were  elegantly  dis- 
posed and  well-colored,  and  finished  ;  she  also 
painted  in  history ;  employed  herself  much  in 
drawing  from  the  antique,  and  excelled  in  copy- 
ing the  figures  on  gems.  Receiving  early  im- 
pressions in  favor  of  the  Catholic  religion  from 
her  mother,  at  a  mature  age,  she  abjured  her 
father's  profession  of  Calvinism,  and  thus  facili- 
tated in  1676  her  admission  into  the  Academy 
of  Painting.  Her  genius  was  considerable  in 
music  and  poetry,  as  well  as  painting ;  and 
many  of  her  compositions  in  verse  were  esteem- 
ed by  Rousseau.  Her  eminence  in  the  fine  arts 
obtained  for  her  also  a  seat  in  the  Academy  of 
Ricovrati  at  Padua;  and  as  she  played  well  on 
the  lute,  and  had  occasional  concerts,  her  house 
was  frequented  by  many  distinguished  persons 
of  taste.  She  married,  at  the  age  of  sixty,  M. 
Le  Hay,  engineer  to  the  king,  and  soon  after, 
viz.  in  1711,  died  at  Paris,  aged  sixty-three. 
There  are  a  series  of  gems  engraved  partly  from 
her  own  designs,  but  mostly  from  the  antique ; 
of  these,  three  were  etched  by  heisetf,  viz.  Bac- 
chus and  Ariadn-e,  Mars  and  Venus,  and  Night 
scattering  her  poppies.  She  also  engraved  a 
Descent  from  the  Cross,  and  a  Drawing-book, 
folio  consisting  of  thirty-six  prints. 


CHERON  (Louis),  the  youngest  brother  of  'he 
foregoing,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1660;  and  hav- 
ing acquired  the  first  principles  of  painting  in 
his  own  country,  was  enabled  by  the  liberality 
of  his  sister  to  visit  Italy,  where  he'  remained 
eighteen  years.  His  models  were  the  works  of 
Raphael  and  Julio  Romano ;  but  though  he 
drew  correctly,  and  composed  with  facility,  he 
never  attained  the  grace  of  the  Italian  masters ; 
his  heads  frequently  having  a  ferocious  air.  He 
was  obliged  to  leave  France  as  a  Protestant,  and, 
in  1695,  sought  a  refuge  in  England,  where  he 
found  a  patron  in  the  duke  of  Montague.  Che- 
ron was  a  man  of  enlarged  ideas  and  correct 
morals  ;  so  that  he  refused,  it  is  said,  to  paint 
for  a  nobleman  a  licentious  subject.  He  died 
at  London  in  1713. 

CHERON  JEA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town 
of  Greece,  in  Bceotia,  on  the  confines  of  Leba- 
daea,  formerly  called  Arne.  On  the  plains  of 
this  neighbourhood  are  two  trophies,  which  are 
said  to  have  been  erected  by  the  Romans  and 
Sylla,  in  commemoration  of  a  victory  obtained 
over  the  army  of  Mithridates.  The  Thebans 
who  perished  in  their  contest  against  Philip, 
were  buried  near  Cheronsea,  and  over  their  tomb 
was  placed  a  lion.  The  divinity  of  the  Cheron- 
asans  was  the  sceptre  which  Vulcan  made  for 
Jupiter,  called  'the  lance:'  from  Jupiter  it  was 
transferred  to  Mercury,  and  at  length  it  descend- 
ed to  Agamemnon,  and  is  celebrated  by  Homer. 
CHE'RRY,  n.  s.  &  adj.~\  Klpa«roc ;  Lat.  ce- 
CHE'RRY-STOHE,  n.  s.  ^  rasus ;  Fr.  cerise.  A 
CHE'RRY-TREE,  n.  5.  i  fruit  said  to  be 
CHE'RRY-CHEEKED,  adj.  J  brought  from  Cera- 
sus  to  Rome  by  Lucullus.  It  is  of  various  spe- 
cies. The  adjectives  are  used  figuratively,  to 
describe  any  thing  that  bears  a  resemblance  to 
the  cherry. 

Her  goodly  eyes  lyke  saphyres  shining  bright, 
Her  forehead  yvory  white, 

Her  cheekes  lyke  apples  which  the  sun  hath  rudded, 
Her  lips  lyke  cherries  charming  men  to  byte. 

Spenser. 

So  her  with  flattering  words  he  first  assaid ; 
And  after  pleasing  gifts  for  her  purvaid, 
Queene-apples  and  red  clienies  from  the  tree, 
With  which  he  her  allured  and  betraid 
To  tell  what  time  he  might  her  lady  see 
When  she  herselfe  did  bathe,  that  he  might  secret  be. 

Id. 

Shore's  wife  hath  a  pretty  foot 
A  clterry  lip,  a  passing  pleasing  tongue. 

Shakspcare. 

Some  ask  but  a  pin,  a  nut,  a  cherry-stone ;  but  she, 
more  covetous,  would  have  a  chain.  Id. 

July  I  would   have  drawn  in  a  jacket  of  light  yel- 
low, eating  cherries,  with  his  face   and   bosom  sun- 
burnt. Peacliam. 
I  warrant  them  cherry-cheeked  country  girls. 

Cvngreve. 

When  to  the  brethren  first,  with  fervent  zeal, 
The  Spirit  moved  thy  yearnings  to  reveal, 
How  did  I  joy  thy  trembling  lips  to  see, 
Red  as  the  cherry  from  the  Kentish  tree  !          Guy . 
CHERRY,  BARBADOES.     See  MALPIGHI. 
CHERRY,  BIRD.     See  PRUNUS. 
CHERRY,  CORNELIAN.     See  CORNUS. 
CHERRY,  DWARF.     See  LONICEUA. 
CUERRY,  HOTTENTOT.    See  CASSINE. 


CHETISONESUS. 


567 


CHERRY,  LAUREL.    See  PRUNUS. 

CHERRY  OF  THE  ALPS.     See  LONICERA. 

CHE'RRYPIT,  n.  s.  From  cherry  and  pit. 
A  child's  play,  in  which  they  throw  cherry- 
stones into  a  small  hole. 

What,  man !  'tis  not  for  gravity  to  play  at  cherry- 
pit.  Shukspeure. 

CHERRY  TREE      See  PRUNUS. 

CHERRY,  WINTER.     See  PHYSALIS  and  So- 

LANUM. 

CHERSO,  a  considerable  island  in  the  Gulph 
of  Venice,  near  Croatia.  The  air  is  good,  but 
the  soil  stony;  however  it  abounds  in  wine,  cat- 
tle, oil,  and  excellent  honey.  Another  island, 
Osero,  is  so  near  as  frequently  to  be  considered 
and  described  with  it.  A  narrow  channel  only, 
over  which  is  a  bridge,  separates  them  ;  and  to- 
gether they  are  about  sixty  miles  long.  Popula- 
tion about  10,000.  The  chief  towns  are  Cherso, 
Lussin  Great  and  Little,  and  Osero. 

CHERSON,  a  town  and  government  of  Euro- 
pean Russia,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Dnieper, 
ten  miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  Ingulec.  The 
church  and  many  of  the  houses  are  built  in  ele- 
gant taste.  The  empress  Catharine  II.  intended 
it  as  the  chief  mart  for  all  commodities  exported 
and  imported  from  the  Euxine.  It  has  a  dock 
for  large  vessels,  from  which  several  men  of  war 
and  merchant  ships  have  been  launched.  It  is 
supplied  with  fuel  by  reeds  only,  of  which  there. 
is  an  inexhaustible  forest  in  the  shallows  of  the 
Dnieper,  opposite  to  the  town.  Rails  and  tem- 
porary houses  are  made  of  them,  as  they  are  tall 
and  strong.  They  also  afford  shelter  to  various 
kinds  of  aquatic  birds,  some  of  which  are  very 
beautiful.  In  1787  the  late  empress  made  a  tri- 
umphant journey  to  this  capital,  where  she  met 
the  emperor  Joseph  II.  Her  intention,  it  is  said, 
was  to  have  been  crowned  queen  of  Taurica,  and 
empress  of  the  east.  But  she  was  obliged  to 
rest  contented  with  inscribing  over  one  of  the 
principal  gates  of  this  city,  '  Through  this  gate 
lies  the  road  to  Byzantium.'  In  this  city,  the 
celebrated  Mr.  Howard  fell  a  victim  to  fever  in 
1790;  and  prince  Potemkin,  the  great  projector 
of  the  erections  here,  lies  buried  in  the  great 
church.  Cherson  is  fifty  miles  east  of  Ockzacow. 
Population  about  10,000 

CHERSONESUS,  from  xtpffoc,  land,  and  v»;<roc, 
an  island,  a  peninsula;  a  tract  of  land  almost 
surrounded  by  the  sea,  but  joined  to  the  main 
land  by  a  narrow  neck  or  isthmus.  In  ancient 
geography,  it  was  a  name  applied  to  several  pe- 
ninsulas, particularly  to 

CHERSONESUS  AUREA,  the  Golden  Chersonese, 
in  ancient  geography,  a  peninsula  described  by 
Ptolemy  as  stretching  directly  from  north  to 
south,  and  having  at  its  southern  extremity  Sa- 
bana  Emporium,  the  latitude  of  which  he  fixes 
at  three  degrees  beyond  the  line.  To  the  east 
he  places  what  he  calls  the  Sinus  Magnus,  or 
great  bay  :  and  in  the  most  remote  part  of  it  the 
station  Catigara,  the  utmost  boundary  of  naviga- 
fion  in  ancient  times.  To  this  he  affixes  8£°  of 
southern  latitude. 

Beyond  this  latitude  he  declares  the  earth  to 
he  altogether  unknown,  and  asserts  that  the  land 
turns  thence  to  the  westward,  and  stretches  in 


tnat  direction  till  it  joina  the  promontory  of 
Prassum  in  Ethiopia,  which  terminated  in  his 
system,  the  continent  of  Africa.  M.  D'Anville 
assigns  to  the  present  peninsula  of  Malacca  the 
position  of  the  Golden  Chersonesus  of  Pto- 
lemy ;  but,  instead  of  the  direction  which  he  has 
given  it,  we  know  that  it  bends  some  degrees 
towards  the  east,  and  that  Cape  Romania,  its 
southern  extremity,  is  more  than  a  degree  to  the 
north  of  the  line.  This  geographer  considers  the 
gulf  of  Siam  as  the  great  bay  of  Ptolemy ;  but 
the  position  on  the  east  side  of  that  bay,  corre- 
sponding to  Catigara,  is  actually  as  many  de- 
grees to  the  north  of  the  equator  as  Ptolemy  sup- 
posed it  to  be  to  the  south  of  the  line.  Major 
Rennell  has  given  the  sanction  of  his  approbation 
(Introd.  p.  39.)  to  the  geographical  ideas  of  M. 
D'Anville,  and  they  have  been  generally  adopted. 
But  M.  Gosselin,  in  '  The  Geography  of  the 
Greeks  analysed,  &c.'  differs  from  M.  D'Anville, 
with  respect  to  many  of  his  determinations.  Ac- 
cording to  this  writer,  the  Magnum  Promonto- 
rium,  which  D'Anville  concludes  to  be  Cape 
Romania,  is  the  point  of  Bragu,  near  to  which 
he  places  Zaba,  supposed  by  D'Anville  to  be 
situated  on  the  strait  of  Sincapura  or  Malacca. 
The  Magnus  Sinus  of  Ptolemy  he  maintains  to 
be  the  same  with  the  gulf  of  Martaban,  and  not 
the  gulf  of  Siam  ;  and  the  position  of  Catigara 
corresponds,  as  he  attempts  to  prove,  to  that  of 
Mergui,  a  considerable  port  on  the  west  coast  of 
Siam.  Thinse,  or  Sinae  Metropolis,  which  M. 
D'Anville  removes  as  far  as  Sin-hoa  in  the  king- 
dom of  Cochin-China,  is  situated,  according  to 
M.  Gosselin,  on  the  same  river  with  Mergui. 
and  now  bears  the  name  of  Tana-serim.  The 
Ibadii  insula  of  Ptolemy,  which  M.  D'Anville 
determines  to  be  Sumatra,  is,  by  Gosselin's  ar- 
rangement, one  of  that  cluster  of  small  isles 
which  lie  off  this  part  of  the  coast  of  Siam. 
Gosselin  further  contends,  that  the  ancients  never 
sailed  through  the  straits  of  Malacca,  had  no 
knowledge  of  Sumatra,  and  were  altogether  un- 
acquainted with  the  eastern  ocean.  With  regard 
to  the  Golden  Chersonese  of  Ptolemy  in  parti- 
cular, he  observes  that  what  chiefly  characterises 
it  is  the  mouth  of  a  large  river,  which  there  di- 
vides itself  into  three  branches  before  it  joins  the 
sea.  These  channels  appear  so  considerable 
that  each  of  them  bore  the  name  of  a  river,  the 
Chrysoana,  the  Palandar,  and  the  Attabas.  It 
does  not  appear  that  Ptolemy  knew  the  source 
of  this  river,  or  that  he  had  any  knowledge  of 
the  interior  of  this  country,  as  he  does  not  deter- 
mine the  position  of  any  place.  '  Without  de- 
tailing the  other  arguments  of  this  writer,  we 
may  observe,'  says  an  able  contemporary,  '  that 
upon  comparing  Ptolemy's  map  with  that  of  the 
country,  there  seems  little  reason  to  doubt  that 
the  Golden  Chersonese  is  the  southern  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  Pegu,  which  may  be  considered 
as  insulated.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  Ma- 
layan peninsula,  which  has  hitherto  been  regarded 
as  the  Golden  Chersonese,  the  river  Johr  is  so 
small  a  stream,  that  it  could  never  have  supplied 
the  three  important  mouths  noted  by  Ptolemy; 
and  his  delineation  of  the  country  of  the  Sinae, 
stretching  along  a  western  sea,  palpably  corre- 
sponds with  Tana-serim ;  while  M.  D'Anville's 


568 


CHERSONESUS. 


map  so  much  contradicts  that  of  Ptolemy  as  to 
place  the  sea  on  the  east  of  the  Sinae,  and  pro- 
ceeding towards  the  north  instead  of  the  south. 
Moreover,  the  rivers  laid  down  by  Ptolemy,  be- 
tween the  mouths  of  the  Ganges,  and  the  Delta 
of  the  Golden  Chersonese,  amount  to  five ;  of 
which  three  appear  in  our  maps,  but  we  are  ig- 
norant of  the  southern  part  of  Arracan,  which 
probably  contains  the  other  two.  The  three  chief 
mouths  of  the  Irrawaddy,  in  the  map  of  Mr. 
Dairymple,  sensibly  correspond,  even  in  the 
form  and  manner  of  division,  with  those  in  the 
Golden  Chersonese  of  Ptolemy ;  and  the  bay  to 
the  south  of  Dalla  seems  to  be  the  Perimulicus 
Sinus  of  the  Greek  geographer,  the  small  river  to 
the  east  of  which  is  that  of  Sirian  or  Pegu.  If 
the  Malayan  peninsula  had  been  the  Golden 
Chersonese  of  the  ancients,  the  ancient  geogra- 
pher could  not  have  been  wholly  ignorant,  as 
he  seems  to  have  been,  of  the  straits  of  Malacca 
and  of  the  northern  part  of  the  great  island  of 
Sumatra.' 

CHERSONESUS  CIMBRICA,  the  modern  Jutland, 
a  peninsula  of  Europe  to  the  north  of  Germany, 
supposed  to  have  derived  its  appellation  from 
the  Cimbri  who  came  from  thence.  It  is  bounded 
by  the  river  Elbe  on  the  south,  by  the  German 
Ocean  on  the  west,  and  by  the  Baltic  Sea  on  the 
north  and  east;  and  hence  the  Cimbri  came 
into  Britain.  When  the  Britons  formed  the  fatal 
resolution  of  calling  in  foreign  auxiliaries  to 
preserve  them  from  that  destruction  with  which 
they  were  threatened  by  the  Scots  and  Picts, 
they  could  find  none  besides  the  inhabitants  of 
this  country,  who  were  likely  to  afford  them  ne- 
cessary succour  and  protection  ;  for  their  nearer 
neighbours  and  natural  allies,  the  Gauls,  who 
spoke  the  same  language,  and  professed  the  same 
religion  with  themselves,  were  in  no  condition  to 
give  them  any  assistance  ;  having  been  invaded, 
and  almost  conquered,  by  the  Franks,  another 
German  nation.  This  country  was  at  that  time 
inhabited  by  three  nations,  which  were  called 
Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes  ;  who  all  sent  armies 
to,  and  obtained  settlements,  in  Britain.  The 
Danes  and  Normans  afterwards  mingled  with 
them  in  great  numbers.  See  ANGLES,  JUTES, 
and  SAXONS. 

CHERSONESUS  MAGNUS,  a  port  of  Africa,  in 
Marmarica,  near  Phthia.  Scylax  plaoes  it  op- 
posite to  the  isle  of  Crete.  The  great  Cherson- 
esus  of  Ptolemy  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the 
present  Cape  Raccallino  in  the  kingdom  of 
Barca :  so  called  because  it  forms  a  peninsula. 
M.  D'Anville  places  it  on  the  coast  north-west 
of  Marmarica,  at  some  distance  south-east  from 
the  promontory  Drepanum. 

CHERSONESUS  PARVA,  a  port  or  castle  of 
Egypt,  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  and  Strabo ;  the 
latter  says  it  was  situated  on  a  part  of  the  coast 
which  formed  a  small  promontory,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  seventy  stadia  south-west  from  Alex- 
andria. 

CHERSOTJESUS  TAURICA,  now  the  CRIMEA,  a 
large  peninsula  of  ancient  Europe,  lying  be- 
tween the  Euxine  Sea,  the  Palus  Maeotis,  and 
the  Bosphorus  Cimmerius  j  extending,  accord- 
ing to  Sir  John  Chard  in,  sixty-one  leagues  from 
east  to  west,  and  about  thirty-five  from  north  to 


south ;  and  joined  to  the  continent  by  a  narrow 
isthmus  about  a  mile  broad.  In  remote  times 
it  was  governed  by  its  own  sovereigns.  Its  most 
ancient  inhabitants  were  the  Tauri,  or  Tauro- 
scythae,  as  Pliny  and  Ptolemy  call  them,  and 
from  them  it  derives  its  appellation.  The  my- 
thologists  refer  to  these  times  the  first  voyage  of 
the  Greeks  into  Taurica.  In  process  of  time, 
that  people  certainly  traded  here  and  founded 
cities.  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  possessed 
the  peninsula;  and,  it  is  said,  drew  from  it 
annually  a  tribute  of  220,000  measures  of  grain, 
and  200,000  talents  in  silver.  It  was  conquered 
by  the  Romans,  and  given  by  them  to  the  kings 
of  .Bosphorus.  Some  of  the  eastern  tribes  of 
Asia,  known  to  us  by  the  name  of  Huns,  esta- 
blished themselves  here,  and  many  of  them  re- 
mained till  the  time  of  the  emperor  Julian.  It 
afterwards  passed  to  the  princes  of  the  family  of 
Jenghis  khan.  The  cities  of  note  were  Taphrte 
or  Taphrus  on  the  isthmus,  where  Przekop  or 
Precop  now  stands ;  Chersonesus,  or  Cherson ; 
Theodosia,  afterwards  called  CafTa,  but  now 
known  by  its  ancient  name  ;  Nymphseum,  Lag- 
yra,  and  Charax,  seated  on  the  Euxine  Sea,  and 
Panticapaeum  on  the  Bosphorus.  See  CRIMEA. 
CHERSONESUS  THRACI.E,  or  the  Chersonesus 
of  Thrace,  was  a  peninsula  enclosed  on  the  south 
by  the  TEgean  sea,  on  the  west  by  the  gulf  of 
Melas,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Hellespont,  and 
joined  on  the  north  to  the  continent  by  a  neck  of 
land,  about  thirty-seven  furlongs  broad.  In 
former  times  it  was  separated  from  the  continent 
by  a  wall,  called  in  Greek  '  Macrontichos.'  The 
isthmus,  connecting  with  the  continent,  was,  ac- 
cording to  Herodotus,  thirty-six  stadia;  according 
to  Strabo,  400.  The  length  of  the  isthmus,  says 
Herodotus,  was  480  stadia ;  but  Scylax  says  that 
it  was  400.  It  contained  the  following  cities, 
viz.  Cardca,  Agora,  Panormus,  Alopei  .onresus, 
Elaeus,  Scstus,  Madytos,  Cissa,  Callipolis,  Lysi- 
raachia,  and  Pactye.  The  Athenians  held  for 
some  time-  possession  of  this  peninsula.  By 
Cornelius  Nepos,  it  is  said,  that  at  the  counsel  of 
the  oracle  of  Delphos,  they  sent  hither  Miltiades, 
the  son  of  Cimon,  at  the  head  of  a  colony. 
Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  Dolonces,  a  people 
of  Thrace,  had  possession  of  this  peninsula ;  but, 
having  carried  on  an  unfavorable  war  with  the 
Absinthians,  they  sent  to  consult  the  oracle.  The 
Pythian  recommended  their  obtaining  a  colony 
under  the  conduct  of  the  first  person  who  offered 
them  an  asylum.  Accordingly,  having  sent  de- 
puties to  Athens,  where  Pisistratus  reigned,  they 
were  hospitably  treated  by  Miltiades,  the  son  of 
Cypselus,  a  rich  and  powerful  man  in  that  city. 
Upon  their  being  thus  kindly  treated,  they  in- 
formed him  what  was  the  opinion  of  the  oracle 
which  they  had  consulted.  Upon  this,  Miltiades 
engaged  a  number  of  the  Athenians  to  accompany 
him  to  the  Chersonesus,  and  the  Dolonces  im- 
mediately invested  him  with  the  sovereign  power. 
He  began  his  reign  with  erecting  the  wall  which 
separated  this  country  from  the  continent.  At 
his  death,  he  bequeathed  the  sovereignty  to  his 
nephew  Stesagoras,  who  was  assassinated ;  and 
when  this  disastrous  event  occurred,  the  Pisistra- 
tides  sent  ,Miltiades,  the  son  of  Cimon,  an^ 
.brother  of  Stesagoras,  to  take  possession  of  th.- 


CHE 


569 


CHE 


government  of  the  Chersonesus.  At  length  the 
Athenians  lost  this  peninsula ;  and  under  the 
kings  of  Macedon,  after  Alexander,  it  belonged 
to  Thrace. 

CHERT,  or  CHERTZ,  n.  s.  From  Germ. 
ouartz.  A  kind  of  flint. 

Flint  is  most  commonly  found  in  form  of  rodules ; 
hut  it  is  sometimes  found  in  thin  strata?,  when  it  is 
called  chert.  Woodward. 

Grind  with  strong  arm  the  circling  cherts  betwixt, 
Your  pure  kaolins  and  petuntses  mixed.  Darwin. 
CHERT,  PETROSILEX,  lapis  corneus,  or  the 
hornstein  of  the  Germans,  is  classed  by  Cronstadt 
among  the  silicious  earths.  See  MINERALOGY, 
index,  and  PETROSILEX. 

CHERTSEY,  or  CHERTZEY,  a  market  town  of 
Surrey,  about  seven  miles  west  from  Kingston 
upon  Thames;  and  nineteen  west  by  south  of 
London.  This  is  supposed  to  be  the  place  where 
Caesar  led  his  troops  first  over  the  Thames,  and 
here  is  now  a  fine  bridge  of  freestone  thrown 
across  the  river.  The  town  is  governed  by  a 
bailiff,  appointed  by  letters  patent  from  the  ex- 
chequer. The  principal  articles  manufactured 
are  malt,  iron  hoops,  and  brooms.  The  hundred 
of  Chertsey  is  exempted  from  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  high  sheriff.  The  market  on  Wednesday 
is  well  supplied  with  corn,  poultry,  butchers'- 
meat,  &c.  Here  is  a  commodious  workhouse, 
an  excellent  charity-school,  and  five  alms  houses. 
The  porch-house  at  Chertsey  was  the  place  where 
the  poet  Cowley  ended  his  days. 

CHE'RUB,  n.  s.  ~)      For  the  substantive,  see 
CHERU'BICK,  adj.  >  below.   The  adjectives  sig- 
CHE'RUBIM,  adj.  j  nify   angelic  or  angelical, 
or  relating  to  the  cherubim. 

Heavens  cherubim,  horsed 
Upon  the  sightless  coursers  of  the  air, 
Shall  blow  the  horrid  deed  in  every  eye, 
That  tears  shall  drown  the  wind.     Shakspeare. 

This  fell  whore  of  thine 

Hath  in  her  more  destruction  than  thy  sword, 
For  all  her  cherubim  look.  Id. 

Thy  words 

Attentive,  and  with  more  delighted  ear, 
Divine  instructor !  I  have  heard,  than  when 
Clierubick  songs  by  night  from  neighbouring  hills 

(rial  musick  send.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

When  heaven,  and  angels,  eartli  and  earthly  things 
Do  leave  the  guilty  in  their  guiltiness — 
A  cherub's  voice  doth  whisper  in  a  child's, 
There  is  a  shrine  within  thy  little  heart, 
Where  I  will  hide,  nor  hear  the  trump  of  doom. 

Maturin's  Bertram. 

CHERUB,  a  celestial  spirit,  which  by  some  in- 
genious writers  is  placed  in  the  heavenly  hierar- 
chy, next  in  order  to  the  seraphim.  All  the 
several  descriptions  which  the  Scripture  gives  us 
of  the  cherubim  differ  from  one  another;  as 
they  are  described  in  the  shapes  of  men,  eagles, 
oxen,  lions,  and  in  a  composition '  of  all  these 
figures  put  together.  The  hieroglyphical  repre- 
sentations, in  the  embroidery  upon  the  curtains 
of  the  Tabernacle,  were  called  by  Moses,  Exod. 
xxvi.  ],  cherubim  of  cunning  work. 

CHRRUB,  in  Hebrew,  is  sometimes  taken  for 
a  calf  or  ox.  Ezekiel  describes  the  face  of  a 
cherub  as  resembling  the  face  of  an  ox.  The 
\\ord  in  Svriac  and  Chaldee,  signifies  to  till  or 


plough,  which  is  the  proper  work  of  oxen.  Bailey 
translates  it  fulness  of  knowledge.  Grotius  says 
that  the  cherubim  were  figures  like  that  of  a  calf. 
Bochart  thinks  they  were  more  like  that  of  an  ox, 
and  Spenser  is  of  the  same  opinion.  Clement 
of  Alexandria  believes,  that  the  Egyptians  imi- 
tated the  cherubim  of  the  Hebrews  in  the  repre- 
sentations of  their  sphinxes  and  hieroglyphical 
animals.  The  late  learned  Mr.  Hutchinson  be- 
stowed much  labor  to  illustrate  the  symbolical 
meaning  of  the  cherubim;  which,  however  va- 
ried in  their  appearance,  he  considered  as  point- 
ing forth  the  Trinity  in  connexion  with  the 
human  nature.  See  Parkhurst's  Lexicon,  under 
313. 

CHE'RVIL,  n.  s.  Lat  chcerophyllum.  An 
umbelliferous  plant. — Miller. 

CHERVIL,  GARDEN.     See  SCANDIX. 

CHERVIL,  WILD.     See  CH^ROPHYLLUM. 

CHE'RUP,  v.  n.  From  cheer;  perhaps  from 
cheer  up,  corrupted  to  cherup.  To  chirp ;  to 
use  a  cheerful  voice. 

The  birds 

Frame  to  thy  song  their  cheerful  cheruping ; 

Or  hold  their  peace  for  shame  of  thy  sweet  lays. 

Spenser. 

CHESAPEAKE  BAY,  an  extensive  estuary  in 
North  America,  and  one  of  the  largest  and  safest 
in  the  world.  It  reaches  from  37°  10'  to  39°  30' 
N.  lat.,  and  from  76°  to  76°  45'  W.  long,  at  its 
broadest  part.  It  is  about  twelve  miles  broad  at 
the  entrance,  which  is  nearly  E.  N.E.  and  S.S.W., 
between  Cape  Charles  on  the  north  and 
Cape  Henry  on  the  south.  A  sand-bank  nearly 
closes  the  entrance,  leaving  only  a  passage  for 
the  smallest  vessels  on  the  side  of  Cape  Charles ; 
but  on  that  of  Cape  Henry  it  is  broad  enough 
and  sufficiently  deep  for  ships  of  the  largest  size. 
The  general  breadth  of  the  bay  varies  from  six  to 
twenty  miles,  its  extent  is  about  270,  and  its 
average  depth  about  nine  fathoms.  On  the  east- 
ern side  it  has  many  fertile  islands,  and  a  few 
solitary  ones  on  the  western  shore.  It  is  remark- 
able, as  forming  the  mouth  of  several  large  and 
navigable  rivers;  as  the  Susquehannah,  Potomac, 
Rappahannock,  York,  and  James,  besides  other 
streams  of  minor  importance.  There  are  many 
excellent  fisheries  in  this  bay,  particularly  of 
herrings  and  shad ;  several  thousand  barrels  being 
annually  cured  at  Potomac  and  Susquehannali 
rivers,  for  inland  trade  and  exportation.  It 
always  abounds  with  excellent  oysters  and  crabs. 
An  incredible  number  of  ducks,  swans,  and 
other  fowl,  frequent  this  bay ;  but  it  is  more 
particularly  remarkable  for  a  species  of  wild 
duck,  called  canvas-back,  admired  for  the  rich- 
ness and  delicacy  of  its  flesh,  which  is  entirely 
free  from  any  fishy  flavour.  It  extends  through 
part  of  Virginia  and  the  greater  part  of  Mary- 
land, and  is  of  the  utmost  advantage  in  a  com- 
mercial view,  as  it  forms  the  access  by  water  to  a 
number  of  towns,  the  most  considerable  of  which 
are  Baltimore  and  Annapolis,  and  to  which  the 
ships  can  approach  even  to  the  very  doors  to  take 
in  goods. 

CHESAPEAKE  AND  ALBEMARLE  CANAL,  partly 
in  Virginia  and  partly  in  North  Carolina,  con- 
nects Chesapeake  Bay  with  Albemarle  Sound. 


570 


CHESHIRE. 


CITESELDEN  (Wi'liam),  an  eminent  anato- 
mist and  surgeon,  born  at  Burrow  on  the  Hill, 
in  Leicestershire,  and  decended  from  an  ancient 
family  in  Rutlandshire.  He  received  the  rudi- 
ments of  his  professional  education  at  Leicester  ; 
and  married  Miss  Deborah  Knight,  by  whom  he 
had  one  daughter.  In  1713  he  published  his 
Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,  in  one  volume 
8vo  ;  and  in  1723  A  Treatise  on  the  High  Ope- 
ration for  the  btone.  He  contributed  by  his 
writings  to  raise  his  profession  to  its  present  emi- 
nence. His  great  work  entitled  Osteographia 
was  published  in  1733,  and  it  contains  the  most 
accurate  delineations  of  the  human  bones  in 
existence.  In  February  1737  Mr.  Cheselden 
was  appointed  surgeon  to  Chelsea  Hospital.  He 
died  at  Bath,  April  llth,  1752. 

CHESHAM,  a  market  town  of  Bucks,  on  the 
borders  of  Hertfordshire,  twelve  miles  south-east 
of  Aylesbury,  and  twenty-seven  west  by  north  of 
London.  It  stands  in  a  fertile  vale,  and  consists 
of  three  streets.  The  principal  manufacture  is 
lace,  and  wooden  ware.  Besides  the  church,  in 
the  middle  of  the  town,  there  are  four  meeting- 
houses, and  a  charity-school.  Market  on  Wed- 
nesday, chiefly  for  corn. 

CHESHIRE,  a  county  of  England,  separated 
on  the  north  from  Lancashire  by  the  river  Mersey, 
and  bordering  alittle  or,  Yorkshire  to  the  north-east. 
On  the  east  it  is  bounded  by  Derbyshire  and 
Staffordshire,  on  the  south  by  Shropshire  and 
part  of  Flintshire,  on  the  west  by  Denbighshire 
and  another  part  of  Flintshire,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  river  Dee ;  while  the  north-west 
part  of  the  county,  formed  into  a  peninsula 
about  thirteen  miles  long  and  six  broad,  by  the 
waters  of  the  Mersey  and  the  Dee,  touches  upon 
the  Irish  Sea.  It  is  thirty-one  miles  broad  from 
north  to  south,  and  forty-two  in  length  from  east 
to  west,  exclusive  of  the  peninsula  and  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  running  up  to  Yorkshire,  between 
Derbyshire  and  Lancashire.  It  contains  about 
1200  square  miles,  or  nearly  700,000  acres,  cul- 
tivated in  greater  proportion  than  most  other 
counties  in  England;  the  wasteland  forming  not 
more  than  about  l-25th  part.  It  is  a  county  pa- 
latine, having  a  chief  justice  of  its  own,  and  is 
divided  into  seven  hundreds,  containing  eighty- 
six  parishes,  one  city  (Chester),  twelve  consider- 
able market  towns,  viz.  Altrincham,  or  Altring- 
ham,  Congleton,  Frodsham,  Knutsford,  Maccles- 
field,  Malpas,  Middlewich,  Nantwich,  Northwich, 
Sandbach  and  Stockport,  besides  two  of  less 
note,  Halton  and  Great  Neston.  By  the  latest 
surveys  it  has  been  said  to  contain  670  villages, 
458  townships,  and  in  1831,  335,000  inhabitants, 
of  whom  three-fifths  are  employed  in  trade  and 
manufactures,  and  the  rest  in  agriculture. 

The  soil  is  generally  rich,  composed  of  a  mix- 
ture of  sand  and  clay ;  towards  Yorkshire,  and 
in  a  few  other  places,  the  surface  consists  of  peat 
moss ;  in  the  greater  part  of  the  forest  of  Dela- 
mere  a  barren  white  sand,  or  gravel,  forms  the 
predominant  soil.  This  county  is  not  generally 
well  wooded,  though  it  has  some  extensive 
forests,  parks,  and  coppices ;  oak  timber  princi- 
pally abounds,  from  the  best  to  the  most  inferior 
Duality  in  Dunham  park,  near  Altrincham, 


there  are  some  remarkably  large  old  oaks,  while 
the  finest  beech  trees  are  found  near  Alderley. 

Cheshire  is  generally  flat;  there  is  a  moun- 
tainous range  on  the  east,  connected  with  York- 
shire and  Derbyshire,  and  the  country  is  rather 
elevated  in  the  district  of  Delamere  forest  and  to 
the  south  of  Altrincham ;  there  is  also  a  bold 
promontory  jutting  out  on  the  Mersey  near 
Frodsham ;  but  four-fifths  of  the  whole  county 
scarcely  rise  more  than  from  100  to  200  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  principal  rivers 
that  water  this  county  are  the  Dee,  the  Weever, 
and  the  Mersey,  though  the  latter,  as  it  forms  the 
northern  boundary-  seems  equally  to  belong  to 
Lancashire.  The  source  of  the  Dee  is  in  Wales, 
and,  flowing  between  Denbighshire  and  Flint- 
shire, it  runs  along  the  edge  of  the  county  to 
within  five  miles  of  Chester,  when  it  assumes  a 
north-east  and  north  course,  till,  just  on  the  east 
side  of  that  city,  it  flows  west  and  south-west, 
surrounding  it  almost  like  a  horse-shoe.  It  then 
bends  a  little  to  the  north  through  Flintshire, 
and,  forming  an  estuary  about  five  miles  broad 
and  ten  long,  it  falls  into  the  sea  below  Parkgate. 
The  Mersey,  in  its  principal  branch,  appears  to 
rise  in  Yorkshire,  from  which  it  just  skiits  Lan- 
cashire; passing  by  Stockport,  and  receiving 
several  small  streams  in  its  course,  it  forms  the 
northern  boundary,  until,  below  Runcorn,  it 
widens  into  an  estuary  longer  than  that  of  the 
Dee,  though  not  so  wide,  and  empties  itself  into 
the  Irish  Sea  near  Liverpool.  The  Weever  or 
Weaver  rises  in  the  south  of  Cheshire,  and  flow- 
ing due  north  passes  by  the  towns  of  Nantwich 
and  Northwich,  whence  it  takes  a  westerly  direc- 
tion and  falls  into  the  estuary  of  the  Mersey 
below  Runcorn.  This  county  is  also  intersected 
by  the  waters  of  the  Dane,  the  Tame,  and  other 
smaller  streams,  which  fall  into  the  larger  rivers 
in  different  directions.  Besides  these  there  are 
two  large  canals,  one  reaching  across  the  county 
from  Staffordshire  to  Runcorn,  pursuing  a  course 
of  about  thirty  miles,  and,  after  having  passed 
through  a  tunnel  of  1241  yards  long  at  Preston- 
on-the-hill,  another  at  Saltersfield  350  yards  long, 
and  a  third  near  that  place  of  572  yards,  it  joins 
the  Mersey  at  Runcorn ;  the  other,  more  to  the 
south,  forms  a  junction  between  the  waters  of  the 
Weever  and  Dee,  and  opens  a  communication 
between  Nantwich  and  Chester  There  are  also 
several  small  lakes. 

Cheshire  produces  coal  in  considerable  quan- 
tities in  the  north-eastern  parts  and  in  the  hundred 
of  Wirral,  where  there  is  a  colliery  reaching  a 
mile  and  three  quarters  under  the  Dee.  Copper, 
lead,  and  cobalt,  are  also  found,  but  not  in  great 
abundance.  The  rock  salt  and  salt  springs,  as 
they  form  a  great  part  of  the  trade  of  the  middle 
districts,  deserve  more  particular  notice.  There 
is  some  reason  to  believe  that  the  springs  were 
known  to  the  ancient  Britons,  but  the  rock  salt 
was  discovered  so  recently  as  the  year  1670. 
The  former  are  found  at  depths  varying  from 
twenty  to  forty  yards,  in  the  valley  that  is 
watered  by  the  rivers  Weever  and  Wheelock; 
those  near  the  hamlet  of  that  nntne  are  sixty 
yards  deep;  the  strongest  are  found  near  Ander- 
ton.  The  brine  is  raised  by  a  steam  engine,  aud 


CHE 


571 


CHE 


conveyed  through  long  troughs  to  the  pits;  it  is 
then  extracted  by  heating  it  in  iron  pans,  from 
twenty  to  thirty  feet  square,  and  about  fifteen 
inches  deep,  a  scum  rises  to  the  top  when  it  boils 
which  is  taken  off,  and  the  heat  of  the  liquor  re- 
duced :  having  made  ihe  steam  evaporate  as 
quickly  as  possible,  the  salt  collects  in  crystals, 
forming  a  crust  on  the  surface,  which,  sinking  to 
the  bottom,  is  removed  once  or  twice  every  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  rock  salt  is  found  in  different 
strata  from  twenty-eight  to  forly-eight  yards  deep, 
the  first  from  fifteen  to  twenty-one  yards  thick, 
very  hard,  and  brown,  then  an  immense  bed  of 
stone,  and  afterwards  another  stratum  of  salt  five 
or  six  yards  thick,  much  purer,  and  as  clear  as 
crystal;  in  some  places  a  third  bed  is  found.  It 
is  very  hard,  and  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
blast  it  with  gunpowder.  The  most  extensive 
pit  now  worked  is  in  the  township  of  Witton, 
containing  an  area  of  nearly  two  acres,  and  more 
than  300  feet  deep.  It  is  reckoned  that  not  less 
than  100,000  tons  of  salt  are  annually  made  in 
this  county,  and  more  than  300  barges  employed 
in  conveying  it  down  the  Mersey  to  Liverpool, 
where  it  is  re-shipped  or  kept  for  refining.  The 
duty  on  this  article  was  formerly  very  great,  and 
the  precautions  to  prevent  the  evasion  of  it  ama- 
zingly strict;  but  it  has  now  been  reduced  so 
much  that  salt  is  sold  at  not  more  than  one-sixth 
of  the  price  it  once  brought. 

Another  great  article  of  trade,  in  Cheshire,  is 
cheese.  It  is  indeed  mostly  a  dairy  county,  the 
arable  land  not  being  extensive  or  very  produc- 
tive. The  dairies  are  found  wherever  there  is  a 
clayey  soil, 'and  nearly  11,500  tons  of  cheese  are 
annually  made,  of  which  quantity  almost  one- 
half  is  exported.  Excellent  potatoes  are  pro- 
duced near  Frodsham  and  Altrincham,  and  in 
great  abundance. 

This  county  shares  a  little  in  the  cotton  manu- 
factory with  Lancashire,  especially  in  those  parts 
that  are  contiguous ;  at  Stockport,  particularly, 
there  are  several  very  large  mills.  At  Maccles- 
field  andCongleton  there  are  extensive  silk  Tnills; 
at  Chester  there  are  large  works  for  white  and 
red  lead,  and  some  gunpowder  is  made  at  Thel- 
wall.  Tanning  also  is  carried  on  very  largely  in 
the  middle  and  lower  parts. 

The  number  of  inhabitants  we  have  stated; 
in  1815  the  poor  rates  paid  in  this  county 
amounted  to  more  than  £125,000.  The  female 
population  generally  exceeds  that  of  the  male 
in  the  proportion  of  twenty-three  to  twenty-two. 

Cheshire,  previously  to  the  arrival  of  the  Ro- 
mans, was  inhabited  by  the  Cornavii,  or  Carnabii, 
and  it  continued  to  bear  their  name,  the  origin 
of  which  is  altogether  uncertain,  until  the  decline 
of  the  Roman  empire;  for  some  of  the  troops  of 
these  people  settled  under  the  latter  emperors, 
and,  as  they  were  a  martial  people,  the  Romans 
always  kept  strong  garrisons  in  their  territories, 
to  keep  them  in  awe.  This  county  was  in- 
cluded in  the  Roman  division  Flavia  Caesariensis; 
when  that  people  finally  departed,  it  reverted  to 
the  Britons,  who  kept  possession  of  it  till  about 
the  year  607,  when'  it  was  conquered  by  Ethel- 
frith  king  of  Bernicia,  who  defeated  Brochmael 
Yscithroc  near  Chester.  The  Mercians  after- 
wards conquered  and  held  it  about  200  year*; 


when  the  Danes  got  possession  of  it,  but  held  it 
only  a  few  years,  for  king  Alfred,  A.  D.  877, 
conquered  them  and  made  Cheshire  a  province 
of  the  West  Saxon  kingdom,  appointing  Ethel- 
dred  duke  or  governor.  The  family  of  Etheldred 
held  their  dignity  for  six  generations,  when  Ca- 
nute the  Dane  dispossessed  them,  and  committed 
the  government  to  the  earls  of  Chester,  three  only 
of  whom  enjoyed  it,  as,  in  consequence  of  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror  and  his  Normans  subduing 
England,  the  Saxon  nobility  ended.  William 
erected  the  county  into  a  palatinate,  and  gave  it 
to  his  nephew  Hugh  Lupus,  to  whom  he  granted 
the  same  authority  in  it  that  he  himself  held  in 
the  rest  of  the  kingdom.  This  power  continued 
in  the  family  of  Lupus  until  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.,  when  the  seventh  earl  of  the  Norman  line 
dying  without  issue,  Hemy  took  the  earldom 
into  his  own  hands,  and  bestowed  it  on  his  son, 
who  did  not  take  the  title,  but  conferred  it  on 
Edward  of  Caernarvon,  his  son  ;  and  ever  since 
the  eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of  England  have 
always  been  earls  of  Chester.  The  unbounded 
power  of  the  palatinates  was  at  last  reduced  by 
Henry  VIII.  All  cases  of  crimes,  however,  ex- 
cept error,  foreign  pleas  and  foreign  voucher, 
and  high  treason,  are  still  determined  within 
the  shire.  Cheshire  sends  six  members  to 
parliament,  two  for  the  city  and  four  for  the 
county. 

CHESIL  BANK,  a  remarkable  bank  of  pebbles, 
extending  on  the  coast  of  the  county  of  Dorset, 
from  the  isle  of  Portland  to  the  mainland  at 
Abbotsbury,  about  seventeen  miles  in  length,  and 
HI  some  places  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in 
breadth.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  ridges  of  peb- 
bles known.  The  stones  are  of  the  size  of  an 
egg,  or  larger,  near  Portland,  and  gradually  di- 
minish towards  Abbotsbury,  to  the  size  of  large 
shot. 

CHESNE  (Andrew  Du),  styled  the  father  of 
French  history,  was  born  in  1584.  He  wrote, — 
1.  A  History  of  the  Popes.  2.  A  History  of 
England.  3.  An  Enquiry  into  the  Antiquities  of 
the  Towns  of  France.  4.  A  History  of  the  Car- 
dinals. 5.  A  Bibliotheca  of  the  Authors  who 
have  written  the  History  and  Topography  of 
France,  &c.  He  was  crushed  to  death  by  a  cart, 
in  going  from  Paris  to  his  country  house  at  Ver- 
riere,  in  1640. 

CHE'SLIP,  n.  s.  A  small  vermin,  that  lies 
under  stones  or  tiles. 

CHESTNUT.     SeeFAGus 

CHESS,  n.  s.  -\      Sans,  and  Hind,  clia- 

CHESS-BOARD,  n.  s.   tturanga,  the  four  bodies; 
CHESS-MAN,  n.  s.       £  Arab,    and   Pers.    sha- 
CHESS-PLAYER,  n.  s.  3  trang  ;  Ital.  scucco ;  Fr. 
echecs.     Mr.  Thomson  observes  of  the  appella- 
tion of  this  intricate  game,  that  in  Europe  it  seems 
to  have  been  confounded  with  Arabic  shekh,  Pers 
shaft,  Span,  xeque,    a  king,  a  chief,  because  the 
issue  of  the  game  depends  on  a  piece  so  called 
in  the  East. 

At  chesse  with  me  she  gan  to  play ; 
With  hire  false  draughtes  ful  divers, 
She  state  on  me  and  toke  my  fees ; 
*  *  » 

Therewith  Fortune  ysayd  :  chcke  here 

Ani  '  mute,'  iu  'he  myd  poyut  of  the  chcckcrc5 


572 


CHESS. 


With  a  paune  errant.     Alas ! 

Ful  craftyer  to  play  she  was 

Than  Athalus,  that  made  the  game, 

First  of  the  chesse  ;  so  was  his  name. 

Chaucer's  Bake  of  the  Duchesse. 

William  the  Conqueror,  in  his  younger  yeares, 
playing  at  chesse  with  the  prince  of  France  (Dauphine 
was  not  annexed  to  that  crown  in  those  dayes),  losing 
a  mate,  knocked  the  chess-board  about  his  pate,  which 
was  a  cause  afterward  of  much  enmity  between  them. 
Burton.  Anat.  Mel. 

CHESS,  an  ingenious  and  ^scientific  game? 
played  in  Europe  by  two  persons,  on  a  square 
board,  containing  sixty-four  rectangular  chequers, 
alternately  black  and  white.  It  is  not  in  the 
slightest  degree  dependent  on  chance,  and  there 
is,  perhaps,  no  game  of  such  high  antiquity,  and 
such  general  practice ;  it  being  not  confined  to 
Europe  only,  but  being  played  in  every  part  of 
Asia,  although  with  several  important  variations. 
That  this  game  is  of  oriental  origin  there  can  be 
no  doubt ;  but  the  honor  of  the  invention  has 
long  been  a  subject  of  dispute  among  several 
eastern  nations.  Sir  William  Jones,  in  a  la- 
borious treatise  on  this  subject,  adjudges  the  pre- 
ference decidedly  to  Hindostan;  the  rules  of 
chess  being  mentioned  in  their  oldest  law  books, 
and  it  having  boen  a  common  game  in  that 
country  time  immemorial.  It  is  there  called 
chaturaj'i  (the  four  kings)  being  played  with 
four  sets  of  men,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the 
invention  of  Ravau,  king  of  Ceylon,  in  order  to 
amuse  himself  with  a  representation  of  a  cam- 
paign, when  his  metropolis  was  closely  besieged 
by  Rama,  about  the  year  of  the  world  1500. 
The  honorable  Mr.  Daines  Barrington,  in  a 
paper  published  in  the  Archaeologia,  and  Mr. 
Eyles  Irwin,  in  a  letter  to  the  Irish  Academy, 
1793,  advocate  the  opinion  that  China  was  the 
nation  that  first  produced  this  game  :  in  support 
of  which  proposition  Mr.  Irwin  brings  for- 
ward the  M.  S.  of  a  Chinese  mandarin,  giving 
an  account  of  the  invention  by  Hansing,  a 
general  of  that  country,  in  order  to  amuse  and 
quiet  his  troops,  who  were  unruly  in  their  winter 
quarters.  But  as  this  is  dated  the  379th  year 
after  Confucius,  about  172  years  before  Christ, 
the  Brahmin  account  has  at  all  events  the  pri- 
ority. But,  as  the  common  European  method 
of  playing  will  be  probably  most  interesting  to 
our  readers,  we  shall  first  endeavour  to  give  a  sketch 
of  that  game,  and  then  proceed  to  notice  the  Hindu, 
Chinese,  and  Persian  methods ;  these  being  the 
principal  varieties,  although  caprice  has  at  dif- 
ferent times  adopted  several  minor  distinctions. 

THE  EUROPEAN  GAME. — Each  player  has 
sixteen  men,  which  are  colored  black  and  white, 
red  and  white,  or  other  differing  colors,  for  the 
sake  of  distinction,  and  ranged  at  opposite  ends 
on  the  first  two  lines  of  the  board,  which  is 
placed  with  the  white  corner  to  the  right  hand. 
Of  the  pieces  eight,  are  termed  dignified,  and 
have  the  power  of  retrograding ;  these  are  the 
king,  the  queen,  two  bishops,  two  knights,  and 
two  rooks  or  castles  ;  the  other  eight  can  never 
retreat,  and  are  called  pawns.  In  order  to  place 
the  men  rightly  on  the  board,  let  the  white,  red, 
or  dark  queen  be  set  on  her  own  color,  in  the 
first  line,  on  the  fourth  square  from  the  corner : 


the  king  next  her,  in  the  fourth  square  from  the 
opposite  corner :  the  bishops  one  on  each  side 
of  the  king  and  queen  :  the  knights  one  on  each 
side,  next  the  bishops ;  and  the  rooks  next  the 
knights,  in  the  corner  squares  of  the  board.  The 
eight  pawns  are  to  be  set  on  the  eight  squares  of 
the  second  line.  The  rook  on  the  king's  side  is 
called  the  king's  rook,  that  on  the  queen's  side  the 
queen's  rook,  and  the  same  with  the  bishops  and 
knights.  Each  pawn  also  takes  its  name  from 
the  piece  before  which  it  is  placed,  as  the  pawn 
in  front  of  the  king's  bishop  is  called  the  king's 
bishop's  pawn. 

The  KING,  the  Hindu  Raja  or  Meng,  the 
Chinese  Choohong  (generalissimo),  and  the  Per- 
sian Shah,  is  the  leader  of  the  board,  and  from 
the  principles  of  the  game  is  invaluable,  though, 
for  the  purposes  of  attack  and  defence,  supposing 
the  pawn  to  be  worth  two,  he  is  worth  but  six 
and  a  half  proportionally.  He  can  move  in  all 
directions,  but  only  one  square  at  a  time,  except 
in  castling  or  closetting,  as  it  is  called,  which 
can  be  effected  only  once  in  the  game.  It  is 
done  in  a  single  move,  by  leaping  the  king  and 
rook,  either  on  his  own  side  or  that  of  the  queen, 
one  over  the  other,  and  placing  them  in  any  of 
the  intermediate  squares,  including  their  own. 
But  the  king  cannot  castle  if  any  other  piece  or 
pawn  be  between  himself  and  the  rook,  or  if 
any  of  the  squares  over  which  he  has  to  leap  be 
covered  or  guarded  by  an  adverse  piece,  nor  if 
either  he  or  the  rook  have  made  any  move  before. 
It  is  in  general  better  to  make  this  move  on  the 
king's  side  rather  than  the  queen's,  as  by  that 
means  the  adversary  will  not  have  so  many  dis- 
engaged pawns  to  attack  the  position.  This 
move,  however,  can  never  be  made  to  cover  an 
actual  check.  The  king  can  take  any  piece  in  a 
square  next  himself,  which  he  performs  by  moving 
the  piece  off  the  board  and  putting  himself  in  its 
place.  But  he  may  not  approach  the  opposite 
king  by  one  square,  nor  move  into  any  position 
where  he  could,  if  a  common  piece,  be  taken. 
When  the  adverse  king  is  placed  immediately 
under  attack  by  any  piece  or  pawn,  the  player  is 
to  give  him  notice  of  it,  by  saying  '  check,' 
schack  (king)  by  which  he  is  warned  to  defend 
himself,  either  by  removing  out  of  check  or  by 
covering  himself  with  one  of  his  own  pieces,  or 
by  taking  that  which  assaults  him  :  if  he  can  do 
neither  of  these  he  is  check  mated,  schack  maat, 
(the  king  is  weary)  and  loses  the  game. 

The  QUEEN,  the  Hindu  mantri  (prime  minister), 
the  Chinese  sou,  and  the  Persian  ferz  (vizier),  is 
the  second  piece,  and  its  proportional  value  is 
23|.  The  queen  can  move  all  over  the  board 
(if  the  road  is  open)  in  the  same  directions  as  the 
king,  thus  combining  the  moves  of  bishop  and 
rook.  She  takes  in  the  same  manner  as  she 
moves,  and,  when  she  is  in  danger,  it  is  customary 
among  most  players  to  call  check,  leaving  the 
option  of  moving  or  not  with  the  other  player. 

The  BISHOP,  the  Hindu  Hasli,  or  Chein 
(elephant),  the  Chinese  Tehong,  and  the  Persian 
Fil  Pil,  is  valued  at  9|.  This  piece  moves  and 
takes  obliquely,  always  on  the  squares  of  the 
same  color,  as  that  on  which  it  first  stood,  and 
is  not  limited  to  any  number  of  squares  if  the: 
road  is  open. 


CHESS. 


573 


The  KNIGHT,  the  Hindu  Aswa  (horse),  the 
Chinese  Mai,  and  Persian  Asp,  is  valued  at  about 
the  proportion  of  10.  The  move  of  the  knight 
is  quite  distinct,  and  peculiar  to  himself,  leaping 
over  any  of  the  other  pieces,  whether  his  own  or 
the  adversary's,  in  an  oblique  manner,  from  black 
to  white,  and  from  white  to  black,  going,  as  it 
were,  two  squares,  one  as  the  rook,  and  the 
other  as  the  bishop,  or  the  first  as  the  bishop, 
and  the  other  as  the  rook.  The  great  ad- 
vantage of  this  piece  is  his  leaping  over  the  men 
in  such  a  manner  that  his  check  cannot  be  co- 
vered, and  that  he  can  change  from  one  color  to 
another,  so  as  to  be  useful  in  any  part  of  the 
hoard,  being  able  to  run  over  all  the  squares, 
without  touching  any  twice,  in  sixty-four  leaps. 
For  these  reasons  it  is  generally  preferred  to  the 
bishop,  although  some  rather  choose  the  bishop, 
on  account  of  his  longer  reach. 

The  ROOK,  the  Hindu  Ratha  (a  car),  the  Chi- 
nese Tche,  and  the  Persian  Rukh,  is  valued  at 
15,  to  the  knight's  10,  and  moves  in  straight 
lines,  parallel  to  the  sides  or  ends  of  the  board, 
and  can  take  at  any  distance,  provided  that  the 
intermediate  squares  are  not  occupied. 

The  PAWNS,  the  Hindu  Padati  (foot  soldier), 
the  Chinese  Paoo  (artillery),  and  the  Persian 
Peaday,  are  eight  in  number.  Their  distinct 
value  is  as  two,  to  the  rook's  fifteen,  and  their 
move  is  always  directly  forward,  one  square  at  a 
time,  except  at  the  onset,  when  they  move  two  at 
once.  But  in  making  a  capture  they  take  the 
enemy  obliquely,  and  not  in  front;  for  ex- 
ample, the  queen's  pawn  cannot  take  the  one  in 
front  of  it ;  but  one  on  either  the  king's  or  queen's 
bishop's  file.  Apawn  getting  to  the  head  of  the  board 
upon  the  first  line  of  the  enemy,  is  styled  going 
to  queen,  in  which  case  it  may  be  exchanged  for 
any  one  of  the  pieces  lost  in  the  course  of  the 
game  ;  and  the  piece  chosen  must  be  placed  on 
the  square  at  which  the  pawn  had  arrived.  It 
should  be  observed,  that  several  pieces  diminish 
in  force  towards  the  end  of  the  game,  as  the 
bishop  and  the  knights,  and  others  increase,  as 
the  rook  and  the  pawn,  which  can  more  easily 
checkmate. 

If  the  king  should  not  be  in  check,  but  yet 
so  situated  that  he  cannot  be  moved  without 
placing  himself  in  check,  and  has  no  other  piece 
on  the  board  which  can  be  played,  this  is  called  a 
stale  mate,  and  is  in  Italy  justly  deemed  a  drawn 
or  even  game,  but  in  England,  France,  and 
Germany,  the  king  so  placed  is  the  winner. 

Mr.  Twiss  mentions  a  small  treatise  on  chess, 
about  400  years  old  ;  at  the  end  of  which  is  a 
representation  of  a  round  chess  board,  with 
directions  for  placing  the  men  upon  it.  The 
board  is  divided  in  the  64  parts  by  four  concen- 
tric circles,  each  divided  into  16  parts.  Number 
1  is  placed  in  the  outermost  circle ;  number  2 
in  the  third  circle  counting  inwards,  in  the  divi- 
sion to  the  right  hand  of  the  former ;  number  3 
is  placed  in  the  outermost  circle,  in  the  division 
to  the  right  hand  of  2 ;  4  in  the  third  circle, 
counting  inwards  to  the  right  hand  of  three ; 
and  thus  alternately  from  the  first  to  the  third, 
and  from  the  third  to  the  first  circle,  till  the 
round  is  completed  by  16  on  the  third  circle  to 
the  left  hand  of  1.  Number  17  is  then  placed 


on  the  division  of  the  innermost  circle  to  the 
right  hand  of  1 ;  18  on  the  second  circle  counting 
inwards,  to  the  right  hand  of  17;  and  thus  alter- 
nately from  the  fourth  to  the  second,  and  from 
the  second  to  the  fourth  circles,  until  the  round 
is  completed  by  32,  directly  below  number  1. 
Number  33  then  is  placed  on  the  third  circle, 
directly  to  the  right  hand  of  number  2  ;  34  on 
the  fourth  circle,  to  the  right  hand  of  4 ;  and  thus 
alternately  between  the  third  and  fourth  circles, 
until  the  round  is  again  completed  by  48  on  the 
fourth  circle,  directly  below  number  33.  The 
numbers  are  now  placed  in  a  retrograde  manner ; 
50  on  the  outer  circle  in  that  division  immediately 
to  the  right  hand  of  1  ;  51  on  the  third  circle  to 
to  the  left  hand  of  2  ;  and  directly  below  number 
32 ;  52  is  then  placed  on  the  outer  circle,  im- 
mediately on  the  left  hand  of  1  ;  53  on  the  third 
circle  directly  to  the  left  hand  of  16;  and  thus 
alternately  on  the  first  and  third  circles,  until  the 
last  ground  is  completed  by  64  between  the 
number  3  and  5.  On  this  round  chess-board, 
supposing  the  black  king  to  be  placed  in  number 
48  on  the  fourth  circle,  the  queen  stands  on 
number  17  at  his  left  hand  ;  the  bishops  in  33 
and  2;  the  knights  18  and  47;  the  castles  in  3 
and  20;  the  pawns  on  19,  4,  49,  64,  and  46,51, 
32,  1.  The  white  king  will  then  stand  in  25, 
opposite  to  the  black  queen  ;  the  white  queen  in 
40  opposite  to  the  black  king,  and  so  on.  In 
playing  on  a  board  of  this  kind,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  power  of  the  castle  is  double  to  that  in 
the  common  game,  and  that  of  the  bishop  only 
one  half;  the  former  having  16  squares  to  range 
in,  and  the  last  only  4.  The  king  can  castle  only 
one  way ;  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  bring  the 
game  to  a  cqnclusion. 

The  principal  laws  of  the  game  are  as  follows : 
1.  The  first  move  is  decided  by  lot,  and  the  move 
is  afterward  alternate.  2.  If  any  one  touch  a 
piece  without  saying  '  I  adjust,'  or  something  to 
explain  his  intention,  he  must  move  it,  if  pos- 
sible ;  if  not,  the  king  ;  but  if  that  is  not  possible, 
no  forfeit  can  be  demanded.  3.  If  a  player 
touch  one  of  his  adversary's  pieces,  he  must  take 
it  if  he  can ;  if  not,  move  his  king  as  before. 
4.  A  piece  once  quitted  cannot  be  recalled ;  but 
as  long  as  the  player  has  his  hand  on  it,  he  may 
alter  his  move  with  the  same  piece.  5.  If  any 
one  makes  a  false  move,  he  must  play  his  king, 
but  no  false  move  can  be  recalled  after  the  ad- 
versary has  moved.  6.  If  a  check  be  given 
without  warning,  the  player  is  not  obliged  to 
cover  it,  but  if  the  other  at  the  next  turn  should 
move  some  other  piece,  and  call  check,  both 
moves  must  be  recalled,  and  the  king  placed  in 
safety.  7.  If  any  one  attempt  to  castle,  when 
by  the  rules  of  the  game,  he  cannot,  he  may  be 
made  to  move  either  the  rook  or  the  king,  at  the 
pleasure  of  his  opponent.  8.  At  all  conclusions 
of  games,  when  a  player  seems  not  to  know  how 
to  give  the  difficult  mates,  fifty  moves  are  ap- 
pointed for  the  end  of  the  game,  which  being 
past,  it  is  a  drawn  game.  Difficult  check-mates 
are  a  knight  and  bishop,  or  two  bishops  against 
a  king ;  a  rook  and  bishop  against  a  rook,  and 
a  queen  against  a  bishop  and  knight.  A  single 
pawn  cannot  win  if  the  adversary's  king  is  opposed 
to  it ;  but,  if  its  own  king  is  placed  before  it,  then 


574 


CHESS. 


the  pawn  may  win.  Two  pawns  against  one 
must  win  in  most  cases ;  but  the  player,  pos- 
sessing the  two,  should  avoid  exchanging  one  of 
them  for  his  adversary's  pawn.  A  pawn,  with 
any  piece,  must  win  in  every  case,  except  with  a 
bishop,  when  the  pawn  is  on  a  rook's  tile,  and 
the  bishop  does  not  command  the  square  where 
the  pawn  must  go  to  queen.  Two  knights, 
without  any  other  man,  cannot  give  check- 
mate. Two  bishops  may  win.  A  knight,  with  a 
bishop,  may  win.  A  rook  against  either  a  knight 
or  a  bishop  makes  a  drawn  game  ;  as  also  does 
a  rook  and  a  knight  against  a  rook.  A  rook  with 
a  bishop  against  a  rook  may  win.  A  rook  with 
either  a  bishop  or  a  knight  against  a  queen  make 
a  drawn  game.  A  queen  against  a  bishop  and 
a  knight  may  win.  A  queen  against  a  rook  with 
two  pawns  makes  a  drawn  game.  A  rook  against 
either  a  bishop  or  a  knight  with  two  pawns  may 
make  a  drawn  game. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  give  a  few  general 
maxims,  for  the  advice  of  persons  but  slightly 
acquainted  with  the  game.  To  begin  the  game, 
the  pawns  must  be  moved  before  the  pieces,  and 
afterwards  the  pieces  must  bebrought  out  tosupport 
them.  The  king's  and  queen's  pawns  should  be 
moved  first,  that  the  game  may  be  well  opened ; 
the  pieces  must  not  be  played  out  early  in  the 
game,  because  the  player  may  thereby  lose  his 
moves.  It  is  preferable  to  move  the  pawns, 
in  general,  as  far  as  the  centre  at  the  first  move, 
as  it  allows  more  room  for  the  advance  of  the 
heavier  pieces.  The  queen  should  never  stand 
in  such  a  manner  before  the  king,  that '  the 
adversary,  by  bringing  a  rook  or  bishop,  could 
check  the  king  if  she  were  not  there ;  as  it  might 
occasion  the  loss  of  the  queen.  The  adversary's 
knight  should  never  be  suffered  to  check  the  king 
and  queen,  or  king  and  rook,  or  queen  and  rook, 
or  the  two  rooks  at  the  same  time  ;  especially  if 
the  knight  is  properly  guarded  ;  because,  in  the 
two  first  cases,  the  king  being  forced  to  go  put 
of  check,  the  queen  or  the  rook  must  be  lost ; 
and,  in  the  two  last  cases,  a  rook  must  be  lost  at 
least  for  a  worst  piece.  The  player  should  take 
care  that  no  guarded  pawn  of  the  adversary's 
fork  two  of  his  pieces.  As  soon  as  the  kings 
have  castled  on  different  sides  of  the  board,  the 
pawns  on  that  side  of  the  board  should  be  ad- 
vanced upon  the  adversary's  king,  and  the  pieces, 
especially  the  queen  and  rook,  should  be  brought 
to  support  them ;  and  the  three  pawns  belonging 
to  the  king  that  is  castled  must  not  be  moved. 
The  more  moves  a  player  can  have  in  ambuscade, 
the  better  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  queen,  bishop,  or 
rook,  is  to  be  placed  behind  a  pawn  or  a  piece 
in  such  a  position,  that,  upon  playing  that  pawn 
or  piece  a  check  is  discovered  upon  the  adver- 
sary's king,  by  which  means  a  piece  of  some  ad- 
vantage is  often  gained.  An  inferior  piece  should 
never  be  guarded  with  a  superior,  when  a  pawn 
could  answer  the  same  purpose  :  for  this  reason, 
the  superior  piece  may  remain  out  of  play ; 
neither  should  a  pawn  be  guarded  with  a  piece, 
when  a  pawn  would  do  as.  well.  A  well  sup- 
ported pawn  that  is  passed  often  costs  the  ad- 
versary a  piece ;  and  when  a  pawn  or  any  other 
advantage  is  gained,  without  endangering  the 
loss  of  foe  move,  the  player  should  make  as 


frequent  exchanges  of  pieces  as  ne  can.  The 
advantage  of  a  passed  pawn  is  this  :  if  the  player 
and  his  adversary  have  each  three  pawns  upon 
the  board,  and  no  piece,  and  the  player  has  one 
of  his  pawns  on  one  side  of  the  board,  and  the 
other  two  on  the  other  side,  and  the  adversary's 
three  pawns  are  opposite  to  the  player's  two 
pawns,  he  should  march  with  his  king  as  soon  as 
he  can,  and  take  the  adversary's  pawns :  if  the 
adversary  goes  with  his  king  to  support  them, 
the  player  should  go  on  to  queen  with  his  single 
pa^ns ;  and  then,  if  the  adversary  goes  to  hinder 
him,  he  should  take  the  adversary's  pawns,  and 
move  the  others  to  queen.  When  the  game  is 
near  finished,  each  party  having  only  three  or 
four  pawns  on  each  side  of  the  hoard,  the  kings 
must  endeavour  to  gain  the  move  in  order  to  win 
the  game.  For  instance,  when  the  player  brings 
his  king  opposite  to  the  %iversary's  with  only 
one  square  between,  he  win  gain  the  move.  If 
the  player  has  greatly  the  disadvantage  of  the 
game,  having  only  his  queen  left  in  play,  and  his 
king  happens  to  be  in  a  position  to  win,  as  above 
mentioned,  he  should  keep  giving  check  to  the 
adversary's  king,  always  taking  care  not  to  check 
him  where  he  can  interpose  any  of  his  pieces 
that  make  the  stale  ;  by  so  doing  he  will  at  last 
force  the  adversary  to  take  his  queen,  and  then 
he  will  win  the  game  by  being  in  a  stale-mate. 
We  shall  now  notice  the  Hindu,  Chinese,  and 
Persian  varieties  of  this  interesting  game.  Of 
these  we  treat  first  of  the  Hindu,  as  it  has  appa- 
rently the  best  claims  to  originality. 

The  HINDU  GAME  varies  principally  from 
ours  in  having  four  distinct  armies  and  kings 
each  army  composed  of  half  the  number  of  men 
usually  employed,  and  the  boat  or  car  which  oc- 
cupies the  place  of  our  castle  has  the  power  of  a 
bishop  limited  to  two  chequers,  and  the  pawn  takes 
the  rank  of  that  piece,  and  no  other,  into  whose 
square  he  moves  in  the  rear  line  of  the  enemy.  To 
determine  the  moves  dice  are  made  use  of,  when 
a  cinque  is  thrown  the  king  or  a  pawn  must  be 
moved,  if  a  quatre  the  elephant  (our  queen),  if 
a  trois  the  knight,  and  if  a  deuce  the  boat.  The 
king,  elephant,  and  knight,  slay  but  cannot  be  slain. 

The  CHINESE  GAME  varies  principally  from 
the  others,  in  that  there  is  a  river  running  through 
the  centre  of  the  board,  which  the  elephants, 
(bishops)  never  cross,  and  there  is  a  fort,  beyond 
the  limits  of  which  the  king  never  moves.  There 
are  also  two  pieces  called  paoo  or  rocket-men. 
The  paoo  can  move  the  whole  range  of  both 
sections  direct,  transverse,  or  retrograde,  like  the 
English  castle,  and  if  any  of  the  adversary's 
pieces  or  pawns  intervene  in  the  direct  line,  he 
takes  the  one  immediately  in  the  rear  of  it. 
Except  that  the  king  is  supported  by  two  sons 
instead  of  a  queen,  the  game  is  in  other  respects 
like  ours. 

The  PERSIAN  GAME  is  but  a  slight  variation  in 
principle  from  the  European,  the  principal  dif- 
ference being  in  the  move  of  the  ferz  (our  queen), 
which,  on  the  opening  of  the  game,  advances  one 
step  direct  in  front,  his  pawn  moving  with  him  at 
the  same  time,  in  order,  it  is  said,  to  review  and 
regulate  the  motions  of  the  army ;  afterward  he 
can  only  move  diagonally,  one  step  at  a  time,  in 
advance  or  retreat. 


CHESTER. 


575 


There  are  several  minor  variations  in  different 
countries,  as  for  instance  the  queen  has  in  Russia 
the  move  of  the  knight,  but  too  trifling  and  ar- 
hitrary  to  deserve  much  attention.  The  principal 
English  writer  on  Chess  is  Philidor,  1749  and 
1822.  Sarratt  has  also  published  a  valuable  work 
on  this  game. 

We  conclude  with  the  Morals  ofChess  by  the 
celebrated  Dr.  Franklin,  whose  knowledge  of 
this  game  introduced  him  to  many  of  his  most 
distinguished  political  friends.  '  The  game  of 
chess  is  not  merely  an  idle  amusement.  Several 
very  valuable  qualities  of  the  mind,  useful  in 
the  course  of  human  life,  are  to  be  acquired  or 
strengthened  by  it,  so  as  to  become  habits,  ready 
on  all  occasions.  For  life  is  a  kind  of  chess, 
in  which  we  have  often  points  to  gain,  and  com- 
petitors or  adversaries  to  contend  with,  and  in 
which  there  is  a  vast  variety  of  good  and  evil 
events,  that  are,  in  some  degree,  the  effects  of 
prudence  or  the  want  of  it.  By  playing  at  chess 
then,  we  may  learn, 

1.  'Foresight,  which  looks  a  little  into  futu- 
rity, and  considers   the  consequences   that  may 
attend  an  action  :  for  it  is  continually  occurring 
to  the  player,  '  If  I  move  this  piece,  what  will 
be  the  advantage  of  my  new  situation  ?     What 
use  can  my  adversary  make  of  it  to  annoy  me  ? 
What  other  moves  can  I  make  to  support  it,  and 
to  defend  myself  from  his  attacks  ?' 

2.  '  Circumspection,  which  surveys  the  whole 
chess-board,  or  scene  of  action  ;  the  relations  of 
the  several  pieces  and   situations,  the  dangers 
they  are  respectively  exposed  to,  the  several  pos- 
sibilities of  their  aiding  each  other,  the  probabi- 
lities that  the  adversary   may  take  this  or  that 
move,  and  attack  this  or  the  other  piece,  and 
what  different  means  can  be  used  to  avoid  his 
stroke,  or  turn  its  consequences  against  him. 

3.  '  Caution,   not   to   make   our   moves   too 
hastily.     This  habit  is  best  acquired  by  observing 
strictly  the  laws  of  the  game ;  such  as  '  If  you 
touch  a  piece,  you  must  move  it  somewhere ;  if 
you  set  it  down,  you  must  let  it  stand:'  and  it 
is  therefore  best  that  these  rules  should  be  ob- 
served, as  the  game   thereby  becomes  more  the 
image  of  human  life,   and  particularly  of  war ; 
in  which,  if  you  have  incautiously  put  yourself 
into  a  bad  and  dangerous  position,   you  cannot 
obtain  your   enemy's  leave   to   withdraw  your 
troops,  and  place  them  more  securely,  but  you 
must  abide  all  the  consequences  of  your  rashness. 

CHEST,  n.  s.  Ki^rf,  Lat.  cista;  Goth,  kist ; 
Per.  kisti;  Sax.  cyst.  A  case,  to  contain  any 
thing ;  a  box ;  a  coffer ;  the  cavity  of  the  breast. 
Chests,  of  whatever  description,  derive  their 
name  from  their  capacity  of  containing. 

He  will  seek  there  on  my  word  :  neither  press, 
chest,  trunk,  well,  vault,  but  he  hath  an  abstract  for 
the  remembrance  of  such  places.  Shakspeare. 

Such  as  have  round  faces,  or  broad  cJiests,  or  shoul- 
ders, have  seldom  or  never  long  necks.  Browne. 

But  more  have  been  by  avarice  opprest, 
And  heaps  of  money  crowded  in  the  c/iest        Dryden. 

He  describes  another  by  the  .argeness  of  his  chest, 
and  breadth  of  his  shoulders. 

Pope's  Notes  on  the  Iliad. 

CHEST,  or  THORAX.     See  ANATOMY. 

CHESTER,,  sometimes  called  West  Chester, 


a  city  in  England,  the  capital  of  the  county  of 
Cheshire,  is  situated  on  the  western  side,  not  far 
from  the  borders  of  Flintshire,  and  south  of  the 
peninsula  formed  by  the  estuaries  of  the  Dee  and 
the  Mersey.  It  is  183  miles  from  London,  and 
eighteen  from  the  sea.  Long.  3°  3'  W.,  lat.  53° 
16'  N.  It  is  a  very  ancient  city,  some  antiquaries 
asserting  that  it  was  founded  by  Magus,  the 
grandson  of  Japhet,  240  years  after  the  flood, 
and  from  him  was  known  by  the  name  Niomagus ! 
It  was  afterwards  called  Caer-leon,  and  by  the 
Romans  Cestria,  from  a  camp  they  had  fixed 
there,  and  this  very  probably  originated  its 
present  name.  Some  very  stately  remains,  found 
in  the  vaults  and  cellars  under  this  city,  also 
serve  to  show  the  greatness  of  the  Roman  power 
here.  Its  form  is  square,  with  four  principal 
streets,  running  towards  the  four  cardinal  points, 
called  Eastgate,  Northgate,  Watergate,  and 
Bridge  streets,  and  a  number  of  smaller  ones 
forming  right  angles  with  them.  Its  walls  are 
entire  and  surround  it  on  all  sides,  rising  in 
beautiful  arches  over  the  great  streets  and  afford- 
ing a  delightful  promenade  for  the  inhabitants, 
with  a  most  commanding  prospect  of  the  adja- 
cent country.  It  has  been  the  see  of  a  bishop 
since  the  end  of  the  seventh  century,  and  belongs 
to  the  province  of  York;  it  contains  a  cathedral, 
and  seven  parish  churches  within  the  walls,  and 
one  beyond  them.  Anciently  it  was  a  part  of 
the  bishopric  of  Litchfield  ;  but  on  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  monasteries,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
it  was  made  a  distinc*  bishopric,  and  endowed 
with  the  revenues  of  the  abbey  of  Benedictines. 
Its  churches,  particularly  St.  Mary's,  contain 
many  ancient  monuments.  In  the  days  of  king 
Arthur  it  was  a  celebrated  school  for  philosophy 
and  the  learned  languages ;  several  British  and 
Saxon  kings  were  crowned  here,  and  it  is  said 
that  Henry  IV.  emperor  of  Germany,  who  mar- 
ried Maude  the  grandaughter  to  William  the 
Conqueror,  lived  as  a  hermit  at  Chester,  un- 
known ;  but  discovered  himself  near  his  death, 
and  was  buried  here.  The  principal  streets  ap- 
pear to  have  been  excavated,  as  Mr.  Pennant 
says,  out  of  the  earth,  and  sunk  several  feet  below 
the  surface ;  rows  of  shops  run  along  the  sides  of 
them  in  the  central  and  higher  parts  of  the  city ; 
the  houses  have  galleries  or  piazzas  before  them 
and  frequently  under  the  upper  stories,  at  the 
backs  of  which  the  principal  shops  are  ranged, 
and  under  these  covered  ways  the  inhabitants 
may  walk  almost  over  the  town,  sheltered  both 
from  the  sun  and  the  rain.  The  old  Castle  has 
been  taken  down  and  a  new  city  gaol  erected, 
with  a  fine  entrance,  on  the  model  of  the  Acro- 
polis at  Athens,  introducing  to  a  noble  and  ex- 
tensive area,  on  one  side  of  which  is  a  barrack 
for  120  men,  on  the  other  an  arsenal  with  27,000 
stand  of  arms,  and  in  the  front  the  shire-hall,  the 
portico  of  which  is  supported  by  twelve  pillars, 
each  twenty-two  feet  high  and  thirty-seven 
inches  in  diameter.  The  hall  itself  forms  a  semi- 
circle forty-four  feet  high,  eighty  feet  in  diameter, 
and  fifty  feet  wide  ;  the  roof  being  supported  by 
twelve  pillars  of  the  Ionic  order.  In  the  con- 
s'ruction  of  the  prison  great  attention  has  been 
paid  to  the  health  and  classification  of  the  pri- 
soners. It  is  a  royal  fortress  The  abbey  court 
forms  a  pleasant  square,  on  one  side  of  which 


57(j 


CHESTER. 


stands  the  bishop's  palace.  Adjoining  to  this  is 
the  market-place,  where  a  cross  stands  which  is 
thought  to  be  the  site  of  the  Roman  Pretorium, 
and  here  was  once  held  every  year  a  bull-bait  at 
which  the  mayor  and  corporation  used  to  attend. 
There  are  several  chapels  and  meeting-houses 
for  dissenters  of  different  denominations,  Wes- 
leyan  Methodists,  Lady  Huntingdon's  connec- 
tion, Welsh  Methodists,  Independents,  Baptists, 
Quakers,  Unitarians,  and  Roman  Catholics.  It 
has  two  public  libraries,  and  an  elegant  news- 
room ;  a  blue  coat  school  for  thirty-five  boys,  and 
another  for  girls ;  and  about  thirty  alms-houses 
in  different  parts  of  the  city,  some  of  them  well 
endowed.  The  munificence  of  the  present  earl 
Grosvenor  and  his  lady  has  lately  added  to 
the  means  of  general  instruction,  by  the  erection 
of  a  building  in  which  400  boys  and  the  same 
number  of  girls  are  educated  at  their  sole  ex- 
pense. Chester  maintains  its  ancient  reputation 
for  education,  no  place  abounding  more  in  respect- 
able private  seminaries  and  establishments,  for 
both  sexes.  Several  causes  may  have  contributed 
to  this ;  such  as  the  great  salubrity  of  the  air, 
which  is  so  conducive  to  health  that  it  is  said 
only  one  in  forty  die  annually,  whereas  the 
average  of  other  places,  both  at  home  and  in  fo- 
reign parts,  would  be  about  one  in  twenty-five ; 
its  convenient  vicinity  to  the  principality  and 
the  sister  kingdom  ;  and  the  great  number  ot 
literary  and  scientific  men,  particularly  of  the 
clergy,  that  are  found  here.  The  city  is  governed 
by  a  mayor,  recorder,  two  sheriffs,  twenty-four 
aldermen  and  forty  common-council-men.  The 
only  manufacture  of  any  extent  is  that  of  gloves, 
made  in  vast  quantities  by  women.  The  lead- 
works  have,  however,  of  late  years  increased 
considerably,  and  the  metal  here  undergoes 
almost  every  process ;  it  is  rolled  out  to  any 
thickness  required,  drawn  into  pipes  of  every 
bore,  cast  into  shot  of  all  sizes,  converted  into 
white  lead,  red  lead,  litharge,  &c. ;  employing 
a  great  number  of  workmen,  and  very  powerful 
steam-engines.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
upwards  of  15,000.  Chester  has  two  market 
days,  Wednesday  and  Saturday,  and  three  great 
fairs,  lasting  a  week  each,  commencing  Feb.  24th, 
July  5th  and  Oct.  iOth,  resorted  to  by  manufactu- 
rers and  tradesmen  from  all  parts  :  the  goods, 
chiefly  woollen  and  linen  cloths,  being  exposed 
for  sale  under  the  rows  fronting  the  shops,  or  in 
spacious  halls  erected  for  the  purpose.  The 
river  Dee  surrounds  the  city  nearly  in  a  semi- 
circle, flowing  under  a  substantial  old  bridge, 
but  which  is  inconveniently  narrow,  on  the 
south,  and  a  more  modern  erection  on  the  west, 
and  turning  a  little  to  the  north,  till  it  takes  a 
W.  N.  W.  course  towards  the  sea.  On  the  west 
side  is  situated  the  race  ground,  a  fine  plain,  from 
which  the  whole  extent  of  the  course  can  be 
easily  viewed.  This  city  sends  two  members  to 
parliament. 

CHESTER,  a  county  of  South  Carolina,  in 
Pinkney  district ;  in  the  north-west  part  of  the 
State ;  with  a  town  of  the  same  name,  bounded 
on  the  cast  by  Camden  district ;  on  the  north  by 
York  county ;  on  the  vvest  by  Union  ;  and  on 
the  south  by  Fairfield  county,  in  Camden  dis- 
trict. It  is  forty  miles  from  east  to  west,  and 


twenty-three  from  north  to  south,  and  contains 
nearly  10,000  white  inhabitants,  and  more  than 
4000  negro  slaves,  with  only  thirty-six  free 
blacks.  It  is  well  watered  by  the  Watteree, 
Broad,  and  Tiger  rivers.  The  lands  are  rich 
and  well  cultivated. 

CHESTER,  a  navigable  river  of  the  United 
States,  in  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland.  Rising 
in  New  Castle  county,  in  the  State  of  Delaware, 
it  runs  nearly  west  for  about  fifteen  miles,  and 
thence  winding  south-west  by  south,  fal's  into 
the  Chesapeake  on  the  north-east  side  of  Kent 
island,  about  ten  miles  north-west  of  Chester,  in 
the  same  state. 

CHESTER,  a  post  town  of  Maryland,  and  the 
capital  of  Kent  county,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Chester,  about  fourteen  miles  from  its  confluence 
with  the  Chesapeake.  It  contains  a  church,  col- 
lege, jail,  and  court  house.  The  college  is  named 
Washington,  and  was  incorporated  in  1782.  It 
is  supported  by  a  permanent  fund,  established  by 
law.  This  town  is  thirty-seven  miles  north  of 
Easton,  sixty-six  east  by  south  of  Baltimore,  and 
seventy-seven  south-west  of  Philadelphia. 

CHESTER,  a  township  of  New  Hampshire,  Mas- 
sachusetts, situate  in  Rockingham  county,  on  the 
south  side  of  a  small  creek.  It  is  compactly 
built,  and  has  a  congregational  church.  The 
town  was  incorporated  in  1722.  It  is  six  miles 
north  of  Londonderry  ;  thirty  W.  S.  W.  of  Ports- 
mouth ;  and  394  north-east  of  Philadelphia,  and 
has  more  than  1100  inhabitants. 

CHESTER,  a  populous  and  well  cultivated 
county  of  Pennsylvania,  forty-five  miles  long 
and  thirty  broad.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Berks,  on  the  north-east  by  Montgomery,  on 
the  south-east  by  Delaware  county,  and  part  of 
the  State  of  Delaware ;  on  the  south-west  and 
west  by  Lancaster ;  and  on  the  south  by  Cecil 
county,  in  the  state  of  Maryland.  It  is  divided 
into  thirty-three  townships.  In  the  northern 
parts  are  mines  of  iron  ore ;  and  great  quantities 
of  bar  iron  are  manufactured  annually.  Its  popu- 
lation consists  of  more  than  41,000  whites,  nearly 
3000  free  colored  people,  and  only  seven  slaves. 

CHESTER,  or  WEST  CHESTER,  a  post  town  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  capital  of  the  county.  It  is 
situated  on  the  north-west  side  of  the  Delaware, 
fifteen  miles  south-west  of  Philadelphia.  It  is 
built  on  a  regular  plan,  and  has  a  jail  and  a  court- 
house, where  quarterly  courts  are  held.  The 
population  exceeds  1000.  This  town  is  remarka- 
ble for  being  the  place  where  the  first  colonial 
assembly  was  convened,  on  the  4th  December, 
1682.  It  was  incorporated  by  an  act  of  the  as- 
sembly, in  December  1795,  and  is  governed  by 
two  burgesses,  one  high  constable,  a  town  clerk, 
and  three  assistants 

CHESTER,  a  river  of  West  Florida,  falling  into 
Pensacola  Bay. 

CHESTER,  WEST,  a  county  of  New  ¥"ork, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Duchess  county ;  on 
the  east  by  the  state  of  Connecticut ;  on  the 
south  by  Long  Island  Sound,  and  New  York 
county ;  on  the  west  by  the  Hudson,  which  se- 
parates it  from  Orange  county  and  the  state  of 
New  Jersey.  It  is  divided  into  twenty-one  town- 
ships, and  contains  22,581  free  inhabitants,  and 
1.419  slaves.  Bedford  is  the  chief  town. 


"CHE 


57? 


CHE 


CHESTER.     See  CASTOR. 

CHESTER-LE-STREET,  or  CHESTER  IN  THE 
STREET,  the  Cuueacestre  of  the  Saxons,  a  small 
thoroughfare  town  between  Newcastle  and  Dur- 
ham, with  a  good  church  and  fine  spire.  In  the 
time  of  the  Saxons,  this  place  was  greatly  re- 
spected on  account  of  the  relics  of  St.  Cuthbert, 
deposited  in  it,  by  bishop  Eardulf,  for  fear  of  the 
Danes,  who  then,  about  A.  D.  884,  ravaged  the 
country.  His  shrine  became  afterwards  an  object 
of  great  devotion.  Along  with  the  remains  of 
St.  Cuthbert,  the  bishopric  of  Lindesfarn  was  re- 
moved here,  and  endowed  with  all  the  lands  be- 
tween the  Tyne  and  the  Were,  comprehending 
the  present  county  of  Durham.  The  inhabitants 
had  great  privileges,  and  were  free  from  military 
duty,  except  that  of  defending  the  body  of  their 
saint.  Chester  may  be  considered  as  the  parent 
of  the  see  of  Durham;  for  when  the  saint's  relics 
were  removed  thither,  in  995,  the  see  followed 
them.  Bishop  Beke,  in  1286,  in  honor  of  that 
saint,  made  the  church  collegiate ;  established  a 
dean  and  suitable  ecclesiastics ;  and,  among 
other  privileges,  gave  the  dean  a  right  of  fishing 
on  the  Were,  with  the  tythesof  fish.  This  town 
is  five  miles  north  of  Durham. 

CHESTERFIELD,  a  district  of  South  Caro- 
lina, United  States,  not  far  from  North  Carolina, 
in  the  district  of  Cheraws.  It  comprehends  an 
area  of  about  850  square  miles,  and  contains  a 
population  of  nearly  4500  whites,  more  than 
2000  slaves,  and  about  1 70  free  blacks. 

CHESTERFIELD,  a  populous  county  of  Virginia, 
United  States,  not  quite  so  large  as  the  former. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  James  River,  and 
on  the  south  by  the  river  Appomattox ;  and  con- 
tains a  population  exceeding  18,000,  of  whom 
nearly  half  are  slaves. 

CHESTERFIELD,  a  market  town  of  England, 
in  Derbyshire,  the  second  in  the  county, 
pleasantly  situated  on  a  hill  between  the  Iber 
and  the  Rother.  It  was  made  a  free  borough 
by  king  John;  and  in  1294  first  had  the  privi- 
lege of  a  guild  of  merchants.  It  is  governed  by 
a  mayor,  six  aldermen,  six  brethren,  and  twelve 
burgesses,  and  it  gives  the  title  of  earl  to  the  fa- 
mily of  Stanhope.  It  is  very  populous,  and  has 
a  considerable  market  for  corn,  and  other  com- 
modities ;  with  stocking  and  carpet  manufacto- 
ries ;  a  silk  and  cotton  mill,  and  several  potteries, 
and  large  iron  foundries.  The  neighbourhood 
produces  great  plenty  of  coal  and  iron ;  and  vast 
quantities  of  lead  are  sent  hence  by  a  canal, 
which  joins  the  Trent  below  Gainsborough.  The 
church  is  a  handsome  structure,  in  the  form  of  a 
cross,  but  the  spire  is  remarkably  bent.  There 
is  a  free-school,  founded  by  queen  Elizabeth. 
In  the  market-place  is  a  neat  town-hall ;  there  is 
also  a  work-house  and  a  house  of  correction. 
Market  on  Saturday.  It  is  twenty-two  miles 
north  of  Derby,  and  150  N.  N.  \V.  of  London. 

CHE'STNUT,      ^      Lat.  castanea;  Yr.  c/ms- 

CHE'STNUT-TREE.  $taignc;  in  botany.  See 
FAG  us. 

Medlers,  plommes,  peres,  chesteines.  Chaucer. 

A  woman's  tongue, 

That  gives  not  half  so  great  a  blow  to  the  ear 
As  will  a  chestnut  in  a  farmer's  fire.        Sluifupeare. 
VOL.  V. 


So  when  two  boars  in  wild  Ytene  bred, 
Or  on  Westphalia's  fattening  chestnuts  fed, 
Gnash  their  sharp  tusks,  and,  roused  with  equal  fire, 
Dispute  the  reign  of  some  luxurious  mire, 
In  the  black  flood  they  wallow  o'er  and  o'er, 
Till  their  armed  jaws  distil  with  foam  and  gore.    Gay. 

The  name  of  a  brown  color. 
His  hair  is  of  a  good  colour. 

An  excellent  colour  :  your  chestnut  was  ever  the 

only  colour.  Shakspeare. 

Merab's  long  hair  was  glossy  chestnut  brown. 

Cowley. 

CHESTNUT,  HORSE.     See  ./ESCULUS. 

CHESTNUT,  INDIAN  ROSE.     See  MESUA. 

CHE'STON,  n.  s.     A  species  of  plum. 

CHETA,  a  river  in  the  north  of  Siberia,  or 
Asiatic  Russia,  rising  in  70°  30'  lat.  and  106°  E. 
long.  It  falls  into  the  Anabora,  or  Charanga, 
near  its  mouth.  Also  a  river  of  Asiatic  Russia, 
running  into  the  Enisci  near  Avanska,  in  the  lat. 
68°  40'  N.,  long.  89°  E. 

CHEVALER,  in  the  menage,  is  said  of  a 
horse,  when,  in  passaging  upon  a  walk  or  trot, 
his  oft'  fore-leg  crosses  or  overlaps  the  near  fore- 
leg every  second  motion. 

CHEVALI'ER,  n.  s.  Fr.  chevalier.  A  knight ; 
a  gallant  strong  man. 

Renowned  Talbot  cloth  expect  my  aid  ; 

And  I  am  lowted  by  a  traitor  villain, 

And  cannot  help  the  noble  chevalier.       Sliakspeare. 

CHEVALIER,  in  heraldry,  signifies  any  cavalier, 
or  horseman  armed  at  all  points  ;  now  out  of  use, 
and  only  to  be  seen  in  coat  armour. 

CHEVAUX  DE  FRISE,  in  fortification,  is  a 
machine  composed  of  a  piece  of  timber,  larger 
or  smaller,  pierced  and  traversed  with  wooden 
spikes,  pointed  with  iron,  five  or  six  feet  long,  as 
in  the  annexed  diagram,  used  for  defending  a 


passage,  stopping  a  breach,  or  making  a  retrench- 
ment to  stop  the  cavalry.  These  machines  are 
sometimes  mounted  on  ,  wheels,  with  artificial 
fires,  to  roll  down  in  an  assault.  The  prince  of 
Orange  used  to  enclose  his  camp  with  chevaux 
de  frise,  placing  them  one  over  another. 

CHE'VEN,  n.  s.  Fr.  chevesne.  A  river  fish, 
the  same  with  chub. 

CHE'VERIL,  ».  s.  Fr.  cheverau.  A  kid; 
kidleather.  Obsolete. 

A  sentence  is  but  a  cheveril  glove  to  a  good  wit : 
how  quickly  the  wrong  side  may  be  turned  outward. 

S/uikspeare. 
What  gifts  the  capacity 

Of  your  soft  cheveril  conscience  would  receive, 

If  you  might  please  to  stretch  it.  Id. 

CHEVIOT,  or  TIVIOT  HILLS,  a  ridge  of 
mountains,  which  runs  from  north  to  south 
through  Northumberland  and  Cumberland,  near 
which  was  a  free  chase,  called  Cheviot,  corruptly 
chevy-chase  ;  the  seat  of  the  encounter  between 
the  Percies  and  the  Douglasses,  celebrated  in  tne 

2  P 


CHE 


578 


CHI 


ballad  of  Chevy-chase.  It  lay  six  miles  from  the 
borders  of  Scotland,  and  eighteen  south  of  Ber- 
wick. These  hills  are  the  first  land  discovered 
in  coming  from  the  east  into  Scotland.  One  of 
them  is  so  high,  that  it  is  seen  sixty  miles  off. 
They  are  famous  for  feeding  an  excellent  breed 
of  sheep,  called  from  them  the  Cheviot  breed. 

CHE'VISANCE,  n.  s.  Fr.  chevisance.  En- 
terprise ;  achievement.  A  word  now  not  in  use. 

Ye  shuld  have  -warned  me,  or  I  had  gon. 
That  he  you  had  an  hundred  frankes  paide 
By  redy  token.  And  held  him  evil  apaide 
For  that  I  to  him  spake  of  chevisance.  Chaucer. 

Fortune,  the  foe  of  famous  cJtevisance, 
Seldom,  said  Guyon,  yields  to  virtue  aid. 

Spenser. 

CIIEVISANCE,  in  law,  denotes  an  agreement  or 
composition,  as  an  end  or  order  set  down  between 
a  creditor  and  his  debtor,  &c.     In  the  statutes,* 
this  word  is  most  commonly  used  for  an  unlaw- 
ful bargain  or  contract. 

CHEVREAU  (Urban),  a  learned  writer,  bom 
at  Loudun  in  1613.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  his  youth  by  his  knowledge  of  the  belles  let- 
tres;  and  became  secretary  of  state  to  queen 
Christina  of  Sweden.  Several  German  princes 
invited  him  to  their  courts  ;  and  Charles- Lewis, 
the  elector  palatine,  retained  him  under  the  title 
of  counsellor.  After  the  death  of  that  prince,  he 
returned  to  France,  and  became  preceptor  to  the 
duke  of  Maine.  He  died  at  Loudun,  in  1701, 
aged  eighty-eight.  He  published  several  works, 
particularly  an  Universal  History,  which  has 
often  been  reprinted. 

CHEVRETTE,  an  engine  useful  for  the  pur- 
pose of  raising  guns  or  mortars  into  their  car- 
riages. It  is  made  of  two  pieces  of  wood  about  four 
feet  long,  standing  upright  upon  a  third,  which  is 
square ;  they  are  about  a  foot  asunder,  and  paral- 
lel ;  pierced  with  holes  opposite  one  another,  to 
hold  a  strong  bolt  of  iron,  which  may  be  raised 
or  lowered  at  pleasure ;  it  may  be  used  with  a 
common  handspike,  which  takes  its  poise  over 
the  bolt,  and  thus  raises  the  weight. 

CHE'VRON,  n.  s.  French.  One  of  the 
honorable  ordinaries  in  heraldry.  It  represents 
two  rafters  of  a  house,  set  up  as  they  ought  to 
stand. — Harris. 

CHEVRONNE,  or  CHEVRONNY,  in  heraldry, 
the  parting  of  a  shield  several  times. 

CHEVROTTEll,  Fr.  chevre,  a  goat;  a  me- 
taphorical expression,  used  when  a  singer,  in 
lieu  of  neatly  shaking  alternately  the  two  notes 
which  form  the  cadence,  or  shake,  repeats  only 
one  note  with  precipitation,  as  detached  semi- 
quavers. 

CHEW,  v.  a.  &  v.  n.  Teut.  kieuwen,  kief  en; 
Sax.  ceowan ;  Fr.  chlquer;  Dutch  kauwen.  It  is 
very  frequently  pronounced  chaw,  and  perhaps 
properly.  To  grind  with  the  teeth ;  to  masticate; 
to  champ  upon ;  to  receive  into  the  mouth  and 
retain  there  for  some  time,  for  mastication  alone 
and  not  for  nourishment.  Metaphorically  to 
meditate;  to  ruminate  in  the  thoughts. 

If  little  faults,  proceeding  on  distemper, 
Shall  not  be  winked  at,  how  shall  we  stretch  our  eye, 
When  capital  crimes,  chewed,  Swallowed,  and  digested, 
Appear  "before  us?  .      Sfuikspeare. 


Pacing  through  the  forest, 
Chewing  the   cud  of  sweet  and  bitter  fancy.  Id, 

Heaven  's  in  my  mouth, 
As  if  I  did  but  only  chew  its  name.  Id. 

I  will  with  patience  hear,  and  find  a  time  ; 
Till  then,  my  noble  friend,  chew  upon  this.  Id. 

Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  i-^vallowed, 
and  some  few  to  be  chewed  and  digested  ;  tnat  is,  some 
books  are  to  be  read  only  in  parts  ;  others  to  be  read, 
but  not  curiously ;  and  some  few  to  be  read  wholly, 
with  attention.  Bacon. 

While  the  fierce  monk  does  at  his  trial  stand, 
He  chews  revenge,  abjuring  his  offence  : 

Guile  in  his  tongue,  and  murder  in  his  hand, 
He  stabs  his  judge,  to  prove  his  innocence.         Prior. 

CHEWING  BALLS,  a  kind  of  balls  made  of 
asafoetida,  liver  of  antimony,  bay-wood,  juniper 
wood,  and  pellitory  of  Spain  ;  which  being  dried 
in  the  sun,  and  wrapped  in  a  linen  cloth,  are 
tied  to  the  bit  of  the  bridle  for  the  horse  to  chew. 
They  create  an  appetite ;  and  it  is  said  that  balls 
of  Venice  treacle  may  be  used  in  the  same  man- 
ner with  success. 

CHEYNE  (Dr.  George),  a  physician  of  great 
learning  and  abilities,  born  in  the  parish  of 
Methlick  in  Aberdeenshire,  in  1671,  and  educated ' 
at  Edinburgh  under  Dr.  Pitcairn.  He  passed 
his  youth  in  close  study  and  great  temperance, 
but  frequenting  gay  company  for  the  sake  of 
practice  in  London,  when  about  thirty,  the  con- 
sequence was,  that  he  grew  daily  in  bulk,  be- 
came excessively  corpulent,  lethargic,  and  scor- 
butic ;  so  that  his  life  was  an  intolerable  burden. 
In  this  deplorable  condition,  after  having  in  vain 
tried  all  the  power  of  medicine,  he  resolved  to 
adopt  a  milk  and  vegetable  diet,  the  good  effects 
of  which  quickly  appeared.  His  size  was  reduced 
almost  a  third ;  and  he  recovered  his  strength, 
activity,  and  cheerfulness.  .In  short,  by  a  regu- 
lar adherence  to  this  regimen,  he  lived  to  a  ma- 
ture period,  dying  at  Bath  in  1742,  aged  seventy- 
two.  He  wrote  several  treatises  that  were  well 
received  ;  particularly,  An  Essay  on  Health  and 
Long  Life ;  and  The  English  Malady,  or  a  Trea- 
tise of  Nervous  Diseases. 

CHIABRERA  (Gabriel),  esteemed  the  Pin- 
dar of  Italy,  was  born  at  Savona  in  1552,  and 
went  to  study  at  Rome.  The  Italian  princes, 
and  Urban  VIII.  gave  him  public  marks  of  their 
esteem.  He  wrote  a  great  number  of  poems  ; 
but  his  lyric  verses  are  most  admired.  He  died 
at  Savona  in  1638,  aged  thirty-six. 

CHIAN  EARTH,  in  pharmacy,  one  of  the  me- 
dicinal earths  of  the  ancients,  the  name  of  which 
is  preserved  in  the  catalogues  of  the  Materia  Me- 
dica,  but  of  which  little  more  than  the  name  has 
been  known  for  many  ages  in  the  shops. 

CH1OSH,  in  the  original  Turkish,  envoys, 
are  officers  to  the  number  of  500  or  600  in  the 
grand  seignior's  court,  under  the  command  of  a 
chiosh  baschi.  They  frequently  meet  in  the 
grand  vizier's  palace,  that  they  may  be  in  readi- 
ness to  execute  his  orders,  and  carry  his  de- 
spatches into  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire. 

CHIAPA,  a  province  of  Mexico,  North  Ame- 
rica, in  the  audience  of  Guatimala  ;  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  province  of  Tabasco ;  on  the 
east  by  Vera  Paz;  on  the  south  by  Guatimala  ; 
on  the  south-west  by  Sonusco  ;  and  on  tho  west 


CHI 


579 


CHI 


by  Guaxaca.  It  is  seventy  leagues  long,  and 
sixty-five  broad.  Its  principal  productions  are 
grain  and  fruits,  with  excellent  pastures,  on 
which  they  feed  a  great  number  of  cattle.  Its 
hors(.s  also  are  valuable. 

CHIAPA  DOS  ESPAGNOLES,  or  CIVIDAD  REAL, 
the  capital  of  the  above  province,  is  the  see  of  a 
bishop.  It  contains  one  parish  church  and  three 
convents.  Its  principal  commerce  is  in  cocoa, 
cotton,  and  cochineal.  It  is  380  miles  south- 
east of  Mexico. 

CHIAPA,  or  CHIAPA  DOS  INDIOS,  a  town  of 
North  America,  in  the  province  of  Chiapa,  con- 
taining about  4000  families,  chiefly  Indians,  who 
are  rich.  During  the  day  the  heat  here  is  vio- 
lent, while  the  nights  are  cool.  The  inhabitants 
raise  a  great  deal  of  sugar.  It  is  350  miles  south- 
east of  Mexico,  and  thirty  west  of  Chiapa  dos  Es- 
pagnoles. 

CIIIARENZA,  or  CLAREXZA,  a  territory  in 
the  north-west  coast  of  the  Morea,  subject  to  the 
Turks,  anciently  called  Achaia. 

CHIAREXZA,  the  capital  of  the  above  territory, 
and  a  sea-port  in  the  Mediterranean,  opposite  to 
the  island  of  Zante,  has  a  good  harbour,  and  is 
twenty -six  miles  south  of  Patras. 

CIIIARI,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  ci-devant 
province  of  Bresciano ;  between  Brescia  and 
Crema,  where  the  Imperialists  obtained  a  victory 
over  the  French  in  1701.  It  is  seven  miles  west 
of  Brescia,  and  twenty-seven  east  of  Milan. 

CHIARI  (Joseph),  a  celebrated  Italian  painter, 
was  the  disciple  of  Carlo  Maratti ;  and  adorned 
the  churches  and  palaces  of  Rome  with  a  great 
number  of  fine  paintings.  He  died  of  an  apo- 
plexy in  1727,  aged  seventy-three. 

CHIAROSCURO.  Ital.  In  painting.  The 
art  of  judiciously  distributing  the  lights  and  sha- 
dows in  a  picture.  A  knowledge  of  it  comprises 
the  proper  gradation  of  lights  and  shades  on  bo- 
dies, placed  on  certain  planes,  and  in  certain 
positive  lights ;  but  chiaroscuro  being  a  science 
comprehending  not  only  the  mechanical  action 
of  light,  shade,  and  reflexes,  but  of  aerial  per- 
spective, the  proportional  force  of  colors,  or  of 
those  qualities  by  which  they  apparently  advance 
to,  or  recede  from,  the  eye,  and  of  their  various  de- 
grees of  transparency  or  opacity,  depends  en- 
tirely on  the  painter's  imagination,  who  should, 
if  master  of  this  branch  of  art,  dispose  his  objects 
to  receive  such  lights  and  shades  as  he  proposes 
for  his  picture,  and  introduce  such  accidental 
circumstances  of  light,  shade,  vivid  or  opaque 
colors,  as  he  reckons  most  advantageous  to  the 
whole.  Chiaro  not  only  signifies  the  lights  of  a 
picture,  but  also  those  colors  which,  even  in 
shade,  are  luminous ;  and  oscuro  not  only  the 
shades,  but  also  the  dusky  colors,  either  in  light 
or  shadow.  The  best  treatises  on  the  subject  are 
to  be  found  in  the  works  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds, 
the  lectures  of  Fuseli  and  Opie,  delivered  in  the 
Royal  Academy  of  London,  and  several  of  the 
works  referred  to  in  the  article  painting.  See 
PAINTING. 

CHIAYENNA,  a  county  of  Switzerland, 
which  was  under  the  government  of  the  Grisons, 
ti.l  1797,  when  it  was  formally  united  to  the 
Cisalpine  (afterwards  the  Italian)  republic,  in 
ctnsequence  of  the  decision  of  Buonaparte,  as 


arbiter  between  the  people  of  these  territories 
and  the  Grisons.  It  now  belongs  to  Austria.  It 
is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Rhetian  Alps,  to 
the  north  of  the  lake  of  Como ;  is  about  eight 
leagues  long  and  six  broad.  The  country  is  for 
the  most  part  fertile  in  wine  and  pastures,  and 
the  inhabitants  pay  considerable  attention  to  the 
production  of  silk.  Of  this  commodity,  it  is 
estimated  that  the  country  yields  3600  Ibs.  an- 
nually; and,  though  there  is  generally  a  defi- 
ciency of  corn  for  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants, 
they  are  supplied  by  their  neighbours  for  cattle, 
wine,  and  silk.  Also  a  lake  in  the  above  county, 
near  the  town. 

CHIAVENNA,  the  chief  town  of  the  above 
county,  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  and 
contains  about  3000  souls.  Its  chief  support  is 
the  transport  of  merchandise,  being  the  principal 
communication  between  the  Milanese  and  Ger- 
many. From  this  town  the  goods  are  sent  either 
by  Coire  into  Germany,  or  through  Pregalia  and 
the  Engadine  into  the  Tyrol.  Besides  which,  it 
is  a  place  of  very  little  trade;  the  chief  articles 
of  exportation  are  stone  pots,  called  lavezzi,  and 
raw  silk.  The  only  manufacture  carried  on  in 
the  town  is  that  of  silk  stockings.  The  neigh- 
bouring country  is  covered  with  vineyards  ;  but 
the  wine  is  a  meagre  sort,  and  only  a  small  quan- 
tity is  exported.  On  the  summit  of  a  rock, 
which  overlooks  the  town,  stands  the  ruins  of  a 
fortress,  celebrated  in  the  history  of  the  Grisons 
for  its  almost  impregnable  strength.  Chiavenna 
is  thirty-eight  miles  north  of  Como,  and  thirty- 
five  south  of  Coire. 

CHIAUSI,  among  the  Turks,  officers  employed 
in  executing  the  viziers,  bashaws,  and  other  great 
men  :  the  order  for  doing  this,  the  grand  seignior 
sends  them  wrapped  up  in  a  black  cloth,  on  the 
reception  of  which,  they  immediately  perform 
their  office. 

CHICA  NAYAKANA  HULLY,  a  large  de- 
cayed town  of ,  the  Mysore,  Hindostan,  famous 
for  its  manufacture  of  white  and  colored  coarse 
cotton  cloth.  A  weekly  fair  is  held  for  the  sale 
of  it  and  other  commodities.  The  town  was 
fortified  about  300  years  ago. 

CHICA'NE,  n.  s.  &  v.  n. ")      Fr.  chicane ;  from 

CHICA'NER,  n.  s.  >  Aucavog ;  Lat.  dica ; 

CHICA'NERY,  n.s.  j  legal     disputation, 

sophistry  ;  Arabic  dig  ;  Span,  and  Port,  chico  ; 
Fr.  chic.  A  trifling  petty  quibble.  Petty  trickery. 
The  act  of  petty  fogging.  Perverting  the  law  to 
selfish  and  roguish  purposes,  and  at  the  expense 
of  justice  and  the  public;  an  attorney's  besetting 
sin. 

Unwilling  then  in  arras  to  meet, 
He  strove  to  lengthen  the  campaign, 
And  save  his  forces  by  chicane.  Prior. 

The  general  part  of  the  civil  law  concerns  not  the 
chicane  of  private  cases,  but  the  affairs  and  intercourse 
of  civilized  nations,  grounded  upon  the  principles  of 
reason.  Locke. 

This  is  the  way  to  distinguish  the  two  most  different 
things  I  know,  a  logical  chicaner  from  a  man  of  reason. 

U. 

His  anger  caused  him  to  destroy  the  greatest  part 
of  these  reports  ;  and  only  to  preserve  such  as  u*.s- 
<overed  most  of  the  chicanery  and  futility  of  the  prac- 
tice. Arbutliitat. 

2  P  2 


cm 


580 


CHI 


CHICANJA,  or  CHACANGA,  a  kingdom  of 
Africa,  which  was  formerly  a  part  of  the  country 
of  Monomotapa ;  it  is  rich  in  gold  mines,  and  is 
sometimes  called  Manica,  from  the  principal 
town,  which  is  situated  on  the  river  Sofala,  in 
long.  28°  O'E.  Greenwich,  lat.  20°15'S.  The 
Portuguese  long  endeavoured  to  subdue  this  ter- 
ritory, but  were  obliged  finally  to  limit  themselves 
to  their -establishment  on  the  Zambeze,  where 
they  still  receive  the  precious  metals  in  exchange 
for  the  manufactures  of  Europe. 

CHICACOTTAH,  a  fortified  town  on  the 
south  frontier  of  Bootan,  frequently  taken  and 
relinquished  by  the  British  India  troops.  It  is 
now  in  our  possession.  It  is  ninety-four  miles 
south  of  Tassassudon. 

CHICAS  Y  TARIJA,  a  province  of  Peru, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Porco,  south  by  Tucu- 
man,  and  west  byLipes.  It  is  between  400  and 
500  miles  in  circumference,  and  produces  maize, 
potatoes,  and  European  grain.  There  are  also 
mines  of  gold  and  silver  here,  which  were  for- 
merly considered  rich.  The  district  of  Tarija 
annexed  to  this  is  full  of  craggy  mountains  and 
•glens,  which  are  extremely  fertile. 

CHICHELE  (Henry),  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, was  born  in  1362,  in  Northamptonshire,  at 
Higham  Ferrars.  He  received  his  education  at 
Winchester,  from  whence  he  proceeded  to  New 
College,  Oxford,  and  was  so  celebrated  in  the 
civil  and  canon  law,  that  Henry  IV.  appointed 
him  his  ambassador  co  the  pope,  and  to  the  court 
of  France.  In  1408  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  St.  David's,  and  sent  the  next  year  to  the 
council  of  Pisa.  In  1414  he  was  elected  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  in  which  situation  he  pro- 
moted a  contribution  to  enable  Henry  V.  to  carry 
on  the  war  with  France.  The  archbishop  was  a 
decided  opponent  of  Wickliffe,  and  he  as  strenu- 
ously opposed  the  papal  encroachments.  In 
1442  he  applied  to  pope  Eugenius  for  leave  to 
resign  his  see,  but  died  before  any  answer  could 
be  received,  April  12th,  1443,  and  was  interred  in 
Canterbury  Cathedral  under  a  monument  pre- 
pared by  himself.  He  founded,  in  1422,  a  col- 
legiate church  at  Higham  Ferrars,  to  which  he 
attached  an  hospital.  He  also  improved  the  ca- 
thedral of  Canterbury,  and  Lambeth  palace;  but 
his  most  munificent  work  was  the  foundation  of 
All  Souls  College,  Oxford  in  1437,  of  which  he 
completed  the  statutes  but  a  few  days  before  his 
death. 

CHICHES,  re.  s.     See  CHICKPEAS. 

CHICHESTER,  the  capital  of  the  county  of 
Sussex,  and  a  city  and  county  of  itself,  situated 
in  the  west  part  of  the  county,  on  the  small  river 
Lavant,  which  almost  encircles  it,  except  on  the 
•western  side.  Long,  0°  47*  W.,  lat.  50°  50'  N. 
It  consists  of  four  great  streets,  intersecting  one 
another  at  right  angles,  wide,  handsome,  and 
well  paved.  Of  the  ancient  walls  only  some 
small  portions  remain,  the  largest  on  the  north, 
and  the  fortified  gateways  which  formerly  ter- 
minated the  principal  streets  are  destroyed. 
These  walls  embraced  an  area  of  about  101 
acres,  enclosing  six  parishes,  but  without  them 
are  two  other  parishes,  •  the  whole  containing  a 
population,  according  to  the  latest  surveys,  of 
8360  inhabitants,  in  the  proportion  of  about 


fourteen  females  to  eleven  males.  Its  principal 
buildings  consist  of  the  cathedral,  an  elegant 
Gothic  structure  with  a  spire  300  feet  high,  the 
parish  churches,  an  ancient  nunnery,  now  an 
hospital,  endowed  with  some  valuable  estates, 
a  beautiful  octagonal  cross,  the  guildhall,  in  an 
obscure  part  of  the  city,  the  council-chamber, 
above  the  market-place,  next  to  which  is  a 
subscription  assembly-room,  the  theatre,  and 
bishop's  palace,  besides  several  dissenting  meet- 
ing-houses, and  endowed  free-schools.  Here  also 
is  a  national-school,  allowed  to  be  the  most  com- 
plete in  England.  The  cathedral  has  a  bishop, 
dean,  two  archdeacons,  a  treasurer,  a  chancel- 
lor, thirty-two  prebendaries,  a  chanter,  twelve 
vicars  choral,  &c.,  and  the  diocese  includes  the 
whole  county,  except  twenty-two  parishes.  The 
site  of  this  city  was  evidently  a  Roman  station, 
as  appears  from  remains  found  in  1727,  pro- 
bably the  foundations  of  a  temple,  and  the  traces 
of  a  camp  in  the  neighborhood.  After  suffering 
various  dilapidations,  it  was  rebuilt  by  Cissa,  the 
second  king  of  the  south  Saxons,  from  whom  it 
was  called  Cisa-caester,  signifying  the  city  of 
Cissa.  It  was  subsequently  given  by  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror,  together  with  Arundel  and 
the  lands  adjoining  both  places,  to  Hugh  de 
Montgomery.  The  trade  of  Chichester  is  small, 
its  distance  from  the  quay  being  unfavorable  to 
it,  and  the  river  not  being  navigable  to  the  city. 
About  two  hundred  years  ago  it  nearly  mono- 
polised the  trade  of  needle-making,  but  this  is 
now  at  an  end,  being  superseded  by  cheaper 
articles,  though  inferior  in  quality,  from  other 
parts.  About  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury it  was  famous  for  malt,  but  this  trade  has 
long  "been  on  the  decline.  It  has  two  markets 
in  the  week,  Wednesday  and  Saturday,  and  is 
well  supplied  with  all  kinds  of  provision ;  fish 
is  plentiful,  particularly  oysters,  lobsters,  and 
mullets.  Near  the  fish  shambles,  over  a  neat 
conduit  of  water,  stands  a  fine  figure  of  a  Druid, 
Its  cattle  market  is  constantly  resorted  to  by  the 
butchers  from  Portsmouth,  and  frequently  by 
those  from  London.  This  city  sends  two  mem- 
bers to  parliament,  the  right  of  election  being 
vested  in  those  that  pay  scot  and  lot,  and  the 
mayor  is  the  returning  officer.  It  is  governed 
by  the  mayor,  recorder,  aldermen,  and  common 
council ;  and  tour  justices  of  the  peace  are  chosen 
from  the  aldermen.  It  now  possesses  a  literary 
and  scientific  institution. 

CHI'CHLING  VETCH,  n.  s.  Lat.  lathyrus. 
In  Germany  they  are  cultivated  and  eaten  as 
peas,  though  neither  so  tender  nor  well  tasted. — • 
Miller. 

CHICK,  n.  s.    >      Sax.  cicen;  Dutch  kiecken. 

CHI'CKEN,  n.  s.  5  Chicken  is,  I  believe,  the  old 

plural  of  chick,  though  now  used  as  a  singular 

noun.   The  young  of  a  bird,  particularly  of  a  hen, 

or  small  bird. 

Her  here  was  as  yelowe  of  hewe 
As  any  basin  scoured  newe  ; 
Her  flesh  tender  as  is  a  chike, 
With  bent  browes  both  smothe  and  sl1ke. 

Chaucer 

At  last  him  turning  to  his  charge  benight, 
With  trembling  hand  his  troubled  pulse  gan  try  ; 
Where  finding  life  not  yet  dislodged  quight, 


CHI 


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He  much  reioyst,  and  courd  it  tenderly. 

As  chicken  newly  hatcht,  from  dreaded  destiny. 

Spenser. 

All  my  pretty  ones ! 

What,  all  my  pretty  chickens,  and  their  dam, 
At  one  fell  swoop  !  Shahspeare. 

On  rainy  days  alone  I  dine, 
Upon  a  chick  and  pint  of  wine  : 
On  rainy  days  I  dine  alone, 
And  pick  my  chicken  to  the  hone.         Swift. 
Till  you  grow  tender  as  a  chick 
I'm  dull  as  any  post; 

Let  us  like  burs  together  stick, 
And  warm  as  any  toast.  Gay, 

A  word  of  tenderness. 

My  Ariel,  chick, 

This  is  thy  charge.  Shakspeare. 

A  term  for  a  young  girl. 

Then,  Chloe,  still  go  on  to  prate 
Of  thirty-six  and  thirty-eight; 
Pursue  your  trade  of  scandal-picking, 
Your  hints,  that  Stella  is  no  chicken.  Swift. 

CHICKASAWS,  a  nation  of  American  In- 
dians, who  inhabit  the  country  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, in  the  north-west  corner  of  Georgia. 
Their  country  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
Mississippi,  on  the  east  by  the  river  Tombeck- 
bee,  on  the  north  by  Kentucky,  and  on  the  south 
by  the  Chacktaw  Indians.  The  soil  is  rich,  and 
well  cultivated. 

CHI'CKENHEARTED,  adj.     From  chicken 
and  heart.     Cowardly  ;  timorous  ;  fearful. 
Now  we  set  up  for  tilting  in  the  pit, 

Where  'tis  agreed  by  bullies,  chickentiearted, 

To  fright  the  ladies  first,  and  then  be  parted. 

Prologue  to  Spanish  Fryar. 

CHI'CKENPOX,  n.  s.  An  exanthematous 
distemper,  so  called,  from  its  being  of  no  very 
great  danger. 

CHI'CKLING,  n.  s.  From  chick.  A  small 
chicken. 

CHI'CKPEAS,  n.  s.  From  chick  and  pea. 
A  kind  of  degenerate  pea. — Miller. 

CHI'CKWEED,  n.s.  From  chick  and  weed. 
The  name  of  a  plant. 

Green  mint,  or  chichweed,  are  of  good  use  in  all  the 
hard  swellings  of  the  breast,  occasioned  by  milk. 

Wiseman. 

CHICUITOS,  or  CUYO.    See  CUYO. 
CHIDE,u.a.&«.  ^      Preter.  chid  or  chode, 
CHI'DER,  n.  s.        }  part,  chid  or  chidden.  Sax. 
ci'toan;  Goth,  kuida.     To  reprove,  blame,  scold; 
applied  to  persons  and  things. 

If  one  be  ful  of  wantonesse, 
Another  is  a  chiderese. 

Chaucer's  Romaunt  of  the  Rose. 
And  fly  like  chidden  Mercury  from  Jove. 

Shukspeare. 

Those,  that  do  teach  your  babes, 
Do  it  with  gentle  means,  and  easy  tasks  ; 
He  might  have  chid  me  so  :  for,  in  good  faith, 
I  am  a  child  to  chiding.  Id 

The  business  of  the  state  does  him  offence, 
And  he  does  chide  with  you.  Id. 

My  duty 

As  doth  a  rock  against  the  chiding  flood, 
Should  the  approach  of  this  wild  river  break, 
And  stand  unshaken  yours.  Id. 


Not  her  that  chides   Sir,  at  any  hand,  I  pray.— 
I  love  no  chiders,  Sir.  /& 

Scylla  wept 
And  chid  her  barking  waves  into  attention. 

Milton. 

Winds  murmured  through  the  leaves  your  long  de- 
lay, 
And  fountains,  o'er  the  pebbles,  chid  your  stay. 

Dryden. 

I  chid  the  folly  of  my  thoughtless  haste  ; 
For,  the  work  perfected,  the  joy  was  past.      Prior. 

You  look,  as  if  yon  stern  philosopher 
Had  just  now  chid  you.  Addison. 

If  any  woman  of  better  fashion  in  the  parish  hap- 
pened to  be  absent  from  church,  they  were  sure  of  a 
visit  from  him,  to  chide  and  to  dine  with  her.  Swift. 

The  priest,  who  female  frailties  pityed, 
First  chid  her,  then  her  sins  remitted.  Gay. 

CHIEF,  n.  s.&adj.y  Fr.  chef;  Ital.  capo, 
CHI'EFLESS,  adj.  >from  Lat.  caput,  the 
CHI'EFLY,  adj.  j  head.  It  is  applied  to 
persons,  to  qualities,  to  things ;  to  that  which  is 
principal  in  value,  station,  or  importance;  to 
that  which  is  first  in  order  of  time.  As  chiefdom 
it  was  formerly  applied  to  sovereignty.  It  is  a 
civil,  a  military,  a  technical,  and  a  general  term; 
always  marking  out  and  distinguishing  what  is 
pre-eminent.  It  is  likewise  always  used  relatively. 
The  adjective  is  a  superlative  in  itself,  yet  some- 
times it  has  '  most'  before  it,  as  in  the  liturgy, 
'  Yet  ought  we  most  chiefly  so  to  do,'  &c. ;  and 
chiefest  is  occasionally  to  be  met  with.  Chief  is 
first  in  time,  first  in  place,  and  first  in  kind. 

These  were  the  chief  of  the  officers  that  were  over 

Solomon's  works.  1  Kings. 

The  hand  of  the  princes  and  rulers  hath  been  chief 

in  this  trespass.  Ezra. 

A  froward  man  soweth  strife,  and  a  whisperer  sepa- 

ratath  chief  friends.  Proverbs, 

Ah,  gentle  knight !  then  false  Duessa  sayd, 
Why  do  ye  strive  for  ladies  love  so  sore, 
Whose  chiefs  desire  is  love  and  friendly  aid 
Mongst  gentle  knights  to  nourish  evermore.     Spenser. 
Zephyrus  being  in  love  with  Chloris,  and  coveting 
her  to  wife,  gave  her  for  a  dowry  the  chiefdom  and, 
sovereignty  of  all  flowers  and  green  herbs. 

Id.   Kal.  Gkss^ 

We  beseech  you,  bend  you  to  remain 
Here  in  the  cheer  and  comfort  of  our  eye, 
Our  chiefest  courtier,  cousin,  and  our  son. 

Shakspeare.. 

He  sometimes  denied  admission  to  the  chiefest  offi- 
cers of  the  army.  Clarendon. 

Is  pain  to  them 

Less  pain,  less  to  be  fled  ?  or  thou  than  they 
Less  hardy  to  endure  ?  courageous  chief! 
The  first  in  flight  from  pain. 

Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 
A  sect  whose  chief  devotion  lies 
In  odd  perverse  antipathies.  Hudibras. 

After  or  before  were  never  known 
Such  chiefs;  as  each  an  army  seemed  alone. 

Dry  den  ^ 

Any  man  who  will  consider  the  nature  of  an  epic 
poem,  what  actions  it  describes,  and  what  persons  they 
are  chiefly  whom  it  informs,  will  find  it  a  work  full  of 
difficulty.  Id. 

I  came  to  have  a  good  general  view  of  the  apostle's 
main  purpose  in  writing  the  epistle,  and  the  chief 
branches  of  his  discourse  wherein  lie  prosecuted  it. 

Loch*. 


CHI 


582 


CHI 


But  all  its  chief  delight  was  still 
On  roses  thus  itself  to  fill, 
And  its  pure  virgin  limbs  to  fold 
In  whitest  sheets  of  lilies  cold.  Marvel. 

A  wit  's  a  feather,  and  a  chief  a  rod  ; 
An  honest  man  's  the  noblest  work  of  God. 

Pope. 

And  chiejtess  armies  dozed  out  the  campaign, 
And  navies  yawned  for  orders  on  the  main.  Id. 

Your  country,  chief  in  arms,  abroad  defend  ; 
At  home,  with  morals,  arts,  and  laws  amend.         Id, 

If  the  blind  poet  gained  a  long  renown 
By  singing  every  Grecian  cA«e/"and  town, 
Sure  Lownds'  his  prose,  much  greater  fame  requires, 
Which   sweetly   counts   five    thousand   knights    and 

squires, 
Their  seats,  their  cities,  parishes,  and  shires.       Gay. 

The  grave  shall  bear  the  chiefest  prize  away, 
And  havoc  scarce,  for  joy,  can  number  their  array. 

Byron. 

CHIEF,  in  heraldry,  is  that  which  takes  up  all 
the  upper  part  of  the  escutcheon  from  side  to 
side,  and  represents  a  man's  head.  In  chief,  im- 
ports something  borne  in  the  chief  part  or  top  of 
the  escutcheon. 

CHI'EFRIE,  n.  s.  From  chief.  A  small 
rent  paid  to  the  lord  paramount. 

They  shall  be  well  able  to  live  upon  those  lands, 
to  yield  her  majesty  reasonable  chiefrie,  and  also  give 
a  competent  maintenance  unto  the  garrisons. 

Spenser's  Ireland. 

Would  the  reserved  rent  at  this  day  be  any  more 
than  a  small  chiefrie  ?  Swift. 

CHI'EFTAIN,  n.  s.  From  chief.  Used  by 
Chaucer  in  the  same  sense ;  but  now  applied  al- 
most exclusively  to  a  military  commander  or  the 
head  of  a  clan. 

Now  it  is  behovely  to  tellen  which  ben  dedly 
sinues,  that  is  to  say  chieftaines  of  sinnes,  *  * 
*******  Now  ben  they 
clcped  chieftaines,  for  as  moche  as  they  be  chiefe,  and 
cf  hem  springen  all  other  sinnes. 

Chaucer's  Persones  Tale. 

That  forced  their  chieftain,  for  his  safety's  sake, 
(Their  chieftain  Humber  named  was  aright) 
Unto  the  mighty  stream  him  to  betake, 
Where  he  an  end  of  battle  and  of  life  did  make. 

Faerie  Queene. 

It  broke,  and  absolutely  subdued  all  the  lords  and 
chieftains  of  the  Irishry.  Davies  on  Ireland. 

CHIELEFA,  a  strong  fortress  of  Turkey  in 
Europe,  in  the  Morea.  It  was  taken  by  the  Ve- 
netians in  1685  ;  the  Turks  afterwards  retook  it, 
with  all  the  Morea.  It  is  twelve  miles  west  of 
Kolokithia. 

CHI  EM,  or  CHIEMSEE,  an  extensive  lake  of 
^eimany,  in  Bavaria,,  sometimes  called  Baye- 
rische  Meer,  or  the  sea  of  Bavaria.  It  con- 
tains several  islands,  particularly  Herrenwerd 
and  Frawenwerd,  the  former  of  which  is  a 
oishop's  see,  and  is  situated  twenty-two  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Saltzburg.  It  is  about  thirty  miles 
in  circuit. 

CHIERI,  an  ancient  fortified  town  of  Italy,  in 
Piedmont,  seated  on  the  declivity  of  a  bill,  in  a 
pleasant  country,  bounded  on  all  sides  by  hills 
covered  with  vines.  It  has.  manufactures  of 
cloth  and  silk ;  and  is  surrounded  by  an  ancient 
wall,  defended  by  towers,  with  a  fosse ;  and  had 
formerly  a  fortress  named  Rochetta,  which  was 


demolished  in  the  sixteenth  century.  It  has 
six  gates  and  four  grand  squares  or  palaces,  many 
churches  and  religious  houses,  though  only  two 
parishes  within  the  walls,  and  one  without. 
Near  it  the  French  defeated  the  Spaniards  in 
1639.  It  is  eight  miles  east  of  Turin. 

CHIETI,  a  large  town  of  Naples,  the  capital 
of  Abruzzo  Citerior,  with  an  archbishop's  see. 
It  is  seated  on  a  mountain,  near  the  river  Pes- 
cara,  eight  miles  south-west  of  the  town  of  Pes- 
cara,  and  contains  12,000  inhabitants. 

CHIE'VANCE,  n.  s.  Probably  from  Fr. 
achevance,  purchase.  Traffick,  in  which  money 
is  extorted ;  as  discount.  Now  obsolete. 

There  were  good  laws  against  usury,  the  bastard 
use  of  money ;  and  against  unlawful  chievances  and 
exchanges,  which  is  bastard  usury.  Bacon. 

CHIGI  (Fabius,  pope).  SeeALEXANDERVIII. 

CHIHUAHUA,  an  important  town  of  Mexico, 
in  the  intendancy  of  Durango,  situated  on  the 
east  side  of  a  small  stream,  which  discharges  it- 
self into  the  Conchos.  It  is  environed  by  silver 
mines.  The  public  square  contains  the  royal 
treasury,  the  church,  and  the  town-house :  the 
principal  church  is  a  noble  building.  A  mile 
south  of  the  town  is  an  aqueduct,  which  con- 
veys the  water  round  into  the  main  stream  be- 
low the  town  east,  at  the  entrance  of  which  is  a 
reservoir,  whence  it  is  conducted  by  pipes 
to  different  parts  of  the  city.  It  is  estimated  to 
contain  11,600  inhabitants.  It  is  180  miles 
north-west  of  Mexico. 

CHIKANGA.     See  CHICANGA. 

CHI'LBLAIN,  n.  s.  From  chill,  cold,  and 
blain;  so  that  Temple  seems  mistaken  in  his 
etymology,  or  has  written  it  wrong  to  serve  a 
purpose.  Sores  made  by  frost. 

I  remembered  the  cure  of  childblaint  when  I  was  a 
ooy  (which  may  be  called  the  children's  gout),  by 
burning  at  the  fire.  Temple. 

CHILBLAIN,  in  medicine,  a  tumor  affecting 
the  feet  and  hands ;  accompanied  with  an  inflam- 
mation, pains,  and  sometimes  an  ulcer  or  solu- 
tion of  continuity ;  in  which  case  it  takes  the 
denomination  of  chaps.  Chap  resembles  gape, 
both  in  sound  and  appearance.  Chilblains  are 
occasioned  by  excessive  cold  stopping  the  motion 
of  the  blood  in  the  capillary  arteries.  See 
PERNIO. 


CHILD,  n.  s.  &  v.  n.     ~] 

CHl'LD-BEARING,/jar£.  S. 

CHI'LD-BED,  n.  s. 
CHI'LD-BIRTH,  n.  s. 
CHI'LDED,  adj. 
CHI'LDHOOD,  n.  s. 
CHI'LDISH,  adj. 
CHI'LDISHLY,  ode. 
CHI'LDISHNESS,  n.  s. 
CHILDLESS,  adj. 
CHI'LD-LIKE,  adj. 


Goth,  kyld,  kulld, 
from  eld,  a  foetus ; 
Sax.  cild;  Goth. 
kylla,  to  beget ; 
Scot,  chid ;  Span. 
chula,  a  youth. 
Child  is  the  human 
offspring  in  a  state 
of  infancy.  Child- 
hood ceases  with 
J  youth ;  the  age  of 


youth  ceases  when  that  of  manhood  begins. 
Child  is  of  either  sex,  though  Shakspeare  uses  it 
as  characteristic  of  the  female.  The  compounds, 
childish,  childishly,  and  childishness,  are  obvious ; 
and,  when  applied  to  their  seniors,  are  expressive 
of  trifling  conduct,  or  weak  understanding. 
Childhood  is  the  infant  state  of  existence.  A 
pregnant  woman  is  with  child.  A  mother  is  said 


CHI 


583 


CHI 


to  bear  a  child  when  she  brings  it  into  the  world. 
It  is  then  born,  and  hence  the  participle  child- 
bearing  as  well  as  birth,  or  childbirth,  the  name 
of  the  act.  To  child  was  formerly  used  for  to 
bring  forth  children.  Childless  is  having  no 
child.  The  compounds,  child-bed,  and  child- 
bed-linen, require  no  explanation.  In  former 
times  the  cognomen  childe  was  prefixed  to  the 
family  name  by  the  eldest  son;  and  the  appella- 
tion was  continued  until  he  succeeded  to  the 
title  of  his  ancestors,  or  gained  new  honors  by 
his  prowess.  It  is  hence  that  such  names  as 
childe  Horn,  childe  Maurice,  See.  are  found  in 
old  romances. 

The  plural,  'children,'  is  applied  to  all  the 
descendants  of  a  particular  man,  or  founder  of  a 
family,  how  remote  soever  their  generations  from 
the  original  stock ;  as  the  children  of  Edom,  and 
the  children  of  Israel.  It  is  also  used  metaphori- 
cally to  describe  some  generic  good  or  evil 
quality  that  applies  to  any  class  or  division  of 
mankind ;  as  children  of  light,  and  children  of 
darkness.  The  metaphorical  applications  speak 
for  themselves. 

A  I  have  said  thurghout  the  Jewerie 
This  litel  child  as  he  came  to  and  fro, 
Pul  merrily  than,  wold  he  sing  and  cry 
O  Alma  Redemptoris  evermo.  Cluiucer. 

A  litle  scole  of  Cristen  folk  ther  stood 
Down  at  the  ferther  end,  in  which  ther  were 
Children  an  hepe,  comen  of  Cristen  blood, 
That  lerned  in  that  scole  yere  by  yere 
Swich  manere  doctrine  as  men  used  there  j 
This  is  to  say,  to  singen  and  to  rede, 
As  smale  children  don  in  hir  childehede.  Idf 

Therein  three  sisters  dwelt  of  sundry  sort, 
The  children  of  one  syre  by  mothers  three, 
Who  dying  whylome,  did  divide  this 'fort 
To  them  by  equall  shares  in  equall  fee.        Spenser. 
The  lion's  whelps  she  saw  how  he  did  bear, 
And  lull  in  rugged  arms  withouten  childish  fear.     Id. 
The  sons  of  lords   and  gentlemen  should  be  trained 
up  in  learning  from  their  childhoods.        Id.  on  Ireland. 

If  it  must  stand  still,  let  wives  with  child 
Pray  that  their  burthen  may  not  fall  this  day, 
Lest  that  their  hopes  prodigiously  be  crost. 

Shakspeare. 

"Vow  I  have  stained  the  childhood  of  our  joy 
With  blood,  removed  but  little  from  our  own.      Id. 
Mercy  on  's !  a  bearne,  a  very  pretty  bearne  ! 
A  boy,  or  child,  I  wonder  1  Id. 

How  light  and  portable  my  pain  seems  now, 
When  that  which  makes  me  bend,  makes  the  king 

bow; 

He  childed  as  I  fathered.  Id. 

The  funerals  of  prince  Arthur,  and  of  queen  Eliza- 
beth who  died  in  childbed  in  the  tower.  Bacon. 
Learning  hath  its  infancy,  when  it  is  hut  beginning 
and  almost  childish  ;  then  its  youth,  when  it  is  luxuriant 
and  juvenile.                                                     Id.  Essays. 

To  thee 

Pains  only  in  childbearing  were  foretold, 
And,  bringing  forth,  soon  recompensed  with  joy, 
Fruit  of  thy  womb.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

Childless  thou  art,  childless  remain :  so  death 
Shall  be  deceived  his  glut.  Id. 

When  I  was  yet  a  child,  no  childish  play 
To  me  was  pleasing ;  all  my  mind  was  set 
Serious  to  learn  and  know.  Paradise  Regained. 


As  to  childinrj  women,  young  vigorous  people,  after  ir- 
regularities of  diet,  in  such  it  begins  with  haemorrhages. 

Arbu'.hnoi. 

Women  in  childbed  are  in  the  case  of  persons 
wounded.  Id.  on  Diet. 

The  actions  of  childishness,  and  unfashionable  car- 
riage, time  and  age  will  of  itself  be  sure  to  reform. 

Locke 

Nothing  in  the  world  could  give  a  truer  idea  of  the 
superstition,  credulity,  and  childishness  of  the  Roman 
catholick  religion.  Addition  on  Italy. 

She  can  give  the  reason  why  one  died  childless. 

Spectator. 

Let  no  one  be  actually  married,  till  she  hath  the 
childbed  pillows.  Id. 

Who  can  owe  no  less  than  childlike  obedience  to> 
her  that  hath  more  than  motherly  care.  Hooker. 

Together  with  his  fame  their  infamy  was  spread, 
who  had  so  rashly  and  childishly  ejected  him.          Id. 
Some  men  are  of  excellent  judgment  in  their  own 
professions,  hut  childishly  unskilful  in  any  thing  be- 
sides. Hayward. 

He  to  his  wife,  before  the  time  assigned 
For  childbirth  came,  thus  bluntly  spoke  his  mind. 

Dry  den. 

It  was  for  a  long  time  imagined  by  the  Romans, 
that  no  son  could  be  the  murderer  of  his  own  father  ; 
and  they  had  therefore  no  punishment  appropriated  to- 
parricide.  They  seem,  likewise,  to  have  believed  with 
equal  confidence  that  no  father  could  be  cruel  to  his 
child,  and  therefore  they  allowed  every  man  the  su- 
preme judicature  in  his  own  house,  and  put  the  lives 
of  his  offspring  into  his  hands.  Johnson's  Rambler. 

Fret  not  thyself  thou  glittering  child  of  pride 
That  a  poor  villager  inspires  my  strain, 

With  thee  let  pageantry  and  power  abide, 
The  gentle  muses  haunt  the  sylvan  reign.         Beattie. 

Waste  youth  in  occupations  only  fit 
For  second  childhood,  and  devote  old  age 
To  sports,  which  only  childhood  could  excuse. 

Cotoper. 

'Tisthe  clime  of  the  east — 'tis  the  land  of  the  sun — 
Can  he  smile  on  such  deeds  as  her  children  have  done  ? 
Oh  !  wild  as  the  accents  of  lovers'  farewell, 
Are  the  hearts  which  they  bear,  and  the  tales  which 
they  tell.  Byron. 

Yet  a  fine  family  is  a  fine  thing 
(Provided  they  don't  come  in  after  dinner) ; 
'Tis  beautiful  to  see  a  matron  bring 
Her  children  up,  if  nursing  them  don't  thin  her.      Id. 

Her  graceful  arms  in  meekness  bending 
Across  her  gently-budding  breast — 
At  one  kind  word  those  arms  extending 
To  clasp  the  neck  of  him  who  blest 
His  child,  caressing  and  carest, 
Zeleika  came — and  Giaffar  felt 
His  purpose  half  within  him  melt. 

Id.  Bride  of  A  bydos. 

CHI'LDERMAS  DAY.  From  child  and  mass. 
The  day  of  the  week,  throughout  the  year,  an- 
swering to  the  day  on  which  the  feast  of  the 
Holy  Innocents  is  solemnised,  which  weak  and 
superstitious  persons  think  an  unlucky  day. 

To  talk  of  hares,  or  such  uncouth  things,  proves  as 
ominous  to  the  fisherman,  as  the  beginning  of  a  voy- 
age on  the  day  when  childermas  day  fell,  doth  to  the 
mariner.  Carew. 

CHILDERMAS-DAY,  or  Innocents'-day,  is  an 
anniversary  held,  by  the  churches  of  England 
and  Rome  on  the  28th  of  December,  in  comme- 
moration of  the  children  of  Bethlehem  massacred 
by  order  of  Herod. 


584 


CHILI. 


CHID-WIT,  a  power  to  take  a  fine  of  a  bond- 
woman unlawfully  gotten  with  child,  that  is, 
without  consent  of  her  lord.  Every  reputed  fa- 
ther of  a  base  child  got  within  the  manor  of 
Writtel  in  Essex,  pays  to  the  lord  a  fine  of  three 
shillings  and  four  pence,  where  child-wit  extends 
to  free  as  well  as  bond  women. 
CHILE.  See  CHYLE. 

CHILI,  a  large  country  on  the  western  side  of 
South  America,  running  along  the  coast  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  between  the  twenty-fourth  and 
forty-fourth  parallels  of  south  latitude  and  be- 
tween 68°  50"  and  74°  20'  W.  longitude  from 
Greenwich.  The  reader  will  find  an  account  of 
all  its  most  interesting  geographical  and  political 
features  in  our  article  AMERICA,  SOUTH.  We 
subjoin  only  what  the  unusual  attention,  excited 
by  the  rising  republics  of  South  America,  may 
render  important,  by  way  of  addition. 

Chili  is  for"  the  most  part  a  country  of  valleys, 
chiefly  on  the  west  of  the  Andes,  from  which 
high  ridges  run  out  to  a  considerable  extent 
towards  the  sea,  enclosing  gentle  eminences  and 
delightful  vales.  The  great  ridge  generally  rises 
abruptly  with  many  frightful  precipices.  The 
grand  chain  of  the  Andes,  or  Cordilleras,  forming 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  country,  is  continued 
in  an  unbroken  line  through  the  whole  length  of 
the  Continent,  from  Darien  on.the  north,  nearly 
to  the  straits  of  Magellan  southward.  These 
mountains  are  impassable,  except  at  particular 
points,  and  of  these  passes  there  are  four  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Chili ;  that  of  the  Palos,  opposite 
to  the  town  of  San  Juan,  now  fallen  into  disorder, 
and  very  steep  ;  that  of  Uspallata,  near  Mendoza, 
called  the  Grand  Pass;  that  of  Cortillo,  nearly 
100  miles  south  of  the  former,  where  there  are 
two  chains  of  the  Cordilleras,  and  that  of  El 
Planchon,  opposite  Conoeption,  said  to  be  pas- 
sable with  ease  by  carriages.  These  mountains, 
though  not  the  highest  in  the  whole  chain,  those 
being  situated  nearer  to  the  equatorial  parts,  are 
yet  of  prodigious  elevation.  Mr.  Caldcleugh 
says,  that  an  hour  and  a  half  before  he  reached 
the  highest  point,  every  trace  of  vegetation  disap- 
peared except  one,  a  new  species  of  fragosa,  and 
that  this  was  soon  left  behind ;  when  at  last  they 
arrived  at  the  Pass,  which  he  computes  was  at 
least  12,800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  still 
they  had  but  reached  the  edge  of  the  lower  limit 
of  perpetual  snow;  nothing  else  was  to  be  seen 
above  them  but  the  white  peaks  towering  still  to 
an  amazing  height.  From  this  situation  they 
computed  that  the  prospect  to  the  east  (for  in 
every  other  direction  it  was  intercepted  by  lofty 
chains)  reached  to  a  distance  of  not  less  than 
eighty  leagues.  The  color  of  the  sky  was  an  in- 
tense blue.  (Caldcleugh's  Travels  in  South  Ame- 
rica). The  parallel  ridges  of  hills,  which  run  out 
towards  the  sea,  are  of  considerably  less  elevation 
and  have  passes  through  them,  by  which  the  in- 
habitants of  the  enclosed  valleys  have  a  free  com- 
munication one  with  another. 

Many  of  these  mountains  are  volcanic,  and 
several  bear  decided  marks  of  having  been  so, 
though  no  eruption  has  taken  place  from  them 
within  the  memory  of  man.  .The  fourteen  men- 
tioned in  our  previous  article  as  in  a  constant 
stale  of  eruption,  being  encompassed  by  other 
eminences,  their  destructive  effects  never  reach 


the  plains ;  two  only  are  found  beyond  the  dia 
trict  of  the  Chilian  range  of  the  Andes,  the  chief 
of  which  is  the  great  volcano  of  Villarica,  near 
the  lake  of  that  name;  in  the  midst  of  perpetual 
snows  it  is  constantly  sending  out  its  ashes  and 
fiery  streams,  and  is  visible  at  the  distance  of  1 50 
miles.  A  slight  horizontal  motion  of  the  earth  is 
the  only  indication  of  earthquakes  that  has  been 
experienced  since  1782,  out  the  inhabitants 
have  in  general  constructed  their  houses  and 
cities  with  a  view  to  a  quick  escape  from  more 
serious  convulsions. 

Very  few  countries  in  the  world  are  so  abun- 
dant in  rivers  as  Chili ;  an  almost  incredible  num- 
ber of  streams,  of  greater  or  less  magnitude,  roll 
down  from  the  Andes, where  they  have  their  source. 
They  are  said  to  be  not  less  than  123;  fifty-three 
of  them  communicating  with  the  ocean,  and 
carrying  with  them  the  waters  of  all  the  others. 
We  have  already  enumerated  the  most  remarkable. 
The  Laquen  or  Villarica,  more  than  seventy 
miles,  and  the  Nahuelgapi,eighty  miles  in  circum- 
ference, are  the  most  remarkable  lakes  in  the 
country.  The  waters  of  these  are  fresh;  but 
there  are  many  others,  some  in  the  Spanish  marsh, 
the  waters  of  which  are  salt,  the  largest  from 
twelve  to  twenty  miles  long.  The  principal 
islands  belonging  to  Chili  are,  CHILOE  and  a 
cluster  surrounding  it  forty-seven  in  number 
which  see. 

Gold  is  so  abundant  in  Chili  that,  in  some  parts, 
there  is  hardly  a  mountain  which  does  not  con- 
tain it ;  it  is  found  also  in  the  sands  washed  down 
by  the  mountain  torrents.  In  the  south  there 
were  some  productive  mines,  but  since  the  Spa- 
niards have  been  expelled,  these  are  not  allowed 
to  be  worked.  It  is  found  in  almost  every  kind 
of  stone  or  earth,  but  most  frequently  in  a  brittle 
red  clay-stone,  and  in  small  particles  and  bright 
spangles  of  singular  forms,  that  may  be  separated 
with  a  chisel.  Sometimes  the  pick-axe  is  used  in 
working  the  mines,  and  sometimes  the  aid  of 
gunpowder  is  called  in,  as  circumstances  may  re- 
quire. The  poorer  classes  only  wash  the  sands. 
The  quantity  annually  found  is  said  to  amount  to 
four  millions  of  dollars. 

The  richest  silver  mines  are  in  the  provinces  of 
St.  Jago,  Acoucagua,  Coquimbo,  and  Copiaco. 
It  is  sometimes  found  pure,  and  frequently  mixed 
with  various  ores,  with  sulphur  and  arsenic. 
The  mine  of  Uspallata  produces  the  greatest 
quantity.  Copper  is  found  in  all  parts,  but  the 
richest  mines  are  between  the  twenty-fourth  and 
thirty-sixth  degree  of  latitude.  Between  Co- 
quimbo and  Copiapo  there  are  as  many  as  one- 
thousand,  but  those  only  that  yield  half  the 
weight  in  refined  copper.  The  lead  is  of  good 
quality,  and  is  not  only  found  mixed  with  a  por- 
tion of  silver  and  gold,  but  it  is  obtained  in  all 
the  silver  mines.  Of  all  the  semimetals,  which 
are  abundant  in  Chili,  none  are  worked  except 
quicksilver;  of  this  there  are  rich  mines  in  the 
before-mentioned  provinces;  but  the  sale  of  it 
was  a  royal  monopoly ;  while  this  country  was 
dependent  on  Spain,  the  digging  of  it  was  prohi- 
bited ;  these  restrictions,  however,  will  probably 
be  now  removed.  A  great  variety  of  earths, 
clays,  bituminous  substances  and  salts  are  pro- 
duced: one  sort  of  clay  is  very  fine  and  light  and 
of  agreeable  smell,  of  which  in  some  places  the 


CHILI. 


585 


monks  make  jars,  bottles,  &c.  and  paint  them 
beautifully.  There  is  a  kind  of  lime  or  gra\elly 
chalk,  which  the  inhabitants  use  in  white-washing 
their  houses;  there  are  also  the  mountain  green 
and  blue  native  ceruse,  lapis  calaminaris,  and 
ochres  of  different  colors.  The  membranaceous 
mica,  or  Muscovy  glass,  is  found  here  in  most 
transparent  and  very  large  sized  plates ;  with  this 
the  people  not  only  glaze  their  houses,  but  make 
of  it  artificial  flowers.  There  are  likewise  different 
kinds  of  sand,  black  mixed  copiously  with  parti- 
cles of  iron,  another  sort  of  a  fine  blue  and  a  ce- 
ment sand  near  Talca  finer  than  that  of  Italy,  and 
apparently  of  volcanic  origin.  Chili  has  exten- 
sive quarries  of  freestone,  flint,  rock  crystal,  and 
plain  and  variegated  marbles;  and  an  almost  in- 
finite number  of  spars,  the  most  beautiful  of 
which  is  one  of  an  hexagonal  form,  and  perfectly 
transparent.  The  mountains  contain  precious 
stones  as  agate,  and  jasper,  and  the  rivers  wash 
down  small  rubies  and  sapphires,  evidently  show- 
ing that  the  higher  parts  of  the  country  produce 
others  of  greater  size  and  value.  Blocks  of  rock 
crystal  are  obtained  in  the  Cordilleras,  large 
enough  for  columns  seven  feet  high.  A  little  hill 
near  Talca  is  said  to  consist  almost  entirely  of 
amethysts,  and  it  is  supposed  that  Copiapo  owes 
its  name  to  the  vast  number  of  turquoises  found 
near  it. 

Chili  enjoys  a  rich  soil,  and  a  vigorous  and 
abundant  vegetation;  beautiful  evergreens  cover 
the  plains,  valleys  and  sides  of  the  mountains ; 
every  season  produces  vegetables  suited  to  the 
climate,  and  plants  are  found  common  both  to 
this  country  and  to  Europe.  In  the  northern 
parts  tropical  plants,  such  as  the  sugar-cane,  the 
pine-apple,  the  cotton,  the  banana,  the  sweet  po- 
tatoe,  jalap,  mechoacan,  &c.  thrive  exceedingly 
well,  and  the  most  beautiful  flowers  are  so  abun- 
dant, that  the  fields  look  like  so  many  gardens. 
The  climate  is  so  fine  and  the  air  so  salubrious, 
that  the  inhabitants  are  liable  to  few  infectious 
diseases;  the  domestic  animals  live  all  the  year  in 
the  open  fields,  where,  from  feeding  on  aromatic 
plants,  their  flesh  acquires  a  flavor  unequalled  in 
any  country.  The  Chilians  need  no  hay,  as  the 
herbage  never  fails,  and  in  some  pastures  the 
grass  grows  so  high  as  to  conceal  the  sheep  that 
are  grazing  in  it.  As  in  all  countries  south  of  the 
equator,spring  commences  here  in  September,sum- 
mer  in  December,autumn  in  March,  and  winter  in 
June.  In  Chili  the  rainy  season  is  in  the  winter; 
the  north  and  north-west  winds  which  most  blow 
at  that  season  always  bringing  rain,  while,  during 
the  spring  and  summer,  the  south  and  south-west 
winds  prevail,  invariably  occasioning  a  clear  sky. 
In  the  northern  provinces  it  seldom  rains,  but  in 
the  south  frequent  and  dreadful  storms  are  some- 
times experienced  near  the  sea;  in  the  islands  it 
frequently  rains  in  the  summer.  In  those  parts 
remote  from  the  Andes,  thunder  is  very  seldom 
heard  even  in  summer.  Near  the  sea  snow  is 
never  seen;  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mountains  it 
falls  sometimes  once  in  five  years,  but  seldom  re- 
mains a  single  day.  A  white  frost  is  sometimes 
seen,  and  a  small  degree  of  cold  experienced  in 
the  month  of  August;  but  after  sun-rise  the  tem- 
perature is  like  that  of  a  fine  spring  day.  In  the 
Andes,  on  the  contrary,  great  quantities  of  snow 


fall  from  April  to  November,  so  that  for  the 
greatest  part  of  the  year  the  mountains  are  im- 
passable. The  want  of  rain  in  summer  is,  how- 
ever, supplied  by  most  plentiful  falls  of  dew. 
On  the  coast  it  is  often  foggy,  but  it  clears  as  the 
day  advances. 

In  animals  this  country  is  not  so  abundant  as 
other  parts  of  South  America;  the  species  pecu- 
liar to  it  being  only  about  thirty-six,  though  in 
the  unexplored  regions  probably  many  more 
might  be  found.  The  most  remarkable  is,  the 
vicunna  or  guanaco,  in  shape  like  a  camel,  but 
differing  from  it  in  being  most  vigorous  in  the 
most  inclement  regions,  in  the  ice  and  snow  of 
the  Andes.  The  Peruvian  sheep  is  found  here. 
The  wild  goat,  the  dog,  the  fox,  and  the  pagi  or 
lion,  resembling  that  animal  in  size  and  roaring, 
but  without  a  mane,  abound  in  this  country,  and 
all  European  animals  thrive,  and  some  even  grow 
larger,  when  imported  into  Chili.  There  are 
135  species  of  birds  belonging  to  the  land,  and 
the  species  of  sea  birds  are  innumerable.  Fish 
is  abundant  on  all  the  coast ;  seventy-six  sorts 
differ  from  those  found  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere; the  fresh  waters  also  swarm  with  them. 

The  manners  of  the  inhabitants  are  represented 
as  remarkably  free,  and  very  remote  from  that 
stiffness  and  reserve,  which  even  to  a  late  period 
prevailed  in  Peru,  where  the  Americans  were 
subject  to  every  species  of  oppression  from  the 
overbearing  Spaniards,  and  a  dreadful  system  of 
espionage  destroyed  all  the  happiness  of  society. 
In  Santiago  mirth  and  gaiety,  frankness  and  con- 
fidence, prevail;  all  ranks  hail  each  other  as 
countrymen,  and  own  no  master  but  their  duty 
and  the  law.  Their  dress  is  greatly  assimilated 
to  the  English  and  French  costumes,  and  their 
domestic  manners  are  of  late  much  improved. 
Instead  of  sitting  cross-legged  at  low  tables,  they 
now  sit  on  chairs  at  higher  tables  like  the  Eng- 
lish ;  no  longer  eating  out  of  the  same  dish,  their 
meals  are  served  up  with  regularity  and  neatness. 
Scarcely  an  evening  passes  without  social  par- 
ties, balls,  or  concerts,  and  they  perform  the 
Spanish  dances  with  peculiar  elegance.  There 
being  few  carriages  in  use  among  them,  it  is 
usual,  at  the  period  of  the  company's  retiring, 
for  the  band  to  escort  the  parties  home,  and  as 
the  nights  are  so  fine  little"  attention  is  paid  to 
the  shortest  road.  The  Chilians  are  remarkably 
fond  of  music,  and  all  the  children,  as  soon  as 
they  can  comprehend  anything,  are  taught  to 
play,  usually  by  their  mothers ;  there  being,  it  is 
said,  no  music  master  at  St.  Jago.  They  have 
greatly  improved  in  the  musical  instruments  they 
use,  the  jarring  of  the  old  halfstrung  guitar  has 
been  exchanged  for  the  piano,  and  the  tasteless 
dance  of  the  country  has  yielded  to  the  elegant 
country  dance. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  Conception,  to  the 
south,  the  natives,  called  Araucanos,  are  and 
ever  have  been  an  unconquered  race.  Valdivia 
the  Spanish  general,  as  has  been  mentioned  in 
the  article  South  America,  could  not  subdue 
them,  and  at  last  fell  by  their  hands.  Before 
the  late  revolution  these  people  remained  per- 
fectly free  and  used  to  come  to  the  frontiers  to 
carry  on  a  small  traffic.  They  supplied  Ui* 
Creoles  with  very  superbr  horses,  and  coarse 


586 


CHILI. 


Ivoollens,  and  in  return  took  wheat  and  Euro- 
pean goods.  They  are  said  to  be  numerous,  and 
among  them  has  been  found  a  tribe  of  European 
whites,  whose  origin  is  very  uncertain.  Their 
language  is  well  known,  and  a  dictionary  of  it 
has  been  made  by  one  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries, 
who  had  at  the  time  of  their  expulsion  intro- 
duced two  establishments  into  the  country.  How 
ihis  order  contrived  to  do  this  in  a  nation  so  ini- 
mical to  Spaniards,  is  wonderful ;  probably  their 
sanctity  of  life  and  manners,  together  with  their 
medical  skill,  and  insinuating  manners,  contri- 
buted much  to  this  preference. 

The  Chilian  language  is  superior  in  pronun- 
ciation and  elegance  to  the  Spanish  of  the  Eas- 
tern shores  of  South  America,  and  without  any 
of  those  barbarisms  so  common  in  Buenos  Ayres. 
There  is  no  university  at  Santiago,  but  at  the  In- 
stitute there  is  a  large  school  where  400  boys  are 
educated  at  the  public  expense,  besides  many 
private  seminaries.  '  The  only  public  library,' 
says  Mr.  Caldcleugh,  '  is  that  in  the  Institute, 
under  the  immediate  care  of  Don  Manuel  de  Sa- 
las,  a  man  of  much  information,  and  very  ready 
to  communicate  it  to  others.  It  consists  of  se- 
veral thousand  volumes,  some  of  which  belonged 
to  the  College  of  Jesuits,  and  some  MSS.  many 
of  which,  relating  to  the  early  history  of  the 
country,  are  of  a  curious  and  interesting  nature. 
Prior  to  the  revolution,  all  books  published  on 
this  side  of  the  continent  were  printed  at  Lima, 
and  probably  no  press  existed  at  Santiago ;  one 
press  has  been  established  since,  which  is  chiefly 
exployed  in  printing  the  gazette  and  political 
pamphlets.  No  books,  however,  have  been  pub- 
lished, except  some  trifling  elementary  works. 
The  usual  dress  used  in  attending  divine  wor- 
ship is  black.  When  the  church  bell  sounds, 
at  half  past  six  in  the  afternoon,  the  greatest 
silence  prevails, — all  carriages  and  carts  stop  for 
two  or  three  minutes,  until  a  change  in  the  sound 
announces  that  the  prayer  is  finished.' 

As  comparatively  few  foreigners  have  emigrated 
to  this  country,  the  manners  of  the  higher  classes 
have  not  been  much  corrupted.  They  are  re- 
marked for  the  union  that  subsists  in  their  fami- 
lies, and  the  tenderness  and  respect  shown  by 
children  to  their  parents.  They  are  exceedingly 
kind  and  hospitable  to  foreigners.  The  ladies 
have  great  strength  of  intellect,  accompanied 
with  almost  infantine  simplicity ;  they  are  more 
accomplished  than  in  many  other  countries, 
and  their  acquirements  are  attained  with  very 
limited  means,  they  are  possessed  of  great  per- 
sonal charms  and  sweetness  of  disposition,  and 
are  entitled  to  the  highest  character  for  delicacy 
and  modesty.  The  lower  classes  are  frequently 
fawning  and  deceitful,  addicted  to  cheating,  and 
fond  of  all  sorts  of  gambling,  at  which  they  will 
spend  whole  days,  and  part  with  every  article  of 
their  dress.  On  the  other  hand  they  are  very 
compassionate ;  any  appearance  of  distress  will 
excite  their  commiseration,  and  they  will  spare 
no  pains  to  alleviate  it.  They  are  industrious, 
and  divide  various  toils  with  the  women,  which 
in  Buenos  Ayres  the  men.  think  beneath  them. 
The  people  as  a  whole  are  highly  patriotic,  and 
treat  the  natives  of  the  last-mentioned  state  with 
great  disdain,  which  is  plentifully  returned. 


While  sending  the  foregoing  pages  to  press, 
we  are  favored  with  Mr.  Myers's  intelligent  Tra- 
vels in  Chili  and  La  Plata.  This  gentleman 
embarked  from  England  with  his  family  in  181 9, 
to  conduct  a  commercial  speculation  in  Chili, 
and  travelled  across  the  country,  from  the  eastern 
to  the  western  shore  of  South  America,  compiling 
an  excellent  political  and  statistical  account  of 
the  districts  through  which  he  passed.  We  can- 
not, at  this  time,  better  avail  ourselves  of  the  in- 
formation contained  in  his  work,  than  by  a  few 
extracts  from  it  under  the  following  heads. 

CLIMATE. — At  Mendoza,  a  large  town  near  the 
foot  of  the  Andes,  '  We  spent,'  says  he,  '  the 
evening  with  Dr.  Colesberry,  a  physician  from 
the  United  States  of  North  America,  who  had 
left  his  native  country  laboring  under  a  severe 
pulmonary  affection,  from  which  he  had  entirely 
recovered  in  the  genial  climate  of  Mendoza.  He 
follows  his  profession,  is  one  of  the  most  amiable 
and  deserving  men  I  ever  met  with,  and  is  justly 
admired  by  all  the  inhabitants  of  Mendoza.  To 
this  deserving  gentleman  I  shall  ever  feel  under 
great  obligations  for  the  kind  attentions  he  showed 
to  my  wife  during  her  long  subsequent  sojourrv- 
ment  in  Mendoza,  and  for  the  friendly  assistance 
he  rendered  us  at  the  period  of  our  great  embar- 
rassment at  Villa  Vicencio.  Dr.  Colesberry 
described  the  climate  of  Mendoza  as  exceedingly 
salubrious,  especially  in  cases  of  pulmonary  affec- 
tion, instances  of  which  had  come  under  his  ob- 
servation, and  which  have  since  been  confirmed 
by  others.  Dr.  Gillies,  a  Scotch  physician  of 
great  ability,  now  resident  in  Mendoza,  has  af- 
forded a  no  less  remarkable  instance  of  the  effi- 
cacy of  this  climate ;  he  was  obliged  to  leave  his 
native  country  from  a  pulmonary  affection,  from 
which  he  was  quickly  relieved  by  the  air  of  Men- 
doza. The  population  was  described  by  Dr. 
Colesberry  to  be  very  healthy.  I  enquired  par- 
ticularly respecting  the  tendency  to  bronchocele, 
having  noticed  two  goitres  as  I  entered  Mendoza : 
this  affection  he  assured  me  was  prevalent  here, 
as  well  as  in  San  Juan,  a  town  150  miles  to  the 
northward,  but  not  so  much  so  as  in  the  more 
northern  districts  of  Tucuman  and  Santiago  del 
Estero,  which  are  still  farther  removed  from  the 
elevated  Cordillera,  and  the  region  of  snow. 
These  places  are  particularly  noted  for  the  fre- 
quency of  bronchocele  ;  these  towns  are  situated 
in  swampy  valleys,  subjected  to  insufferable 
heats,  surrounded  by  forests  and  stagnant  lakes, 
which  render  the  air  extremely  insalubrious :  he 
had  never  observed  bronchocele  combined  with 
cretinism,  as  we  find  in  certain  alpine  districts ; 
he  had,  indeed,  nowhere  observed  an  idiot,  nor 
had  he  seen  an  instance  of  mental  derangement. 
Deformity  was  seldom  met  with,  and  the  Men- 
dozinos,  from  the  blessings  of  their  climate,  were 
free  from  numerous  evils  to  which  other  countries 
are  much  subject.' 

PASSAGE  OVER  THE  GREAT  CHAIN  OF  THE 
ANDES. — '  On  leaving  Mendoza,  the  road  lies 
through  the  suburbs  and  cultivated  grounds, 
which  extend  above  a  league  and  a  half  to  the 
northward.  The  route  is  then  about  north  by 
east  over  the  same  description  of  Travesia,  as  that 
which  lies  between  Mendoza  and  the  Desaguadero 
already  described.  At  the  distance  of  five  leagues, 


CHILI 


587 


the  road  divides  into  two  branches,  one  tending 
about  N.N.E.  to  San  Juan,  the  other  about 
N.N.W.  to  Villa  Vicencio.  Where  the  road 
separates,  a  low  branch  of  the  Paramillo  range 
of  mountains  juts  into  the  plain,  and  approaches 
within  one  league  of  the  road ;  it  is  a  lime-stone 
formation,  and  is  quarried  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
plying the  town  of  Mendoza  with  lime,  and 
hence  is  called  the  Calera.  Two  leagues  further 
we  approach  the  foot  of  a  detached  low  series 
of  hills,  called  the  los  Cerrillos,  and,  passing  to 
the  westward  of  them,  the  road  gradually  leads 
towards  the  Cordillera  range.  Thus  far  the  road 
is  sandy  ;  but,  about  a  league  before  reaching 
the  Cerrillos,  it  begins  to  be  stony,  and  continues 
more  or  less  so  till  we  reach  the  Cordillera ;  for, 
over  this  part  of  the  Travesia,  the  currents  of 
water  flowing  from  the  three  extensive  ravines  of 
Villa  Vicencio,  of  the  Higuera,  and  of  Canota, 
have  spread  over  its  whole  surface  immense 
quantities  of  the  sharp  angular  fragments  of  stone 
that  accompany  the  alluvial  matter  brought  down 
from  the  hills  by  the  torrents  during  the  rainy 
season.  From  the  Cerrillos,  the  course  tends 
for  three  leagues  in  a  W.N.W.  direction, 
towards  an  opening  in  the  mountain  range,  in 
which  there  is  a  small  spring  of  water,  this  is  at 
a  place  called  El  Coral  Viejo.  We  now  enter  a 
ravine ;  the  hills  on  each  side  are  at  first  of  in- 
considerable height,  but  as  we  advance  the  val- 
ley becomes  narrow  and  more  stony  ;  its  bed  is 
covered  with  bushes  of  hanilla,  retarno,  verbena, 
&c.  Higher  up  this  narrow  ravine,  the  mountain 
ranges  are  of  considerable  height ;  and,  at  the 
distance  of  fifteen  leagues  from  Mendoza,  we 
reach  the  post-house  of  Villa  Vicencio.  The 
hills  are  of  hornblende  slate,  including  seams 
and  fissures  filled  with  sulphate  and  carbonate  of 
lime.  Following  up  the  course  of  this  lateral 
branch  of  the  main  ravine,  to  the  source  of  the 
brook,  we  find,  at  the  distance  of  a  mile  and  a 
half,  the  hot  springs  of  Villa  Vicencio  :  the  inter- 
mediate ravine  is  narrow,  and  enclosed  on  each 
side  by  very  lofty  hills  ;  its  tortuous  bed  is  filled 
by  a  kind  of  tufa,  an  alluvial  deposit  of  sandy 
marl,  indurated  by  a  considerable  admixture  of 
the  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime,  encrusted 
upon  twigs  and  bushes,  washed  from  the  hills  by 
the  mountain  torrents.  At  the  head  of  the  ravine, 
the  little  brook  falls  over  a  cragged  precipitous 
rock,  and  forms  a  small  but  picturesque  cascade; 
it  is  necessary  to  scramble  up  this  rock  to  reach 
the  baths,  which  are  situated  in  a  beautiful  little 
amphitheatre,  bounded  on  all  sides  by  lofty  moun- 
tains. The  baths  are  shallow  pools,  dug  oxit  of 
the  tufa,  about  eight  feet  in  diameter,  and  two 
feet  deep  ;  from  the  bottom  of  each  flows  a  small 
spring,  so  that  the  water  of  every  one  of  them  is 
distinct ;  the  quantity  which  flows  into  each  is 
exceedingly  small.  There  are  five  of  these  springs : 
•w  the  first  and  highest,  in  the  month  of  October, 
"^hen  the  thermometer  in  the  shade  stood  'at  66° 
Fahrenheit,  the  temperature  was  96° ;  of  the 
second  it  was  88°  ;  of  the  third  92°  ;  of  the  fourth 
89° ;  of  the  fifth  75°.  The  water  of  these  springs 
has  no  peculiar  taste  or  smell ;  but  there  arises 
from  the  bottom  of  each  basin  considerable  por- 
tions of  gus,  which  gives  them  the  appearance 
of  boiling.  I  had  with  me  no  re-agents  with 


which  to  examine  the  nature  of  these  mineral 
waters  ;  but  1  apprehend  the  air  that  arises  is 
simply  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  tne  more 
probable,  as  I  observed  a  dead  frog  floating  in 
one  of  the  pools.  At  about  fifty  yards  distant 
from  the  huts  of  Villa  Vicencio  are  the  ruins  of 
old  buildings,  formerly  the  smelting  works  for 
the  reduction  of  the  silver  ores  of  a  mine  in  the 
Paramillo  range :  this  place  was  selected  as  the 
nearest  to  Mendoza  where  water  and  fuel  could 
be  found,  although  it  is  eighteen  leagues  distant 
from  the  mines,  whither  the  ore  was  brought  on 
the  backs  of  mules.  The  foundation  walls  alone 
exist ;  they  are  constructed  of  rude  fragments  of 
stone,  cemented  with  mud  :  much  scoriae  and 
refuse  lies  around.  I  could,  however,  nowhere 
perceive  the  vestiges  of  a  trapiche,  or  water-mill, 
for  the  pulverisation  of  the  ores.  Although  there 
is  nothing  particular  about  this  place,  either  as  to 
scenery  or  productions,  deserving  of  particular 
notice,  still  the  change  of  situation  is  so  contrasted 
with  the  unvaried  country  hitherto  seen  on  the 
road  from  Buenos  Ayres,  that,  however  unin- 
teresting in  itself,  every  object  is  viewed  by  the 
traveller  with  great  curiosity  and  indescribable 
pleasure.  The  height  of  this  place  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  is  5382  feet,  and  above  Mendoza 
2780  feet :  it  is  extremely  bleak  in  the  winter 
season,  and  at  all  times  very  subject  to  storms: 
snow  falls  here  generally  during  the  winter 
months. 

On  leaving  Villa  Vicencio,  we  turn  out  of  the 
ravine  and  enter  another,  which  is  in  fact  the 
main  valley.  The  road  continues  to  wind  some- 
times north-east,  at  others  W.  S.  W.,  along  the 
narrow  bed  of  the  valley,  which  is  covered  with 
bushes  of  jarilla,  retamo,  verbenas,  algarrobas, 
lyciums,  &c.,  and  is  bounded  by  lofty  impending 
rocks,  partly  bare,  but  mostly  covered  with  soil 
thinly  scattered  over  with  bushes,  cacti,  and 
many  plants  deserving  of  notice.  One  spot  on 
this  road  is  remarkable  for  the  abundant  growth, 
on  the  hills  as  well  as  in  the  valley,  of  a  dipsacus, 
which  resembles  our  common  teazel ;  the  spot  is 
in  consequence  called  the  Cardal  by  the  mule- 
teers :  here,  as  well  as  at  many  intervals  of  a  mile 
or  two,  are  found  on  the  sides  of  the  hills  a  little 
pool  of  water,  supplied  from  a  diminutive  though 
never-failing  spring.  These  places  are  known 
only  to  the  arrieros ;  they  have  each  their  proper 
name,  and  are  used  as  resting  places  for  the 
troops  of  mules  which  are  continually  travelling 
to  and  from  Chili.  The  hills  are  pretty  well 
covered  with  pasture,  which,  in  these  mountain- 
ous countries,  must  not  be  supposed  to  mean 
those  beautiful  grassy  swards  with  which  our  hills 
at  home  are  everywhere  covered,  but  to  signify 
small  plants  of  many  kinds.  Here  the  cattle  de- 
vour every  vegetable  substance,  even  bushes, 
when  all  other  plants  fail.  It  is  not,  therefore, 
from  the  richness  of  the  pasture  that  these  re- 
cesses are  of  value  to  the  Mendozinos,  but  from 
the  security  they  offer  for  breeding  cattle;  in 
many  places  among  the  hills  we  perceive  many 
herds.  The  mountains  are  so  steep  and  lofty 
that  the  sun,  which  rises  in  the  plains  at  five 
o'clock,  does  not  shine  in  these  valleys  till  nearly 
eight  in  the  morning;  they  seem  principally  com- 
posed of  hornblende  slate.  At  the  distance  of  a 


688 


CHILL 


league  from  the  post-house  we  pass  an  angle,  re- 
markable for  a  lofty  mountain,  whose  precipitous 
rocky  face  is  covered  with  a  species  of  lichen, 
which  gives  to  it  a  golden  hue  when  the  sun 
shines  on  it ;  hence  its  name  El  Cerro  Dorado, 
the  Golden  Mountain.  At  the  distance  of  another 
league  the  valley  becomes  more  contracted,  the 
impending  rocks  grow  more  precipitous  and  bare 
until  we  enter  the  narrow  pass  of  the  Angostura, 
the  access  to  which  is  over  barren  rocks,  from 
among  which  issue  little  springs  of  fresh  water. 
The  sides  of  Angostura  are  perpendicular,  to  the 
height  of  from  200  to  300  feet ;  its  length  is 
about  250  yards,  and  its  breadth  about  seven 
yards.  The  geological  formation  of  the  whole 
ravine  is  similar  to  that  about  Villa  Vicencio  ; 
and  the  whole  length  of  the  valley,  up  to  its  ori- 
gin, is  in  like  manner  filled  with  a  similar  tufa, 
which,  in  many  places,  is  covered  with  a  saline 
efflorescence.  Pursuing  the  course  of  the  ravine 
two  leagues  further,  we  reach  the  Alojamiento  de 
los  Hornillos,  where  there  is  a  small  hut,  like 
that  of  Villa  Vicencio,  and  a  never-failing  spring 
of  water :  here,  as  its  name  implies,  existed  for- 
merly works  for  reducing  the  ores  from  the  San 
Pedro  mines. 

From  this  place  we  begin  to  ascend  the  Para- 
millo,  which  is  the  name  given  to  a  very  long  and 
narrow  mountainous  ridge,  lying  between  the 
plain  of  Uspallata  and  Mendoza :  it  is  evidently 
of  very  different  formation  from  the  more  western, 
or  main  Cordillera,  and  is  said  to  run  indepen- 
dently of  it.  The  path  up  the  ascent  is  gradual 
and  winding ;  and,  on  reaching  the  summit  of 
the  first  height,  we  have  presented  to  us  a  beau- 
tiful view  of  the  distant  plains,  in  the  midst  of 
which  Mendoza  is  easily  distinguished  at  the  dis- 
tance of  above  forty  miles,  in  a  straight  line. 
The  breadth  of  the  summit  is  several  leagues  in 
extent,  and  is  broken  into  numerous  undulating 
risings  and  descents :  the  botanical  novelties  are 
not  very  numerous,  nor  very  remarkable.  I  ob- 
served, however,  a  new  hoffmansaggia,  different 
from  that  of  Mendoza  or  Aconcagua. 

I  regret  that  I  could  not  determine  the  height 
of  the  Paramillo,  being  prevented  by  the  occur- 
rence of  a  violent  tempest,  though  in  the  valleys 
below  a  fine  sunshine  reigned.  I  have  crossed 
the  Paramillo  four  times,  and  on  every  occasion 
I  have  met  with  squally  weather :  hardly  a  day 
passes  without  rain,  though  it  be  but  a  few  drops, 
and  wind  is  never  wanting  on  this  inhospitable 
spot.  The  course  over  the  Paramillo  is  nearly 
West :  the  descent,  which  is  comparatively  very 
trifling,  leads  to  the  head  of  a  narrow  ravine,  the 
bed  of  which  we  follow ;  and,  at  the  distance  of 
about  a  league,  pass  by  the  mines  of  San  Pedro, 
6etter  known  as  the  mines  of  Uspallata,  which 
have  been  several  years  neglected  for  want  of 
capital.'  This  pass  of  Uspallata  we  have  before 
noticed  as  one  of  the  principal  roads  across  the 
Andes.  We  regret  we  cannot  follow  this  gentle- 
man further. 

Of  the  curious  natural  production  called 
Bezoar  stones,  he  says,  '  A  friend  of  mine,  an  in- 
telligent surgeon,  on  his  return  to  Chili  from 
Mendoza,  over  the  Cordillera,  brought  a  number 
of  rounded  stones  he  had  collected  about  the 
springs  of  the  Inca's  bridge,  as  well  as  at  some 


distance  from  them ;  these,  he  supposed,  were 
Bezoar  stones,  voided  by  the  guanacos,  that  fre- 
quently came  down  from  the  mountains  to  drink 
the  mineral  water,  which,  he  conjectured,  must 
act  upon  them  as  an  emetic.  He  therefore  drank 
some  of  the  water,  which  produced  those  effects 
on  him.  The  fact  appears  confirmed  by  the  cir- 
cumstance of  these  stones  having  been  nowhere 
else  discovered  in  the  Cordillera,  except  at  this 
place,  and  that  it  is  known  only  to  a  few  native 
arrieros,  who  have  kept  the  secret,  to  profit  by  the 
sale  of  the  calculi,  which  they  carry  to  Mendoza 
and  Aconcagua.  These  stones  are  sought  after 
by  many,  who  believe  that,  having  been  placed 
before  the  sacred  altars,  they  become  possessed 
of  wonderful  curative  powers,  in  which  respect 
they  resemble  the  famed  Bezoar  stones  of  the  east,, 
which,  even  to  the  present  day,  are  highly  prized 
for  their  alexipharmic  virtues.  The  calculi  my 
friend  brought  with  him  varied  in  size  from  that 
of  a  cherry  to  a  ball  of  two  inches  in  diameter ; 
externally  they  were  somewhat  globular,  slightly 
flattened,  or  compressed  in  places,  of  anochreous 
color,  having  a  smooth  and  very  fine  grained  sur- 
face, and  soft  enough  to  be  scratched  with  a. 
knife ;  internally  they  appeared  composed  of  dis- 
tinct laminar  concretions,  which  are  very  difficult 
to  separate.  I  sawed  one  through  the  middle  ; 
its  section  was  similar  to  other  Bezoar  stones  I 
remember  to  have  seen ;  like  them  the  concretions 
appear  formed  upon  a  blackish  nucleus  of  ex- 
traneous matter ;  the  first  lamellae  are  thin  and 
scaly,  the  others  increase  in  thickness  as  they  at- 
tain a  larger  diameter ;  they  are  too  of  various 
colors,  so  that  the  section  of  the  stone  presents  an 
onyx-like  configuration,  the  concentric  shades 
being  of  various  intermediate  tints,  between  white- 
and  ochreous  brown  :  some  of  the  layers  are  com- 
pact, and  of  a  crystalline  texture,  while  others 
are  dull  and  porous.  The  calculi  are  composed 
apparently  of  carbonated  lime,  for  they  strongly 
effervesce  in  dilute  common  sulphuric  acid,  and  I 
regret  having  no  other  acid  at  hand  for  a  more 
minute  examination.  Their  specific  gravity  is 
2-47.' 

WINTER  TRAVELLING  IN  THE  CORDILLERAS. — 
'  I  have  hitherto  spoken  only  of  the  passage  over 
the  Cordillera  during  the  periods  when  the  roads 
are  clear  of  snow :  in  the  months  from  June  ta 
September,  the  passage  cannot  be  effected  with- 
out considerable  personal  exertion,  much  delay, 
and  at  a  far  greater  expense  :  at  these  times  the 
valleys  on  both  sides  of  the  Cordillera,  as  well  a& 
the  Cumbre  itself,  are  deeply  covered  with  snow, 
so  as  to  be  impassable  by  mules :  in  this  case  it 
is  necessary  to  travel  on  foot  the  whole  way  from 
the  Punta  de  las  Vacas  to  the  Guardia,  a  distance 
of  sixty-six  miles.  On  these  occasions  it  become* 
requisite  to  hire  peons  to  carry  the  provisions, 
baggage,  and  saddle  equipage,  which  of  course  is 
attended  with  considerable  expense.  Since  the 
establishment  of  foreign  commercial  houses  in 
Chili,  the  passage  of  travellers  and  expresses 
across  the  Cordillera,  in  the  winter  season,  has 
become  more  frequent.  The  courier  too  passes, 
and  returns  regularly  every  month  :  the  Spaniards 
always  entertained  too  much  dread  of  the  cold  to 
venture  upon  a  journey  attended  with  so  much 
inconvenience  and  personal  exertion.  The  fatigue 


CHILI. 


589 


cf  walking  such  a  distance  over  loose  snow  is 
certaimy  considerable  ;  but  perhaps  the  greatest 
inconvenience  experienced  is  the  painful  inflam- 
mation produced  in  the  eye-lids  from  the  effect 
of  the  too  powerfully  reflected  light,  proceeding 
from  the  brilliant  whiteness  of  the  snow,  which, 
in  intervals  of  fine  weather,  is  generally  increased 
by  the  immediate  reflection  of  the  solar  rays. 
These  effects  might  perhaps  be  prevented  by  the 
use  of  goggles  of  green  glass.  Should  the  weather 
threaten  an  approaching  tempest,  it  is  always 
prudent  to  hasten  for  the  nearest  casucha,  and 
take  advantage  of  that  shelter  till  the  storm  has 
passed  over,  and  the  sun  has  again  begun  to  shine 
in  a  cloudless  sky.  I  have  known  persons  who 
have  been  detained  a  week  in  one  casucha,  and 
a  fortnight  in  another :  this  indeed  frequently 
happens  to  the  courier,  so  that  the  delivery  of  the 
mail  is  retarded  for  six  weeks  or  two  months  in 
cases  of  very  bad  weather.  It  is,  however,  pos- 
sible to  pass  from  the  Guardia  to  the  Punta  de 
las  Vacas  in  five  days,  should  no  impediment 
from  the  weather  intervene,  and  should  the  snow 
have  become  tolerably  firm  upon  the  surface. 
Great  fatigue  is  experienced  in  the  ascents  :  the 
descents  would  perhaps  be  more  laborious,  but 
for  a  contrivance  commonly  practised  by  the 
couriers  and  peons  accustomed  to  the  journey. 
A  sledge  is  formed  of  a  piece  of  raw  hide,  upon 
which  the  man  places  his  saddle-traps,  or  his 
load,  seats  himself  thereon,  lashing  all  firmly 
round  his  waist  by  hide  thongs ;  having  made  this 
adjustment  on  the  summit  of  the  declivity,  and 
suffering  himself  to  slide  down  by  his  mere  weight, 
he  guides  his  course,  or  slackens  the  rapidity  of 
his  descent,  by  plunging  his  large  knife,  which 
he  firmly  grasps  in  his  hand,  into  the  snow :  the 
resistance  thus  produced  sufficiently  retards  his 
progress  should  he  have  acquired  too  much  ve- 
locity ;  or,  like  a  rudder,  it  inclines  his  course  to 
the  right  or  left,  as  he  may  desire ;  the  labor  of 
the  journey  is  thus  reduced.  The  traveller  has 
nothing  to  fear  from  avalanches  of  snow,  which 
are  unknown,  or  are  at  least  of  trifling  magnitude, 
and  out  of  the  reach  of  his  track.  The  snow  of 
the  Cordillera  does  not,  like  that  of  colder  lati- 
tudes, remain  long  in  a  soft  state.  Soon  after  it 
falls  the  sun  has  sufficient  power  to  melt  the  sur- 
face of  the  snow,  which,  in  this  half-fluid  state, 
niters  into  the  porous  mass  beneath,  and,  freezing 
again,  converts  the  whole  into  a  compact  hard 
body;  and  it  thus  becomes  so  consolidated  as  to 
require  the  heat  of  an  almost  vertical  sun  before 
it  finally  disappears  from  the  surface  of  the  moun- 
tains.' 

COST  OF  THE  PASSAGE. — 'The  cost  generally 
attending  the  passage  of  a  traveller  across  the 
Cordillera,  during  the  winter  season,  is  350  dol- 
lars, about  £70  sterling  ;  while  at  other  seasons, 
with  the  same  luggage,  that  is,  no  more  than  is 
necessary  for  his  journey,  the  expense  of  his 
passage  ought  not  to  exceed  twenty  or  thirty  dol- 
lars, 51.  to  7 1.  10s.  He  cannot  set  out  on  his 
journey,  in  winter  time,  without  having  made 
previous  arrangements,  which  will  detain  him  in 
Chili  or  in  Mendoza  several  weeks.  He  will 
travel  from  Mendoza  as  far  as  the  Punta  de  las 
Vacas  with  mules ;  the  intermediate  space  of  snow, 
which  cannot  be  traversed  by  animals,  is  then 


performed  on  foot,  as  before  described,  until  he 
reaches  the  termination  of  the  icy  barrier,  which 
generally  is  about  the  Guardia  or  the  Ojos  de 
Agua,  at  which  place  the  mules,  purposely 
brought  from  Aconcagua,  are  in  readiness  to 
convey  him  to  his  ultimate  destination.'- 

We  have  the  following  spirited  description  of 
the  earthquake  in  Chili  in  1822. — 'The  great 
earthquake,  before  alluded  to,  happened  during 
my  residence  at  Concon,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Quillota,  or  Concon  river.  At  half-past  ten 
o'clock  on  the  night  of  Tuesday,  the  19th  Novem- 
ber 1822,  as  my  family  were  retiring,  the  first 
oscillation  was  felt.  It  was  very  sudden  and 
violent ;  we  were  all  alarmed,  and  paused  for  an 
instant,  when  the  falling  of  the  glasses  from  the 
sideboard,  the  cracking  of  the  timbers  of  the  roof, 
and  the  rattling  of  the  falling  tiles,  caused  us  to 
rush  out  of  the  house.  The  earth  was  violently 
convulsed,  heaving  up  and  down  in  a  manner 
hardly  conceivable,  and  as  little  capable  of  being 
accurately  described  as  our  feelings.  The  tim- 
bers of  a  large  corridor  were  breaking  in  all  di- 
rections, and  flying  off  in  fragments,  while  the 
air  was  filled  with  dust  from  the  falling  roof. 
The  situation  of  our  two  children  instantaneously 
occurred  to  us.  I  rushed  into  the  falling  building, 
snatched  one  boy  from  one  of  the  front  rooms, 
and,  carrying  him  in  my  arms,  ran  to  the  back 
of  the  house,  where  the  other  boy  was  in  bed  ; 
my  sensation  in  this  painful  situation  cannot  be 
imagined.  I  ran  with  my  two  boys  to  their 
mother  and  their  aunt ;  and  by  the  time  I  joined 
them  the  great  shock  was  ended ;  it  continued 
about  two  minutes.  After  a  lapse  of  about  three 
minutes,  the  agitation  returned  violently,  and 
continued  for  about  a  minute,  when  several  of 
the  strong  pillars  of  the  corridor  were  shivered. 
During  this  time  there  was  a  loud  rumbling 
noise,  like  the  distant  echo  of  thunder  in  a 
mountainous  country.  The  heaving  of  the  ground 
seemed  not  only  to  consist  of  horizontal  oscilla- 
tions, but  also  of  violent  uplifting  concussions, 
as  if  repeated  explosions  were  exerting  their 
force  upon  the  roof  of  a  hollow  cavern  under  our 
feet,  threatening  to  burst  open  the  ground,  or 
blow  us  all  into  the  air.  Our  sensations  were 
truly  horrible.  There  was  nothing  remarkable  in 
the  appearance  or  state  of  the  atmosphere  ;  the 
moon  and  stars  shone  with  their  usual  resplen- 
dence. Anxious  to  ascertain  the  state  of  my 
mills,  which  were  on  the  edge  of  the  river,  about 
fifty  yards  from  the  house,  I  proceeded  towards 
the  spot,  and  was  met  by  my  English  workmen, 
who  told  me  the  building  had  been  thrown  down, 
that  the  walls  on  both  sides  had  been  precipitated 
into  the  mill-stream,  and  the  roof  had  fallen  in. 
While  making  a  survey  of  the  damage,  another 
violent  shock  warned  me  of  my  danger;  the  mill 
at  the  time  of  the  first  shock  was  in  action ;  the 
miller,  a  young  man  recently  arrived  from  Eng- 
land, on  hearing  the  first  noise  of  the  earthquake, 
concluded  that  a  nail,  by  some  accident,  had  got 
between  the  mill-stones  :  he  therefore  shut  down 
the  sluice-gate,  and  raised  the  running-stone.  At 
this  moment  the  walls  of  the  outer  room  fell, 
and  caused  him  precipitately  to  quit  the  building. 
During  three  quarters  of  an  hour  we  experienced 
continual  and  severe  shocks,  the  intervals  between 


590 


CHILI. 


which  seldom  exceeded  five  minutes,  every  time 
shaking  down  portions  of  the  buildings.  Our 
Creole  servants  walked  about  the  enclosure 
almost  in  a  state  of  despair,  thumping  their 
breasts,  and  repeating  their  Ave  Marias.  Another 
of  my  English  workmen,  who  lived  in  a  cottage 
close  by,  soon  joined  us  ;  part  of  his  house  had 
been  thrown  down.  The  major-domo  of  the 
neighbouring  estate,  sent  by  his  master,  came  to 
learn  our  fate,  when  we  heard  that  his  house,  as 
well  as  the  chapel,  had  also  been  levelled  to  the 
ground.  In  the  course  of  the  night,  a  friend 
came  from  his  residence  at  Cuintero,  a  few  miles 
to  the  northward,  to  ascertain  what  had  befallen 
us — his  own  house,  like  ours,  had  been  shaken 
to  pieces ;  he  informed  us  that  the  ground  over 
which  he  had  passed  was  much  altered,  and  torn 
in  many  places  in  wide  rents.  The  sand-hills 
had  been  thrown  into  the  Quintero  Lake,  and  the 
ford  at  the  usual  place  across  it  was  greatly 
swelled,  so  that  the  water  rose  above  his  saddle. 
This  appears  to  have  been  caused  by  an  influx 
of  salt-water  into  the  lake,  during  the  great  rise 
of  the  sea,  which  accompanied  the  first  and  most 
violent  shock.  At  Quintero  great  part  pf  the 
house  was  destroyed,  and  the  family,  consisting 
of  my  wife's  sister,  her  husband,  child,  and  ser- 
vants, had  escaped  without  much  serious  injury; 
though,  in  the  endeavour  to  make  her  escape,  a 
large  book-case  fell,  knocked  her  down  with  her 
infant  in  her  arms,  and  fell  upon  them.  She 
was  happily  extricated  from  this  perilous  situa- 
tion by  her  husband,  with  only  a  few  bruises. 
We  lighted  a  fire  in  the  middle  of  our  enclosure, 
and  seated  ourselves  around  it  till  the  morning 
dawned,  when  I  was  better  able  to  ascertain  the 
damage  that  had  been  done.  The  house  was  not 
so  much  ruined  as  I  expected ;  the  outer  walls 
were  rent  in  several  places,  and  the  partition 
walls  thrown  down.  I  had  recently  put  on  a 
new  roof  of  good  carpentry,  120  feet  long  and 
fifty  wide ;  and  this  was  secured  by  the  corridor, 
and  strong  iron  ties  running  through  the  walls  at 
proper  intervals,  and  but  for  this  we  should 
probably  have  been  all  buried  in  the  ruins  of  the 
building.  The  ground  of  the  yard  to  which  we 
retreated  was  cracked  in  all  directions.  The  mill- 
stream  in  many  places  was  filled  up  by  the  fall- 
ing in  and  collapsion  of  the  banks.  The  ground 
between  the  mill  and  the  river  offered  numerous 
evidences  of  the  convulsions  it  had  undergone : 
clefts,  above  a  foot  wide,  presented  themselves  at 
the  distance  of  every  few  yards,  and  in  several 
places  the  ground  itself  had  sunk  two  feet  below 
its  usual  level.  On  many  spots  were  numerous 
hillocks  of  sand  and  mud,  which  had  been  forced 
through  the  crevices.  They  appeared  like  mud 
volcanoes  in  miniature ;  some  of  these  had  again 
sunk,  leaving  in  their  places  muddy  pools.  The 
tail  course  from  the  mill,  which  extended  above 
2000  feet  towards  the  river,  was  filled  up,  and 
made  level,  partly  by  the  collapsion  of  its  bank, 
and  partly  by  its  bottom  being  forced  up  by 
the  earthquake.  In  the  course  of  the  next  day 
I  learned  the  fate  of  the  towns  of  Valparaiso, 
Quillota,  Casa  Blanca,  and  Limache  ;  all  these 
towns  had  been  destroyed,  together  with  a  great 
number  of  persons,  who  had  been  buried  in  the 
rains.  For  many  days  we  had  smart  shocks  of 


earthquakes.  On  the  Saturday  and  Sunday  fal- 
lowing the  earthquake  I  visited  Valpaniiso : 
on  my  way  I  found  the  houses  at  the  Vina  &e  la 
Mar  levelled  to  the  ground.  On  entering  Val- 
paraiso [  was  astonished  at  the  extent  of  the 
ruin,  and  dismayed  at  the  miserable  appearance 
of  the  place,  as  well  as  at  the  forlorn  and  wretched 
condition  of  the  people.  The  houses  were  nearly 
all  unroofed ;  many  had  been  thrown  to  the 
ground,  while  the  thick  walls  of  sun-dried  bricks 
which  remained  were  split  in  all  directions.  The 
desolation  was  horrible  ;  the  large  church  of  the 
Almendral,  called  La  Merced,  presented  the 
most  remarkable  ruin.  The  tower,  built  of  burnt 
bricks  and  good  mortar,  the  walls  of  which,  up 
to  the  belfry,  were  six  feet  thick,  were  shivered 
into  large  blocks,  and  thrown  to  the  ground. 
The  tower  was  sixty  feet  high.  The  body  of  the 
church  extended  from  north  to  south.  The  walls 
at  both  ends  were  thrown  down,  both  fell  towards 
the  north ;  the  side  walls,  although  much  damaged, 
remained,  and  supported  the  ridge  roof  of  tim- 
ber. The  covering  of  the  roof  was  entirely  shaken 
off,  and  the  whole  body  of  rafters  inclined  con- 
siderably towards  the  north ;  and  the  few  roofs 
of  the  houses  in  Valparaiso  which  were  not 
thrown  down,  all  inclined  in  the  same  direction. 
On  each  side  of  the  church  of  La  Merced  were  a 
number  of  square  buttresses  of  good  solid  brick- 
work, six  feet  square ;  they  stood  at  a  small  dis- 
tance from  the  walls.  Those  on  the  western  side 
were  all  thrown  down,  as  were  all  but  two  on  the 
eastern  side ;  these  two  were  twisted  from  the 
wall  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  each  presenting 
an  angle  to  the  wall.  This  twisting  towards  the 
north-east  was  remarked  in  other  places.  At 
Quintero,  thirty  miles  to  the  northward  of  Val- 
paraiso, the  heaviest  and  largest  pieces  of  furni- 
ture in  the  houses  there  were  turned  in  the  same 
direction.  The  whole  population  of  Valparaiso 
had  fled  to  the  hills,  on  which  they  were  encamped. 
At  the  further  and  narrow  extremity  of  the  town, 
called  the  Port,  where  the  houses  are  built  upon 
the  solid  rock,  the  damage  was  not  so  great  as  in 
the  other  parts  of  the  town.  The  governor's 
house,  the  two  castles,  and  the  churches,  being 
the  most  substantial  buildings,  were  all  shivered 
to  pieces,  the  destruction  being  here,  as  in  other 
places,  iu  proportion  to  the  thickness  and  solidity 
of  the  walls.  It  was  fortunate  that  the  earth- 
quake did  not  happen  two  hours  later,  as  nearly 
the  whole  population  would  then  have  been 
buried  in  the  ruins;  as  it  was,  about  150  people 
were  killed,  and  many  were  wounded  or  bruised. 

No  bombardment  could  have  produced  such 
complete  ruin  as  the  earthquake  effected.  The 
desolate  condition  of  the  people  was  lamentable 
in  the  extreme ;  and  this  was  dreadfully  increased 
on  the  night  of  the  27th,  when,  to  their  surprise 
and  astonishment,  it  rained  heavily.  If  any 
one  thing  more  than  another  could  add  to  their 
wretchedness,  it  was  this  unseasonable  and  un- 
expected fall  of  rain. 

They  who  had  escaped  from  the  ruin  of  the 
town,  and  retired  to  the  hills  with  such  of  their 
property  as  they  could  save,  were  some  of  them 
living  in  tents ;  the  greater  number  were  com- 
pelled to  bivouac  in  the  open  air,  and,  while  de- 
pending on  the  continuance  of  the  usual  dry 


CHILL 


weather,  the  rain,  wlucn  so  unexpectedly  fell,  put 
them  into  a  state  of  almost  absolute  despair.  It 
ceased,  however,  towards  the  morning;  had  it 
continued  for  a  longer  period,  not  only  would  it 
have  destroyed  their  property,  but  it  would  have 
produced  famine  and  disease,  the  most  horrible 
apprehensions  of  which  filled  the  minds,  and 
wholly  occupied  the  thoughts,  of  the  unfortunate 
and  miserable  people.  Rain  in  the  month  of 
November  had  never  been  known,  and  its  occur- 
rence during  the  continuance  of  the  earthquakes 
was  considered  by  the  bigoted  and  ignorant 
Chilinos,  as  a  mark  of  the  divine  vengeance  for 
their  own  sinful  lives,  the  conduct  of  the  people 
in  power,  and  the  crime  of  permitting  the  English 
heretics  to  contaminate  the  country. 

The  extent  of  country  over  which  the  earth- 
quake was  felt  appears  to  have  been  very  con- 
siderable ;  Copiapo  on  the  north,  and  Valdivia 
on  the  south,  were  shaken  by  it,  although  these 
towns  are  880  miles  apart :  it  was  also  felt 
throughout  the  whole  range  of  the  Cordillera,  as 
far  as  Mendoza,  and  even  as  far  as  Cordova, 
though  here  the  shock  was  comparatively  weak, 
and  the  time  of  its  occurrence  an  hour  later  than 
in  Valparaiso.  Cordova  is  upwards  of  500  mile* 
east  of  Valparaiso. 

On  the  important  subject  of  mines  and  mining, 
he  says,  '  Our  countrymen  at  home  are  evidently 
deceived  in  imagining  that  the  Chilinos  under- 
stand but  little  of  the  art  of  mining :  they  may, 
on  the  contrary,  be  assured  that  they  are  very 
skilful  and  efficient  miners,  and  will  not  only 
produce  the  ore  at  the  earth's  surface  at  a  lower 
rate  than  others,  but  that,  in  their  rude  and  eco- 
nomical processes,  they  will  extract  the  metals 
at  a  much  less  cost.  In  the  construction  of  the 
furnaces,  and  in  other  respects,  many  improve- 
ments may  and  will  be  introduced ;  but  any 
one  who  has  made  correct  observations  upon  the 
country,  will,  at  one  glance,  perceive  that  all  at- 
tempts to  introduce  foreign  modes,  new  materials, 
or  novel  processes,  will  cause  great  confusion 
and  loss.  The  Chilinos  cannot,  will  not,  com- 
prehend any  other  than  their  old  methods.  Be- 
fore any  one  attempts  mining,  he  ought  to  gain 
sufficient  experience  and  knowledge  of  the  cha- 
racter of  the  people,  and  the  resources  of  the 
country,  so  that  he  might  be  competent  to  cal- 
culate with  certainty  how  far  his  arrangements 
could  be  adapted  to  the  peculiar  habits  he  will 
have  to  contend  with,  and  the  scanty  materials 
he  will  be  able  to  command.  I  can  speak  on 
this  subject  with  the  advantage  of  experience ;  I 
was  at  first  deceived  to  a  great  extent,  and  so 
will  all  foreigners  be  who  attempt  any  operations 
in  Chili :  the  very  customs  and  methods  which  to 
them  will  appear  barbarous  and  inefficient,  will 
be  found,  on  better  knowledge,  to  be  grounded 
upon  experience  and  reason ;  and  to  benefit  by 
these  observations,  so  as  to  apply  them  to  their 
own  particular  views,  they  must  so  far  exert  their 
judgment  as  to  trace  them  to  their  origin,  and 
discover  the  necessities  which  have  induced  them. 
Necessity  alone  has  been  the  author  of  national 
customs,  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  methods 
roust  vary  according  to  the  peculiar  resources  of 
the  country,  and  the  habits  of  the  natives.  On 
my  arrival  in  Chili  everything  appeared  to  be 


irrationally  contrived  and  barbarously  managed; 
but  the  more  I  became  acquainted  with  the  people 
and  their  customs,  the  more  I  saw  of  the  country 
and  its  productions,  the  better  I  understood  the  ca- 
pabilities of  the  land,  the  more  I  discovered 
ingenuity  in  that  which  I  before  considered  bar- 
barous, and  could  trace  a  far  better  adaptation 
of  those  means  to  the  condition  of  the  people,  and 
the  present  nature  of  the  country,  than  our  own 
English  notions  could  possibly  have  contrived. 
It  is  the  habit  of  an  Englishman,  educated  in  the 
midst  of  the  most  admirable  contrivances,  and 
used  to  means  adapted  to  a  highly  refined,  indus- 
trious, and  intelligent  community,  to  carry  his 
notions  of  improvement  to  every  foreign  object 
which  comes  under  his  observation ;  and  it  is  easier, 
and  more  gratifying,  to  apply  these  notions  than 
to  unlearn  his  knowledge,  and  bring  back  his 
ideas  to  a  state  applicable  to  a  more  primitive 
condition  of  society.  This  difficulty  will  operate 
strongly  towards  the  failure  of  the  numerous 
adventures  now  directed  to  the  vast  continent  of 
the  new  world,  and  on  the  mining  companies, 
in  particular,  it  will  operate  still  more  forcibly  : 
in  the  outset,  an  immense  portion  of  their  capi- 
tal will  be  wasted  in  merely  learning  how  they 
should  conduct  their  operations  to  advantage, 
and  in  acquiring  the  necessary  experience  of  the 
country.  If  this  has  been  experienced  by  the 
persons  who  have  lost  their  own  capital  in  the 
trial,  how  much  more  certain  must  it  happen  to 
those  who  are  exerting  themselves  with  the  capi- 
tal of  others,  and  who  cannot  feel  the  same  in- 
terest in  economising  their  resources  as  they 
would  if  the  adventure  were  entirely  their  own, 
and  superintended  by  themselves  on  the  spot. 
It  cannot  be  expected  that  the  persons  sent  out 
from  England,  however  competent  to  the  prac- 
tical discharge  of  their  duties  at  home,  will  be 
equally  so  in  the  execution  of  their  functions 
abroad,  with  the  want  of  local  experience  and 
the  necessary  adaptation  of  new  habits  to  a  new 
and  uncivilized  people. 

'  I  employed  a  number  of  the  most  intelligent 
English  workmen,  but  I  found,  in  every  case, 
the  greatest  difficulty  in  managing  them.  Their 
efforts,  their  knowlege  and  art,  most  valuable  at 
home,  become  useless  among  the  Chilinos,  and 
in  the  absence  of  their  habitual  resources. 

'  The  agents  to  whom  I  have  alluded  will  be 
surrounded  with  difficulties  on  every  side,  and 
be  deceived  in  every  possible  way :  it  is  not 
enough  that  they  will  be  assisted  by  the  advice  of 
Englishmen  who  have  been  resident  in  the  coun- 
try, if  those  persons  do  not  possess  the  requisite 
judgment  to  guide  them;  and  this  not  one  of 
them  has.  It  is,  indeed,  incompatible  with  mer- 
cantile proceedings  that  a  commercial  agent 
should  direct  his  attention  to  objects  of  research 
not  connected  with  the  concerns  of  the  counting- 
house.  I  know,  from  experience,  that  many 
clerks,  who  have  unfortunately  manifested  a  dis- 
position to  matters  not  immediately  relating  to 
commerce,  have  lost  their  situations ;  of  course 
there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  but  it  is  beyond 
doubt  generally  the  case.  On  my  arrival  in 
Chili  I  felt  this  acutely.  I  was  surprised  to  find 
persons  of  considerable  ability  provokingly  un- 
inquisitive,  and  unconscious  even  of  the  existence 


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of  matters  that  had  been  incessantly  under  their 
observation.  However  distinguished  for  com- 
mercial knowledge,  these  deserving  individuals 
are  not  those  from  whom  may  be  expected  any 
assistance  in  matters  of  speculative  utility  re- 
specting the  country,  or  any  valuable  statistic 
information.  From  the  natives,  the  mining  agents 
will  have  reason  to  be  more  on  their  guard  :  the 
smooth-faced  exterior  and  plausible  manners  of 
the  Chilinos,  his  apparent  sincerity  and  genero- 
sity, will  at  first  operate  powerfully  on  a  stranger, 
who  has  not  yet  ascertained  his  true  character. 
I  will  repeat  here  what  I  have  elsewhere  said  of 
them,. that  in  treating  with  the  best  of  them,  as 
little  confidence  and  as  much  caution  are  requi- 
site as  it  is  possible  for  one  person  to  use  with 
another. 

'  Another  consideration,  which  will  operate 
powerfully  against  the  success  of  mining  com- 
panies, is  the  absolute  impossibility  of  employing 
any  considerable  capital  in  mining  speculations, 
much  less  the  immense  sums  contemplated  in 
England.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  modes  adopt- 
ed in  the  country  how  little  capital  is  actually 
employed  therein ;  and  there  is  an  evident  rela- 
tion between  the  scantiness  of  capital,  and  the 
scantiness  of  population.  It  is  clearly  deducible 
from  the  simplest  principles  of  political  econo- 
my, that  the  one  cannot  operate  without  the 
other,  and  any  attempt  to  force  capital  into  em- 
ployment, so  as  to  raise  the  demand  for  labor 
beyond  what  can  be  supplied,  must  raise  wages, 
and  lessen  profits.  This  has  been  proved  at  the 
very  outset  in  Mexico,  where  the  suddenly  in- 
creased demand  for  laborers  has  augmented  the 
price  of  wages  above  ten-fold,  and  this  advance 
will  be  increasing  in  proportion  to  the  projected 
employment  of  workmen.  It  operates  in  all 
ways ;  the  demand  for  labor  at  the  mines  takes 
away  the  agriculturist  from  his  operations,  and 
the  demand  for  produce  increase?  with  the  di- 
minution of  hands  to  produce  it:  the  same  in 
the  demand  for  transport,  for  collecting  mate- 
rials, &c.,  would  operate  to  an  extent  that  could 
not  have  been  contemplated  in  England.  It  is, 
however,  not  only  certain  that  the  capital  pro- 
posed cannot  be  employed  in  mining  operations, 
but  it  is  no  less  certain  that,  whatever  British 
capital  is  forced  into  mining  speculations,  will 
be  unproductive,  and  that  loss  must  take  place 
to  a  considerable  amount.'  Since  transcribing 
the  above,  it  has  been  proved,  by  reference  to  po- 
sitive experience,  that  the  views  entertained  by 
our  author  are  perfectly  accurate,  as  in  the  whole 
of  this  immense  district  only  one  mine  is  really 
productive. 

CHIL'IAD,  n.s.  From  x^«ac.  A  thousand; 
a  collection  or  sum  containing  a  thousand. 

We  make  cycles  and  periods  of  years,  as  decads, 
centuries,  chiliads,  for  the  use  of  computation  in  his- 
tory. Holder. 

CHILIA'EDRON,  n.  s.  From  Xt\ia,  A 
figure  of  a  thousand  sides. 

In  a  man,  who  speaks  of  a  chiliaedron,  or  a  body 
of  a  thousand  sides,  the  idea  of  the  figure  may  be 
very  confused,  though  that  of  the  number  be  very  dis- 
tinct. Loc/te. 

CHILIAGON,  in  geometry,  a  regular  plane 
figure  of  1000  sides  and  angles.  Though  the 
imagination  cannot  form  an  idea  of  such  a  figure, 


yet  it  is  asserted,  we  may  have  a  notion  of  it  i» 
the  mind,  as  we  can  easily  demonstrate  that  the 
sum  of  all  its  angles  is  equal  to  1996  right  ones: 
for  the  internal  angles  of  every  plane  figure  are 
equal  to  twice  as  many  right  ones  as  the  figure 
has  sides,  except  those  four  which  are  about  the 
centre  of  the  figure,  from  whence  it  may  be  re- 
solved into  as  many  triangles  as  it  has  sides.  The 
author  of  1'  Art  de  Penser,  p.  44,  has  brought 
this  instance  to  show  the  distinction  between 
imagination  and  conceiving. 

CHILIAUCHA,  or  CHILIARCHTJS,  in  anti- 
quity, an  officer  who  had  the  command  of  1000 
men. 

CHILIFA'CTIVE,  adj.  From  chile.  That 
which  makes  chile. 

Whether  this  be  not  effected  by  some  way  of  cor- 
rosion, rather  than  any  proper  digestion,  chilif active 
mutation,  or  alimental  conversion. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Err  ours. 

CHILIFA'CTORY,  adj.  From  chile.  That 
which  has  the  quality  of  making  chile. 

We  should  ratlw.r  rely  upon  a  chilifactory  men- 
struum, or  digs-stive  preparation  drawn  from  species 
or  individuals,  whose  stomachs  peculiarly  dissolve 
lapideous  bodies.  Browne, 

CHILIFICA'TION,  n.  s.  From  chile.  The 
act  of  making  chile. 

There  is  a  fourfold  order  of  concoction  ;  mastica- 
tion, or  chewing  in  the  mouth  ;  chylification  of  this 
so  chewed  meat  in  the  stomach  ;  the  third  is  in  the 
liver,  to  turn  this  chylus  into  blood,  called  sanguifica- 
tion ;  the  last  is  assimulation,  which  is  in  every  part. 
Burton's  Anatomy  of  Melancholy. 

Nor  will  we  affirm  that  iron  is  indigested  in  the 
stomach  of  the  ostriche  ;  but  we  suspect  this  effect  to 
proceed  not  from  any  liquid  reduction,  or  tendency  to 
chilification,  by  the  power  of  natural  heat. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

CHILKA,  a  lake  of  the  Deccan  of  Hindos- 
tan,  on  the  sea-coast  of  the  province  of  Cattack, 
on  the  north-west  side  of  the  bay  of  Bengal.  It 
communicates  with  the  sea,  by  a  very  narrow 
but  deep  opening,  and  is  shallow  within.  It  is 
forty  miles  long  from  north-east  to  south-west, 
and  in  general  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  wide ; 
having  many  inhabited  islands  in  it,  and  only  a 
slip  of  land  between  it  and  the  sea.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  west  by  a  part  of  that  ridge  of  mountains 
which  extend  from  the  Mahanudy  to  the  Godavery 
rivers,  and  shut  up  the  Circars  towards  the  con- 
tinent. It  is  forty  miles  south-west  of  Cattack. 

CHILL,  v.  a.,  n.  s.,  &«rf;.-\       Goth,    k'utla  ; 

CHI'LLINESS,  n  s.  f  Swed.  kyla  ;  Sax. 

CHI'LLY,  adj.  £cele.      Shivering 

CHI'LNESS,  n.  s.  5  with  cold;    hav- 

ing the  sensation  of  cold.  Dull ;  not  warm  ;  re- 
pulsiveness  of  manner;  cooling  the  warmth  of 
affectionate  approach.  Metaphorically,  unaffec- 
tionate ;  depressed ;  rejected  ;  discouraged. 

If  you  come  out  of  the  sun  suddenly  into  a  shade, 
there  followeth  a  chilness  or  shivering  in  all  the  body. 

Bacon. 
And  all  my  plants  I  save  from  nightly  ill, 

Of  noisome  winds,  and  blasting  vapours  chill. 

Milton. 

Oft  as  he  in  chill  Esk  or  Seyn  by  night, 
Hardened  and  cooled  his  lynbs  so  soft,  so  white, 
Among  the  reeds  to  be  espyed  by  him 
The  nymphs  would  rustle,  he  would  forward  swim. 


CHI  5£ 

Age  has  not  yet 

So  shrunk  my  sinews,  or  so  chilled  my  veins, 
But  conscious  virtue  in  iny  breast  remains. 

Dryden. 

I  very  well  know  one   to  have  a  sort  of  chill  about 

his  praecordia  and  head.     Derham's  Pliysico- Theology. 

If  the  patient  survives  three  days,  the  acuteness  of 

the  pain  abates,  and  a  chilliness  or  shivering  affects  the 

body-  Arbuthnot. 

Yet  winter  chilled,  her  feet  -with  cold,  she  pines, 
And  on  her  cheek  the  fading  rose  declines.  Gay. 

'Tis  true  yon  oaks  with  yellow  tops  appear, 
And  chilly  blasts  appear.  Id. 

Alas,  poor  boy  !  the  natural  effect 
Of  love  by  absence  chilled  into  respect.     Cowper. 
Vigour  from  toil,  from  trouble  patience  grows, 
The  weakly  blossom,  warm  in  summer  bower, 
Some  tints  of  transient  beauty  may  disclose, 
But  soon  it  withers  in  the  chilling  hour.  Beattie. 

Thus  on  the  chill  Lapponian's  dreary  land, 
For  many  along  month  lost  in  snow  profound, 

When  Sol  from  Cancer  sends  the  season  bland, 
And  in  their  northern  cave  the  storms  are  bound. 

Id. 

Upon  his  hand  she  laid  her  own, — 
Light  was  the  touch,  but  it  thrilled  to  the  bone, 
And  shot  a  chillness  to  his  heart, 
Which  fixed  him  beyond  the  power  to  start. 

Byron. 

Chill — wet — and  misty,  round  each  stiffened  limb 
Refreshing  earth — reviving  all  but  him  !  Id. 

CHILLAMBARAM,  a  town  on  the  coast  of 
the  Carnatic,  Hindostan,  where  there  is  a  cele- 
brated pagoda,  held  in  great  veneration.  It  is 
1332  feet  long  by  936,  and  entered  by  a  lofty 
gateway,  under  a  stone  pyramid  122  feet  high. 
The  stones  are,  many  of  them,  above  forty  feet 
long,  and  five  feet  square,  and  covered  with 
copper.  In  this  pagoda  Sir  Eyre  Coote  made 
an  unsuccessful  attack  on  a  garrison  of  Hyder 
Ali's.  It  is  distant  eight  miles  south  of  Porto- 
Novo,  and  120  S.  S.  W.  of  Madras. 

CHILIAN,  a  town  and  province  of  Chili, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Mauie,  on  the  east  by 
the  Andes,  on  the  south  by  Iluilquilemu,  and  on 
the  west  by  the  province  of  Itata  It  is  sixty 
miles  in  length  from  east  to  west,  and  about 
thirty  in  breadth.  It  contains  fine  pasturage  for 
sheep,  the  wool  of  which  is  much  esteemed. 
The  capital  city  contains  about  400  houses,  a 
parish  church,  and  several  convents.  In  1751  it 
was  overthrown  by  an  earthquake,  but  rebuilt  the 
following  year. 

CHILLINGWORTH  (William),  an  eminent 
divine  of  the  church  of  England,  born  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  in  the  early  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  He  was  an  expert  mathema- 
tician, an  able  divine,  and  a  good  poet.  Study 
and  conversation  at  the  university  turning  upon 
the  controversy  between  the  church  of  England 
and  that  of  Rome,  Mr.  Cbillingworth  left  the 
former,  and  embraced  the  Romish  religion.  Dr. 
Laud,  then  bishop  of  London,  hearing  of  this, 
wrote  to  Mr.  Chiilingworth,  and  a  new  enquiry 
at  last  determined  him  to  return  to  his  former 
faith.  In  1634  he  wrote  a  confutation  of  the  ar- 
guments which  induced  him  to  go  over  to  the 
church  of  Rome.  His  return  to  the  church  of 
England  involved  him  in  several  disputes  with 
those  of  the  Romish  persuasion.  But  in  1635 
be  engaged  in  a  work,  which  gave  him  a  better 
VOL.  V. 


i3  CHI 

opportunity  to  confute  the  principles  of  the 
church  of  Rome,  and  to  vindicate  the  Protestant 
religion,  entitled,  The  Religion  of  Protestants  a 
Safe  Way  to  Salvation.  Sir  Thomas  Coventry 
offering  him  preferment,  he  refused  to  accept  it 
on  account  of  his  scruples  about  the  subscrip- 
tion of  the  thirty-nine  articles.  However,  he  at 
last  surmounted  these ;  and  was  promoted  to  the 
chancellorship  of  Sarum,  with  the  prebend  of 
Brixworth.  He  was  zealously  attached  to  the 
royal  party;  and  in  August,  1653,  was  in  the 
king's  army  at  the  siege  of  Gloucester,  where  he 
directed  the  making  of  certain  engines  for  as- 
saulting the  town.  Soon  after,  having  accom- 
panied Lord  Hopton  to  Arundel  Castle,  he  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  parliamentary  forces  under 
Sir  William  Waller.  But,  being  in  a  bad  state  of 
health,  he  obtained  leave  to  be  conveyed  to  the 
bishop's  palace  at  Chichester,  where  he  died  in 
1644.  He  left  several  excellent  works. 

CHILLIS,  KHIILIS,  or  KLES,  a  town  of  Sy- 
ria, at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tauris,  in  the  pachalic 
of  Aleppo  :  having  fifteen  mosques,  several  large 
bazaars,  and  a  noted  mart  for  cotton.  It  has  a  re- 
sident aga,  and  is  supposed  to  be  an  ancient 
place  from  the  numerous  coins  found.  Distant 
ten  miles  S.S.  W.  of  Antab,  and  fifteen  north  of 
Aleppo. 

CHILMINAR,  the  grandest  piece  of  ancient 
architecture  of  which  there  are  any  relics  extant, 
being  the  ruins  of  the  famous  palace  of  Persepo- 
lis,  which  was  burnt  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
when  intoxicated  with  wine,  at  the  persuasion  of 
the  courtesan  Thais.  See  PERSEPOLIS. 

CHILO.one  of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece,  and 
of  the  ephori  of  Sparta,  the  place  of  his  birth, 
flourished  about  A.  A.  C.  556.  He  was  accus- 
tomed to  say,  that  there  were  three  things  very 
difficult,  'To  keep  a  secret;  to  know  best  how 
to  employ  our  time ;  and  to  suffer  injuries  with- 
out murmuring.'  According  to  Pliny  it  was  he 
who  caused  the  sentence,  Know  thyself,  to  be 
written  in  letters  of  gold  in  the  temple  of  Delphos. 
It  is  said  that  he  died  with  joy,  embracing  his 
son,  who  had  been  crowned  at  the  Olympic 
games. 

CHILOE,  a  considerable  island  off  the  coast 
of  Chili,  giving  name  to  an  archipelego  of  islands 
in  the  neighbourhood.  Their  number  has  been 
variously  stated,  but  is  generally  taken  at  forty- 
seven,  of  which  this  island,  about  forty  leagues 
long  from  north  to  south,  and  from  ten  to  thir- 
teen broad,  and  thirty  others,  are  inhabited. 

The  groupe  appears  to  have  been  formed  by 
some  volcanic  convulsions,  and  presents,  gene- 
rally, nothing  but  shapeless  masses  of  rock,  se- 
parated by  narrow  and  dangerous  channels. 
Most  of  them  rise  perpendicularly  from  the  ocean, 
and  are  so  thinly  covered  with  soil,  as  to  be  in- 
capable of  growing  their  own  food.  The  climate 
is  damp  and  stormy.  The  winter  is  never  suffi- 
ciently cold  to  permit  the  snow  to  lay  on  the 
ground,  but  this  season  is  extremely  wet,  with 
heavy  gales  from  N.  N.  E.  and  N.  N.W. ; 
southerly  winds,  on  the  contrary,  are  accom- 
panied with  fair  weather.  The  traversia  is  a 
short  storm  from  the  east.  Occasionally  the 
Aurora  Australis  is  seen  here.  In  midsum- 
mer the  heat  is  great,  but  it  is  moderated  by 

2Q 


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sea  breezes,  which  blow  pretty  regularly  from  ten 
to  three  o'clock. 

The  largest  of  these  islands,  besides  Chiloe,  are 
Ac'iiao,  or  Quinchau,  and  Lemui.  None  of  the 
others  are  more  than  from  one  to  three  leagues  in 
circumference.  Of  the  villages  on  these  islands, 
that  of  Calbuco  is  the  most  considerable,  con- 
sisting of  twenty  straw  houses,  defended  by  a 
fort.  The  .village  of  St.  Maria  of  Achao  has 
eighteen  straw  houses,  of  Spaniards.  The  others 
are  of  still  less  consequence.  They  raise  wheat, 
oats,  French  beans,  and  potatoes.  The  fruits 
cultivated  here  are  several  varieties  of  the  apple, 
and  strawbeiries.  The  most  common  trees  with 
which  the  hills  are  in  general  covered,  are  the 
cedar,  oak,  walnut,  plumb,  cypress,  cinnamon, 
laurel,  orange,  the  pelu,  zenui,  meter,  and  meli. 
A  kind  of  rattan  grows  spontaneously,  of  which 
the  natives  make  their  cordage,  and  which  is 
also  employed  in  roofing  their  habitations.  The 
archipelago  is  said  to  have  neither  beast  of  prey  nor 
venomous  reptiles.  Horses  and  cattle  are  not  so 
numerous  as  on  the  opposite  continents  :  the  do- 
mestic animals  are  pigs  and  sheep,  of  which  they 
have  great  numbers ;  and  game  and  domestic 
fowls  are  abundant.  The  deer,  otter,  and  a 
species  of  black  fox,  are  found  in  a  wild  state. 

Chiloe  is  separated  from  the  continent  on  the 
north  by  the  Boca  de  Chiloe,  or  Channel  of 
Chacao,  only  one  league  wide  at  its  entrance. 
On  the  south  it  has  the  Gulf  of  Chonos,  and  on 
the  west,  between  it  and  the  main,  it  forms  se- 
veral gulfs. 

Its  western  coast  is  straight,  having  no  inden- 
tation of  any  consequence,  and  only  a  few  small 
rivers.  The  east  coast  which  faces  the  continent 
is  more  irregular,  and  nearly  in  the  middle  forms 
a  deep  gulf.  The  island  contains  two  towns, 
Chacao  and  St.  Carlos,  and  thirty-eight  villages, 
principally  on  the  north  and  east  sides,  there  be- 
ing but  one  village  on  the  west  coast.  The  inte- 
rior is  so  mountainous  and  barren,  that  it  is 
almost  entirely  destitute  of  inhabitants. 

Chacao,  on  the  north-east  end,  was  the  princi- 
pal part  of  the  island  until  1768,  when  the  diffi- 
culty of  the  navigation  caused  it  to  be  deserted 
for  St.  Carlos,  on  the  Bahia  de  Reye,  or  north- 
west of  the  island,  the  access  to  which  is  safe. 
This  is  now  the  only  port  visited  by  the  annual 
vessels  from  Peru.  The  city  of  San  Carlos  is  the 
chief  place,  and  contains  about  200  wooden 
houses  and  some  Indian  huts.  The  town  named 
St.  Antonio  de  Chacao,  consists  only  of  the 
church,  the  missionary-house,  and  some  Indian 
huts.  Castro,  on  the  east  side  of  the  island,  has 
a  good  port,  when  it  can  be  reached,  but  the 
difficulty  of  the  navigation  seldom  permits  it  to 
be  visited. 

This  archipelago  was  discovered  by  Don  Gar- 
cia de  Mendoza,  governor  of  Chili,  in  1558.  In 
1565  Martino  Ruiz  Gamboa  was  sent  here 
with  only  sixty  men,  with  which  he  subjected  the 
inhabitants,  who  are  said  to  have  amounted  to 
the  number  of  70,000,  and  founded  the  city  of 
Castro  and  the  port  of  Chacao.  The  present 
population  amounts,  perhaps,  to  11,000  native 
Indians,  and  an  equal  number  of  Spaniards,  or 
families  of  Spanish  descent.  The  former  are  re- 
markably docile,  and  ingenious;  expert  ui  all  the 


handicraft  trades,  and  some  of  the  best  sailors  of 
South  America.  In  their  frail  barks,  which  are 
made  only  of  a  few  planks  sewed  together 
and  caulked  with  moss,  they  will  undertake 
royages  to  Conception.  The  commerce  of  these 
islands  is  principally  carried  on  by  a  few  vessels 
from  Peru  and  Chili,  which  exchange  wine, 
brandy,  tobacco,  sugar,  Paraguay  tea,  salt  and 
European  goods,  for  cedar  and  other  timber, 
hams,  dried  and  salt  fish,  toys,  ambergris,  and  a 
sort  of  cloak  manufactured  here. 

CHILPANZINGO,  or  CHILPASTZIKCO,  a 
town  of  Mexico,  on  the  great  road  from  Mexico 
to  Acapulco,  in  the  fertile  plains  of  the  Andes. 
It  is  built  2527  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  is  150  miles  north  of  Mexico. 

CIIILTERN,  a  chain  of  chalky  hills,  forming 
the  southern  part  of  Buckinghamshire,  the 
northern  part  of  the  county  being  distinguished 
by  the  name  of  the  Vale.  The  air  on  these 
heights  is  extremely  healthful :  the  soil,  though 
stony,  produces  good  crops  of  wheat  and  bar- 
ley ;  and  in  many  places  it  is  covered  with  thick 
woods,  among  which  are  great  quantities  of  beech. 
Chiltern  is  also  applied  to  the  hilly  parts  of 
Berkshire,  and  it  is  believed  has  the  same  mean- 
ing in  some  other  countries.  Hence  the  hundreds 
lying  in  those  parts  are  called  the  Chfltern 
Hundreds. 

CHILTERN  HUNDREDS,  STEWARDS  OF  THE 
Of  the  Hundreds  into  which  many  of  the  Eng- 
lish counties  were  divided  by  king  Alfred  for 
their  better  government,  the  jurisdiction  was  ori- 
ginally rested  in  peculiar  courts;  but  came  after- 
wards to  be  devolved  to  the  county  courts,  and 
so  remains  at  present;  except  with  regard  to 
some,  as  the  chilterns,  which  have  been  by  pri- 
vilege annexed  to  the  crown.  These  having  still 
their  own  courts,  a  steward  of  those  courts  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  with 
a  salary  of  twenty  shillings  and  all  fees,  &c.  be- 
longing to  the  office.  This  is  made  a  matter  of 
convenience  to  the  minister  when  he  wishes  to 
accomplish  the  removal  of  any  of  the  members 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  He  is  made  to  ac- 
cept the  stewardship  of  the  Chiltern  Hundreds, 
which  vacates  his  seat. 

CHIM7ERA,  a  barren  territory  of  European 
Turkey,  in  the  province  of  Albania.  It  compre- 
hends a  chain  of  mountains,  which  divide  Epirus 
from  Thessaly;  the  inhabitants  of  which  are 
partly  independent  and  partly  subject  to  the 
Turks. 

CHIM.ERA,  a  port  town  of  the  above  territory, 
seated  on  a  rock  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of 
Venice,  about  twenty-nine  miles  north  of  Corfu. 

CHIMERA,  in  fabulous  history,  a  monster, 
sprung  from  Echidna  and  Typhon.  It  had  three 
heads ;  that  of  a  lion,  a  goat,  and  a  dragon  ;  and 
continually  vomited  flames.  The  fore  parts  of 
its  body  were  those  of  a  lion,  the  middle  was 
that  of  a  goat,  and  the  hinder  parts  were  those  of 
a  dragon.  It  inhabited  Lycia,  in  the  reign  of 
Jobates,  by  whose  order  Bellerophon,  mounted 
on  the  horse  Pegasus,  overcame  it.  See  BELLE- 
ROPHON. This  fable  is  thus  explained  : — There 
was  a  burning  mountain  in  Lycia,  whose  top  was 
the  resort  of  lions ;  the  middle,  which  was  fruit- 
ful, was  covered  with  goats;  and  at  the  bottom 


CHI 

the  marshy  ground  abounded  with  serpents. 
Bellerophon  destroyed  the  wild  beasts  on  that 
mountain,  and  rendered  it  habitable.  Plutarch 
explains  the  fable  to  mean  the  captain  of  some 
pintes,  who  adorned  their  ship  with  the  images 
of  a  lion,  a  goat,  and  a  dragon.  From  the  union 
of  the  Chimsera  with  Orthos,  sprung  the  Sphynx 
and  the  lion  of  Nemjea. 

CIIIMB,  n.  s.  Dut.  kime  ;  the  end  of  a  bar- 
rel or  tub. 

For  sikerly  whan  I  was  borne,  anon 
Deth  drew  the  tappe  of  lif,  and  let  it  gon ; 
And  ever  sith,  hath  so  the  tappe  yronne, 
Till  that  almost  all  empty  is  the  tonne. 
The  streme  of  lif  now  droppeth  on  the  chimbe. 

Chaucer. 

CHIMBO,  a  town  and  district  of  South  Ame- 
rica, in  the  province  of  Quito,  and  jurisdiction  of 
Riobamba.  The  town  contains  about  2000  in- 
habitants, and  the  whole  is  a  cold  district,  lying 
very  near  the  mountainous  desert  of  Chim- 
borazo. 

CHIMBCRAZO,  a  mountain  of  South  Ame- 
rica, the  most  celebrated  of  the  Andes,  and  once 
supposed  to  be  the  highest  in  the  world  ;  being 
21,440  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Of  this 
more  than  2000  feet  from  the  summit  is  con- 
stantly covered  with  ice  and  snow,  though  it  lies 
almost  under  the  line,  in  lat.  1°  41'  40"  S.  In 
1745  this  celebrated  mountain  was  ascended  by 
M.  Condamine  and  a  company  of  French  aca- 
demicians, with  a  view  to  the  measurement  of  a 
degree;  and  in  1797,  on  the  23rd  of  June, 
Humboldt  ascended  it  3485  feet  higher  than  the 
academicians,  or  to  the  altitude  of  19,300  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Here  he  w&s  stopped 
in  his  progress  by  an  immense  fissure  in  the 
mountain  ;  and  the  tenacity  and  sharpness  of  the 
air  was  so  great  that  the  blood  started  from  his 
lips  and  various  parts  of  his  face :  the  fog  was 
also  very  thick.  He  calculated  the  summit  of 
the  mountain  to  be  2140  feet  above  this  spot. 

CHIME,  v.  a.,  v.  n.  &  n.  The  original  of  this 
word  is  doubtful.  Junius  andMinsheu  suppose 
it  corrupted  from  cimbal ;  Skinner  from  gamme, 
or  gamut;  Henshaw  from  chiamare,  to  call,  be- 
cause the  chime  calls  to  church.  Perhaps  ii  is 
only  softened  from  chinne,  or  churm,  an  old 
word  for  the  sound  of  many  voices,  or  instru- 
ments making  a  noise  together.  The  consonant 
or  harmonic  sound  of  many  correspondent  in- 
struments ;  the  correspondence  of  sound ;  the 
correspondence  of  proportioned  relation ;  the 
agreement  either  of  sounds  or  syllables,  which 
produce  harmony  ;  applied  especially  to  the 
striking  of  bells,  to  mark  the  divisions  of  the 
hours.  Metaphorically,  to  suit  with,  to  agree, 
to  fall  in  with. 

The  sely  tongue  may  wel  ringe  and  chimbe 
Of  wretchednesse,  that  passed  is  ful  yore 
With  olde  folk,  save  dotage  is  no  more.      Chaucer. 

We  have  heard  the  chimes  at  midnight. 

Khal;.ipc'arc. 

The  sound 

Of  instruments,  that  made  melodious  chime, 
Was  beard;  of  harp  and  orgin. 

Milton.      Paradise  Lust. 


CHI 


Love  virtue,  she  alone  is  free  ; 
She  can  teach  you  how  to  climb 
Higher  than  the  sphery  chime.  Milton. 

Thus  sing  they  in  the  English  boat, 
An  holy  in  a  chearful  note, 
And  all  the  way,  to  guide  their  chime, 
With  falling  oars  they  kept  the  time. 

Miiri'dl. 

Love  first  invented  verse,  and  formed  the  rhime, 
The  motion  measured,  harmonized  the  chime. 

Dry  den. 

With  lifted  arms  they  order  every  blow, 
And  chime  their  sounding  hammers  in  a  row  ; 
With  laboured  anvils  ./Etna  groans  below. 

Dry  den's  Georgicks. 

Any  sect,  whose  reasonings,  interpretation,  and 
language,  I  have  been  used  to,  will,  of  course,  make 
all  chime  that  way ;  and  make  an  author,  and  perhaps 
the  genuine  meaning  of  the  author,  seem  harsh, 
strange,  and  uncouth  to  me.  Locke. 

Father  and  son,  husband  and  wife,  and  such  other 
correlative  terms,  do  belong  one  to  another ;  and, 
through  custom,  do  readily  chime,  and  answer  one 
another,  in  people's  memories.  Id. 

He  not  only  sat  quietly  and  heard  his  father  railed 
at,  but  often  chimed  in  with  the  discourse. 

Arbuthnot's  History  of  John  Bull. 
CHIMES.  To  calculate  the  numbers  for  the 
chimes  of  a  clock,  and  adapt  the  chime  barrel, 
it  must  be  observed,  that  the  barrel  must  turn 
round  in  the  same  time  that  the  tune  it  is  16 
play  requires  in  singing.  The  chime-barrel  may 
be  made  up  .'>f  certain  bars  that  run  athwart  it. 
with  a  convenient  number  of  holes  punched  in 
them  to  put  in  the  pins  that  are  to  draw  each 
hammer :  and  these  pins,  in  order  to  play  the 
time  of  the  tune  rightly,  must  stand  upright  or 
hang  down  from  the  bar,  some  more,  some  less. 
In  placing  the  pins,  proceed  by  the  way  ot' 
changes  on  bells,  viz.  1,  2,  3,  4;  or  rather  make 
use  of.  the  musical  notes.  Observe  what  is  the 
compass  of  the  tune,  and  divide  the  barrel  ac- 
cordingly from  end  to  end.  Thus,  for  example, 
the  100th  Psalm  tune  is  eight  notes  in  compass, 
and  accordingly  the  barrel  is  divided  into  eight 
parts. 

Table  for  dividing  the  Chime  Barrel  of  the  100<A  Psalm. 


These  divisions  are  struck  round  the  barrel ;  op- 
posite to  which  are  the  hammer  tails.  We  have 
here  supposed  only  one  hammer  to  each  bell;  but 
when  two  notes  of  the  same  sound  come  together 
in  a  tune,  there  must  be  two  hammers  to  the  bell  to 
strike  it.  Then  it  must  be  divided  round  about 
into  as  many  divisions  as  there  are  musical  bars, 
semibreves,  minims,  &c.  in  the  tune.  Thus,  the 
100th  Psalm  tune  has  twenty  semibreves,  and 
each  division  of  it  is  a  semibreve ;  the  first  note 
of  it  also  is  a  semibreve  ;  and,  therefore,  on  the 
chime-barrel  must  be  a  whole  division,  from  five 
to  live ;  as  any  one  may  understand  plainly,  if  he 
conceives  the  surface  chime-barrel  to  be  repre- 

2  Q  2 


CHI  596 


CHI 


seated  by  the  above  figures,  as  if  the  cylindrical  su- 
perficies of  the  barrel  were  stretched  outat  length, 
or  extended  on  a  plane  :  and  then  such  a  table, 
so  divided,  if  it  were  to  be  wrapped  round  the 
barrel,  would  show  the  places  where  all  the  pins 
are  to  stand  in  the  barrel ;  for  the  dots  running 
about  the  table  are  the  places  of  the  pins  that 
play  the  tune.  Indeed,  if  the  chimes  are  to  be 
complete  there  ought  to  be  a  set  of  bells  to  the 
gamut  notes;  so  that  each  bell  having  the  true 
sound  of  sol,  la,  mi,  fa,  any  tune  may  be  played 
with  its  flats  and  sharps ;  nay  both  the  bass  and 
treble  may  thus  be  played  with  one  barrel : 
and  by  setting  the  names  of  the  bells  at  the  head 
of  any  tune,  that  tune  may  easily  be  transferred 
to  the  chime-barrel,  without  any  skill  in  music. 
CHIME'RA,  n.  s.  ^  Lat.  chimara;  a 
CHIME'RICAL,  adj.  >vain  and  wild  fancy, 
CHIME'RICALLY,  adv.j  as  remote  from  reality 
as  the  existence  of  the  poetical  chimera,  a  mon- 
ster feigned  to  have  the  head  of  a  lion,  the  belly 
of  a  goat,  and  the  tail  of  a  dragon.  Imaginary  ; 
fanciful,  wildly,  vainly,  or  fantastically  conceived ; 
fantastic. 

In  short,  the  force  of  dreams  is  of  a  piece, 
Chimeras  all,  and  more  absurd,  or  less. 

Dryden's  Pallet. 

No  body  joins  the  voice  of  a  sheep  with  the  shape 
of  a  horse,  to  be  the  complex  ideas  of  any  real  sub- 
stances, unless  he  has  a  mind  to  fill  his  hcud  with 
chimeras,  and  his  discourse  with  unintelligible  words. 

Locke. 

Notwithstanding  the  fineness  of  this  allegory  may 
atone  for  it  in  some  measure,  I  cannot  think  that 
persons  of  such  a.  chimerical  existence  are  proper  actors 
in  an  epic  poem.  Spectator. 

Accustomed  to  indulge  every  chimera  in  politics, 
every  frenzy  in  religion,  the  soldiers  knew  little  of 
the  subordination  of  citizens,  and  had  only  learned, 
from  apparent  necessity,  some  maxims  of  military 
obedience.  Hume's  History  of  England. 

CHFMINAGE,  n.  s.  From  chimin,  an  old 
law  word  for  a  road.  A  toll  for  passage  through 
a  forest. 

CHI'MNEY,  n.  s.  ~\       Ko/u'voc    from 

Cm'MNEY-coRNER,n.s.     f  Kaiw,  to  burn.  Lat. 
CHI'MNEY-PIECE,  n.  s.       I  cuminus  ;  fi.che- 
CHI'M.NEY-SWEEPER,  n.  s.  *  minee.       A    fire- 
place; a   passage   for   smoke.     The   subjoined 
nouns,  in   composition,   bespeak  at  once  their 
specific  relation  to   these  etymons.     Chimney- 
sweeper is  not  only  used  for  a  cleanser  of  chim- 
neys from  soot,  but  for  any  one  of  mean  and 
vile  occupation. 

Quoth  Pandarus  :  '  For  aught  I  can  aspicn, 
This  light,  nor  I,  ne  serven  here  of  naught ; 
Light  is  not  gode  for  sike  folkis  eyen. 
But  for  the  love  of  God,  sens  ye  ben  brought 
In  this  gode  plite,  let  now  non  hevy  thought 
Ben  hanged  in  the  hertis  of  you  twey.' 
And  bare  the  candle  towardes  the  chimney. 

Chaucer. 

It  was  a  vaut  [kitchen]  ybuilt  for  great  dispense, 
With  many  raunges  reared  along  the  wall, 
And  one  great  chimney,  whose  long  tonuel  thence 
The  smoke  forth  threw.  Spenser. 

The  chimney 

la  south  the  chamber  j  and  the  chimney-piece, 
Chaste  Dian  bathing.  Shaktpeare. 


To  look  like  her,  are  chimney-sweepers  black  ; 
And  since  her  time  are  colliers  counted  bright.    Id. 
The  fire  which  the  Chaldeans  worshipped  for  a  god, 
is  crept  into  every  man's  chimney.     Raleigh's  History. 

Yet  some  old  men 
Tell  stories  of  you  in  their  chimney-corner. 

Denham . 

Let  me  thy  properties  explain,  . 

A  rotten  rabin  dropping  rain  ; 
Chimnies  with  scorn  rejecting  smoke, 
Stools,  tables,  chairs,  and  bedsteads  broke. 

Swift. 

Polish  and  brighten  the  marble  hearths  and  chim- 
ney-pieces with  a  clout  dipt  in  grease.  Id. 

But,  ah,  I  fear  thy  little  fancy  roves 
On  little  females,  and  on  little  loves  ; 
Thy  pigmy  children,  and  thy  tiny  spouse, 
The  baby  play  things  that  adorn  thy  house, 
Doors,  windows,  chimnies,  and  the  spacious  rooms, 
Equal  in  size  to  cells  of  honeycombs.  Gay. 

CHIMNEY,  the  passage  through  which  the 
smoke  is  conducted  from  the  fire-place.  They  are 
generally  supposed  to  be  a  modern  invention,  as 
the  ancients  used  braziers  and  stoves.  The  first 
creditable  account  of  chimneys  is  that  of  De  Ga- 
taris,  1405,  who  states  them  to  have  been  brought 
to  Rome  from  Padua,  by  F.  de  Carrara,  who 
caused  them  to  be  constructed  at  the  hotel  where 
he  lodged.  But  it  is  certain  that  the  ancients 
had  chimneys  to  convey  the  smoke  from  those 
manufactories  that  required  the  aid  of  fire,  and 
also  from  the  hypocaustum  of  their  houses  and 
baths.  In  Italy  and  Spain  chimneys  are  now 
rarely  to  be  met  with,  and  in  Germany  the  stove 
is  preferred.  For  the  best  method  of  construct- 
ing chimneys,  see  ARCHITECTURE. 

CHIN,  n.  s.    Sax.  cmne  ;  Germ.  kinn.    The 
part  of  the  face  beneath  the  under  lip. 
Her  face  white  and  well  coloured  ; 
With  little  mouthe,  and  round  to  se 
A  cloven  chinne  eke  had  she.  Chaucer, 

Her  chin,  like  to  a  stone  in  gold  inchased, 
Seemed  a  fair  iewell  wrought  with  cunning  hand, 
And,  being  double,  doubly  the  face  graced. 

Spenser.     Britain's  Ida. 

But  all  the  words  I  could  get  of  her,  was  wrying 
her  waist,  and  thrusting  out  her  chin.  Sidney. 

He  raised  his  hardy  head,  which  sunk  again, 
And,  sinking  on  his  bosom,  knocked  his  chin. 

Dryaen. 

Smooth  o'er  our  chin  her  easy  fingers  move, 
Soft  as  when  Venus  stroaked  the  beard  of  Jove. 

Gay 

He  shews  on  holidays,  a  sacred  pin 
That  touched  the  ruff  that  touched  queen  Bess's  chin. 
Young's  Love  of  Fume. 

CHI'NA,  ra.  5.  From  China,  the  country  where 
it  is  made.  China  ware  ;  porcelain  ;  a  species 
of  vessels  made  in  China,  dimly  transparent, 
partaking  of  the  qualities  of  earth  and  glass. 
They  are  made  by  mingling  two  kinds  of  earth, 
of  which  one  easily  vitrifies;  the  other  resists  a 
very  strong  heat ;  when  the  verifiable  earth  is 
melted  into  glass,  they  are  completely  burnt. 

Spleen,  vapours,  or  small-pox,  above  them  all ; 
And  mistress  of  herself,  though  china  fall.  Pope. 

After  supper,  carry  your  plate  and  china  together 
in  the  same  basket  Swift. 


/.am/an  /ii'ifu/lrti /'>•  Than, 


.    :..,-ll,v.l  .Shi, 


5*7 


CHINA. 


CHINA,  PROPER,  the  principal  part  of  the 
large  empire  of  that  name,  is  situated  on  the 
south-eastern  side  of  Asia,  extending  from  the 
twentieth  to  the  forty-first  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude ;  and  from  the  101st  to  the  122nd  degree 
of  east  longitude,  being  on  the  medium  about 
1450  miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and  nearly 
1300  broad  from  west  to  east.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Mongolia,  and  Mantchoo  Tartaiy ; 
on  the  east  by  the  Whang  Hai,  or  Yellow  Sea, 
and  the  Tung  Hai  or  Eastern  Sea,  both  con- 
nected with  the  Pacific  Ocean  ;  on  the  south  by 
the  China  Sea,  and  Tongking;  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Birman  Empire,  and  Thibet.  China  has 
been  reckoned  to  contain  an  area  of  1,300,000 
square  miles. 

Its  population  has  been  a  matter  of  much  con- 
jecture, and  various  accounts  have  been  given  on 
the  subject,  both  by  the  Jesuits  and  more  mo- 
dern writers.  Sir  George  Staunton,  in  his 
Account  of  Lord  Macartney's  Embassy,  has 
stated  it,  on  the  authority  of  a  mandarin  of  high 
rank,  at  333,000,000  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
Great  Wall ;  but  this  account  is  given  too  much 
in  rotind  numbers,  and  in  some  instances  with  too 
much  similarity  in  the  population  of  the  respec- 
tive provinces,  to  be  entirely  trusted  as  correct. 
Mr.  Ellis,  a  more  modern  traveller,  who  attended 
the  embassy  of  Lord  Amherst,  and  had  superior 
opportunities  of  observation,  is  disposed  to  rate  the 
population  much  lower.  He  observes  very  justly 
that  it  cannot  exceed  a  due  proportion  to  the 
land  under  cultivation,  and  that  much  land  capa- 
ble of  tillage  is  neglected.  He  has  been  informed, 
he  says,  that  the  most  accurate  accounts  (referring 
most  probably  to  those  of  Dr.  Morrison,  who  has 
resided  many  years  at  Canton),  state  its  amount 
considerably  below  200,000,000.  It  appears  that 
a  statistical  account  was  taken  by  order  of  the 
iate  emperor  Kia-king,  which  makes  the  total 
population,  including  the  Tartar-banners,  to  be 
about  145,000,000.  There  is  reason,  however, 
to  think  that  this  census  is  drawn  up  in  a  very 
imperfect  manner.  We  find  that  in  1743  that 
taken  by  order  of  Kien-lung,  gives  it  at 
142,000,000;  that  in  1760,  at  196,837,977;  and 
again  in  1761  at  198,214,553,  making  an  annual 
increase  of  nearly  a  million  and  a  half.  Perhaps 
Dr.  Morrison's  statement  may  be  assumed  as  the 
most  probable  one,  when  he  fixes  the  population 
at  about  150,000,000,  allowing  120  persons  to 
each  square  mile,  a  greater  proportion  than 
prevails  in  many  other  parts  ot  the  world.  But 
of  this  we  shall  say  more  when  we  come  to  speak 
of  the  provinces. 

\\  hether  this  population  is  aboriginal,  or 
derived  from  other  countries,  is  very  uncertain. 
In  features  the  Chinese  greatly  resemble  the 
Mongols,  Mandshurs,  and  other  Tartar  tribes, 
which  probably  arises  from  the  intermixture  of 
•  the  latter  with  the  original  inhabitants.  Perhaps 
no  people  have  undergone  so  many  revolutions 
as  the  Chinese ; — they  have  been  conquered,  and 
have  delivered  themselves,  and  the  country  has 


undergone  many  changes  in  regard  to  its  divisions; 
but  they  have  still  preserved  their  identity.  From 
the  affinity  between  the  customs  and  manners  of 
the  Chinese  and  northern  Scythians,  as  Herodotus 
describes  them,  as  well  as  their  antipathy  to 
change,  it  is  highly  probable  that  China  was  first 
peopled  by  those  wandering  tribes. 

The  present  name  of  this  country  appears  to 
owe  its  origin  to  the  dynasty  of  Tsm,  whose  foun- 
der, about  300  years  before  Christ,  after  subduing 
the  revolted  provinces  and  annexing  them  to  the 
empire,  gave  it  the  appellation  of  his  own  family. 
The  most  ancient  name,  arid  which  is  indeed  still 
used,  is  Tien-sha,  Under-heaven  ;  implying  that 
it  is  inferior  only  to  heaven.  The  natives  call 
it  Tchungquo,  or  Chung-kwo,  the  middle  king- 
dom, arising,  say  some,  from  the  notion  that  the 
earth  is  flat,  and  that  China  is  situated  in  the 
middle;  others  affirm,  that  when  the  emperor 
Tchingwang  established  his  court  at  Lo-yand, 
and  gave  it  this  name,  which  was  afterwards  used 
for  the  whole  country. 

From  the  great  extent  of  latitude  occupied  by 
China,  the  climate  must  necessarily  be  very  va- 
rious. In  the  southern  parts  the  tropical  heat 
is  experienced  ;  but  near  the  coast  this  is  much 
tempered  by  the  monsoons  and  sea  breeze,  while 
in  the  north  the  cold  for  two  or  three  months  is 
extremely  severe.  The  snow  is  constantly  on  the 
ground,  and  the  thermometer  is  often  below  20° 
at  night,  and  beneath  the  freezing  point  all  the 
day.  All  the  intermediate  degrees  of  temperature 
prevail  in  the  middle  parts  of  the  country.  The 
air  of  the  northern  seas  is  excessively  moist,  often 
welling  like  rain.  In  the  most  southerly  regions 
the  heat,  especially  at  mid-day,  exceeds  that  of 
Bengal ;  at  that  time  all  business  is  abandoned, 
and  perfect  silence  reigns.  Hurricanes  are  often 
experienced  at  the  equinoxes  ;  but  at  other  times 
the  sky  is  clear,  the  air  moist,  and  the  vegetation 
beautifully  exuberant.  The  soil  differs  as  much 
as  the  climate,  consisting  of  every  variety,  from 
the  remains  of  primitive  rock  to  the  matter  of 
decayed  vegetables.  In  the  low  districts  it  is 
alluvial,  and  quite  free  from  stones ;  i-n  other 
parts  it  is  gravelly  or  rocky,  and  clay  of  extremely 
fine  quality  is  found  in  some  provinces. 

The  geneial  face  of  this  country  is  rial,  occa- 
sionally varied  with  upland  scenery ;  being  in 
few  places  mountainous,  except  towards  Tartary 
and  in  some  parts  of  the  south.  On  this  subject 
Mr.  Ellis  says,  '  A  range  of  mountains  was  visi- 
ble at  sun-rise  in  the  south-east,  and  the  eyes  of 
all  were  turned  to  them  with  the  same  decree  of 
interest,  as  to  high  land  after  a  sea  voyage  ;  in- 
deed, what  with  uniformity  of  objects,  and  of 
level,  the  country  since  we  left  Tong-chow  (about 
550  miles)  was  as  little  interesting  as  the  ex- 
panse of  blue  water.'  A  range  of  mountains  in 
latitude  about  32°  runs  from  the  115th  degree  of 
longitude  to  the  western  boundaries  of  the  empire, 
where  it  meets  another,  which  extends  southward 
to  the  Birman  territory  and  Tongking ;  the  most 
level  parts  lie  on  the  north  a-'d  east.  The  most  ele- 


598 


CHIN     A. 


vated  ridges  are  those  on  the  side  of  Tartary, 
which  gradually  rise  till  their  summits  are  lost  in 
the  table  land  of  central  Asia. 

China  is  watered  by  numerous  rivers,  some 
of  them  large,  and  extending  beyond  its  con- 
fines. The  table  land  before  mentioned,  and 
the  vast  Himalayan  chain  of  mountains  that  rise 
out  of  it,  cause  the  accumulation  of  a  multitude 
of  streams,  that,  descending  from  the  eastern 
sides  of  these  heights,  swell  into  noble  rivers, 
receiving  an  accession  of  innumerable  small 
branches  in  their  course  through  China,  and 
finally  empty  themselves  into  the  China  and 
Yellow  Seas.  Of  these  the  most  considerable 
are  the  Hoang-ho,  and  the  Kiang-keou ;  al- 
most all  the  minor  streams  falling  into  them. 
The  Kiang-keou  or  Yangtse-kiang,  meaning 
the  Son  of  the  Sea,  has  been  the  admiration  of 
all  travellers,  for  its  extensive  course  and 
amazing  width.  It  rises  in  the  unexplored 
parts  of  northern  Thibet,  first  running  south- 
east, and  then  south,  till  it  passes  the  frontiers 
of  China  Proper,  in  about  28°  north  latitude,  when 
it  takes  a  direction  due  east  for  about  seventy 
miles ;  then  flowing  due  south  to  the  borders  of 
the  province  of  Yunnan,  it  winds  eastward,  and 
'thsn  directly  to  the  north  for  nearly  150  miles,when 
it  turns  short  to  the  E.  N.  E.  which  direction 
it  retains  throughout  the  remainder  of  its  course, 
watering  all  the  central  provinces,  till  it  falls 
into  the  sea  by  many  mouths,  nearly  140  miles 
below  Nankin.  It  flows  through  a  beautiful 
country,  thronged  with  people,  the  scenery  of 
which  is  varied  by  woody  mountains,  frequently 
crowned  with  temples,  and  presenting  a  most 
picturesque  aspect.  The  embassy  under  Lord 
Amherst,  on  its  return  from  China,  pursued  the 
course  of  this  river  for  nearly  300  miles,  and 
the  breadth  of  the  whole  course  was  at  least 
two  miles  on  the  average.  Numerous  large  and 
fertile  islands  are  situated  on  it,  and  the  climate 
of  the  districts  through  which  it  passes  is  de- 
lightful. Its  entire  course  exceeds  2200  miles, 
and  it  receives  many  tributary  streams,  equalling, 
if  not  surpassing,  the  Thames  in  magnitude  and 
importance. 

The  Hoang-ho,  or  Yellow  River,  also  rises  in 
the  Tartarian  mountains,  not  far  from  the  source 
of  the  Yangtse.  After  approaching  very  near 
to  each  other,  they  separate  to  the  distance  of 
more  than  1000  miles.  The  former  making  many 
windings  to  the  north-east,  near  the  boundaries 
of  China  and  Tartary,  sweeps  far  into  the  latter 
country,  forming  thu  northern  limit  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Ortous,  then  running  due  south,  it 
passes  through  the  great  wall  below  tin;  40th 
degree  of  latitude  and  the  110th  of  longitude. 
It  continues  to  flow  in  this  direction  for  more 
than  300  miles,  when  it  turns  towards  the  Yellow 
Sea,  into  which  it  disembogues  itself,  after  a 
course  of  more  than  2000  miles.  Many  minor 
streams,  some  of  them  of  considerable  magni- 
tude, fall  into  this  river,  which  is  so  swelled  at 
times  by  them,  that  in  many  parts  banks  are 
raised  to  prevent  its  overflowing  the  surrounding 
country.  Besides  these  there  are  several  other 
independent  rivers,  as  th'e  Pei-ho,  which  passes 
by  Pekin,  and  flows  into  the  gulf  of  Pee-schee-. 
ice ;  the  Ta-schin-ho,  which  falls  into  the  same 


gulf  on  the  south  side,  and  the  Kang-kiang, 
which  enters  the  sea  near  Canton,  furnishing 
a  ready  access  from  that  city  to  the  interior. 

It  will  be  observed,  that  most  of  the  above 
rivers  cross  the  country  from  west  to  east;  a 
grand  communication  was  therefore  necessary 
from  north  to  south,  and  this  has  been  effected 
by  canals,  with  which  this  country  is  abundantly 
furnished.  The  grand  canal,  extending  from 
Pekin  to  the  Yangtse-kiang  was  commenced,  it 
is  said,  in  the  tenth  century,  and  30,000  men, 
it  is  asserted,  were  employed  forty-three  years  in 
its  construction.  It  is  generally  led  along  the 
beds  of  rivers,  sometimes  conducting  them  to 
their  junction  with  some  other  stream,  and  fol- 
lowing a  very  winding  course.  There  are  no 
locks,  and  when  flood-gates  are  required  to 
check  the  current  at  a  descent,  they  are  formed 
simply  of  thick  planks,  let  down  into  grooves 
cut  in  projections  of  stone,  which  also  serve  as 
abutments  for  slight  wooden  bridges,  which  are 
easily  removed  when  vessels  pass.  Its  whole 
length  is  about  500  miles ;  but  though  a  consi- 
derable work,  Mr.  Abel  thinks  it  has  been  over- 
rated as  a  specimen  of  art  and  labor;  it  is, 
however,  of  great  importance  to  the  empire, 
forming  the  line  of  communication  between  its 
northern  and  southern  provinces,  and  serving  as 
a  sluice  to  drain  the  lakes  and  marshes,  and 
carry  off  the  overflowings  of  the  great  Yellow 
River.  After  passing  this  river,  it  is  continued 
to  the  Yangtse-kiang,  which,  by  means  of  its 
tributary  streams,  carries  the  navigation  to  the 
foot  of  the  mountains  that  form  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  province  of  Canton,  across 
which  ridge  goods  are  conveyed  by  one  day's 
land  carriage,  till  the  navigation  is  again  opened 
and  continued  to  the  city  of  Canton.  A  number 
of  smaller  canals,  joining  most  of  the  principal 
rivers,  intersect  the  country  in  various  directions^ 
but  as  they  are  mostly  cut  through  level  dis- 
tricts, and  an  alluvial  soil,  there  are  none  of 
those  difficulties  in  the  construction  which  are 
experienced  in  many  parts  of  this  country. 

Numerous  and  extensive  lakes  are  found  in 
different  parts  of  China ;  but  most  of  them  con- 
nected with  the  Yangtse  or  its  tributary  branches. 
The  best  known  of  them  is  Poyang,  situated 
near  the  southern  winding  of  the  Great  River, 
about  the  thirtieth  degree  of  latitude.  It  is 
embosomed  in  mountainous  and  highly  pictur- 
esque scenery,  and  so  covered  with  islands  that 
little  of  the  water  can  be  seen  at  one  time.  Mr. 
Ellis  states  that  the  Embassy  sailed  about  sixty 
miles  on  this  lake,  but  it  is  not  wide  in  propor- 
tion to  its  length,  and  it  appears  to  form  two 
branches.  Violent  storms  sometimes  render 
the  navigation  dangerous.  The  Tung-sing  lake, 
in  the  same  latitude,  but  about  250  miles  more 
westward,  is  said  to  be  much  larger,  not  less 
than  300  miles  in  its  greatest  extent.  North  of 
Nankin,  also,  there  are  two  considerable  lakes 
near  the  part  of  the  country  where  the  two 
great  rivers  approach  each  other.  The  name  of 
the  province  in  which  the  great  lake  is  situated, 
Hou-quang,  implies  the  country  of  lakes;  and 
it  contains  a  great  number,  but  generally  small. 
The  coast  of  this  empire  is  very  extensive, 
being  perhaps,  not  less  than  1400  miles  from  the 


C  II  I  N  A. 


north  of  the  Wanghai  to  the  gulf  of  Tonquin.  It 
contains  many  indentations,  and  probably  a 
number  of  convenient  harbours,  though  most  of 
them  are  unknown  to  Europeans.  The  most 
considerable  is  at  the  island  of  Emouy  or  Ampy, 
on  the  coast  of  Fokien,  capable  of  containing 
1000  vessels.  Its  principal  bays,  or  gulfs,  are 
those  of  Petche-tee  on  the  north,  and  that  of  Ta 
or  Canton  on  the  south.  The  former  is  very  ex- 
tensive, and  lies  on  the  south  side  of  the  Whang 
Hai ;  on  the  north  of  this  gulf,  the  Pei-ho  dis- 
charges its  waters  over  a  bar,  on  which  the  depth 
at  low  water  is  only  three  or  four  feet,  and  the 
rise  of  the  tide  is  but  five  or  six  feet.  The  latter 
is  situated  to  the  south  of  Canton,  containing  a 
cluster  of  numerous  islands,  and  receiving  the 
waters  of  the  great  river  Hoan-kiang  or  Ta,  which 
rises  in  the  province  of  Yun-naii,  and  runs  a 
course  of  800  miles.  Here  the  Ladrone  islands, 


about  ten  in  number,  and  those  of  Lerna,  form  a 
chain  almost  in  a  semi-ciicie  before  ihe  bay  ;  on 
the  largest  of  the  Ladrones  is  a  lofty  summit, 
with  a  dome  that  is  seen  at  thirty  miles  distant. 
Most  of  these  islands  are  rocky  and  barren  ;  but 
they  afford  water,  and  Chinese  fishermen  gene- 
rally take  up  their  residence  in  them.  The  large 
islands  of  Hainan  on  the  south  of  Quantang,  and 
Tai-ouan,  or  Formosa,  west  of  Fokien,  are  also 
included  in  China  proper.  See  articles  HAINAN 
and  FORMOSA. 

China  is  most  commonly  divided  into  fifteen 
provinces,  some  of  which  being  double,  they 
are  often  reckoned  as  eighteen.  Of  these,  four 
are  situated  in  the  north,  seven  in  the  middle, 
and  four  in  the  south.  The  following  list  is  taken 
from  the  survey  made  by  order  of  the  Chinese 
legislature,  and  made  public  in  the  year  1813. 


Provinces. 

Number  of 
individuals. 

Number  of 
families. 

Provinces. 

Number  of 
individuals. 

Number  of 
families. 

Chihle  

27,990,871 
28,958,764 
14,004,210 
23,037,171 
37,843,501 
34,168,059 
30,426,999 
14,777,410 
1,748 
26,256,784 
27,370,089 
18,652,507 
10,207,256 
15,193,125 
161,750 
21,435,678 
19,174,030 

Brought  forward 
Kwangse  .          ... 

349,659,952 
7,313,865 
5,561,320 
5,288,219 
942,003 
307,781 

2,398 
7,842 

26,728 

72,374 
4,889 
69,644 
2,55  1 
1,900 

Shuntung       .... 

Honan       

Kweichow     .... 
Shing-King,Leaou-tung 
Kirin   .           .... 

Keangsoo       .... 
Ganhwuy       .... 
Keanfse                        . 

Hihlung-kearig,  orTei- 
tcihar    

Fuhkeen   .          . 

Formosa  (Natives) 
Chekeang      .... 
Hoopih     .     .          . 

Tsinghae,  or  Kokonor  . 
Foreign     tribes    under 
Kansuh      .... 
Foreign    tribes    under 
Szechuen   .... 
Thibetan  colonies    . 
Eleand  its  dependencies 
Turfan  and  Lobnor 
Russian  border  .     .     . 

1  Total    . 

Hoonan     . 

Shense       

Kansuh     

Barkoul  and  Oroumtsi 
Szechuen  

Kwangtung  or  Canton 

349.659.952 

369.073.l4d    188.326 

Though  this  may  appear  an  enormous  popula- 
tion, the  proportion  does  not  exceed  256  persons 
to  the  square  mile,  which  would  show  China  to 
be  only  peopled  in  proportion  to  England  as 
three  to  two.  When  the  nature  of  the  climate, 
the  variety  and  abundance  of  the  productions, 
the  proportionately  small  quantity  of  food  con- 
sumed by  the  Chinese,  and  the  few  animals  that 
tjiey  keep  for  pleasure,  are  taken  into  consideration, 
it  has  been  thought  not  incredible  that  it  should 
support  a  population  equal  to  the  above.  The 
inhabitants  are  very  unequally  spread  over  the 
country ;  in  some  parts  they  are  crowded  to  ex- 
cess, while  others  wear  the  appearance  of  a 
desert. 

The  principal  cities  of  the  empire  are  Pekin, 
Nankin,  and  Canton.  Pekin,  the  metropolis, 
and  the  residence  of  the  emperor,  is  situated  .in 
the  northern  part  cf  the  province  of  Pe-che-lee, 
within  view  of  the  lofty  blue  mountains  of  Tar- 
tary,  in  lat.  39°  50' N.,  and  E.  long.  116°  30'.  It 
is  surrounded  with  high  walls  flanked  with  many 
bastions  and  towers,  the  outer  parts  of  which  are 
built  with  bluish  sun-baked  bricks  on  a  founda- 
tion of  granite ;  the  middle  is  filled  with  earth. 
These  walls  are  thirty  feet  high,  and  twenty-five 
feet  thick  at  the  bottom,  sloping  towards  the  top ; 
the  towers  arc  about  seventy  yards,  or  the  dis- 


tance of  a  bow  shot,  from  each  other.  The  city 
consists  of  two  parts,  the  Lan-ching,  or  old  city, 
inhabited  chiefly  by  Chinese ;  and  the  Sin-ching, 
or  new  city,  where  the  Tartars  chiefly  reside.  It 
is  about  eighteen  miles  in  circumference,  without 
including  the  suburbs.  According  to  lord  Ma- 
cartney's information,  Pekin  contains  about  three 
millions  of  inhabitants,  but  this  population  is  cer- 
tainly not  at  all  proportioned  to  its  size,  espe- 
cially as  the  houses  are  low,  most  of  them  not 
above  one  story  from  the  ground ;  but  the  Chi- 
nese crowd  into  a  small  compass,  two  or  three 
generations  frequently  occupying  a  hut,  that  in 
England  would  scarcely  be  thought  sufficient  for 
the  poorest  family. 

The  city  has  two  great  streets,  running  through 
its  whole  extent,  crossing  one  another,  and  di- 
viding it  into  quarters  ;  these  are  said  to  be 
120  feet  broad,  and  bordered  with  shops,  but  the 
houses  are  low  and  make  a  mean  appearance. 
The  rest  of  the  streets  are  very  narrow,  most  of 
them  being mere  ianes.  The  shops  are  painted 
and  gilt  in  great  profusion,  and  the  goods  are  not 
only  displayed  within,  but  piled  up  in  the  streets 
before  them  ;  and  every  shop-keeper  has  a  painted 
board  before  his  door,  inscribed  vrith  three  i«uge 
characters,  which  he  has  chosen  for  his  sign,  ar.d 
often  with  a  list  of  the  articles  he  sells  under 


600 


CHINA. 


them,  the  characters  pou-hou,  no  cheating  here, 
being  very  conspicuous.  Many  trades  are 
likewise  carried  on  in  the  streets,  so  that  little 
space  is  generally  left  in  the  widest  of  them,  and 
this  often  occupied  by  processions  of  men  in  of- 
fice, or  long  trains  of  attendants  on  marriages 
and  funerals.  The  noise  arising  from  the  buyers 
and  sellers,  mixed  with  that  of  jugglers,  con- 
.urers,  fortune-tellers,  quack  doctors,  mounte- 
banks, comedians,  and  musicians,  is  very  dis- 
cordant and  frequently  annoying.  Among  the 
crowd  too  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  behold 
Tartar  females,  riding  astride,  and  displaying  that 
art  in  managing  their  horses,  for  which  that  nation 
is  so  famous.  A  number  of  triumphal  arches, 
consisting  of  one  large  gateway  in  the  centre, 
with  a  smaller  one  on  each  side,  adorn  various 
parts  of  the  capital ;  and  every  art  is  employed 
in  gilding,  varnishing,  and  painting,  to  make 
them  brilliant.  They  have  large  gold  inscriptions, 
displaying  the  names  of  the  individuals  to  whose 
memory  they  have  been  erected,  or  the  remarka- 
ble occasion  thev  were  designed  to  record.  Tem- 
ples and  pagodas  distinguish  this,  as  well  as  all 
other  cities  in  China.  The  emperor's  palace 
stands  in  adomain,  surrounded  by  a  quadrangular 
wall,  about  a  mile  in  length,  by  three  quarters  in 
breadth,  within  which,  Chinese  art  seems  to  have 
exhausted  its  powers,  in  the  creation  of  moun- 
tains, rocks,  ravines,  woods,  rivers,  lakes,  and 
islands,  rapidly  succeeding  each  other.  The 
emperor's  residences  are  erected  on  hills  of  va- 
rious elevation,  while  pavilions,  kiosks,  and  other 
buildings  for  pleasure  and  refreshment,  are 
raised  on  the  loftiest  summits.  At  a  little  distance 
from  the  city  he  has  another  palace,  at  Yuen- 
Ming-Yuen,  the  grounds  around  which  are  laid 
out  in  a  similar  manner,  but  they  are  far  more 
extensive.  The  area  of  this  royal  demesne,  it  is 
said,  exceeds  ninety  square  miles,  and  includes 
no  less  than  thirty  residences,  with  every  thing 
necessary  to  them.  Most  of  them,  however, 
would  be  very  mean  if  they  were  divested  of 
their  gilding.  The  handsomest  building  is  the 
hall  of  audience,  1 10  feet  long,  forty-two  broad, 
and  twenty  high. 

The  second  city  in  importance  is  Nankin, 
called  by  the  Chinese,  Kiang-ning-fou ;  it  was 
indeed  formerly  the  capital.  It  was  once  very 
extensive,  the  walls,  it  is  said,  being  more  than 
forty  miles  round.  Mr.  Ellis,  who  had  an  op- 
portunity of  viewing  it  from  an  elevation  within 
the  walls,  describes  it  as  appearing  to  have  been 
encompassed  with  three  walls,  one  within  ano- 
ther, the  outer  and  inner  one  being  in  some 
tolerable  state  of  preservation,  but  of  the  middle 
no  trace  was  remaining  but  a  single  archway. 
The  present  inhabited  parts  of  the  city  are  at 
some  distance  within  the  outer  gate,  and  the 
intervening  space  has  scattered  houses,  hills, 
groves,  and  cultivated  spots  of  every  description. 
The  city  lies  in  about  32°  N.  lat.  and  118°  30' 
E.  long.  Like  Pekin  it  has  four  large  streets 
crossing  each  other,  and  a  number  of  smaller 
ones  running  at  right  angles  with  them.  The 
larger  streets  are  very  cleari,  though  not  remark- 
ably broad;  a  canal  appeared  to  flow  through 
one  of  them,  over  which  several  bridges  of  a 
single  arch  are  thrown.  The  great  porcelain 


tower  rises  conspicuously  among  all  the  other 
buildings;  it  is  an  octagon  200  feet  in  height, 
constructed  on  a  strong  brick  foundation,  and 
encompassed  by  a  flight  of  twelve  steps  leading 
to  the  entrance.  It  consists  of  nine  stories, 
equal  in  height,  though  diminishing  in  breadth 
as  they  ascend,  the  lowest  being  120  feet  in  cir- 
cumference, or  fifteen  for  each  side  of  the  oc- 
tagon. The  outside  is  covered  with  porcelain 
slabs,  and  each  story  has  a  projecting  roof,  co- 
vered with  highly  varnished  green  tiles  :  190 
steps  in  the  interior  lead  up  to  the  different  com- 
partments, which  are  filled  with  gilt  idols  fixed 
against  the  walls  in  different  niches.  This  work 
is  said  to  have  been  commenced  early  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  in  the  reign  of  Yangloo, 
and  to  have  been  finished  in  nineteen  years,  at 
an  expense  equal  to  £800,000.  It  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  having  suffered  by  a  stroke  of  light- 
ning, which  the  Chinese  attribute  to  a  conflict  of 
the  god  of  thunder  with  demons ;  in  pursuing 
them  to  the  pagoda,  they  say,  he  injured  the 
building.  Nankin  is  reported  to  have  been  once 
more  populous  than  Pekin  is  at  the  present  time ; 
it  was  the  residence  of  the  emperor,  the  seat  of 
the  six  great  courts  of  justice,  and  the  mart  of 
the  whole  empire.  Now,  however,  its  ancient 
splendor  is  greatly  obscured,  and  though  it  is  so 
favorably  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the 
great  river  Yangese-Kiang,  which  still  furnishes 
an  intercourse  with  all  the  interior,  the  commu- 
nication with  the  sea  seems  from  some  unknown 
cause  to  have  ceased.  This  city  has  long  been 
celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  the  cotton 
article,  so  well  known  amongst  us  by  its  name. 

Canton  is  the  most  considerable  port  in  this 
empire,  and  indeed  the  only  mart  for  Euro- 
pean trade.  It  stands  on  the  river'  Pekeang,  in 
the  province  of  Quantong,  of  which  it  is  the 
capital,  in  lat.  23°  10'  N.  and  long.  112°  45'  E. 
The  wall  is  nearly  five  miles  in  circumference, 
but  the  suburbs  extend  far  beyond.  It  has 
several  gates,  and  on  the  side  next  the  land  three 
forts,  and  some  cannon  mounted  on  the  walls. 
All  foreigners  are  excluded  from  it,  and  scarcely 
any  thing  is  to  be  seen  in  the  neighbourhood  but 
the  high  wall.  The  streets  are  lomj;  and  straight, 
but  few  of  them  exceed  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  in 
width.  Along  the  banks  of  the  river  are  si- 
tuated the  factories  of  the  different  nations  with 
which  trade  is  allowed;  the  British  surpassing  all 
the  others  in  size,  elegance,  and  accommoda- 
tions. Though  the  streets  are  frequently  crowded 
to  excess,  few  women  except  of  the  lowest  class 
are  seen  in  them.  Great  numbers  of  the  people 
live  in  vessels  on  the  river.  The  principal 
buildings  in  this  city  are  the  great  pagoda  and 
many  other  temples,  full  of  the  images  of  their 
idols,  and  the  triumphal  arches.  The  markets  for 
all  kinds  of  provision  are  plentifully  supplied, 
and  at  a  cheap  rate.  The  population  of  this 
city  is  said  to  be  not  much  inferior  to  that  of 
Nankin  or  Pekin,  but  this  seems  hardly  pro- 
bable, if  the  area  within  the  walls  be  considered 
as  any  standard ;  though  the  number  may  be 
greatly  increased  by  the  multitudes  that  live  on 
the  water,  and  the  influx  that  is  occasioned  by 
the  commerce  of  the  place  as  the  only  free  port 
for  foreigners  in  the  empire. 


CHINA. 


601 


On  account  of  the  prevailing  restrictions  on 
foreign  intercourse,  it  is  impossible  to  gire  any 
correct  account  of  other  cities  and  towns  in 
China.  They  are  very  numerous,  there  being, 
it  is  said,  not  fewer  than  4400  walled  towns, 
many  of  them  declared  to  be  large,  and  rivalling 
}'ekin  itself,  but  in  these  assertions  no  confi- 
dence can  be  placed.  These  towns  are  divided 
by  the  Chinese  into  two  classes,  distinguished  by 
names  indicative  of  the  rank  they  hold,  and  as  being 
of  the  first,  second,  and  third  order.  The  fron- 
tiers of  this  extensive  empire,  forming  a  line  of 
not  less  than  10,000  miles,  are  guarded  with 
such  scrupulous  attention,  that  no  Russian,  Tur- 
coman, AfTghan,  Hindoo,  Birman,  orTonquinese, 
on  the  land  side,  nor  a  single  European  or 
American,  of  the  great  numbers  that  trade 
annually  at  Canton,  has  ever  been  able  to  pass 
the  barriers,  without  being  discovered;  so  that 
for  this  reason  our  ideas  of  the  topography  of 
the  interior,  are  very  indistinct.  In  this  respect 
the  moderns  have  added  little  to  the  information 
already  given  by  the  Catholic  missionaries,  who 
were  allowed  to  reside  in  the  country. 

The  immense  population  of  China  renders 
agriculture  of  very  great  importance,  and  much 
has  been  said  of  the  extreme  state  of  cultivation 
which  the  country  exhibits.  Sir  George  Staunton 
says,  the  hills  and  mountains  that  afford  any 
slight  inclination  are  cut  into  terraces  one  above 
another,  supported  by  mounds  of  stone,  and  thus 
the  whole  surface  is  frequently  cultivated  to  the 
summit.  These  stages  produce  abundance  of 
pulse,  grain,  yams,  sweet  potatoes,  onions,  carrots, 
turnips,  and  various  other  plants.  On  the  tops 
of  the  mountains  are  reservoirs  of  water,  from 
which  by  different  channels  it  is  conveyed  to  the 
terraces  on  the  side.  In  the  more  rugged  and 
barren  parts  the  camellia  sesanque,  and  different 
firs,  especially  the  larch,  are  planted.  It  is  a 
point  of  great  importance  to  collect  and  preserve 
manure;  and  all  decayed  substances,  both  of  ani- 
mals and  vegetables,  are  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. Mr.  Abel,  however,  observed  many  hills 
wholly  uncultivated,  and  large  plots  of  ground 
the  cultivation  of  which  was  quite  neglected. 
These,  and  extensive  marshes,  in  which  no  trace 
of  husbandry  could  be  seen,  at  least  show  that 
the  Chinese  are  not  very  well  skilled  in  the  im- 
provement of  land.  They  have  no  fallows.  Their 
husbandry  is  neat  and  their  implements  simple; 
the  plough  is  without  a  coulter  and  has  but  one 
handle ;  the  harrow  is  much  finer  than  what  is 
used  in  England,  and  the  soil  is  therefore  more 
pulverised.  The  southern  provinces  produce 
great  quantities  of  rice,  and  grain  of  all  kinds  is 
raised  in  the  north.  The  castor-oil  plant  is  much 
cultivated,  and  used  as  a  common  vegetable  in 
some  parts. 

The  choicest  vegetables  are  the  Petsai  and  the 
tea-plant.  The  former  is  a  national  plant,  and  is 
consumed  in  such  immense  quantities,  especially 
in  Pekin,  that  some  authors  say,  that  during  the 
months  of  October  and  November  the  gates  of 
the  city  are  from  morning  to  night  thronged  with 
carts  laden  with  it.  It  is  to  the  Chinese  what 
the  potatoe  is  to  the  Irish;  it  is  prized  by  all  ranks, 
and  they  spare  no  pains  in  its  cultivation.  In 
its  raw  state  it  is  something  like  a  lettuce,  and 


when  boiled  has  the  taste  of  asparagus ;  they 
preserve  it  for  the  winter  in  salt  and  vinegar,  or 
by  planting  it  in  wet  sand,  or  burying  it  deep  in 
the  earth,  after  it  has  been  previously  dried  in  the 
sun. 

Tea  is  a  great  article  of  cultivation;  it  is  prin- 
cipally raised  between  the  twenty-seventh  and 
thirty-first  degrees  of  latitude,  and  on  the  sides 
of  very  elevated  mountains.  The  soil  that  suits 
it  is  dry  and  gravelly,  frequently  of  decomposed 
rocks,  with  little  vegetable  mould.  The  province 
of  Kiangnan  produces  the  green  tea,  and  that  of 
Fokien  the  black.  The  plants  are  different ;  the 
leaves  of  the  green  tea  are  larger,  thinner,  and 
lighter  than  those  of  the  black,  though  grown  in 
the  same  soil  and  situation.  When  the  seeds  are 
sown  in  a  good  soil,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to 
keep  the  ground  free  from  weeds.  The  trees  do 
not  produce  leaves  fit  for  use,  till  they  are 
three  years  old.  Early  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as 
young  leaves  appear,  they  are  picked,  and  this  is 
very  choice,  and  is  called  the  imperial  tea;  in 
May  they  pluck  them  again,  some  of  them  full 
grown,  and  others  young,  and  this  mixture  con- 
stitutes the  Bohea ;  in  the  summer  they  ajjain 
gather  them  when  all  the  leaves  are  full  grown. 
Every  six  or  eight  years  the  ground  requires  to 
be  replanted. 

China  produces  a  variety  of  trees  and  fruits. 
Oaks  of  several  species,  some  of  100  feet  high, 
and  twenty-four  round,  are  said  to  be  common ; 
they  are  used  for  building,  dyeing,  and  other 
purposes,  and  the  acorns  as  food  for  the  pea- 
santry, either  raw  or  made  into  cakes.  The  tal- 
low tree  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful 
plants  in  the  country,  and  found  from  the  south  of 
Nankin  even  to  Canton.  It  is  formed  like  the  oak 
in  the  height  of  its  stem,  and  its  spreading  bran- 
ches, with  foliage  green  and  bright,  like  the  lau- 
rel, and  small  yellow  flowers.  Clusters  of  seeds 
succeed  them  in  the  winter,  which,  when  ripe, 
burst  and  show  seeds  of  a  delicately  white  color. 
The  oil  plant  is  also  a  striking  peculiarity;  it  is 
generally  about  six  or  eight  feet  in  height,  and 
bearing  an  abundance  of  white  blossoms,  which 
often  look  at  a  distance  like  a  waste  of  snow, 
but  on  a  nearer  approach  have  the  appearance  of 
a  vast  garden. 

The  mineral  productions  of  China,  as  a  flat 
alluvial  country,  will  not  be  expected  to  be  abun- 
dant. Some  writers  have  mentioned  quicksilver, 
iron,  tin,  copper,  gold,  and  silver,  as  found  in 
the  mountains ;  as  well  as  a  peculiar  species  of 
white  copper.  Formerly  the  gold  and  silver 
mines  were  not  allowed  to  be  opened,  lest  the 
people  should  thereby  be  induced  to  neglect  the 
natural  riches  of  the  soil ;  and  in  the  fifteenth 
century  the  emperor  caused  a  mine  of  precious 
stones  to  be  shut,  which  had  been  opened  by  a 
private  person.  Of  late,  however,  the  Chinese 
are  less  scrupulous,  and  a  trade  in  gold  is  carried 
on.  Several  kinds  of  marble  abound.  Tute- 
nague  is  likewise  a  mineral  product  of  China. 
It  is  principally  obtained  in  the  province  Hou- 
quang,  and  quite  distinct  from  the  white  copper 
alluded  to.  Coal  is  met  with  in  many  of  the 
northern  provinces,  and  is  the  common  fuel  at 
Pekin  and  several  other  places.  The  Chinese 
musical  stone,  is  a  species  of  sonorous  black 


002 


CHINA. 


marble.  Various  other  minerals  probably  exist 
in  the  mountains  towards  the  confines  of  Taitary, 
but  the  whole  of  these  regions  have  hitherto  been 
concealed  from  scientific  investigation. 

The  government  of  this  singular  empire  is  a 
pure  patriarchial  despotism.  The  emperor  is  at 
once  the  only  sovereign,  and,  on  great  occasions, 
the  only  priest.  He  is  styled  the  '  Son  of  Hea- 
ven :'  the  present  dynasty  was  careful  to  insert  in 
the  Pekin  gazette,  that  '  the  daughter  of  Heaven, 
descending  on  the  borders  of  the  lake  Poulkouri, 
at  the  foot  of  the  White  Mountain,  and  eating 
some  red  fruit  that  grows  there,  conceived,  and 
bore  a  son,  partaking  of  her  nature,  and  endowed 
with  wisdom,  strength,  and  beauty  ;  that  the  peo- 
ple chose  him  for  their  sovereign,  and  that  from 
him  was  descended  the  present '  Son  of  Heaven  :' 
and  the  people  are  said  to  have  the  merit  of  im- 
plicitly believing  this.  At  the  Temple  of  the 
Sky  (T'hyen-t'han),  the  emperor  offers  up,  at  the 
winter  and  summer  solstice,  oxen,  sheep,  goats, 
and  hogs,  that  have  been  previously  killed ; 
himself,  and  all  who  assist  in  the  sacred  rites, 
being  enjoined  rigid  abstinence  on  the  occasion, 
both  '  at  bed  and  board.'  The  ceremonies  are 
attended  with  the  most  magnificent  display  of 
gold  and  silver  vessels  ;  and  the  emperor  testifies 
his  deep  humility,  as  the  confessor  of  his  people, 
for  their  numerous  sins.  Another  of  the  principal 
religious  ceremonies,  in  which  he  alone  can  of- 
ficiate, is  celebrated  at  the  vernal  equinox,  when 
he  marches  forth  in  rich  attire  into  the  fields, 
turns  up  with  his  own  plough  the  first  earth, 
and  scatters  the  first  seed  of  the  season  ;  concluding 
the  ceremony  with  offering  up  a  cow  to  the  Spirit 
of  the  earth. 

In  his  civil  capacity,  however,   for  religion  is 
regarded  with  great  indifference,  speaking  gene- 
rally, by  the  Chinese,  he  is  still  more  all  in  all. 
'  Heaven,'  said  Confucius,  '  has  not  two  sons  ; 
earth  has  not  two  kings ;  a  family  has  not  two 
masters ;  and  sovereign  power  has  not  two  di- 
rectors— one  God,  one  emperor.'      Kia-king,  the 
late  emperor,  claimed  boldly,  in  one  of  his  pro- 
clamations, now  before  us,  to  '  hold  the  univer- 
sal sovereignty  of  the  earth ;'  and  the  reigning 
emperor,  in  his  reception,  or  rather  rejection,  of 
lord  Amherst's  embassy,  was  by  no  means  back- 
ward  in  similar  pretensions.      He  more  perti- 
naciously than  his  predecessor,  insisted  upon  the 
ko-tou,  or  '  three  kneelings,  and  nine  knocks  of 
the  head  upon  the  ground,'  as  a  token  of  obe- 
dience and  vassalship;  and  sent  back  the  ambas- 
sador and  suite  in  a  rage,  because,  after  travelling 
all   night,  he  declined  to  come  instanter,  with 
the  said  genuflexions  and  knockings,  into  the 
imperial  presence.     In  the  public  proclamations 
issued  respecting  the  treatment  of  his  lordship, 
on  his  return  homewaids,  he  was  duly  styled  the 
English  tribute  bearer  ;  and  when  the  emperor, 
by  a  standing  rule  of  Chinese  policy,  publicly 
expounded  the  faults  that  led  to  the  non-recep- 
tion of  the  embassy,  he  very  coolly  remarked, 
that  '  contempt  was  improper  towards  our  in- 
feriors ;'  those  '  who  from  an  immense  distance, 
and  over  vast  seas,  had  come  to  present  with  re- 
spect, letters  of  due  consideration  and  obedience.' 
That  he  therefore  had  selected  some  trifling  pre- 
sents out  of  those  brought,  and  returned  certain 


more  valuable  ones,  '  as  a  reward ;'  in  obser- 
vance of  the  maxim  of  Confucius,  '  give  much, 
receive  little.'  He  adds,  what  we  apprehend  he 
did  not  consult  lord  Amherst  in  stating,  '  that 
when  the  ambassadors  received  the  said  gifts, 
they  became  exceeding  glad,  and  evinced  their 
repentance.' 

But  this  '  great '  and  absolute  '  emperor,'  the 
'  father  and  mother  of  this  people,'  in  whom  re- 
sides all  '  power,  honor,  and  law,  is  himself,'  Mr. 
Ellis  was  told  by  one  of  his  chief  ministers,  '  the 
victim  of  ceremony  ;  he  is  not  allowed  to  lean 
back  in  public,  to  smoke,  to  change  his  dress,  or 
in  fact  to  indulge  in  the  least  relaxation  from  the 
mere  business  of  representation.  It  would  seem 
that  while  the  great  support  of  his  authority  is 
the  despotism  of  manners,  he  himself  is  bound 
with  the  same  chain  that  holds  together  the  poli- 
tical machine ;  he  only  knows  freedom  in  his 
inner  apartments,  where  probably  he  consoles 
himself  for  public  privations,  by  throwing  aside 
the  observance  of  decency  and  dignity.' 

He  is  made,  however,  in  a  peculiar  manner, 
the  fountain  of  mercy :  his  fatherly  kindness  is 
said  to  remit  the  rigors  of  the  law,  whenever  any 
portion  of  punishment  is  spared :  the  magistrates 
instruct  the  people  in  his  name;  and  all  his 
ministers  are  ordered  to  bring  to  him  their  Com- 
plaints. An  immense  gong,  or  drum,  is  sus- 
pended at  the  door  of  the  chief  magistrate  of 
every  district  in  China,  that  none  may  be  denied 
access  to  him,  having  this  object  in  view. 

He  also,  in  a  very  singular  way,  appeals  very 
frequently  to  public  opinion.  In  no  part  of  the 
world  is  every  transaction  of  criminal  justice 
more  openly  performed ;  every  instance  of  death 
must  not  only  have  the  imperial  edict  to  sanction 
it,  but  the  charges  and  an  abstract  of  the  trial  are 
published  in  the  Pekin  gazette,  which  issues 
daily.  In  the  same  paper  is  also  announced  all 
the  '  court  news ;'  whether  the '  Son  of  Heaven '  is 
fasting  or  feasting,  promoting  or  punishing,  levy- 
ing or  remitting  taxes,  feeding  the  hungry, 
clothing  the  naked,  &c.  with  his  reasons  for  the 
same,  in  respectful  amplitude. 

The  Quarterly  Review,  No.  L.  instances  the 
will  of  the  late  emperor  Kia-king,  and  the  pro- 
clamation on  the  accession  of  his  son  and  successor 
Taou-kuang,  as  curious  and  convincing  proofs  of 
the  extreme  desire  manifested  by  the  government 
that  the  sovereign  should  stand  well  with  the 
people.  The  will  of  Kia-king  is  dated  2nd  Sep- 
tember, 1820,  the  day  on  which  he  died — sud- 
denly, as  it  would  seem — and  is,  as  usual,  the 
composition  of  his  ministers.  It  commences 
thus :  '  The  Great  Emperor,  who  received  from 
heaven  and  revolving  nature  the  dominion  of 
the  world,  hereby  announces  his  last  will 
and  testament  to  the  subjects  of  his  empire.' 
He  then  enumerates  the  advantages  which  he  de- 
rived from  the  three  years  instruction  and  advice 
of  his  venerable  father,  after  he  mounted  the 
throne  from  which  he  had  retired,  and  continues, 
'  I  have  considered  that  the  stability  of  a  nation, 
and  the  grand  principles  of  social  order,  consist 
in  adoring  heaven,  imitating  our  ancestors,  being 
active  and  diligent  in  all  matters  of  government, 
and  benevolent  towards  the  people.  I  have 
borne  in  mind  that  heaven  raises  up  princes  for 


C    H    I    N    A. 


603 


tre  sake  of  the  people  ;  and  that  the  duty  of  af- 
fording to  the  people  sustenance  and  instruction 
is  imposed  on  The  One  Man.' 

He  then  goes  on  to  remind  the  people,  among 
other  things,  how,  in  conformity  with  these 
principles,  he  suppressed  insurrections  .and  dis- 
turbances— that  he  issued  from  time  to  time 
large  sums  of  money  to  repair  the  banks  of  the 
Yellow  River, '  which  from  ancient  days  till  now 
has  always  been  the  scourge  of  China, — that  he 
had  frequently  remitted  the  taxes  and  all  arrears, 
in  order  to  diffuse  abundance,  and  create  in  all 
ranks  of  his  subjects  a  general  joy — thatwhile  his 
heart  was  rejoicing  in  the  universal  plenty  that 
the  country  was  blessed  with  in  consequence  of 
an  abundant  harvest,  he  set  out,  in  reverential 
obedience  to  the  institutions  of  his  ancestors,  on 
a  hunting  excursion  into  Tartary,  and  that,  to 
avoid  the  great  heat,  he  stopped  one  day  at  a 
cottage  on  the  mountain ;  '  and  though,'  con- 
tinues he,  '  I  am  advanced  beyond  the  sixth  de- 
cade of  my  life,  and  can  mount  and  descend  a 
hill  without  being  fatigued,  yet,  on  this  occasion, 
the  intense  heat  of  the  atmosphere  affected  me, 
so  that  yesterday,  when  I  gave  the  whip  to  my 
horse  in  crossing  the  mountain  of  '  Expanded 
Benevolence,'  I  felt  the  phlegm  rise  in  my  throat 
even  to  suffocation,  and  had  reason  to  apprehend 
that  I  had  not  long  to  live.  However,  in  obe- 
dience to  the  rules  of  the  departed  sages  of  my 
family,  I  had  already,  in  the  fourth  year  of  my 
reign,  in  the  fourth  month,  on  the  tenth  day,  at 
five  o'clock  in  the  morning,  previously  appointed 
an  heir  to  the  throne  ;  which  appointment  I 
myself  sealed  and  locked  up  in  a  secret  casket.' 
This  casket  the  great  officers  of  state  are  com- 
manded to  open  without  delay. 

A  few  days  after  the  death  of  Kia-king,  ap- 
peared the  proclamation  of  his  successor,  in 
which  the  virtues  of  his  late  father  are  enume- 
rated, and  the  extreme  reluctance  set  forth  with 
which  his  unworthy  successor  was  compelled  to 
yield  to  the  general  voice  and  to  occupy  the  va- 
cant throne.  Next  follows  the  He-cha-ou,  or 

First  Division. 
Containing  one  book  entitled  .     . 

Second  Division. 
Containing  two  books  entitled     . 

Third  Division. 


Containing  seven  books  entitled 


Fourth  Division. 
Containing  two  books  entitled 

Fifth  Division. 
Containing  five  books  entitled 


'  proclamation  of  joy,'  in  which  he  announces 
his  intention  of  holding  a  solemn  feast  in  honor 
of  heaven  and  earth,  and  of  the  superintending 
deities  of  the  land  and  its  produce  ;  and  of  confer- 
ring benefits  on  all  ranks  and  descriptions  of 
people.  These  marks  of  imperial  beneficence  are 
arranged  under  twenty-two  different  heads,  and 
consist  chiefly  of  gifts  to  the  great  officers  of 
state — promotion  of  one  step  to  all  civil  and 
military  officers  Tartars  and  Chinese — permis- 
sion to  officers  below  a  certain  rank  to  send  one 
of  their  sons  to  an  imperial  college — restoration 
of  officers  who  have  been  suspended  from  ranker 
pay,  or  both — a  general  amnesty  to  all  criminals 
except  those  convicted  of  rebellion  or  murder—- 
and, adds  the  He-cha-ou,  'if  any  person  shall 
again  accuse  those  so  pardoned  for  their  former 
offences,  the  accuser  shall  be  punished  accord- 
ing to  the  crime  alleged  against  the  accused ;' 
(the  Chinese  must  surely  have  a  wonderful  pro- 
pensity for  bringing  offenders  to  justice,  to  make 
a  hint  of  this  kind  necessary) — remission  of  the 
public  debts  of  officers  in  the  army — increase  of 
pensions  to  superannuated  soldiers,  &c.  &c. 

The  executive  government  is  administered  by 
six  public,  or  departmental  boards,  similar  to  our 
navy,  treasury  boards,  &c. ;  the  six  presiding 
officers  of  each  forming,  with  the  chief  princes  of 
the  blood,  a  final  or  privy  council  of  state. 
From  these  boards  officers,  are  sent  to  every  part 
of  the  empire,  who  forward,  by  express  and  other- 
wise, daily  abstracts  and  reports  of  all  the  busi- 
ness, civil  and  military,  of  the  provinces. 

Sir  George  Staunton,  among  other  important 
contributions,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to 
him  respecting  China,  has  lately  furnished  the 
British  public  with  a  complete  copy  of  the 
penal  law  of  this  great  empire,  or  a  translation 
of  theTaTsing  Leu  Lee,  the  standard  law  autho- 
rity at  Pekin.  It  is  arranged  under  seven  general 
divisions,  comprising  thirty  books,  and  divided 
into  436  sections.  The  titles  of  the  divisions 
and  books  are  as  follow 


General  Laws. 
Preliminary  Regulations. 

Civil  Laws. 

System  of  Government.        • 
Conduct  of  Magistrates. 
Fiscal  Laws. 

Enrolment  of  the  People. 
Lands  and  Tenements 
Marriage. 
Public  Property. 
Duties  and  Customs. 
Private  Property. 
^Sales  and  Markets. 

Ritual  Laws. 
{  Sacred  Rites. 
t  Miscellaneous  Observances 

Military  Laws. 

f  Protection  of  the  Palace. 
\Government  of  the  Army. 
<^  Protection  of  the  Frontier. 
/Military  Horses  and  Cattle- 
V  Expresses  and  Public  PosU. 


604 


C    II    I    N    A. 


Sixth  Division. 


Containing  eleven  books  entitled 


Seventh  Division. 
Containing  two  books  entitled     . 

The  grounds  of  mitigation  and  exception  to 
these  laws  are  of  course  numerous ;  Sir  George 
Staunton's  general  testimony,  confirmed  by  that 
of  Mr.  Barrow  and  other  able  writers,  is  that,  as 
in  our  own  criminal  jurisprudence,  the  denun- 
ciation against  particular  crimes  is  severe,  the 
execution  lenient.  In  1784,  according  to  father 
Amiot,  the  entire  number  of  criminals  who 
suffered  sentence  of  death,  throughout  China, 
amounted  to  1348,  or  one  in  108,000  ;  this  was 
thought  a  large  number  at  that  period,  and  would 
give  the  proportion  of  160  annually  for  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland. 

The  bamboo,  in  various  degrees  of  its  adminis- 
tration, is  the  general  instrument  of  punishment, 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  class  of  offenders  : 
it  is  enjoined  by  law  to  be  made  only  of  two 
sizes,  the  larger  5  feet  8  inches  long,  2£  inches 
broad,  and  2  inches  thick,  weighing  2$  Ibs. ; 
the  smaller  5  feet  8  inches  long,  2  inches  broad, 
1J  thick,  and  in  weight  only  Ijj  Ibs.  The  kia  or 
cangur,  is  a  portable  wooden  pillory  which  hangs 
on  the  neck,  weighing  33  Ibs.,  and  is  to  be  3  feet 
long  and  2  feet  9  inches  broad ;  an  iron  chain 
7  feet  long,  and  weighing  6|  Ibs.,  hand-cuffs 
and  smaller  fetters,  are  also  used  to  secure 
prisoners.  The  question  by  various  tortures  is 
in  use,  except  to  certain  privileged  classes.  We 
select  from  the  work  above  alluded  to  the  fol- 
lowing abstract  of  this  singular  code. 

DIVISION  I. — GENERAL  LAWS.' 

The  lowest  degree  of  punishment  referred  to 
in  the  Ta  Tsing  Leu  Lee,  is  a  moderate  correction 
inflicted  with  the  lesser  bamboo,  in  order  that 
the  transgressor  of  the  law  may  entertain  a  sense 
of  shame  for  his  past,  and  receive  a  salutary  ad- 
monition with  respect  to  his  future  conduct.  Of 
this  species  of  punishment  there  are  five  degrees. 
The  first  is  ten,  the  fifth,  fifty  blows,  which  are, 
in  fact  reduced  to  four,  and  never  exceed  twenty 
blows.  The  second  extends  from  sixty  to  100 
blows,  of  which  only  from  twenty  to  forty  are 
actually  inflicted.  The  third  division  is  that  of 
temporary  banishment  to  any  distance  not  ex- 
ceeding 500  lee  (about  150  miles),  '  with  the 
view  of  affording  opportunities  of  repentance 
and  amendment.'  Of  this  there  are  also  five 
gradations,  extending  from  one  to  three  years' 
banisnment,  accompanied  with  a  corporeal  punish- 
ment, nominally  from  sixty  to  100  blows,  but  ac- 
tually reduced  as  above.  Perpetual  banishment, 
the  fourth  degree  of  punishment,  is  reserved  for 


Criminal  Laws. 
C  Robbery  and  Theft. 
Homicide. 

Quarrelling  and  fighting. 
Abusive  Language. 
I  Indictments  and  Informations. 
•\  Bribery  and  Corruption. 
Forgeries  and  Frauds. 
Incest  and  Adultery. 
Miscellaneous  offences. 
Arrests  and  Escapes. 
^Imprisonment,  Judgment,  and  Execution. 

Laws  relative  to  Public  Works. 
{  Public  Buildings. 
'  \  Public  Ways. 

the  more  considerable  offences,  and  extends  to 
the  distance  of  2000,  and  even  3000  lee,  in  ad- 
dition to  100  strokes  of  the  bamboo.  The  fifth 
and  ultimate  punishment,  which  the  laws  ordain, 
is  death,  either  by  strangulation  or  decollation. 

The  following  crimes  are  distributed  under  ten 
heads,  being  distinguished  from  others  by  their 
enormity  ;  they  are  always  punished  with  the 
utmost  rigor,  and,  when  the  offence  is  capital,  it 
is  exoepted  from  the  benefit  of  any  act  of  general 
pardon  ;  being  considered,  in  each  case,  a  direct 
violation  of  the  ties  by  which  society  is  main- 
tained, they  are  expressly  enumerated  in  the  in- 
troductory part  of  this  code,  that  the  people  may 
learn  to  dread,  and  to  avoid  the  same.  .1.  Re- 
bellion, or  an  attempt  to  violate  the  divine  order 
of  things  on  earth.  2.  Disloyalty,  or  an  attempt 
to  destroy  the  imperial  temples,  tombs,  or  pa- 
laces. 3.  Desertion,  or  the  offence  of  undertaking 
to  quit  or  betray  the  interests  of  the  empire,  in 
order  to  submit  or  adhere  to  a  foreign  power. 
4.  Parricide,  or  the  murder  of  a  father  or  mother, 
uncle,  aunt,  grandfather,  or  grandmother.  5.  Mas- 
sacre, or  the  murder  of  three  or  more  persons  in 
one  family.  6.  Sacrilege,  or  stealing  from  the 
temples  any  of  the  sacred  articles,  or  purloining 
any  article  in  the  immediate  use  of  the  sovereign. 
7.  Impiety,  or  disrespect  or  negligence  towards 
those  to  whom  we  owe  our  being,  and  by  whom 
we  have  been  educated  and  protected.  8.  Dis- 
cord in  families,  or  a  breach  of  the  legal  or  na- 
tural ties  which  are  founded  on  connexions  by 
blood  or  marriage.  9.  Insubordination,  or  the 
rising  against,  or  murdering  a  superior  magis- 
trate by  an  inferior ;  or  any  insurrection  against 
the  magistrates  in  general  by  the  people.  10.  In- 
cest, or  the  cohabitation,  or  promiscuous  inter- 
course, of  persons  related  in  any  of  the  degrees 
within  which  marriage  is  prohibited. 

Sections  seven  and  eight  of  this  division  relate 
to  offences  committed  by  officers  of  government. 
These,  whether  of  a  public  or  private  nature,  are 
punishable  in  ordinary  cases  by  the  infliction  of 
corporeal  chastisement ;  but  are  commutable  for 
fine  or  degradation,  according  to  the  number  of 
blows  of  the  bamboo  to  which  they  are  nominally 
liable.  Thus,  if  they  offend  in  their  public 
capacity,  instead  of  receiving  sixty  blows,  they 
forfeit  a  year's  salary ;  and  instead  of  100,  lose 
four  degrees  of  rank,  or  are  removed  from  their 
situation.  When  the  offence  is  of  a  private  na- 
ture, the  punishment  is  doubled  ;  the  last  de- 
gree is  entire  degradation,  and  d-smissal  from 


C     H     I     N     A. 


605 


tTic  service  of  government.  Those  who  are  en- 
rolled under  the  Tartarian  banners,  are  punished 
with  the  whip  instead  of  the  bamboo ;  and,  in 
cases  of  banishment,  they  are  sentenced  to  wear 
the  cavgwe,  or  moveable  pillory,  for  a  specified 
number  of  days. 

DIVISION  II. — CIVIL  LAWS. 
The  first  book  is  chiefly  occupied  in  defining 
and  describing  the  regulations  to  be  observed  by  the 
great  officers  of  state,  and  in  pointing  out  their 
respective  relations  to  the  subordinate  magistracy. 
It  consists  of  fourteen  sections,  the  first  of  which 
says  of  hereditary  succession,  '  Every  civil  and 
military  officer  of  government  whose  rank  and 
titles  are  hereditary,  shall  be  succeeded  in  them 
by  his  eldest  son,  born  of  his  principal  wife,  or 
by  such  eldest  son's  surviving  legal  representative, 
chosen  according  to  the  general  rule  here  provi- 
ded.' The  second  son,  in  case  of  the  decease  or 
incapacity  of  the  eldest,  is  to  succeed.  In  de- 
fault of  sons  by  the  principal  wife,  the  sons  of 
the  inferior  wives  according  to  seniority.  All 
appointments  to  great  offices,  whether  civil  or 
military,  depend  solely  on  the  authority  of  the 
emperor ;  any  great  officer  of  state,  presuming  to 
confer  any  appointment  without  such  authority, 
is  declared  guilty  of  a  capital  offence.  If  an  of- 
ficer quit  his  station  without  leave,  or  delay 
repairing  to  it ;  if  he  fails  to  attend  at  court,  or 
is  found  guilty  of  intriguing  or  caballing  with  his 
colleagues,  he  renders  himself  liable  to  very 
severe  penalties :  in  the  last  case,  if  the  cabal 
tend  to  impede  and  obstruct  the  measures  of 
government,  his  offence  is  capital;  his  wivesand 
children  become  slaves,  and  his  property  is  con- 
fiscated. Book  II.  contains  fourteen  sections  on 
the  conduct  of  magistrates. 

DIVISION  III. — FISCAL  LAWS. 
Every  master  of  a  family  is  compelled  to  enter 
on  the  public  register,  an  account  of  his  taxable 
property,  and  the  names  and  number  of  the  male 
individuals  of  full  age  for  service,  namely,  from 
sixteen  to  sixty  years.  The  omission  of  such 
registry,  or  a  fraudulent  entry,  is  punishable  with 
the  bamboo,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  offence. 
Families  and  individuals  are  registered  according 
to  their  professions.  This  book  also  inculcates 
impartiality  in  the  levy  of  taxes  and  personal 
services,  and  in  the  allotment  of  those  services ; 
prescribes  punishment  and  penalties  for  the  eva- 
sion of  personal  service  by  concealment  of  de- 
sertion ;  for  abuses  of  the  magistrates  in  requiring 
personal  services  beyond  the  legal  extent,  or  for 
private  purposes;  and  enjoins  the  taking  care  of 
the  aged  and  infirm.  All  poor  destitute  widowers, 
and  widows,  the  fatherless  and  childless,  the 
helpless  and  the  infirm,  shall  receive  sufficient 
maintenance  and  protection  from  the  magistrates 
of  their  native  city  or  district,  whenever  they 
have  neither  relations  nor  connexions  upon  whom 
they  can  depend  for  support;  any  magistrates, 
refusing  such  maintenance,  and  protection,  shall 
be  punished  with  sixty  blows.  Also,  when  any 
such  persons  are  maintained  and  protected  by 
government,  the  superintending  magistrate  and 
his  subordinates,  if  failing  to  afford  them  the 
legal  allowance  of  food  and  raiment,  shall  be 
punished  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  the  de- 


ficiency, according  to  the  law  against  an  em- 
bezzlement of  the  government  stores. 

Book  II.  of  this  division  is  entitled  Lands  and 
Tenements,  and  consists  wholly  of  regulations 
concerning  the  registry  of  lands,  the  payment 
and  evasion  of  the  land-tax,  fraudulent  returns 
respecting  productive  and  unproductive  lands ; 
the  personal  visitation  of  lands  that  have  suffered 
from  any  calamity  ;  sales  and  mortgages  of  land, 
and  the  punishment  of  frauds  committed  therein; 
and  a  regulation  by  which  officers  of  government 
are  restricted  from  purchasing  lands  within  the 
limits  of  their  jurisdiction.  The  whole  of  this 
book  is  curious,  and  throws  considerable  light 
upon,  though  it  does  not  finally  settle,  the 
doubtful  question,  whether  the  tenure  of  land  in 
China  is  held  in  the  nature  of  a  freehold,  or 
whether  the  sovereign  is,  in  fact,  the  proprietor 
of  the  soil,  while  the  nominal  landholder  is,  like 
the  zemindar  in  India,  no  more  than  the  stewaru 
or  collector  of  rents  for  his  master.  That  the 
rich  merchants  purchase  landed  property,  which 
is  transmitted  to  their  posterity,  and  continued 
in  the  family  for  many  generations,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  whatever ;  yet  it  is  evident  from  the 
Leu-lee,  that  the  proprietorship  of  the  landholder 
is  but  of  a  qualified  nature. 

Book  III.  of  this  division  relates  wholly  to 
marriage  :  '  When  a  marriage,  it  enacts,  is  in- 
tended to  be  contracted,  it  shall  be,  in  the  first 
instance,  reciprocally  explained  to,  and  clearly 
understood  by,  the  families  interested,  whether 
the  parties,  who  design  to  marry,  are  or  are  not 
diseased,  infirm,  aged,  or  under  age,  and  whether 
they  are  the  children  of  their  parents  by  blood, 
or  only  by  adoption.  If  either  of  the  contracting 
families  then  object,  the  proceedings  shall  be 
carried  no  further ;  if  they  still  approve,  they 
shall  then  in  conjunction  with  the  negociators  of 
the  marriage,  if  such  there  be,  draw  up  the 
marriage-articles,  and  determine  the  amount  of 
the  marriage  presents.  If,  after  the  woman  is 
thus  regularly  affianced  by  the  recognition  of  the 
marriage  articles,  or  by  a  personal  interview  and 
agreement  between  the  families,  the  family  of  the 
intended  bride  should  repent  having  entered  into 
the  contract,  and  refuse  to  execute  it,  the  person 
amongst  them  who  had  authority  to  give  her 
away  shall  be  punished  with  fifty  blows,  and  the 
marriage  shall  be  completed  agreeably  to  the 
original  contract ;  although  the  marriage  articles 
should  not  have  been  drawn  up  in  writing,  the 
acceptance  of  the  marriage  presents  shall  be  suf- 
ficient evidence  of  the  agreement  between  the 
parties.' 

The  remaining  clauses  provide,  in  every  pos- 
sible way,  against  the  infraction  of  a  marriage- 
contract,  whether  on  the  part  of  the  man  or 
woman  affianced,  or  of  their  respective  relations. 
Lending  a  wife  on  hire  is  punishable  with  eighty 
blows  ;  lending  a  daughter  with  sixty:  those  who 
receive  the  wives  or  daughters  on  hire  for  a 
limited  time,  are  to  participate  equally  in  the 
aforesaid  punishment,  and  the  parties  are  to  be 
separated  ;  the  pecuniary  consideration  for  such 
loan  to  be  forfeited  to  government.  Polygamy 
being  allowed,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
settle,  by  law,  the  rank  and  priority  among 
wives.  The  first  wife  is  usually  chosen  by  the 


606 


CHINA. 


parents  out  of  a  family  equal  in  point  of  rank  to 
their  own ;  the  ceremony  is  conducted  with  a 
certain  degree  of  splendor  and  notoriety,  and  the 
lady  is  entitled  to  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
the  mistress  of  the  family.  After  this  the  hus- 
band  may  espouse  other  wives,  but  without  the 
same  ceremony,  and  without  consulting  his 
friends  :  he  may  take  them  from  any  class  of  so- 
ciety, and  bring  them  into  his  house  as  inferior 
wives,  or  concubines,  or  handmaids,  or  by  what- 
ever name  he  may  please  to  call  them ;  these  in- 
ferior wives  are  equal  in  rank  among  themselves, 
hut  all  of  them  subordinate  to  the  first  wife.  He 
•who  degrades  his  first  wife  to  the  condition  of  an 
inferior  wife,  is  liable  to  a  punishment  of  100 
blows ;  and  if,  in  the  life-time  of  his  first  wife, 
he  raises  an  inferior  wife  to  the  rank  and  condi- 
tion of  a  first  wife,  he  is  punished  with  ninety 
blows;  in  both  cases  the  wires  are  replaced  in 
their  original  situations:  if  a  man  takes  a  second 
principal  wife,  while  the  first  is  living,  he  incurs 
a  punishment  of  ninety,  blows;  the  marriage  is 
void,  and  the  woman  must  be  returned  to  her 
parents. 

'  If  any  officer  of  government  marries  the  wife 
or  daughter  of  any  person  having  an  interest  in 
the  legal  proceedings  at  the  same  time  under  his 
investigation,  he  shall  be  punished  with  100  blows, 
and  the  member  of  the  family  of  the  bride,  who 
gave  her  away,  shall  be  equally  punishable.  The 
woman,  whether  previously  married  or  not,  shall 
be  restored  to  her  parents,  and  the  marriage 
present  forfeited,  in  every  case,  to  government. 
When  the  marriage  is  a  compensation  for  some 
unjust  decision,  on  a  subject  under  the  magis- 
trate's investigation,  the  punishment  shall  be  in- 
creased as  far  as  the  law,  applicable  for  such  a 
deviation  from  justice,  may  authorise.' 

In  section  116  is  the  law  of  divorce.  If  a 
husband  repudiates  his  first  wife  without  her 
having  broken  the  matrimonial  connexion  by  the 
crime  of  adultery,  or  otherwise ;  and  without 
her  having  furnished  him  with  any  of  the  seven 
justifying  causes  of  divorce ;  he  shall,  in  every 
such  case,  be  punished  with  eighty  blows. 
Moreover,  although  one  of  the  seven  justifying 
causes  of  divorce  should  be  chargeable  upon  the 
wife,  namely,  1.  barrenness;  2.  lasciviousness ; 
3.  disregard  of  her  husband's  parents;  4.  talka- 
tiveness ;  5.  thievish  propensities ;  6.  envious 
and  suspicious  temper  ;  7.  inveterate  infirmity  ; 
yet  if  any  of  the  three  reasons  against  a  divorce 
should  exist,  namely,  1.  the  wife's  having  mourned 
three  years  for  her  husband's  parents;  2.  the 
family's  having  become  rich  after  having  been 
poor  previous  to,  and  at  the  time  of  marriage  ; 
3.  the  wife's  having  no  parents  living  to  receive 
her  back  again ;  in  these  cases,  none  of  the  seven 
aforementioned  causes  will  justify  a  divorce,  and 
the  husband  who  puts  away  his  wife  upon  such 
grounds,  shall  suffer  punishment  two  degrees 
less  than  that  last  stated,  and  be  obliged  to  receive 
her  again.  If  the  wife  shall  have  broken  the 
matrimonial  connexion  by  an  act  of  adultery,  or 
by  any  other  act  which,  by  law,  not  only  autho- 
rises, but  requires  that  the  parties  should  be  se- 
parated, the  husband  shdll  receive  a  punishment 
of  eighty  blows,  if  he  retains  her. 

Criminal  intercourse,  by  mutual  consent,  with 


an  unmarried  woman  (according  to  book  viii.  of 
the  tenth  division),  shall  be  punished  with  seventy 
blows  ;  if  with  a  married"woman,  the  punishment 
shall  be  eighty  blows.  Deliberate  intrigue  with 
a  married  or  unmarried  woman  shall  be  punished 
with  100  blows.  Violation  of  a  married  or  un- 
married woman,  that  is  to  say,  a  rape,  shall  be 
punished  with  death  by  strangulation.  An  as- 
sault with  an  intent  to  commit  a  rape  shall  be 
punished  with  100  blows,  and  perpetual  banish- 
ment to  the  distance  of  3000  lee.  Criminal  in- 
tercourse with  a  female  under  twelve  years  of 
age  shall  be  punished  as  a  rape  in  all  cases.  In 
cases  of  criminal  intercourse  by  previous  agree- 
ment, or  by  any  intrigue,  the  man  and  woman 
shall  be  esteemed  equally  guilty ;  and,  if  any 
male  or  female  child  be  the  fruit  of  such  connexion, 
it  shall  be  supported  at  the  expense  of  the  father; 
the  mother  shall  either  be  sold  in  marriage  or 
remain  with  her  husband,  according  to  his  choice ; 
but  if  the  husband  is  guilty  of  selling  his  wife 
in  marriage  to  the  adulterer,  the  parties  shall  be 
respectively  punished  with  eighty  blows ;  the 
woman  shall  be  sent  back  to  her  family,  and  the 
price  paid  for  her,  forfeited  to  the  government. 
The  woman  on  whom  the  rape  is  committed  shall 
not  be  liable  to  any  punishment.  When  a  wo- 
man is  found  with  child,  she  shall  be  liable  to 
the  penalties  of  this  law,  though  the  father  should 
not  be  discoverable.  Criminal  intercourse  between 
officers  of  government  and  females  under  their 
jurisdiction  is  an  aggravation  of  the  offence. 

We  pass  now  to  a  specimen  of 
DIVISION  V. — or  the  MILITARY  LAWS  OF  CHINA. 

Book  I.  of  this  division  is  entitled,  Protection 
of  the  Palace,  and  relates  wholly  to  the  duties  of 
the  guards  of  the  imperial  palace.  All  persons 
are  forbidden  to  approach  the  imperial  temple, 
burying-ground,  hall  of  oblations,  or  any  part  of 
the  imperial  palace  or  gardens.  To  enter  any  of 
the  apartments  in  the  actual  occupation  of  the 
emperor  is  punishable  with  death ;  and  the  most 
strict  regulations  are  laid  down  with  regard  to 
those  who  are  occupied  in  the  grounds.  Their 
names  are  to  be  inserted  on  a  list  in  entering 
and  returning  through  the  several  gates.  No  one 
is  allowed  to  walk  or  ride  on  the  roads  and 
bridges  over  which  the  emperor  is  to  pass.  All 
laborers,  messengers,  and  artificers,  must  be 
provided  with  personal  passports  before  they  can 
enter  any  of  the  gates  of  the  imperial  palace : 
they  are  not  to  stay  after  their  work  is  done ; 
they  are  counted  in  going  in  and  coming  out,  to 
ascertain  that  none  remain  behind .  At  the  end 
of  every  month  the  lists  are  examined,  to  see  how 
often  any  of  the  attendants  have  passed  the  gate. 
None  of  the  relations  of  persons  convicted  of 
crimes  can  be  employed  about  the  palace. 
During  the  journeys  of  the  emperor,  the  people 
must  make  way  for  the  approach  of  his  majesty, 
and  not  come  within  the  lines  of  his  guard  ; 
when  approaching  a  place  unexpectedly,  so  as 
not  to  allow  time  for  the  people  to  retire,  they 
are  to  fall  prostrate  until  the  retinue  shall  have 
passed. 

Book  II.  is  entitled  Government  of  the  Army, 
and  may  be  considered  as  the  Articles  of  War  of 
this  empire.  The  regulations  on  every  point  con- 
nected with  it  are  well  arranged  and  any  neglect 


CHIN     A. 


607 


or  disobedience  is  punished  with  the  greatest 
severity.  If  supplies  of  arms,  ammunition,  or 
provisions,  are  not  regularly  transmitted;  if  any 
deficiency  appears ;  if  the  commanding  officers  of 
the  troops,  who  have  received  orders  to  co-operate 
lose  time  and  wait  the  issue  of  events ;  if  those 
entrusted  with  the  orders  for  assembling  the  troops 
do  not  execute  their  commissions  in  due  time ; 
any  error  or  failure  that  may  arise  from  such 
causes  shall  subject  the  offending  parties  to  the 
punishment  of  death. 

DIVISION  VI. — contains  the  CRIMINAL  LAW. 

Book  I.  is  entitled  Robbery  and  Theft.  The 
first  article  is  high  treason ;  all  persons  convicted 
of  which,  whether  principals  or  accessaries,  shall 
suffer  death  by  '  slow  and  painful  execution ;' 
which,  Sir  George  Staunton  tells  us,  amounts  to 
a  license  to  the  executioner  to  aggravate  and  pro- 
long the  sufferings  of  the  criminal  by  any  species 
of  cruelty  he  may  think  proper  to  inflict.  All 
the  male  relations  in  the  first  degree,  and  their 
sons,  are  indiscriminately  to  be  beheaded;  all 
under  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  the  females  in 
the  first  degree,  to  be  distributed  as  slaves  to  the 
great  officers  of  state :  their  property  of  every 
description  to  be  confiscated  to  the  public.  Re- 
bellion, sacrilege,  stealing  the  seals  or  stamps  of 
office,  stealing  from  the  imperial  palace,  are  all 
capital  offences. 

There  are  many  nice  distinctions  in  the  law 
concerning  robbery,  and  the  punishment  is  diffe- 
rent for  different  persons,  concerned  in  the  same, 
robbery,  according  to  the  share  each  individual 
appears  to  have  taken ;  all  are,  however,  guilty 
of  a  capital  offenoe,  when  the  robbery  is  actually 
committed  by  violence :  the  attempt  to  commit 
robbery  is  punishable  by  perpetual  banishment. 
A  single  person  if  detected  taking  openly  and 
by  force  the  property  of  another,  is  sentenced 
only  to  100  blows  and  three  years  banishment ; 
but  if  the  plundered  individual  be  wounded,  the 
offender  in  that  case  must  suffer  death.  An  at- 
tempt to  steal  is  punishable  with  fifty  blows. 
Actual  stealing  to  the  amount  of  120  ounces  of 
silver  is  a  capital  offence;  but  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  this  severe  sentence  is  never  enforced. 
Stealing  from  relations  and  connexions  by  mar- 
riage, in  the  first  degree,  incurs  a  punishment 
less  by  five  degrees  than  in  ordinary  cases ;  be- 
cause, as  Sir  George  observes,  this  is  not  a  vio- 
lation of  an  exclusive  right,  but  only  of  the  qua- 
lified intetest  which  each  individual  has  in  the 
share  of  the  family  property.  Extorting  property 
by  threats  is  punishable  one  degree  more  severe- 
ly than  in  ordinary  cases  of  theft.  Swindling  is 
punished  in  the  same  manner  as  theft,  in  ordi- 
nary cases,  excepting  that  the  offender  is  not 
liable  to  be  branded.  Kidnapping  and  selling 
free  persons  as  slaves  are  punished  with  IOC 
blows  and  perpetual  banishment;  and  where 
force  is  used,  and  wounds  inflicted,  by  death. 
There  is  a  very  long  section  entitled  Disturbing 
Graves,  and  this  subject  is  evidently  connected 
with  some  superstitious  practices  in  use  among  the  . 
Chinese.  Entering  without  authority  a  dwelling 
house,  by  night,  is  punishable  with  eighty  blows. 
The  master  is  justified  if,  in  the  moment  of  en- 
tering, he  puts  the  intruder  to  death ;  but  not  so, 
if  he  kills  him  after  having  seized  his  person. 


Book  II.  is  entitled  of  Homicide,  and  marks 
the  great  care  of  the  Chinese,  in  inflicting  severe 
punishment.  There  are  no  fewer  than  five  and 
twenty  additional  clauses  to  the  section  entitled 
Killing  an  Adulterer,  which  are  so  many  statutes 
that  have  been  adopted,  from  time  to  time,  accor- 
ding to  the  differences  which  have  taken  place  in 
the  situation  and  circumstances  of  parties. 

In  cases  of  premeditated  homicide,  the  original 
contriver  is  to  suffer  death  by  decapitation  ;  the 
accessaries,  by  being  strangled  :  accessaries,  riot 
contributing  to  the  act,  are  punishable  with  100 
blows  and  perpetual  banishment.  Those  who 
commit  murder  for  the  sake  of  plunder  are  to 
be  beheaded,  without  distinction  between  prin- 
cipals and  accessaries.  The  design  to  commit 
parricide  subjects  all  the  parties,  principals  as 
well  as  accessaries,  to  the  punishment  of  being 
beheaded  ;  if  actually  committed,  they  must  all 
suffer  death  by  a  slow  and  painful  execution. 
Slaves  designing  to  murder,  or  actually  mur- 
dering, their  masters,  are  subject  to  the  same 
degree  of  punishment. 

If  a  principal  or  inferior  wife  is  discovered  by 
her  husband  in  the  act  of  adultery,  he  is  au- 
thorised to  kill  the  adulterer,  or  adulteress,  or 
both,  at  the  moment.  The  rearing  of  venomous 
animals,  and  the  preparing  of  poisons,  for  the 
destruction  of  man,  are  capital  offences,  although 
it  may  not  appear  that  any  person  has  been 
actually  killed  by  means  of  such  drugs  or  animals. 
Killing  or  wounding  in  play,  by  error,  or  by 
accident,  is  liable  to  the  same  punishment  as  is 
provided  in  ordinary  cases  of  killing  or  wounding 
in  an  affray ;  but  the  offender  is  permitted  to 
redeem  himself  from  the  capital  part  of  the 
punishment,  by  the  payment  of  a  fine  to  the 
family  of  the  person  deceased  or  wounded.  By 
pure  accident  is  understood  a  case  of  which  no 
sufficient  previous  warning  could  be  given,  either 
directly  by  the  perceptions  of  sight  and  hearing, 
or  indirectly  by  the  inferences  drawn  by  judg- 
ment and  reflection ;  as,  for  instance,  when 
lawfully  pursuing  and  snooting  wild  animals, 
when  throwing  a  brick  or  a  tile,  and  in  either 
case  unexpectedly  killing  any  person ;  when, 
slipping  and  falling  down,  so  as  to  hurt  a  com- 
rade or  by-stander ;  when  sailing,  and  being 
driven  involuntarily  by  the  winds  ;  when  riding, 
and  unable  to  stop  or  govern  your  horse ;  or, 
lastly,  when  several  persons  jointly  attempt  to 
raise  a  great  weight,  and  the  strength  of  one  of 
them  fails,  so  that  the  weight  falls,  and  kills  or 
injures  his  fellow-laborers  : — in  all  these  cases 
there  could  have  been  no  previous  thought  or 
intention  of  doing  an  injury,  and  therefore  the 
law  permits  such  persons  to  redeem  themselves 
from  the  punishment  provided  for  killing  or 
wounding  in  an  affray,  by  a  fine  to  be  paid  to 
the  family  of  the  deceased  or  wounded  person. 

Medical  men  performing  any  operation,  or  ad- 
ministering any  drugs  contrary  to  the  established 
rules  and  practice,  and  thereby  killing  the  patient, 
are  considered  as  guilty  of  homicide  ;  but  if,  on 
examination,  it  shall  appear  to  have  been  simply 
an  error,  the  practitioner  may  redeem  himself  by 
a  fine ;  but  must  quit  his  profession  for  ever. 
If  the  patient  dies,  the  practitioner  who  is  con- 
victed of  designedly  employing  improper  mw'u- 


608 


CHIN     A. 


cines,  or  otherwise  contriving  to  injure  his  patient, 
shall  suffer  death  by  being  beheaded. 

Book  II.  of  Quarrelling  and  Fighting,  enters 
into  a  minute  and  circumstantial  detail  of  blows 
given  under  every  conceivable  circumstance,  and 
takes  into  consideration  every  possible  relation  in 
point  of  rank  or  connexion  between  the  parties. 
It  fixes  the  periods  of  responsibility  for  the  con- 
sequences of  a  wound.  Any  person  who  is 
guilty  of  striking  his  father,  mother,  paternal 
grandfather  or  grandmother  ;  and  any  wife,  who 
is  guilty  of  striking  her  husband's  father,  mother, 
paternal  grandfather  or  grandmother,  shall  suffer 
death  by  being  beheaded ; — but,  '  if  a  father, 


mother,  paternal  grandfather  or  grandmother, 
chastises  a  disobedient  child  or  grandchild  in  a 
severe  and  uncustomary  manner,  so  that  he  or  she 
dies,  the  party  so  offending  shall  be  punished 
with  100  blows.' 

We  are  indebted  to  the  able  article  CHINA 
from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Barrow,  in  the  supplement 
to  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  for  the  following 
table  of  pecuniary  redemption,  in  cases  no 
legally  excluded  from  the  benefit  of  general  act? 
of  grace  and  pardon  They  are  not  necessarily 
redeemable;  but,  by  edict  of  Kien  Lung,  may 
be  made  so  upon  petition. 


Rank  of  the  party  offending. 

Sentence. 

Pecuniary 
Commuta- 
tion. 

Oz.  of  Silver. 

An  officer  above  the  fourth  rank             .             .^)                            (~  12,000 

Death  by 
strangula- 
tion or  de- 
collation. 

5,000 
4,000 

2,500 
2,000 

of  the  fifth  or  sixth  rank 

a  doctor  of  literature               .        '    ..  « 
A  graduate  or  licenciate             .        '    .  •  .- 

A  private  individual               .     .             .             .J                            1 

..     1,200 

An  officer  above  the  fourth  rank 

"     7,200 

Perpetual 

2,'400 

>       banish-       •< 

or  a  doctor  of  literature 

ment. 

1,500 

A  graduate  or  licenciate 

1,200 

A  private  individual                   .        ;    *«i 

720 

An  officer  above  the  fourth  rank         .    .  ^         ."> 

Tempora- 
ry banish- 

"    4,800 
2,000 
1.600 

•                 of  the  fifth  or  sixth  rank 

ment,  or       , 

or  a  doctor  of  literature          .             .             .            "tn"th 

1,000 

A  graduate  or  licenciate              .             ^JM 
A  private  individual                    .             .             J       bambo°- 

800 
480 

These  commutation  fines  are  said  to  bring  con- 
siderable sums  into  the  public  treasury. 

Practically,  many  curious,  and  doubtless  many 
unjust  and  immoral  cases  of  commutation  take 
place.  Direct  bribery  to  pervert  justice  is  said 
to  be  often  attempted  with  success.  Pera  Amiot 
relates  the  circumstance  of  a  master  mason  hav- 
ing been  killed  while  under  chastisement  by  an 
officer  of  the  household  of  a  prince.  The  officer 
bribed  a  laborer  for  ten  ounces  of  silver,  and  a 
promise  of  respite,  to  confess  himself  the  homi- 
cide ;  and  distributed  three  ounces  of  silver 
amongst  other  laborers  to  depose  to  a  quarrel,  in 
which  the  death-blow  was  said  to  be  inflicted. 
The  man  was  tried,  and  condemned  to 'suffer 
death  according  to  the  law,  on  the  day  of  public 
execution  at  the  autumnal  solstice :  but  it  being 
customary  for  a  principal  minister  of  the  crown 
to  examine  the  criminals  previously  to  t^eir  being 
turned  off,  his  courage  failed  him,  as  to  the 
issue,  and  he  loudly  bawled  out  the  whole  affair. 
The  officer  upon  this  was. tried,  and  his  original 
offence  being  considered  as  aggravated  by  the 
attempt  to  involve  an  innocent  person  in  the 


consequences,  he  was  sentenced  to  die  by  slow 
and  painful  means:  while  the  judges  and  asses- 
sors of  the  court,  who  tried  the  laborer,  were 
degraded  and  mulcted.  We  cannot  help  re- 
garding this,  with  the  good  father,  as  on  the 
whole  a  creditable  instance  of  Chinese  justice. 
If  in  one  quarter  it  demonstrated  corruption,  it 
also  exhibits  the  remedy  as  at  hand,  and  as  very 
promptly  and  energetically  applied.  But  that 
great  deceit  and  corruption  take  place  in  the 
administration  of  the  criminal  law  throughout 
China,  seems  to  be  established.  A  most  curious 
modern  instance  is  that  supplied  by  the  Quar- 
terly Review,  May,  1810,  as  follows  : — 

'In  February,  1807,  fifty-two  seamen  belong- 
ing to  the  East  India  Company's  ship  Neptune, 
being  on  shore  at  Canton,  got  into  a  general 
scuffle  with  some  hundreds  of  Chinese,  when 
one  of  the  latter  received  an  unfortunate  blow  on 
the  head  with  a  stick,  and  died  in  consequence 
of  it.  The  Chinese  merchant,  who  had  given 
security  for  the  good  conduct  of  the  ship's  com- 
pany, being  called  upon  by  the  magistrates, 
applied  to  the  English  factory  to  deliver  up  to 


CHINA. 


009 


justice  one  of  the  seamen,  no  matter  whom, 
engaged  in  the  aft'ray.  As  it  was  impossible 
however  to  ascertain  whether  any,  or  which,  of 
the  Neptune's  men  had  given  the  blow,  the  su- 
percargoes very  properly  resisted  the  demand. 
The  chief  of  the  factory  was  threatened  with  im- 
prisonment until  a  man  should  be  given  up,  and 
the  security-merchant  was  actually  imprisoned, 
h^wl-cuffed,and  menaced  with  corporeal  punish- 
mWt.  The  cargoes  for  the  Company's  ships 
were  withheld.  These  measures  not  succeeding, 
the  magistrates  next  demanded  that  those  who 
were  most  active,  who  were  known  to  be  drunk, 
and  who  carried  sticks,  should  be  examined,  and 
confession  extorted  from  them  by  the  application 
of  the  torture.  This  demand  was  of  course 
rejected.  After  more  than  a  month  lost  in 
threats,  edicts,  proclamations,  and  daily  confer- 
ences, the  security-merchant  was  allowed  to  send 
his  agents  to  all  the  Company's  ships  in  the 
river,  to  offer  a  reward  of  20,000  dollars  to  any 
person  who  would  point  out  the  individual  who 
had  struck  the  deceased.  To  the  honor  of  British 
seamen,  they  resisted  the  temptation,  great  as  it 
was,  to  a  man.  The  magistrates  then  assented 
to  examine  the  fifty-two  men  in  the  ordinary 
way;  the  British  factory  was  fitted  up  as  a  court 
of  justice;  the  great  officers  of  state,  and  the 
judges  attended,  and  the  result  was  the  singling 
out  of  eleven  men  as  having  been  the  most  active 
in  the  affray.  On  a  re-examination  of  these  men, 
they  endeavoured  to  prevail  on  some  one  to 
plead  guilty,  under  an  implied  promise  that  he 
should  not  be  punished.  This  failing,  it  was 
suggested  that  the  affair  might  be  got  over  if  the 
officers  of  the  Neptune  would  depose,  that  they 
had  seen  a  sailor  carrying  a  bamboo  stick  over 
his  shoulder,  against  which,  in  the  hurry  and 
confusion,  a  Chinese  had  accidentally  run  his 
head.  The  proposal  of  so  ridiculous  and  pitiful 
an  expedient  met  with  the  contempt  it  deserved. 
The  next  suggestion  was,  that  some  one  of  the 
sailors  should  be  prevailed  on  to  state  that,  find- 
ing an  attempt  made  on  his  pocket,  he  had  struck 
behind  him,  and  might  thus  hare  wounded  the 
deceased.  This  expedient  meeting  with  no  bet- 
ter success,  they  proceeded  in  their  examination, 
and  dismissed  all  except  two,  Julius  Caesar  and 
Edward  Sheen.  It  appeared  that  Julius  Caesar 
had  a  small  cane  in  his  hand  on  the  day  of  the 
riot,  but  was  not  outside  of  the  factory,  and  that 
Edward  Sheen  was  on  the  outside  of  the  factory, 
but  did  not  carry  a  stick ;  he  confessed  however 
that  he  had  a  Chinese  tobacco-pipe  in  his  hand, 
the  tube  of  which  was  of  bamboo;  the  court 
therefore  decided  that  he  carried  a  stick,  and 
consequently  that  he  was  the  culprit.  Having 
got  thus  far  over  the  ground,  a  long  negociation 
took  place  as  to  the  disposal  of  Edward  Sheen, 
until  the  final  decision  on  the  case  should  be 
received  from  Pekin,  and  it  was  at  length  agreed 
that  he  should  be  left  behind  in  charge  of  the 
supercargoes. 

'  Having  thus  briefly  stated  the  leading  facts, 
we  shall  now  see  in  what  manner  the  case  was 
represented  to  the  supreme  court  at  Pekin,  and 
its  decision  thereupon. 

'  The  viceroy  of  Canton  states,  for  trie  inform- 
ation of  the  supreme  court,  that  Edward  Sheen, 
VOL.  V. 


an  Englishman,  being  in  an  upper  story  of  a 
warehouse  which  overlooked  the  street,  and  in 
which  there  was  a  window  opening  with  wooden 
shutters,  did,  on  the  eighteenth  day  of  the  first 
moon,  employ  a  wooden  stick  in  an  oblique 
direction  to  keep  open  the  shutter,  and  that  in 
doing  this  the  wooden  stick  slipped  and  fell 
downwards;  that  Leao-a-teng,  a  Chinese,  pas- 
sing at  the  moment,  was  struck  and  wounded  by 
the  falling  of  the  said  stick  upon  his  left  temple, 
and  that  on  the  evening  of  the  following  day,  he 
died  in  consequence  of  the  wound.  That  re- 
peated orders  had  been  given  to  the  chief  of  the 
English  factory  to  deliver  up  the  man  to  justice; 
that  in  reply  it  was  alleged  the  said  criminal  was 
sick  of  an  ague  and  fever,  and  under  medical 
treatment;  that  on  his  recovery  he  was  confront- 
ed with  the  relations  of  the  deceased  ;  that  after 
repeated  examinations,  the  said  criminal  Edward 
Sheen  had  acknowledged  the  truth  of  all  the 
facts  here  stated,  without  reservation;  that  he 
had  consequently  been  proved  guilty  of  acci- 
dental homicide,  and  ought  therefore  to  be  sen 
tenced  to  pay  the  usual  fine,  to  redeem  himself 
from  the  punishment  of  death  by  stranyi 
lation. 

'  Upon  this  report  the  supreme  court  observes, 
that  the  case  appears  to  be  one  of  those  acts,  of 
the  consequences  of  which  neither  sight,  hear- 
ing, nor  reflection  could  have  given  a  previous 
warning;  that  the  said  Edward  Sheen  should, 
therefore,  be  allowed  to  redeem  himself  from  the 
punishment  of  death  by  strangulation,  by  the 
payment  of  a  fine  (amounting  to  about  £4.  3s. 
sterling),  to  the  relations  of  the  deceased,  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  burial,  and  then  be  dis- 
missed to  be  governed  in  an  orderly  manner  in 
his  own  country.' 

The  Hong  merchant  is  said  to  have  expended 
little  short  of  £50,000  in  hushing  up  this  affair. 
And,  here  again,  we  must  contend,  in  justice 
to  the  Chinese,  that  a  considerable  and  just  esti- 
mate of  the  value  of  human  life  seems  to  have 
existed  somewhere. 

The  religion  of  China  is  certainly  neither  a 
system  of  general  public  devotion  or  worship, 
nor  of  future  rewards  nor  punishments.  The 
former,  the  general  quiet  policy  and  jealousy  of 
the  government  seem  to  forbid;  i.  e.  all  public 
assemblies  of  the  people ;  and  to  the  latter 
idea  no  appeal  is  ever  made,  nor  \vould  a  Chi- 
nese moralist  allow  of  there  being  any  necessity 
for  such  an  appeal.  Ever-present  vigilance  and 
punishment,  or  reward,  is  the  boast  of  the  im- 
perial administration.  Here  are  therefore  no 
saint  or  idol,  feast,  or  sabbath  days  :  no  ordi- 
nances of  public  worship;  no  public  offices  of 
the  priesthood;  and  hardly  anything  that  can  be 
called  a  public  establishment  of  religion.  The  em- 
peror, as  we  have  before  stated,  is  the  high  priest 
and  his  state  officers  are  at  certain  great  feasts  the 
assistant  ministers  of  religion.  In  the  ritual  law, 
are  various  penalties  for  every  species  of  neglect, 
irregularity,  or  disorder,  which  may  take  place 
previous  to  or  during  the  performance  of  the 
sacred  rites.  The  animals,  precious  stones,  and 
other  oblations,  must  be  of  a  proper  quality  and 
quantity.  An  officer,  having  taken  the  oath  of 
abstinence,  must  neither  put  on  mourning,  nor 


CHINA. 


visit  the  sick,  nor  take  cognizance  of  capital 
offences,  nor  partake  of  a  feast,  nor  pass  the 
night  with  his  family,  till  the  sacred  rites  have 
been  performed.  To  damage  or  destroy  the 
altars,  mounds,  or  terraces,  consecrated  to  the 
sacred  or  imperial  rites,  is  punishable  with  100 
blows,  and  perpetual  banishment.  Magicians, 
leaders  of  sects,  and  teachers  of  false  doctrines> 
are  liable  to  very  severe  penalties;  and  among 
the  teachers  of  false  doctrines  are  included  the 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  who,  however,  are 
caressed  or  persecuted  as  it  may  suit  the  conve- 
nience or  the  caprice  of  the  ruling  powers/ 

The  principal  sects  of  the  tolerated  priests  are 
those  of  Fo  (Buddho),  and  Tao-tse ;  the  number 
of  temples  dedicated  to  the  former  deity  is  very 
great,  but  none  can  be  built  without  special 
license  from  the  government,  and  they  are  treated 
with  comparative  indifference  both  by  the  rulers 
and  the  people.  '  Religion  in  China,'  says  Mr. 
Ellis,  '  although  addressed  in  all  directions  to  the 
eye,  did  not  appear  to  have  much  influence 
upon  the  understanding  or  passions  of  the 
people.  It  has  all  the  looseness  and  vanity, 
with  less  of  the  solemnity  and  decency,  of 
ancient  polytheism.  Their  temples  are  applied 
to  so  many  purposes,  that  it  is  difficult  to  imagine 
how  any  degree  of  sanctity  can  be  attached  either 
to  the  dwellings  or  persons  of  their  deities.  The 
influence  of  superstition  is,  however,  general  and 
extensive;  it  is  displayed  in  acts  of  divination, 
and  in  propitiatory  offerings  to  local  or  patron 
deities.  Its  observances  belong  rather  to  the 
daily  manners  than  to  the  moral  conduct  of  the 
people.'  In  another  place, he  says,  'I  visited  a 
temple  near  our  anchorage,  connected  with  a 
small  tank,  in  whfch  are  some  sacred  fish.  This 
water  is  also  said  to  be  infested  with  evil  spirits, 
and  whatever  support  the  temple  receives  from 
donations  is  probably  derived  from  the  credulity 
of  the  neighbourhood  upon  this  point.  The 
priests  offered  for  sale  a  small  pamphlet,  expla-. 
natory  of  certain  religious  terms.  It  was 
remarked  by  some  that  the  priests  had  all  an 
idiotic  expression  of  countenance;  to  me  it 
seemed  rather  the  consciousness  of  belonging  to 
a  degraded  profession.  The  priests  are  taken 
from  the  very  lowest  classes,  and  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  conceive  a  body  more  degraded,  and 
indeed  more  deserving  of  degradation.  In  their 
indifference^)  all  the  decencies  of  religion,  con- 
trasted with  the  multitude  of  their  temples  and 
idols,  the  Chinese  exhibit  a  striking  peculiarity 
of  .'national  character.' 

Magistrates,  at  their  inauguration,  perform 
public  devotions  to  the  honor  of  Confucius,  in  a 
hall  or  temple  dedicated  to  his  memory ;  the 
usual  oblation  is  that  of  a  hog,  as  being  the  most 
useful  of  animals ;  and  the  sacrifice  is  performed 
before  a  pedestal,  bearing  simply  the  name  of 
that  sage.  At  the  foot  a  pit  is  dug  to  receive  the 
hair  and  offal.  Father  Intorcetla,  in  his  treatise 
De  Cultu  Sinensi,  has  given  the  whole  ceremony 
from  a  Chinese  author:  it  is  said  to  bear  a 
marked  resemblance  to  the  high  mass  of  the 
Catholics.  Libations  of  wine  are  poured  out — 
solemn  hymns  chaunted— grand  instrumental 
music  and  the  offering  of  incense  being  mingled — 
and  the  worshippers  finally  prostrating  them- 


selves before  the  tablet,  and  passing  round  the 
'  cup  of  happiness.' 

The  public  festivals,  which  are  both  of  a  civil, 
and  religious  nature,  are  those  of  the  New  Year, 
the  feast  of  Lanterns,  and  of  the  Full  Moon. 
The  last  is  generally  confined  to  noisy  mirth  all 
night  among  the  common  people.  But  at  the 
opening  of  the  new  year  all  ranks  proclaim  holi- 
day; and  on  New-Years'  Day,  all  labor  bapg 
forbidden,  family  visits,  and  compliments,  are 
exchanged,  the  houses  are  newly  painted  and 
adorned,  and  every  Chinese  is  watchful  of  the 
general  aspect  of  its  events,  believing  that  in  the 
occurrences  of  that  day  he  has  an  epitome  of 
what  will  befal  him  during  the  year  ensuing. 
The  feast  of  Lanterns  commences  two  days  be- 
fore, and  continues  two  days  after,  the  first  full 
moon  of  the  new  year.  On  this  occasion,  every 
city  and  village,  the  shores  of  the  sea,  and  the 
banks  of  the  rivers,  are  hung  with  painted  lan- 
terns of  various  shapes  and  sizes ;  some  of  them 
being  seen  in  the  windows  of  the  poorest  houses. 
No  expense  is  spared  on  this  occasion.  The  rich 
often  lay  out  8/.  or  9/.  sterling  on  one  lantern ; 
and  some  of  them  are  very  large,  composed  of 
six  wooden  frames  neatly  painted  or  gilt,  and 
filled  up  with  pieces  of  fine  transparent  silk, 
upon  which  are  painted  flowers,  animals,  and 
human  figures ;  others  are  blue,  and  made  of  a 
transparent  kind  of  horn.  Several  lamps,  or  a 
number  of  wax  candles,  are  fixed  in  the  inside ; 
to  the  corners  of  which  are  placed  streamers  of 
silk  and  satin  of  different  colors,  with  curious 
pieces  of  carved  work  on  the  top.  The  Chinese, 
being  acquainted  with  our  magic  lanterns,  also 
introduce  them  in  this  festival.  They  have  also 
the  art  of  forming  snakes  sixty  or  eighty  feet  lon<r, 
filled  with  lights  from  one  end  to  the  other ;  which 
they  cause  to  twist  themselves  into  different 
forms,  and  move  about  as  if  they  were  real  ser- 
pents. During  this  festival  all  the  varieties  of 
Chinese  fire-works,  so  justly  admired,  are  ex- 
hibited. '  A  Chinese,'  it  has  been  said,  'knows 
not  why,  nor  makes  any  enquiries  wherefore, 
these  things  are.  It  is  an  ancient  custom,  and 
that  is  enough  for  him.  The  inscriptions  on  these 
lanterns  would  seem  to  point  out  its  religious 
origin.  The  most  common  run,  Tien-tee  San- 
sheai,  Van-lin,  Chin-tsai,  '  Oh  heaven,  earth,  the 
three  limits,  and  thousand  intelligences,  hail !' 

The  most  creditable  feature  of  their  morals 
is  the  universal  respect  paid  by  children  to  their 
parents ;  and  by  the  young,  generally,  to  the  aged. 
This  is  in  fact  the  basis  of  all  moral,  political, 
and  religious  duty,  in  the  estimation  of  the  Chi- 
nese, and  is,  it  should  be  added,  an  universal 
principle  of  action.  '  The  Superior  man,'  says 
one  of  their  most  celebrated  commentators  on  the 
text  of  Confucius,  'does  not  go  out  of  his  own 
house  to  perfect  himself  in  the  art  of  governing 
a  country.  It  is  filial  veneration  that  he  cherishes 
towards  his  sovereign,  fraternal  respect  which  he 
exercises  towards  his  superiors,  and  fatherly  com- 
passion that  he  displays  towards  the  great  body 
of  the  people.'  (See  Dr.  Marshman's  Clavis 
Sinica,  'Ta-Hyoh,'  p.  19).  All  persons  of  a 
respectable  rank  in  society  build  a  mausoleum 
to  the  memory  of  their  ancestors ;  and  rich  and 
poor  unite  in  the  usage  of  visiting  the  tombs  of 


CHINA. 


611 


iheir  parents  every  spring.  On  this  occasion 
f»000  or  10,000  persons  will  sometimes  be  found 
in  one  assembly ;  and  the  only  precedence  in 
making  the  oblations  is  given  to  the  oldest  men 
of  the  groupe.  So  particular  are  the  Chinese  in 
their  veneration  for  the  dead,  that  should  the 
place  of  their  first  deposit  become  damp  or 
swampy,  they  will  remove  them  to  a  drier  spot. 

Even  the  authority  of  the  emperor  is  every 
where  regarded  as  paternal,  and  that  to  a  ludi- 
crous extent.  '  I  this  day,'  says  Mr.  Ellis,  '  saw 
the  pantze  inflicted  upon  one  of  the  boatmen, 
and  was  surprised  at  the  comparative  lenity  of  t'le 
punishment ;  the  strokes,  twenty-five  in  number, 
were  inflicted  on  the  back  of  the  thighs  with  a 
half  bamboo,  six  feet  long,  and  two  inches  wide : 
so  little  force  was  used,  that  the  suffering  did  not 
certainly  exceed  that  of  a  tolerably  severe  flog- 
ging at  school.  The  culprit,  according  to  the 
established  usage,  returned  thanks,  when  the 
punishment  was  over,  to  the  mandarin,  by  pros- 
tration. This  practice,  absurd  in  appearance, 
and  unnatural  in  reality,  arises  from  the  pa- 
triarchal theory  of  the  government,  which  sup- 
poses that  judicial  punishments  are  the  cor- 
rections of  paternal  affection,  and  therefore 
reluctantly  inflicted.' 

We  have  noticed  a  Chinese  superstition  with 
regard  to  the  new-years'  day.  This  is  extended 
to  many  other  lucky  and  unlucky  days,duly  marked 
in  the  imperial  calender.  A  board  of  imperial 
astronomers,  or  astrologers  rather,  regulates  tho 
propitious  days  for  the  court;  and  on  the  un- 
lucky days  no  contract  is  expected  to  succeed,  no 
marriage,  and  even  on  some  of  them  no  funeral 
must  take  place.  They  have  also  great  faith  in 
the  good  fortune  of  odd  numbers  :  there  are  they 
say  three  grand  kinds  of  luminaries,  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars;  three  superior  beings,  God, 
angels,  and  man ;  three  essential  powers,  heaven, 
earth,  and  man;  three  grand  relations  of  life, 
prince  and  people,  father  and  son,  husband  and 
wife.  Their  chief  temples  have  therefore  three 
quadrangular  courts,  and  the  buildings  around  are 
said  to  be  inhabited  by  three  species  of  spirits, 
heavenly,  earthly,  and  infernal.  Five  great  vir- 
tues are  often  spoken  of  in  their  ancient  books, 
charity,  justice,  good  manners,  prudence,  and  ji- 
delity :  they  reckon  jive  domestic  spirits;  jive  ele- 
ments; jive  primitive  colors;  jive  seasons  of  the 
year,  over  which  are  five  presiding  spirits;  Jive 
planets;  Jive  points  of  the  compass;  jive  sorts  of 
earth ;  jive  precious  stones,  and  jive  degrees  of 
punishment.  Seven  is  also  distinguished.  There 
are,  they  say,  seven  ruling  heavenly  powers,  the 
sun,  moon,  and  five  planets ;  nine  is  also  a  ruling 
and  efficient  number. 

Of  their  language  we  should  be  disposed  to 
say  but  little  in  a  work  of  science,  did  not  the 
degree  of  light  which  has  been  thrown  upon  it 
of  late  years,  reflect  peculiar  honor  on  Engli-h- 
men  and  English  missionaries.  The  Jesuits  had 
persuaded  all  Europe,  to  a  very  late  period,  that 
it  was  so  strangely  obscure  as  to  require  the  de- 
votion of  a  life  to  understand  it  for  any  useful 
purpose.  'We  now  know,'  says  Mr.  Barrow, 
*  that  a  moderate  degree  of  application  for  two  or 
three  years,  with  the  assistance  of  a  Chinese,  will 
enable  the  student  to  write  it  with  ease,  to  read 


and  translate  their  most  obscure  books,  and  to 
transact  every  kind  of  business,  commercial  or 
political ;  and  that  this  knowledge  has  opened  up 
a  vast  fund  of  literature  which,  in  Europe,  was 
hardly  suspected  to  exist.  To  Sir  George  Staun- 
ton,  in  the  first  place,  he  adds,  to  Dr.  Marshman 
and  his  son,  at  Serampore,  to  Mr.  Morrison,  a 
Missonary  at  Canton,  and  to  Mr.  Davis,  a  pro- 
mising youth  in  the  East  India  Company's  Fac- 
tory at  that  port,  we  are  more  indebted  for  a  true 
and  distinct  state  of  the  laws,  the  language,  the 
institutions,  and  literature  of  China,  than  to  all 
the  voluminous  writings  of  the  Jesuits,  which, 
however  curious  and  valuable  in  many  details, 
are  crowded  with  errors  and  exaggerations.' 

We  have  noticed  at  some  length,  Sir  George 
Staunton's  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  Chi- 
nese jurisprudence.  '  It  was  reserved  '  says  the 
Quarterly  Review,  July  1814,  'for  the  missionary 
of  Serampore  (Dr.  Marshman)  to  favor  the  Euro- 
pean world  with  the  first  plain,  simple,  and  intelli- 
gent introductory  treatise  of  the  Chinese  language.' 
We  cannot,  therefore,  better  furnish  thereaderwith 
a  few  plain  ideas  respecting  this  language  than  by 
offering  him  a  short  abstract  of  Dr.  Marshman's 
Clavis  Sinica,  or  Elements  of  Chinese  Grammar  : 
interspersed  with  an  observation  or  two  from 
other  sources.  It  is  a  scarce  4to.  volume  printed 
at  the  Serampore  Mission  press ;  and  sold,  we  be- 
lieve, in  this  countr)  for  £5.  5s. 

'  That  the  Chinese,'  says  Dr.  Marshman,  '  is  a 
singular  language,  will  be  readily  acknowledged. 
But,  although  it  differs  widely  in  its  principle 
from  every  alphabetical  language,  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  subject  will  probably  remove 
many  of  the  mistakes  hitherto  entertained  re- 
specting it,  and  perhaps  evince,  that,  though 
totally  different  in  its  nature,  it  is  little  less  re- 
gular in  its  formation,  and  i^were  the  means 
equally  within  our  power)  scarcely  more  dif- 
ficult of  acquisition,  than  Sungskrit,  Greek,  or 
even  Latin.  It  may  assist  us  in  forming  a  just 
idea  of  this  language,  if  we  first  examine  the 
nature  and  formation  of  the  characters, — then 
the  sounds  affixed  to  them;  and  afterwards  their 
grammatical  construction,  or  the  manner  in 
which  they  unite  with  each  other  in  forming  sen- 
tences.' 

'  These  characters  answer  properly  to  the 
(written)  words  which  compose  other  languages : 
no  one  of  them  forms  a  proposition ;  no  one  in- 
cludes within  itself  the  force  of  a  noun  and  a 
verb,  of  a  substantive  and  its  adjunct,  or  an  ac- 
tion and  its  object,  in  any  other  way  than  com- 
pound words  in  the  Greek  and  the  Sungskrit 
languages.  However  complicated  any  character 
may  appear,  still  the  compound,  though  it  em- 
brace six  or  seven  characters,  like  compounds  1.1 
Greek  and  Sungskrit,  expresses  only  one  Idea, 
and  still  remains  a  substantive,  an  adjective,  a 
verb,  &c.,  as  capable  of  union  with  other  cha- 
racters as  the  simplest  character  in  the  language 
Nor  is  any  difference  of  gender,  number,  or  case, 
in  the  nouns;  or  of  mood,  tense,  or  person,  in 
the  verbs,  expressed  by  any  alteration  in  the  cha- 
racter :  these  are  all  either  inferred  from  the  con- 
nection, or  expressed,  as  in  English,  by  certain 
auxiliary  characters. 

4  The  specific  difference  then  between  the 

2  R2 


612 


CHINA. 


Chinese  and  other  languages,  lies  wholly  in  the 
principle  on  which  the  characters  or  words  are 
formed  :  these  being  formed  in  the  latter  by  the 
union  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  in  the  former 
Ly  the  union  of  certain  elementary  characters,  in- 
tended to  represent  the  principal  objects  of  sense.' 

'  These  are  in  number  214,  and  consist  of 
strong  linear  and  angular  strokes,  which  advance 
in  number  from  one  to  fifty-two,  and  include 
every  variety  with  respect  to  length,  from  the 
simple  apex  to  the  longest  oblique  stroke,  as 
well  as  that  variety  of  position,  which  results 
from  the  oblique,  the  horizontal,  and  the  per- 
pendicular. It  is,  however,  worthy  of  remark, 
that  circular  forms  are  excluded.  Whatever  of 
this  nature  appears  in  any  character,  is  merely 
fancy  and  embellishment,  and  no  way  essential 
to  the  meaning  of  the  character.  Nor  does  the 
thickness  or  fineness  of  the  stroke  alter  the 
meaning,  any  further  than  as  indicating,  in  cer- 
tain cases,  whether  the  stroke  has  been  struck 
upwards  or  downwards :  that  circumstance,  in 
several  instances,  forming  the  specific  difference 
between  two  characters  apparently  alike  in  form.' 

The  elements  then  follow,  in  Dr.  Marshman's 
Treatise,  in  the  order  they  preservein  the  Impe- 
rial Dictionary.  Atthe  close  of  them  he  remarks, 

'  These  elements  enter  into  the  composition  of 
all  the  characters  of  the  Chinese  language ;  every 
other  character  is  said  to  contain  at  least  one  of 
these,  and  most  of  them  are  formed  by  the  union 
of  several,  proceeding  from  one  to  seven  or  eight. 
Some  of  them,  it  is  true,  are  abbreviated  for  the 
sake  of  facilitating  their  union  with  others,  and 
in  some  of  the  compounds,  a  part  of  certain  cha- 
racters alone  appears :  but,  in  the  greater  number, 
every  character  may  be  distinctly  traced,  either 
in  its  proper  or  abbreviated  form. 

'  Relative  to  the  origin  of  the  elements  and 
the  other  characters,'  continues  Dr.  Marshman, 
'  we  are  left  almost  entirely  to  conjecture.  The 
invention  of  twenty-four  elements  which,  void  of 
meaning  themselves,  should  yet  constitute  words, 
signifying,  by  compact,  distinct  ideas,  according 
to  Harris,  has  been  esteemed  so  extraordinary,  as 
almost  to  transcend  the  powers  of  the  human 
mind.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  whether  this 
mode  of  expressing  ideas,  or  the  imitative  adopted 
by  the  Chinese,  be  the  most  ancient,  but  the 
latter  seems  more  simple  and  obvious,  and  hence 
more  within  the  reach  of  the  human  mind. 
However  difficult  it  might  be  to  invent  and  com- 
bine letters  so  as  to  form  words  which  might 
convey  ideas ;  that,  when  men  wished  to  retain 
or  convey  to  each  other  the  idea  of  an  object,  it 
would  be  natural  for  them  to  trace  in  some  rude 
manner  an  imitation  or  character,  which  might 
in  their  opinion  serve  to  represent  it,  is  evident, 
not  only  from  the  practice  of  travellers  and 
others  unacquainted  with  the  principles  of  draw- 
ing, but  even  from  that  of  children,  who,  in 
their  juvenile  frolics,  often  amuse  themselves  in 
thus  attempting  to  pourtray  objects  which  forcibly 
strike  their  attention.' 

'  The  first  efforts  of  this  kind  were  probably 
attempts  to  delineate  the, objects  of  sense  around. 
Whether  such  imitations  would  bear  any  likeness 
to  the  thing  -represented,  is  another  question : 
that  this  would  be  intended,  seems. more  than 
probable ;  but  that  the  resemblance  should  be  in 


many  cases  so  exact  as  of  itself  to  demonstrate 
the  object  represented,  is  scarcely  to  be  ex- 
pected. Nor  is  any  thing  of  this  kind  intended 
to  be  affirmed  respecting  the  elements.  They 
are  laid  before  the  reader  simply  as  elements ; 
and  every  man  will  judge  for  himself  respecting 
any  real  or  imaginary  resemblance  between  the 
head,1  the  hand,1  the  heart3  the  mouth*  and  the 
characters  by  which  these  are  represented.  Thus 

1234 


H 


However  this  may  be  determined  in  modern 
times,  the  Chinese  historians  it  seems  trace  back 
the  origin  of  these  characters  in  successive  editions 
of  ancient  books  in  a  very  remarkable  way.  Mr. 
Morrison  quotes  them  as  speaking  of  a  person 
named  Paou-she  who  compiled  a  work  called 
Lah-hoo  about  the  year  of  the  world  2900,  in 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  characters  are  hie- 
roglyphic :  they  were  afterwards  abbreviated  for 
the  sake  of  convenience,  we  are  told,  and  thus 
the  original  forms  were  lost.  But,  in  proof  of 
the  characters  being  at  first  a  representation  of 
the  thing  signified,  the  following  instances  have 
been  advanced  from  seals,  cups,  vases,  &c. 
Many  of  them  indeed  were  forwarded  by  father 
Amiot,  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Thus 

(£)          jih,  was  the  sun,  now         |^J 
Js          yue,  the  moon,  now 

*—  shan,  a  hill,  now 

i-V        a  field,  is  now  also 

•**-  ¥- 

Sr — ^T>     a  sheep,  now  ^^ 

•<]£>-     muh,  the  eye,  now  JS3 

S^2?  chow,  a  boat,  now  )t) 

•"">•..  -x""  a  mouth,  now  lu? 

y\l/v"  a  cart  or  carriage,  now  n=> 

bq  a  gap,  now  P^ 

"^2^^  shevuy,  water  now  J1/^ 

*^J  urh,  the  ear,  now  -^f~ 

1  The  Chinese  themselves,'  according  to  Dr. 
Marshman,  '  divide  the  characters  into  six 
classes,  the  first  three  of  which  include  those 
characters  which  in  a  qualified  sense  may  be 
termed  simple;  and  the  last  three  regard  the 
compound  characters.  The  first  efforts,  as  al- 
ready observed,  being  unquestionably  employed 
in  attempting  to  form  representations  of  visible 
objects,  these  form  the  first  class,  and  are  termed 
Syang-hhing,  '  imitations  or  figures.'  This  class 
includes  rather  more  than  half  the  elements, 
and  a  few  other  characters  which  are  more  simple 
in  their  forms  than  some  of  the  elements,  though 
not  ranked  among  them.' 

'  The  second  class  in  order  points  out  the  next 
step  taken  to  extend  this  medium  of  communica- 
tion. It  is  termed  by  the  Chinese  kya-tsyea, 
'  feigned  or  made,'  and  is  said  to  apply  the  cha 


CHINA. 


613 


racters  in  a  double  sense.  They  adduce  as  ex- 
amples of  this,' r  A  Viang,5  long,  wide,  which,  from 
signifying  the  length  or  extension  of  matter,  was 
applied  to  denote  length  of  time,  &c. ;  and  ting,6 
which  from  being  originally  used  to  denote 
order,  command,  was  at  length  applied  to  sig- 
nify the  thing  ordered  or  appointed,  as  shee-lmg, 
the  various  parts  of  time  ordered  or  appointed, 
that  is,  the  months  of  the  year.  Of  this  kind 
is  tehee,7  an  arrow,  which  from  the  straight  course 
of  an  arrow,  was  used  to  signify  direct,  right,  a 
word  spoken  directly  to  the  point ;  and  hence 
when  combined  with  khou,8  a  mouth,  it  forms 
chee,9  knowledge ;  of  which  more  hereafter. 
This  advance  seems  to  have  created  no  new  cha- 
racters, but  to .  have  extended  those  already 
formed,  by  applying  them  in  a  metaphorical  or 
figurative  sense,  as  far  as  the  objects  they  repre- 
sented were  capable  of  being  thus  applied.  This 
class  may  therefore  be  termed  the  figurative. 
567  89 


But  this  extension,  though  it  enlarged  their 
medium  of  intercourse,  was  in  itself  limited.  A 
character  which  merely  denoted  length,  could 
not  without  force  be  made  to  signify  height ;  nor 
could  one  denoting  command,  be  with  propriety 
applied  to  signify  depth.  Necessity  compelled 
them  to  advance  another  step,  and  gave  rise  to 
the  forming  of  the  third  class,  termed  Tchee-shee, 
•  indicating  the  thing.'  These  characters,  though 
not  pictures  of  things,  seem  intended  to  suggest 
ideas  to  the  mind  from  their  form  and  position. 
As  examples  of  this  class,  the  Chinese  adduce 
shyang,10  above,  and  hya,11  beneath,  which  they 
say  were  formed  on  this  principle  :  admitting 
that  y  A,12  a  horizontal  stroke,  denotes  the  level 
or  medium,  by  placing  yin,t3  a  man,  above  it, 
the  idea  is  suggested  of  something  above  or 
superior:  this  character  is  used  therefore  to  sig- 
nify above  or  superior.  On  the  other  hand,  by 
placing  yin,  a  man,  below  this  horizontal  line, 
something  below  or  inferior  seemed  indicated ; 
this  then  is  used  to  indicate  inferior,  below,  &c. 
10  11  12  13 


A 


The  next  step  gave  rise  in  all  probability  to  the 
Compounds,  a  class  of  characters  in  their  prin- 
ciple almost  entirely  new,  and  which  with  its 
modifications  has  brouefu  the  Chinese  language 
to  its  present  state,  i  liis  class,  which  is  the 
fourth  in  the  Chinese  series,  is  teamed  Hhooi-ee, 
'  combination  of  idea,'  and  is  formed  by  uniting 
two  or  more  significant  characters  to  produce 
another  idea  resulting  from  the  meaning  of  its 
component  parts.  This  step  opened  an  exten- 
sive field  to  the  Christian  philologists,  and  gave 
birth  to  combinations  of  characters,  some  of  them 
indeed  simple  and  obvious  even  to  us,  but  others 
arising  from  circumstances  which  at  this  distance 
of  time  are  quite  beyond  our  guess. 

A  fifth  class  they  term  Chwan-chyu, '  inverted 
in  meaning,'  and  form  it  two  ways ;  either  by 
some  slight  alteration  of  a  character,  as  the  turn- 
ing of  a  stroke  to  the  It  ft  instead  of  the  right ;  or 


by  changing  the  name  or  the  sound  of  a  character' 
Chinese  ingenuity  advances  another  step,  and 
forms  another  class  of  compounds  termed  Hhyai 
shing,  '  meaning  and  sound,'  which  they  reckon 
the  sixth  or  the  last  in  the  series.  These  are 
formed  by  adding  to  a  character  which  denotes  the 
genus  or  kind,  another  which  denotes  the  imagined 
sound  of  the  species  or  the  individual  signified. 
Of  the  number  of  the  Chinese  characters  taken 
together,  which  the  Jesuits  have  stated  at  70,000, 
or  80,000,  Dr.  Marshmans  assures  us  that  in  the 
Imperial  Dictionary,  after  repeatedly  examining 
every  page,  he  found  the  sum  total  to  stand  thus 
Characters  in  the  body  of  the  work  .  .  3121* 
Added,  principally  obsolete  and  incorrect 

forms  of  others 642' 

Characters  not  before  classed   in  any  dic- 
tionary                .     165* 

Characters  without  name  or  meaning.     .     4200 

43496 

Dr.  Marshman  also  establishes  this  singular  fact, 
that  in  the  entire  works  of  the  celebrated  Confu- 
cius there  are  scarcely  3000  different  characters. 
Our  author,  in  the  next  division  of  his  work, 
discusses  the  nature  of  the  colloquial  medium, 
which,  being  utterly  unlike  any  other  language, 
ancient  or  modern,  he  infers  must  have  been  in 
use  before  the  invention  of  their  characters — '  as 
speech  necessarily  precedes  writing.'  To  esta- 
blish its  claim  to  an  original  language,  Dr. 
Marshman  now  examines  the  question  how  far  it 
can  be  said  to  resemble  the  Hebrew  and  the 
Sanscrit,  the  two  most  ancient  and  only  probable 
languages  from  which  it  could  be  derived.  The 
Hebrew  alphabet  he  finds  to  have  five  conso- 
nants which  the  Chinese  have  not,  while  the 
Chinese  have  eight  not  found  in  the  Hebrew; 
sixteen  probably  may  be  deemed  common  to 
both.  Then  the  Chinese  language  is  purely 
monosyllabic,  and  the  Hebrew  polysyllabic ;  the 
latter  might  easily  spring  ont  of  the  former,  but 
it  is  scarcely  conceivable  that  a  polysyllabic  lan- 
guage could  be  cut  down  to  a  language  wholly 
composed  of  monosyllables.  The  numerous  in- 
flections of  the  Hebrew  verbs  are  totally  incom- 
patible with  the  unchangeable  inflexible  mono- 
syllable, which  is  at  once  a  noun  indeclinable, 
and  a  verb  not  to  be  conjugated,  which  in  itself 
is  incapable  of  taking  either  number,  case,  or 
gender,  mood,  tense,  or  person.  Not  content 
with  stating  these  discrepancies,  Dr.  M'arshman 
examines  the  speech  of  Judah  to  Joseph,  in  the 
forty-fourth  chapter  of  Genesis,  which  in  the 
Hebrew  contains  206  words,  sixteen  of  which 
are  monosyllables ;  but  of  these  sixteen,  seven 
only  are  found  in  the  Chinese  language,  and 
these  seven  we  apprehend,  though  he  does  not 
say  so,  are  merely  symphonious  and  not  synony- 
mous. Another  passage  of  the  Bible,  Abraham's 
intercession  for  Sodom,  is  found  to  contain  230 
words,  of  which  ten  only  are  monosyllables,  and 
four  of  these  are  Chinese.  But  lest  it  should  be 
objected  that  the  two  passages  are  too  modern 
for  the  time  when  the  Chinese  language  may  be 
supposed  to  have  been  first  formed,  Dr.  Marsh- 
man goes  still  farther  back,  and  taking  the  male- 
dictory prophecy  of  Noah,  relative  to  his  grand- 
son Canaan,  in  twenty-six  words  he  finds  only 
one  monosyllable;  and  he  therefore  concludes, — 


614 


CHINA. 


if  the  Chinese  formed  their  colloquial  medium 
by  selecting  one  word  from  twenty-nine,  as  in 
the  first  example,  from  fifty  as  in  the  second,  or 
even  one  from  twenty-six,  of  those  they  were  in 
the  habit  of  hearing  every  moment,  the  point  is 
decided— invention  itself  seems  easy  compared 
with  this  labor.  But  if  they  did  not  derive  their 
colloquial  medium  from  the  language  of  Noah 
and  his  sons,  the  alternative  is,  that  they  intended 
it  wholly  themselves. 

The  similarity  of  the  Sanscrit  alphabet  with 
the  Chinese  system  of  sound  is  now  adverted  to, 
and  that  affinity  established  between  them  which 
only  leaves  it  a  question  which  gave  birth  to  the 
other.  Into  this  discussion  we  cannot  here  con- 
duct the  reader.  Dr.  Marshman  thinks  the  ba- 
lance of  probability  is  that  the  Chinese  was  an 
original  system. 

Dr.  Marshman's  Elements  establish  this  to  be 
a  most  simple  and  inartificial  language.  It  is 
wholly  destitute  of  inflections ;  the  collocation  of 
the  monosyllables  determines  the  meaning  of  a 
sentence ;  and  the  mood,  tense,  number,  and  per- 
son, are  denoted  by  prepositions  and  other  par- 
ticles in  a  similar  way  to  those  of  our  own  lan- 
guage. Multitudes  of  words  occur  too,  as  in 
our  language,  which  are  used  both  as  nouns  and 
verbs  without  the  least  change ;  but  the  accom- 
panying characters  define  them  with  certainty : — 
Dr.  Marshman  asks  in  conclusion,  'And  now 
what  is  there  in  the  language,  besides  its  being 
unknown  to  us,  which  has  arrayed  it  in  all  those 
terrors  hitherto  associated  therewith  ?  Does  not 
each  character  convey  a  determinate  idea  as 
really  as  the  words  of  the  western  languages  ? 
Is  that  position  which  supplies  the  place  of 
grammatical  terminations,  and  which  must  ne- 
cessarily be  fixed,  more  intricate  and  ambiguous 
than  the  terminations,  and  the  inversion  of  sen- 
tences found  in  Latin  ?  I  grant  that  the  Chinese 
written  language  is  not  only  the  Latin  of  Ton- 
quin.  Cochin-china,  and  Japan,  but  of  China 
itself;  and  further,  that  it  is  wholly  separated 
from  conversation;  for  to  this  circumstance «it 
owes  that  permanent  perspicuity  which  has  re- 
mained proof  against  the  alterations  in  language 
arising  from  the  lapse  of  ages,  the  revolutions  of 
government,  and  the  invasions  of  foreign  ene- 
mies. Nay,  I  grant  further,  that  a  native  Chi- 
nese studies  the  written  language,  and  the  ancient 
classics  which  it  contains,  for  five  or  six  years 
before  he  be  judged  qualified  for  public  business. 
Still  does  not  this  last  circumstance  rather  de- 
monstrate the  ease  with  which  the  language  can 
be  acquired  ?  For,  not  to  say  that  much  of  this 
time  is  employed  in  digesting  the  ideas  contained 
in  those  ancient  works,  the  Chinese  student  ac- 
quires the  written  language  by  study  as  we  ac- 
quire Latin,  yet  does  he  apply  a  greater  length 
of  time  to  the  study,  than  it  costs  an  English 
youth  to  acquire  a  good  Latin  style?  Would 
even  a  majority  of  the  youth  educated  at  our 
public  schools,  be  found  to  have  acquired  a  style 
sufficiently  correct  and  copious  for  public  busi- 
ness after  studying  Latin  ten  years  ?  Yet  no  one 
deems  a  neat  Latin  style  an  impracticable  attain- 
ment, much  less  that  of  reading  the  language 
with  ease.' 

Dr.  Morrison's  Dictionary  of  the  Chinese  lan- 


guage is  another  most  important  contribution  to 
the  stores  of  Oriental  literature.  Its  ground-work 
is  Kang-hi's  Tsze-teen,  the  Johnson's  Dictionary 
of  China  :  but  this  indefatigable  missionary  (who 
was  appointed  Chinese  secretary,  we  observe,  to 
lord  Amherst)  has  also  added  from  the  various 
works  of  the  Chinese  and  the  Jesuits,  as  well  as 
from  his  own  long  acquaintance  with  the  lan- 
guage, many  important  examples  and  explana- 
tions, The  characters  are  arranged  according  tc 
the  keys  or  radicals;  immediately  after  the  mo- 
dern is  placed  the  seal,  then  the  ancient  vase 
character,  and  finally  the  running  hand  character. 
'  And  why,'  says  the  Quarterly  Review,  in  a  very 
needful  tone  of  remonstrance,  '  are  the  works  of 
those  learned  and  indefatigable  missionaries  not 
advertised  in  the  daily  papers,  like  other  books, 
that  the  nations  of  Europe  may  know  what  rapid 
advances  have  been  made  of  late  years  in  Ori- 
ental literature  by  our  countrymen,  the  neglect 
of  which  had  so  long  been  their  reproach  ?' 

Both  these  learned  missionaries  have  recently 
crowned  their  other  labors  in  this  language  by 
complete  translations  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
The  Serampore  version,  which  is  the  work  of 
Dr.  Marshman,  was  commenced  in  the  year 
1806;  the  New  Testament  was  finished  at  press 
in  1817,  and  the  last  portion  of  the  Old  in  April, 
1822 — the  whole  Bible,  in  five  parts,  8vo.,  having 
thus  occupied  a  period  of  about  sixteen  years. 
Since  this  great  work  was  accomplished,  the 
other  translation  we  have  mentioned  has  been 
completed  by  Drs.  Morrison  and  Milne,  in  con- 
nexion with  the  London  Missionary  Society ;  so 
that  now  the  Scriptures  are  provided  for  the 
great  numbers  of  Chinese  who  are  found  visiting 
or  residing  in  other  parts  of  the  Eastern  world 
for  the  purposes  of  trade,  and  also  for  Christian 
missionaries  who  may  enter  China  itself  when- 
ever God  in  his  providence  shall  see  fit  to  make 
that  great  empire  accessible  to  them. 

To  the  historical  literature  of  the  Chinese  we 
shall  have  occasion  to  advert  in  the  conclusion  of 
this  article.  The  great  philosopher  of  the  empire 
it  is  well  known  was  Confucius,  of  whose  works 
Dr.  Marshman  has  published  a  translation,  in  a 
4to.  volume  of  740  pages.  He  also  gives  a  spe- 
cimen of  his  maxims  and  style  in  his  Ta-Hyot, 
appended  to  the  Clavis  Sinica.  We  extract  the 
Important  Doctrine. 

1.  The  path  or  course  of  learning  proper  for 
men,  consists  in  restoring  reason  to  its  pristine 
lustre ;  in  renovating  others ;  and  in  making  the 
summit  of  all  virtue  the  only  point  of  rest. 

2.  When  the  mind  knows  its  point  of  rest,  it 
is  decided  ;  once  fixed,  it  can  enjoy  tranquillity,- 
and  thus  at  ease,  view  all   things  around  with 
complete  self-possession,  thence  maturely  weigh 
their  nature  and  value,  and   finally  attain  (per- 
fection in  virtue). 

3.  Things  in  the  vegetable  world  have  a  root, 
as  well  as  branches  and  fruit ;  actions  too  have 
a  consummation,  and  also  a  source  whence  they 
spring.     He  then  who  has  formed  a  just  idea  of 
cause  and  effect,  has  made  a  near  approximation 
to  the  path  which  leads  to  the  summit  of  virtue. 

4.  The  ancients  who  wished  to  restore  reason 
to  its  due  lustre  throughout  the  empire,  first  re- 
gulated the  province  which  they  each  governed  ; 


C     II     I     N     A. 


desirous  of  governing:  well  their  own  kingdoms, 
they  previously  established  order  .and  virtue  in 
their  own  houses;  for  the  sake  of  establishing 
domestic  order,  they  began  with  self-renova- 
tion ;  to  renovate  their  own  minds,  they  first 
gave  a  right  direction  to  their  affections ;  wishing 
to  direct  their  passions  aright,  they  previously 
corrected  their  ideas  and  desires ;  and  to  rectify 
these,  they  enlarged  their  knowledge  to  the  ut- 
most. Now  this  enlargement  of  knowledge, 
consists  in  a  most  thorough  and  minute  acquaint- 
ance with  the  nature  of  things  around  us. 

5.  A  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  nature 
of  things,  renders  knowledge  deep  and  consum- 
mate ;  from  hence  proceed  just  ideas  and  desires ; 
erroneous  ideas  once  corrected,  the  affections  of 
the  soul  move  in  a  right  direction;  the  passions 
thus  rectified,  the  mind  naturally  obeys  reason ; 
and,  the  empire  of  reason  restored  in  the  soul, 
domestic   order  follows  of  course;  from   hence 
flows  order  throughout  the  whole  province ;  and 
one  province  rightly  governed,  may  serve  as  a 
model  for  the  whole  empire. 

6.  From  the  Son  of  Heaven  even  to  the  com- 
mon people,  one  rule  applies,  that  self-govern- 
ment is  the  root  of  all  virtue. 

7.  That  the   right  government  of  a  kingdom 
should  spring  from  a  mind  in  a  state  of  disorder, 
is  impossible.     To   despise  that  which  is  most 
important  (self-government),    and  esteem   that 
alone  which  is  light  and  secondary,  is  contrary 
to  reason. 

Nor  can  we  forbear  enriching  this  article  with 
another  specimen  of  the  literature  of  this  sin- 
gular people  in  the  following  beautiful  passage, 
quoted  by  Dr.  Morrison,  on  the  value  of  letters. 
'  When  letters  were  invented,  the  heavens,  the 
earth,  and  the  gods,  were  all  agitated.  The  in- 
habitants of  Hades  wept  at  night,  and  the  hea- 
vens, as  an  expression  of  joy,  rained  down  ripe 
grain.  From  the  invention  of.  letters  the  machi- 
nations of  the  human  heart  began  to  operate, 
stories  false  and  erroneous  daily  increased,  litiga- 
tions and  imprisonments  sprung:  hence  also 
specious  and  artful  language  which  causes  so 
much  confusion  in  the  world.  It  was  on  these 
accounts  that  the  shades  of  the  departed  wept  at 
night.  But  from  this  invention  of  letters  polite 
intercourse  and  music  proceeded,  reason  and 
justice  were  made  manifest,  the  relations  of  so- 
cial life  were  illustrated,  and  laws  became  fixed; 
governors  had  a  rule  to  refer  to,  scholars  had  au- 
thorities to  venerate — and  hence  the  heavens, 
delighted,  rained  down  ripe  grain.  The  classical 
scholar,  the  historian,  the  mathematician,  the  as- 
tronomer, none  of  them  can  do  without  letters ; 
were  there  not  letters  to  afford  proof  of  passing 
events  the  shades  might  weep  at  noon  day,  and 
the  heavens  rnn  down  blood.' 

Poetry  has  been  cultivated  in  China  from  an 
early  period.  The  emperor  Yao  is  said  to  have 
heard  in  his  passage  through  the  streets  of  the 
capital  the  following  stanza  in  praise  of  his  go- 
vernment, which  is  the  first  specimen  of  Chinese 
verse  on  record : — 

Lih  ngo  ching  inin 
Moh  fy  frr  kih 
Pooh  shlh  pooh  chei; 
Shuen  leu  tchcc  uuh 


The  tranquillity  we,  the  people,  enjoy 
Is  wholly  the  fruit  of  thine  exalted  virtwe  ; 
No  information  or  knowledge  is  needed  ; 
All  flows  from  the  sovereign's  wise  institutions. 

Another  early  specimen,  including  rhymes  as 
well  as  measure,  is  a  ko,  or  admonitory  address 
to  his  children  by  the  great  Yu,  who  founded  the 
Kya,  the  first  dynasty  of  the  three  most  ancient 
ones. 

Nooi  tsoh  Suh  hwang 

Ngwai  tsoh  khin  hwang 

Kan  tsyeu  shu  yin 

Tsin  yu  tyao  tsyang 

Yeu  y'ih  yu  tse 

Wy  hhoh  pooh  wang 

Within  to  be  addicted  to  effeminate  pleasures, 

Without  to  the  sports  of  the  field ; 

To  be  fond  of  wine,  of  music, 

Or  of  palaces  elegantly  adorned, 

To  delight  in  any  one  of  these 

Will  be  doubtless  inevitable  ruin  ! 

In  this  stanza,  each  line  contains  four  syllables, 
and  the  first,  second,  fourth,  and  sixth  harmonise 
with  each  other. 

The  Shee  (poetry  of  the  highest  kind),  a  collec- 
tion of  odes  by  Confucius,  contain  all  the  chief 
varieties  of  Chinese  poetry.  A  great  part  of  the 
odes  are  intended  for  recitation  at  the  worship  of 
paternal  ancestors :  some  of  these  were  written 
in  the  rsign  of  Wooting,  who  ascended  the  throne 
B.  C.  1323.  Sometimes  four,  six,  or  even  eight 
couplets  in  a  stanza,  end  alike.  We  can  only 
extract  an  Ode  on  Parting  with  a  Friend. 

Chhing  shan  kuring  piih  kwoh 

Ise  chyu  yeh  ury  pyeh 

lyen  yuen  yeu  tsee  ce 

Khwy  shyen  tse  khu 

Puh  shooi  hyao  toong  chhing 

Koo  p'hoong  wan  lee  ching 

Lohyih  koo  yin  tsing 

Syao  syao  pan  ma  ming 
Where  the  verdant  mountains  encircle  the  city  on  the 

north, 

And  the  limpid  stream  washes  it  on  the  east, 
There  did  I  once  part  with  my  beloved  friend  ; 
Now  like  the  down  of  the  phoong,*  borne  by  the  wind 

a  thousand  leagues. 

His  desire  to  proceed,  irresistible  as  the  flying  cloud, 
Mine  to  detain  him,  vain  as  the  attempt  to  stay  the 

setting  sun  ; 

Courteously  waving  the  hand,  he  then  went  from  me, 
Our  parting  lamentation  like   that  of  the  generous 
steed  for  his  mate. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  iate  emperor  Kien- 
lung  wrote  a  tolerable  poem  upon  Tea  :  Grozius's 
collection,  according  to  the  supplement  of  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  contains  the  following 
far  superior  specimen  of  modern  Chinese  poetry. 
It  might  be  entitled  the  Contented  Bachelor. 
'  My  palace  is  a  little  chamber,  thrice  my  own 
length ;  finery  never  entered  it,  and  neatness  ne- 
ver left  it.  My  bed  is  a  mat,  and  the  coverlid  a 
piece  of  felt ;  on  these  I  sit  by  day  and  sleep  by 
night.  A  lamp  is  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other 
a  pot  of  perfume.  The  singing  of  birds,  the 
rustling  of  the  breeze,  the  murmuring  of  the  brook, 
are  the  only  sounds  which  I  hear.  My  window  will 

*  A  plant  resembling  worm-wood,  which  produces  a 
downy  seed. 


616 


CHINA. 


shut,  and  my  door  open, — but  to  wise  men  only ; 
the  wicked  shun  it.  I  shave  not  like  a  priest  of 
Fo ;  I  fast  not  like  the  Tao-tse.  Truth  dwells 
in  my  heart;  innocence  guides  my  actions. 
Without  a  master,  and  without  a  scholar,  I  waste 
not  my  life  in  dreaming  of  nothings,  and  in  wri- 
ting characters,  still  less  in  whetting  the  edge  of 
satire,  or  in  trimming  words  of  praise.  I  have 
no  views ;  no  projects.  Glory  has  no  more 
charms  for  me  than  wealth ;  and  all  the  pleasures 
of  the  world  cost  me  not  a  single  wish.  The  en- 
joyment of  ease  and  solitude  is  my  chief  concern. 
Leisure  surrounds  me,  and  bustle  shuns  me.  I 
contemplate  the  heavens  and  am  fortified.  I  look 
on  the  eaith  and  am  comforted.  I  remain  in  the 
world  without  being  in  it.  One  day  leads  on  to 
another,  and  one  year  is  followed  by  another ; 
the  last  will  conduct  me  safe  to  port,  and  I  shall 
have  lived  for  myself.' 

Lord  Macartney  and  his  companions  were  en- 
tertained with  various  exhibitions  of  the  Chinese 
drama.  They  were  both  tragical  and  comic, 
partly  recitative,  partly  sung,  and  partly  in  plain 
prose,  but  without  music.  They  abounded  in 
battles,  murders,  and  most  of  the  usual  incidents 
of  the  drama.  Mr.  Ellis,  however,  speaks  of 
the  exhibition  he  saw,  a  kind  of  melo-drama,  as 
accompanied  with  instrumental  music,  which, 
from  its  resemblance  to  the  bag-pipe,  might  have 
been  tolerated  by  Scotchmen,  to  others  it  was  de- 
testable. Of  the  same  description  was  the  sing- 
ing. On  a  second  occasion  he  says,  '  16th  Janu- 
ary 1817  ;  a  dinner  and  sing-song,  or  dramatic  re- 
presentation, were  given  this  evening  to  the  am- 
bassador by  Chinqua,  one  of  the  principal  Ilong- 
merchants.  The  dinner  was  chiefly  in  the  En- 
glish style,  and  only  a  few  Chinese  dishes  were 
served  up,  apparently  well  dressed.  It  is  not 
easy  to  describe  the  annoyance  of  a  sing-song, 
the  noise  of  the  actors  and  instruments  (musical 
I  will  not  call  them)  is  infernal,  and  the  whole 
constitutes  a  mass  of  suffering,  which  I  trust  I 
shall  not  again  be  called  upon  to  undergo.  The 
play  commenced  by  a  compliment  to  the  ambas- 
sador, intimating  that  the  period  of  his  advance- 
ment in  rank  was  fixed,  and  would  shortly  arrive. 
Some  tumbling  and  slight  of  hand  tricks,  forming 
part  of  the  evening's  amusements,  were  not  ill  exe- 
cuted. Our  host,  Chunqua,  had  held  a  situation 
in  the  financial  department,  from  which  he  was 
dismissed  formal-administration.  He  has  several 
relations  in  the  service,  with  whom  he  continues 
in  communication.  His  father,  a  respectable 
looking  old  man,  with  a  red  button,  assisted  in 
doing  the  honors.  With  such  different  feelings 
on  my  part,  it  was  almost  annoying  to  observe 
the  satisfaction  thus  derived  by  the  old  gentleman 
from  the  stage.  Crowds  of  players  were  in  atten- 
dance, occasionally  taking  an  active  part,  and  at 
other  times  mixing  with  the  spectators, — we  had 
both  tragedy  and  comedy.  In  the  former,  em- 
perors, kings,  and  mandarins,  strutted  and  roared 
to  horrible  perfection,  while  the  comic  point  of 
the  latter  seemed  to  consist  in  the  streak  of  paint 
upon  the  buffoon's  nose.  The  female  parts  were 
performed  by  boys. 

Their  musical  instruments  are  described  as 
consisting  of,  1.  The  sound  of  skin,  produced 
by  drums.  2.  That  of  stone  produced  by  the 


king.  3.  The  sound  of  mettle  by  bells.  4.  That 
of  baked  earth  by  the  huien.  5.  Of  silk  by  the 
kin  and  che.  6.  Of  wood  by  the  yu,  and  tchou. 
7.  Of  the  bamboo  by  the  koan,  and  different 
flutes.  8.  That  of  a  gourd  by  the  cheng.  The 
drums  were  originally  composed  of  a  box  made 
of  baked  earth,  and  covered  at  the  extremities 
with  the  skin  of  some  animal ;  but  on  account 
of  the  brittleness  of  baked  earth,  wood  was  soon 
substituted  in  its  stead.  Great  part  of  these  in- 
struments are  shaped  like  our  barrels,  but  some 
are  cylindric.  The  instruments  formed  of  the 
sonorous  stones  are  called  KING,  distinguished 
into  tse-king  and  pien-king.  The  TSE-KING  con- 
sists only  of  one  stone,  and  therefore  produces 
only  one  note.  The  PIEN-KING  consists  of  six- 
teen stones  suspended  together,  and  thus  formins: 
an  instrument  capable  of  producing  all  the  tones 
admitted  into  the  music  of  the  ancient  Chinese. 
They  are  cut  into  the  form  of  a  carpenter's 
square ;  their  tone  is  flattened  by  diminishing  their 
thickness,  and  is  made  sharper  by  abridging 
their  lenglh. 

The  bells  in  China  have  always  been  made  of 
a  mixture  of  tin  and  copper.  They  are  of  dif- 
ferent shapes,  and  those  of  the  ancients  were  not 
round,  but  flatted,  and  in  the  lower  part  resem- 
bling a  crescent.  An  instrument,  corresponding 
to  the  king  already  mentioned,  is  composed  of 
sixteen  bells  of  different  sizes.  Some  of  their 
bells,  used  on  public  occasions,  are  of  enormous 
magnitudes.  One  at  Pekin  is  described  as  thir- 
teen feet  and  a  half  in  diameter,  twelve  feet  and 
a  half  in  height,  and  forty-two  in  circumference; 
the  weight  being  upwards  of  120,000lbs.  It  is 
used  for  announcing  the  watches  of  the  night; 
and  its  sound,  which  is  prodigiously  loud  and 
strong,  has  a  most  awful  effect,  by  reverberating 
the  echo  of  the  surrounding  country.  There 
are  several  others  likewise  of  vast  size  in  the  same 
city,  one  of  which  is  greatly  admired  for  the 
beautiful  characters  with  which  it  is  covered,  and 
which  are  as  neat  and  perfect  as  if  traced  out  by 
the  hand  of  the  finest  writer,  or  formed  by  a  seal 
upon  wax.  F.  le  Comte  tells,  that  in  all  the  cities 
of  China  there  are  bells  for  marking  the  hours  and 
the  watches  of  the  night.  They  generally  divide 
the  night  into  five  watches,  beginning  at  seven 
or  eight  in  the  evening.  On  the  commencement 
of  the  first  they  give  one  stroke,  which  is  repeated 
a  moment  after;  and  thus  they  continue  for  two 
hours  till  the  beginning  of  the  second:  they  then 
give  two  strokes,  which  are  repeated  at  equal 
intervals  till  the  beginning  of  the  third  watch  : 
and  thus  they  proceed  to  the  fourth  and  fifth, 
ahvays  increasing  the  number  of  the  strokes.  For 
the  same  purpose  also  they  use  enormous  drums, 
which  they  heat  in  a  similar  manner.  Magaillans 
mentions  one  at  Pekin  upwards  of  forty  feet  in 
circumference.  The  instrument  called  huien, 
which  is  made  of  baked  earth,  is  highly  esteemed 
by  the  Chinese  on  account  of  its  antiquity.  It 
is  distinguished  into  two  kinds,  the  great  and 
small ;  the  former  being  of  the  size  of  a  goose's 
egg  ;  the  latter  that  of  a  hen's.  It  has  six  holes 
for  the  notes,  and  a  seventh  for  the  mouth.  The 
kin  and  tchf  have  been  known  from  the  remotest 
antiquity.  The  former  has  seven  strings  made 
of  silk,  and  is  distinguished  yito  three  kinds  dif 


CHIN    A. 


fering  only  in  size.  The  body  is  formed  of  a 
kind  of  wood  varnished  black,  and  its  whole 
length  is  about  five  feet  five  inches.  The  tche  is 
about  nine  feet  in  length, has  twenty-five  strings, 
and  is  divided  into  twenty-five  kinds.  F.  Amiot 
says,  that  \ve  have  no  instrument  in  Europe 
which  deserves  to  be  preferred  to  it.  The  in- 
struments which  emit  the  sound  of  wood  are  the 
tchou,  the,  yu,  and  the  tchoung-tou.  The  first  is 
shaped  like  a  bushel,  and  is  beaten  on  the  inside 
with  a  hammer ;  the  second,  which  represents  a 
tiger  squatting,  is  made  to  sound  by  scraping  its 
back  gently  with  a  rod ;  the  third  is  a  collection 
of  twelve  pieces  of  board  tied  together,  which 
are  used  for  beating  time,  by  holding  them  in  the 
right  hand,  and  knocking  them  gently  against 
the  palm  of  the  left.  Other  instruments  are  con- 
structed of  bamboo  pipes  joined  together,  or  se- 
parate, and  pierced  with  more  or  fewer  holes. 

In  both  the  fine  and  useful  arts  the  Chinese 
occasionally  evince  very  superior  skill.  While  in 
their  paintings  they  seem  to  be  wholly  ignorant  of 
perspective,  and  are,  perhaps,  only  to  be  consi- 
dered at  any  time  as  skilful  imitators,  no  Euro- 
pean artist,  it  is  said,  can  excel  their  representa- 
tions of  individual  objects.  A  flower  and  a  leaf 
has  every  shade  and  streak  most  faithfully 
copied,  at  whatever  supposed  distance  in  the  pic- 
ture :  their  birds,  fish,  reptiles,  and  insects,  are 
also  well  known  to  be  most  beautifully  executed. 

Their  sculpture  is  a  manufacture  of  godships, 
which  is  sufficiently  extensive  to  ensure  excel- 
lence, but  in  which  superstition  has,  of  course, 
more  dominion  than  taste.  Their  human  figures, 
(generally  short  and  thick)  are  always  clothed, 
and  are  better  formed  in  wood  than  either  in  metal 
or  porcelain.  Mr.  Eliis  visited  a  small  temple 
at  Khu-shee-yoo,  to  the  god  of  fire,  '  a  short 
figure  seated  on  a  throne,'  he  says,  '  holding  a 
drawn  sword  in  one  hand,  and  a  serpentine  ring 
in  the  other :  two  dwarf  like  figures  stood  near 
him,  each  with  rings :  three  other  figures  less 
perfect  adorned  the  sides  of  the  building.'  This 
gentleman  describes  a  representation  of  the  god 
Fo,  which  he  saw  at  Sang-quen,  with  eight  arms, 
as  exactly  similar  to  the  idols  of  the  Hindoos. 
Several  colossal  figures  were  near  him,  which 
were  said  to  be  statues  of  distinguished  manda- 
rins ;  one  had  a  hammer  in  his  hand,  which 
would  justify  a  conjecture,  he  suggests,  that  statues 
are  sometimes  erected  here  to  the  inventors  of 
useful  arts.  At  Kao-ming-zee  is  a  miao,  or  tem- 
ple, under  the  special  protection  of  the  emperor, 
with  three  colossal  figures  of  Fo,  representing  nis 
trine  manifestation.  '  The  present  Fo  occupied 
the  centre;  his  head-dress  was  a  turban;  the 
other  two  wore  crowns.  Immediately  before 
these  figures  was  a  tablet  bearing  an  inscription, 
praying  for  the  eternity  of  the  emperor's  hap- 
piness.' The  high  priest,  says  our  traveller,  in 
his  robe,  cap,  and  rosary,  forcibly  reminded  him 
of  the  priests  of  the  catholic  religion  ;  while 
his  figure  was  singularly  squat  and  rotund,  like 
that  of  the  deity  he  served.  Fo  is  said  to  be 
usually  represented  as  extremely  fat. 

In  their  architecture  the  Chinese  are  inferior 
to  many  of  their  Indian  neighbours.  Pagodas 
are  seen  to  reach  six,  seven,  or  eight  stories  high  ; 
but  all  the  houses  and  palaces  of  their  most 


opulent  cities  are  low,  and  constructed  on  the 
models  of  a  patriarchal  tent.  The  materials 
also  are  very  slight,  consisting  generally  of  half 
burnt  bricks  and  wood.  The  Jesuits  have  as- 
cribed this  to  the  general  horror  of  earthquakes, 
of  the  ravages  of  which  most  disastrous  ac- 
counts are  given  in  the  Chinese  annals.  Their 
bridges,  of  which  frequent  imitations  are  seen  in 
Europe,  are  the  most  creditable  exhibitions  of 
their  architecture.  Pillars  of  wood  roofed  over, 
and  forming  a  kind  of  triumphal  arch,  with  a 
triple  way  beneath,  are  amongst  the  objects  on 
the  roads  that  also  frequently  strike  the  eye. 
They  are  gilt  and  varnished  profusely,  and  are 
devoted  to  the  honor  of  some  chaste  virgin,  or 
noble  warrior.  We  have  noticed  how  numerous 
they  are  at  Nankin. 

The  interior  accommodations  of  their  houses 
are,  however,  superior  among  the  middle  and 
lower  classes :  they  are,  perhaps,  equalled  in  no 
other  country  of  the  world. 

Their  cooking  utensils,  books  and  furniture, 
are  all  excellent,  and  stoves  for  warming  the 
rooms  are  common.  The  immense  majority  of 
the  population  are  fed  from  tables,  seated  on 
chairs,  and  clothed  with  good  cotton  garments 
from  head  to  foot. 

The  great  wall  which  separates  China  fromTar- 
tary  is  said  to  extend  more  than  1500  miles  in 
length,  and  was  originally  of  such  thickness  that  six 
horsemen  might  ride  abreast  upon  it.  Its  numerous 
towers  have  no  strength  as  fortresses ;  nor  is  there 
anything  of  importance  of  this  kind  throughout 
the  empire.  They  are  always  square  towers 
about  a  bow-shot  distance  from  each  other.  It 
is  said  traditionally  that  a  third  of  the  able-bodied 
men  in  the  empire  were  employed  in  constructing 
this  wall,  and  that  they  were  ordered,  under  pain 
of  death,  to  place  the  materials  so  closely,  that 
not  the  least  entrance  mighf  be  afforded  for  any 
instrument  of  iron.  This  extraordinary  work  is 
carried  not  only  through  the  low  lands  and  val- 
leys, but  over  hills  and  mountains;  the  height  of 
one  of  which  was  computed  by  F.  Verbiest  at 
1236  feet  above  the  level  of  the  spot  where  he 
stood.  According  to  Martini  it  begins  at  the 
gulf  of  Lea-tong,  and  reaches  to  the  mountains 
near  the  city  of  Kin  on  the  Yellow  River ;  between 
which  places  it  meets  no  interruption  except  to  the 
north  of  the  city  of  Suen  in  Pecheli,  where  the 
country  is  crossed  by  a  ridge  of  inaccessible 
mountains,  to  which  it  is  closely  united.  It  is 
likewise  interrupted  by  the  river  Hoang-ho ;  but, 
for  others  of  an  inferior  size,  arches  have  been 
constructed,  through  which  the  water  passes. 
The  foundation  consists  of  large  blocks  of  stone 
laid  in  mortar;  but  all  the  rest  is  of  brick.  The 
greater  part  is  so  strong  and  well  built  that  it 
scarcely  needs  any  repairs  ;  and,  in  the  dry  cli- 
mate in  which  it  stands,  may  remain  in  the  same 
condition  for  many  ages.  When  carried  over 
steep  rocks,  where  no  horse  can  pass,  it  is  about 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet;  but  when  running  through 
a  valley,  or  crossing  a  river,  full  thirty  feet  high. 
The  top  is  flat,  and  paved  with  cut  stone  ;  and, 
where  it  rises  over  a  rock  or  eminence,  there  is  an 
ascent  made  by  an  easy  stair.  It  was  completed, 
according  to  the  Chinese  accounts,  B.C.  215,  in 
five  years ;  and  the  materials,  if  they  were  solid 


618 


CHINA. 


masonry,  are  said  to  be  sufficient  to  girt  the  earth 
at  the  equator  with  a  wall  six  feet  high  and  four 
feet  thick.  According  to  the  information  given 
to  the  gentlemen  of  the  first  English  embassy  by 
Van-ta-Zhin,  a  distinguished  officer,  the  total  of 
the  army  in  the  pay  of  China,  including  Tartars, 
amounted  to  1,000,000  infantry,  and  800,000 
cavalry.  From  tlie  observations  of  the  embassy, 
in  their  travels  through  the  empire,  of  the  garrisons 
in  the  cities  of  different  ranks,  and  of  the  military 
posts  at  small  distances  from  each  other,  there 
seemed  nothing  improbable  in  the  calculation  of 
the  infantry ;  but  they  observed  few  cavalry  ;  and 
in  crediting  the  existence  of  such  a  number  it 
must  be  supposed,  that  a  great  proportion  of  them 
were  in  Tartary,  or  on  some  service  distant  from 
the  route.  Their  pay  amounts  to  about  1\d  and 
H  measure  of  rice  per  day,  though  some  of  them 
have  double  pay.  The  pay  of  a  horseman  is 
double  that  of  a  foot  soldier  ;  the  emperor  fur- 
nishes a  horse,  and  the  horseman  receives  two 
measures  of  small  beans  for  his  daily  subsistence; 
the  arrears  of  the  army  being  punctually  paid  up 
every  three  months.  The  arms  of  a  horseman 
are,  a  helmet,  cuirass,  lance  and  sabre ;  those 
of  a  foot  soldier  are  a  pike  and  sabre  ;  some  have 
fusees,  and  others  bows  and  arrows.  All  these 
are  carefully  inspected  at  every  review ;  and  if 
any  of  them  are  found  in  the  least  rusted,  or 
otherwise  in  bad  condition,  the  possessor  is  in- 
stantly punished ;  if  a  Chinese,  with  thirty  or 
forty  blows  of  a  stick ;  or,  if  a  Tartar,  with  as 
many  lashes.  Though  the  use  of  gunpowder  is 
certainly  very  ancient  in  China,  it  appears  to 
have  been  afterwards  totally  lost ;  at  least  fire 
arms  seem  to  have  been  almost  entirely  unknown 
some  centuries  ago.  Three  or  four  cannon  were 
to  be  seen  at  that  time  about  the  gates  of  Nankin  ; 
but  not  a  single  person  in  China  knew  how  to 
make  use  of  them ;  so  that,  in  1621,  when  the  city 
of  Macao  made  a  present  of  three  pieces  of  artil- 
lery to  the  emperor,  it  was  found  necessary  also 
to  send  three  men  to  load  them.  The  utility  of 
these  weapons  was  quickly  perceived  by  the  ex- 
ecution which  the  three  cannon  did  against  the 
Tartars,  at  that  time  advanced  as  far  as  the  great 
wall.  When  the  invaders  threatened  to  return, 
the  mandarins  of  arms  gave  it  as  their  opinion, 
that  cannons  were  the  best  arms  they  could  make 
use  of  against  them.  They  were  then  taught  the 
art  of  casting  cannon,  by  F.  Adam  Schaal  and 
Verbiest,  two  Jesuit  missionaries,  and  their  artil- 
lery was  increased  to  the  number  of  320  pieces  ; 
at  the  same  time  that  they  were  instructed  in  the 
method  of  fortifying  towns,  and  constructing  for- 
tresses and  other  buildings,  according  to  the  rules 
of  modern  architecture.  There  are  in  China  more 
than  2000  places  of  arms ;  and  through  the  dif- 
ferent provinces  there  are  dispersed  about  3000 
towers  or  castles,  all  defended  by  garrisons. 
Soldiers  continually  mount  guard  there ;  and  on 
the  first  appearance  of  tumult,  the  nearest  sentinel 
makes  a  signal  from  the  top  of  the  tower,  by  hois- 
>ng  a  flag  in  the  day,  or  lighting  a  torch  in  the 
night ;  when  the  neighbouring  garrisons  im- 
mediately repair  to  the  place  where  their  presence 
is  necessary.  All  expresses  are  forwarded  from 
post  to  po^t  by  the  soldiery,  and  numbers  are 
constantly  employed  as  police  officers. 


Mr.  Ellis  gives  the  following  description  of 
their  recent  appearance  and  equipments.  'A  halt  of 
our  boat,  opposite  a  party  of  soldiers  drawn  out 
to  do  honor  to  his  excellency,  gave  me  an  oppor- 
tunity of  examining  them  with  a  little  attention  ; 
They  were,  to  use  a  military  phrase,  of  all  arms, 
match-locks,  bows  and  arrows :  shields,  and 
quilted  breast-plates.  Their  bows  are  shaped 
like  the  Persian  bow,  that  is  not  a  continued  arch; 
but  unlike  the  latter  it  requires  little  strength  to 
draw  them :  their  arrows  are  deeply  feathered, 
more  than  three  feet  long,  with  a  pointed  blade  at 
the  end,  not  barbed.  Chinese  match-locks  are  the 
worst  I  have  ever  seen :  originally  of  ill  construc- 
tion, they  are  kept  in  such  bad  order  that  they 
must  become  perfectly  useless.  The  swords  are 
short  and  well  shaped,  being  slightly  curved,  and 
do  not  seem  bad  weapons.  The  bow-string  rests 
against  the  thumb,  and  for  that  purpose  a  broad 
ring  of  bone  or  some  hard  substance  is  worn  to 
protect  the  skin.  The  appearance  of  the  strangely 
drest  soldiers  already  mentioned,  who  may  be 
called  the  monsters  of  the  imperial  guard,  is 
most  ludicrous  :  the  colors  of  the  dress  are  such 
as  I  have  before  described;  the  dress  itself  is  di- 
vided into  a  loose  jacket  and  trowsers  :  some  of 
the  party  had  a  colored  cloth  wrapped  like  a 
scanty  clout  round  their  heads  :  they  hold  their 
capacious  shields  in  front,  close  to  their  breasts, 
and  allow  a  few  inches  of  their  rusty  blades  to 
appear  above  it.  The  principal  officer  on  duty 
wore  a  blue  button.  Such  is  the  superiority  of 
civil  over  military  rank  in  China,  that  a  civil 
mandarin  with  a  white  button  often  takes  pre- 
cedence of  the  military  coral.'  In  another  place 
he  says, '  the  troops  in  each  province  in  China  are 
levied  within  it ;  the  government  assuming  as  a 
principle  that  men  will  defend  their  homes  with 
more  determination  than  strangers.  The  banners 
of  the  Tartars  may  therefore  be  considered  the 
disposable  force  of  the  empire.  The  provincial 
troops  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  a  military 
police,  and  the  circumstance  of  their  being  levied 
within  their  respective  provinces,  accounts  for  the 
regulations  respecting  mandarins  not  holding 
office  in  their  native  province  being  confined  to 
those  of  the  civil  order.  Enrolment  in  the 
Chinese  army  is  voluntary,  and  the  pay  is  so 
good,  that  the  service  is  much  desired. 

'  At  Tsong,  we  observed,  says  he,  two  soldiers 
returning  to  the  guard  house,  in  dresses  studded 
with  brass  knobs  to  imitate  armor;  they  had  cui- 
rasses of  steel,  their  helmets  also  were  of  polished 
steel,  with  inlaid  work  of  a  darker  hue,  in  these 
were  fixed  plumes  two  feet  long,  red  and  brown, 
the  former  hair,  as  on  the  Mandarins'  bonnets, 
and  the  latter  fur  ;  their  arms  were  swords,  bows, 
and  arrows,  the  dress  was  altogether  handsome 
and  martial.' 

in  their  naval  architecture,  and  tactics,  the 
Chinese  have  made  no  progress  since  their  first 
intercourse  with  Europeans.  The  commercial 
passage  boats  and  barges  are  convenient,  espe- 
cially those  in  use  on  the  grand  canal,  but  even 
to  the  number  and  capacity  of  their  holds,  they 
are  the  same  kind  of  vessels  described  in  the 
thirteenth  century  by  Marco  Paulo  ;  and  bamboo 
sails  and  ropes,  and  wooden  anchors  .vere  then, 
as  now,  their  general  mode  of  equipment.  They 


CHINA. 


619 


have  a  military  kind  of  flotilla,  scarcely  worth 
mentioning,  which  is  used  to  repress  smuggling; 
a  single  English  frigate,  Mr.  Barrow  says,  would 
destroy  all  the  naval  force  of  the  empire. 

We  have  noticed,  in  our  article  ARITHMETIC, 
the  early  proficiency  of  the  Chinese  in  that 
science,  but  it  clearly  has  never  extended  to  its 
profounder  parts.  Their  notation  is  accom- 
plished by  symbols,  and  the  common  operations 
of  commerce  are  performed  by  the  use  of  the 
swan-pan,  a  kind  of  abacus.  Quantity  is  mea- 
sured by  reducing  the  surfaces  and  sides  to 
square  and  cubic  measure,  and  then  multiplying 
them  into  each  other. 

In  astronomy  the  French  missionaries  have 
loudly  proclaimed  the  attainments  of  this  people. 
But  modern  investigation  seems  to  have  realised 
little  of  truth  in  their  statements.  Their  system 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  Hindoos.  The 
zodiac  is  divided  into  twelve  signs,  and  twenty 
constellations  or  houses  of  the  moon.  The  same 
period,  a  cycle  of  sixty  years,  regulates  their 
chronology,  and  during  a  period  of  10,800  years 
astronomical  observations  are  said  to  have  been 
made  by  their  ancestors.  Freret  describes  a 
celestial  chart,  constructed  in  China  about  the 
sixth  century  of  our  era,  on  which  were  inserted 
1460  stars,  sufficiently  near  their  proper  places 
to  be  recognised;  and  their  own  annals  state  that, 
A.D.  718,  an  Indian  astronomer  of  the  name  of 
Koo-tan,  having  brought  from  the  west  a  treatise 
on  astronomy,  was  employed  at  court  to  trans- 
late it  into  Chinese  :  they  also  celebrate  the 
patronage  afforded  to  this  science  by  Kub-lai- 
Khan. 

Since  his  reign  the  board  at  Pekin,  to  which  is 
entrusted  the  formation  of  the  public  almanac, 
h;is  been  assisted  constantly  by  Armenians, 
Hindoos,  and  even  Christians,  in  their  calcula- 
tions. Their  geographical  knowledge  is  said  to 
be  limited  to  the  immediate  borders  of  their 
own  country :  but  Java,  Sumatra,  Ceylon,  and 
liorneo,  are  frequently  alluded  to  in  their  annals. 

A  public  book  of  ceremonies  directs  the  edu- 
cation of  a  child  to  commence  as  soon  as  it  is 
born,  and  describes  the  qualities  which  its  nurse 
ought  to  have.  She  must  speak  little,  adhere 
strictly  to  truth,  have  a  mild  temper,  behave  with 
affability  to  her  equals,  and  with  respect  to  her 
superiors.  The  child  is  taught  to  use  the  right 
hand  as  soon  as  it  can  put  its  hand  to  its  mouth, 
and  then  it  is  weaned.  At  six  years  of  age,  if  a 
male,  he  is  taught  the  numbers  most  in  use,  and 
made  acquainted  with  the  names  of  the  known 
parts  of  the  world  ;  at  seven  he  is  separated 
from  his  sisters,  and  no  longer  allowed  to  eat 
with  them,  nor  to  sit  down  in  their  presence ;  at 
eight  he  is  instructed  in  the  rules  of  good  breed- 
ing and  politeness ;  at  nine  he  studies  the  calen- 
dar ;  at  ten  he  is  sent  to  a  public  school,  where 
he  learns  to  read,  write,  and  cast  accounts  ;  from 
thirteen  to  fifteen  he  is  taught  music,  and  every 
thing  that  he  sings  consists  of  moral  precepts. 
It  was  formerly  the  custom,  that  all  the  lessons 
designed  for  the  Chinese  youth  were  in  verse ; 
and  it  is  to  this  day  lamented,  that  the  same 
custom  is  not  followed,  as  their  education  has 
since  been  rendered  much  more  difficult  and 
laborious.  At  fifteen,  the  Chinese  boys  are 


taught  to  handle  the  bow   and   arrow,  and   to 
mount  on  horseback ;    at  twenty  they   receive 
the  first  cap,  if  they  are  thought  to  deserve  it, 
and   are    also   permitted   to   wear  silk  dresses 
ornamented  with  furs ;   but  before  that  period 
they  are  not  allowed  to  wear  any  thing  but  cot- 
ton.    Another  method  of  initiating  children  into 
the  principles  of  knowledge  in  this  empire  is, 
by  selecting  a  number  of  characters  expressive 
of  the  most  common  objects,  engraving  or  painting 
them  separately  on  some  kind  of  substance,  and, 
under  the  thing  represented,  putting  the  name, 
which  points  out  to  the  children  the  meaning 
of  the  word.     The  book  first  put  into  the  hands  of 
children  is  a  collection  of  short  sentences,  con- 
sisting of  three  or  four  verses  each,  in  rhyme ; 
and   they  are  to  give  a  regular  account  in  the 
evening  of  what  they  have  learned  in  the  day. 
After  this    elementary  treatise,   they   put   into 
their  hands   the  four  books  which  contain  the 
doctrines  of  Confucius.     Writing  is  said  to  be 
taught  by  means  of  large  leaves  of  paper,  on 
which  are  written  or  printed,  with  red  ink,  im- 
mense characters ;  and  these  are  required  to  be 
covered  with  black  ink,  following  exactly  their 
shape  and  figure;     After  this  they  are  made  to 
trace  smaller  characters  designed  in  black,  and 
placed   under  the  paper  on  which  they  write. 
Great  pains  is  taken  in  forming  the  hands  of 
young  people.     After  the  scholar  has  made  him- 
self master  of  the  characters,  he  is  allowed  to 
compose ;  but  the  subject  is  pointed  out  to  him 
only  by  one  word.     Competition  is  excited  by 
twenty  or  thirty  families  agreeing  among  them- 
selves to  send  their  children  twice  a  month  to 
the  hall  of  their  ancestors  to  compose.     Each 
head  of  a  family  in  turn  gives  the  subject  of  this  . 
literary  contest,  and  adjudges  the  prize.     A  fine 
of  about  ten  pence  is  imposed  on  the  parent  of 
each  scholar  who  absents  himself  from  superin- 
tending this  exercise,  and  every  student  is  obliged 
to  compete  at  least  twice  a  year,  under  the  in- 
spection of  an  inferior  mandarin  of  letters,  styled 
Hio-kouan.      The  mandarins    often    order   the 
students  to  be  brought  before  them,  to  examine 
the  progress  they  have  made.     Even  the  gover- 
nors of  cities  order  students,  who  reside  near 
them,  to  appear  before   their   tribunal  once   a 
month.     The  author  of  the  best' composition  is 
honored  with  a  prize,  and  the  governor  feasts  all 
the  candidates  at  his  own  expense.     The  educa- 
tion of  the  women  is  confined  to  giving  them  a 
taste  Tor  solitude,  and  accustoming  them  to  mo- 
desty and  silence  ;  if  their  parents  are  rich,  they 
are  likewise  instructed  in  such  accomplishment, 
as  may  render  them  agreeable  to  the  other  sex 
Free  schools  are  very  numerous  in  every  pro- 
vince, and  even  in  some  of  the  villages.     Private 
tutors  are  common  among  the  better  ranks. 

It  is  remarkable  that  no  application  of  me- 
chanics to  time-keeping  has  been  made  here , 
and  that  even  the  common  pump  was  never  used 
before  the  Jesuits  introduced  it.  The  Persian 
wheel,  and  a  large  wheel  having  bamboo  tubes  on 
its  rim,  were  the  only  hydraulic  instruments 
known.  Their  medical  knowledge  is  also  mere 
quackery ;  and  their  surgery  is  practised  by  the 
barbers. 

The  emperor  Kaung-hee,  says  Mr.  Barrow, 


620 


CHINA. 


soon  convinced  himself  that  several  of  the  Je- 
suits were  better  skilled  in  medicine  than  his 
own  physician.  At  first,  however,  he  had  some 
scruples,  upon  being  attacked  by  a  fever,  in  fol- 
lowing his  advice.  Three  of  the  first  physicians 
to  the  court,  dissuaded  him  from  taking  a  medi- 
cine, of  whose  qualities  they  professed  them- 
selves ignorant,  and  advised  him  to  let  the  dis- 
ease go  on,  that  they  might  discover  its  true 
character.  The  emperor,  however,  at  last  took 
the  Peruvian  bark  which  the  Jesuits  had  pre- 
scribed, and  soon  recovered ;  but  the  several 
officers  who  had  similar  fevers,  were  first  ordered 
to  take  the  bark,  and  finding  it  at  least  harmless, 
he  then  ventured  upon  it  himself.  As  ignorance  is 
a  crime  in  the  eyes  of  the  ignorant,  it  is  more 
especially  so  at  the  court  of  China,  and  made 
capital  in  those  to  whom  the  life  of  the  sovereign 
isentrusted.  The  three  physicians  were  therefore 
delivered  over  to  the  criminal  court,  who  con- 
demned them  to  death;  but  Kaung-hee  miti- 
gated the  punishment  to  that  of  exile,  and  re- 
warded the  Jesuits  with  a  house  in  Pekin,  and 
contributed  largely  towards  the  building  of  a 
church.  The  Chinese  are  said  to  be  very  subject 
to  leprosy  and  cutaneous  diseases. 

They  are  expert  engravers  on  silver,  copper, 
and  wood  ;  they  are  also  good  lapidaries  ;  and 
carve  beautifully  on  ivory.  In  silver  fillagree, 
cabinets,  lacquered  and  plain,  tortoise-shell  orna- 
mented works,  &c.  they  are  nowhere  surpassed. 
Their  silk  twisted-cords,  tassels  and  embroidery, 
are  also  very  superior,  as  well  as  their  ink,  paper, 
and  printing.  The  last  is  exceedingly  different 
from  ours.  The  whole  work  which  they  intend 
to  print,  is  engraved  upon  blocks  of  wood ;  and 
their  method  of  proceeding  is  as  follows  :  They 
first  employ  an  excellent  writer,  who  transcribes 
the  whole  on  very  thin  paper.  The  engraver 
glues  each  of  the  leaves  of  the  MS.  upon  a  piece 
of  plank  of  any  hard  wood  :  he  then  traces  over 
with  a  graver  the  strokes  of  the  writing,  carves 
out  the  characters  in  relief,  and  cuts  down  the 
intermediate  part  of  the  wood.  Thus  each  page 
of  a  book  requires  a  separate  plank ;  and  the 
excessive  multiplication  of  these  is,  no  doubt,  a 
very  great  inconvenience,  one  chamber  being 
scarcely  sufficient  to  contain  those  employed  for  a 
single  book.  But  the  advantages  are,  that  the 
work  is  thus  remarkably  free  from  typographical 
errors,  and  the  author  (happy  country !)  has  no 
occasion  to  correct  the  proofs.  In  this  method 
the  beauty  of  the  work  depends  entirely  on  the 
skill  of  the  writer  previously  employed.  No 
press  is  used  as  in  Europe,  as  neither  their 
wooden  planks  nor  their  soft  paper  could  sus- 
tain so  much  pressure.  They  first  place  the  plank 
level  and  then  fix  it  in  that  position.  The  printer 
is  then  provided  with  two  brushes,  and,  with  the 
hardest,  covers  the  plank  with  ink ;  and  one  ope- 
ration of  this  kind  is  sufficient  for  four  or  five 
leaves.  After  a  leaf  has  been  adjusted  upon  the 
plank,  the  workman  takes  the  second  brush, 
which  is  softer  than  the  former,  and  of  an  ob- 
long figure,  and  draws  it  gently  over  the  paper, 
pressing  it  down  a  little  that.it  may  receive  the 
ink.  The  degree  of  pressure  is  regulated  by  the 
quantity  of  ink  upon  the  plank ;  and  thus  one 
man  is  said  to  be  able  to  throw  off  eight  or  ten 


thousand  copies  a  day.  The  leaves  are  generally 
printed  only  on  one  side ;  on  which  account 
each  leaf  of  a  book  is  double,  so  that  the  fold 
stands  uppermost,  and  the  opening  is  towards  the 
back,  where  it  is  stitched.  Hence  the  Chinese 
books  are  not  cut  on  the  edges,  but  on  the  back. 
They  are  generally  bound  in  gray  pasteboard, 
very  neatly :  those  who  wish  to  have  them  ele- 
gantly finished,  have  the  pasteboard  covered 
with  satin,  flowered  taffety,  or  gold  and  silver 
brocade. 

Dr.  Marshman,  at  Serampore,  first  printed  in 
this  language  with  moveable  types,  which  is  a 
very  great  saving  of  expense,  as  compared  with 
the  Chinese  method ;  and  Dr.  Morrison,  during 
his  late  visit  to  England,  was  very  laudably  en- 
gaged in  encouraging  the  type-founders  of  the 
metropolis  to  produce  specimens  of  these  diffi- 
cult characters  in  the  ordinary  type  metal.  We 
are  favoured  by  one  of  them  (Mr.  Figgins)  with 
the  following  very  successful  attempt  of  this 
kind ;  and  we  have  before  us  Dr.  Morrison's  own 
handsome  acknowledgment  of  its  elegance  and 
correctness.  The  characters  were  cut  by  Mr. 
V.  Figgins,  jun.  under  the  direction  of  Mr. 
Thorns,  printer  of  Dr.  Morrison's  Chinese  Dic- 
tionary. 

THE  LORD'S  PRAYER. 


m 


B 


H 
P 
H 


In  extracting  dyes  of  various  colors,  particu- 
larly the  brighter  ones,  from  animal  and  mineral 
substances,  no  nation  has  equalled  the  Chinese. 
Their  vermilion  and  blues  are  particularly  bril- 
liant; and  their  entire  porcelain  manufacture,  it 
is  well  known,  is  unrivalled  in  Europe.  The 
finest  is  made  in  a  village  called  King-te-ching, 
in  the  province  of  Kiang-si.  Manufactories  have 
also  been  erected  in  Fo-kien  and  Canton,  but 
their  produce  is  not  esteemed  ;  and  one  which 
the  emperor  caused  to  be  erected  at  Pekin,  mis- 
carried entirely.  The  Chinese  divide  it  into 
several  classes,  according  to  its  different  degrees 
of  fineness  and  beauty.  The  whole  of  the  first 
is  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  emperor,  so  that 


CHIN     A. 


621 


none  of  it  ever  comes  into  the  hands  of  other 
persons,  unless  it  happen  to  be  cracked  or  other- 
wise damaged.  There  is  some  doubt,  therefore, 
whether  any  of  the  finest  Chinese  porcelain  was 
ever  seen  in  Europe.  The  use  of  glass  is  very 
ancient  in  China,  though  it  does  not  appear  that 
great  value  was  ever  put  upon  this  kind  of  ware, 
the  art  of  manufacturing  it  having  been  frequently 
lost  and  revived  again.  The  same  indifference 
with  regard  to  it  is  still  entertained.  However, 
a  glass-house  is  established  at  Pekin,  where  a 
number  of  vases,  &c.  are  made ;  but  none  are 
blown.  This  manufactory,  as  well  as  many  others 
is  considered  as  an  appendage  of  the  court ;  and 
the  art  of  manufacturing  silk,  according  to  some 
authorities,  was  communicated  by  the  Chinese  to 
the  Persians,  and  from  them  to  the  Greeks.  This 
art  has  been  known  in  this  empire  from  the  re- 
motest antiquity ;  and  the  breeding  of  silk-worms, 
and  making  of  silk,  was  anciently  one  of  the  em- 
ployments of  the  empresses.  The  most  beautiful 
silk  in  the  whole  empire  is  that  of  Tche-king, 
wrought  in  the  manufactories  of  Nankin.  From 
these  are  brought  all  the  stuffs  used  by  the  em- 
peror, and  such  as  he  distributes  in  presents.  A 
great  number  of  excellent  workmen  are  also  drawn 
to  the  manufactories  of  Canton  by  the  commerce 
with  Europe  and  other  parts  of  Asia.  Here  are 
manufactured  ribands,  stockings  and  buttons. 
The  quantity  of  silk  produced  in  the  whole  em- 
pire seems  to  be  inexhaustible  ;  the  internal  con- 
sumption alone  being  incredibly  great,  besides 
that  which  is  exported  in  the  commerce  with 
Europe  and  the  rest  of  Asia.  Ail  who  possess  a 
moderate  fortune  wear  si  Ik  clothes.  The  principal 
manufactured  stuffs  are  plain  and  flowered  gauzes 
of  which  they  make  summer  dresses  ;  damasks  of 
all  colors ;  striped  and  black  satins ;  napped, 
flowered,  striped,  clouded,  and  pinked  taffeties; 
crapes,  brocades,  plush,  different  kinds  of  velvet, 
and  a  multitude  of  other  stuffs  unknown  in  Europe. 
They  make  particular  use  of  two  kinds ;  one 
named  touan-tse,  a  kind  of  satin,  much  stronger, 
but  which  has  less  lustre  than  that  of  Europe ; 
the  other  a  kind  of  taffety,  of  which  they  make 
drawers  and  linings.  It  is  woven  exceedingly  close, 
and  is  yet  so  pliable,  that  it  may  be  rumpled 
and  rubbed  between  the  hands  without  any  crease; 
and  even  when  washed  like  cotton  cloth,  it  loses 
very  little  of  its  lustre.  They  manufacture  also 
gold  brocades  of  such  a  slight  nature,  that  they 
cannot  be  worn  in  clothes  :  they  are  fabricated 
by  wrapping  fine  slips  of  gilt  paper  round  the 
threads  of  silk. 

The  public  revenues,  according  to  accounts  re- 
ceived by  Sir  G.  Staunton,  amount  to  nearly 
200,000,000  ounces  of  silver,  which  may  be 
equal  to  about  £66,000,000  sterling.  From  the 
produce  of  the  taxes,  all  civil  and  military  ex- 
penses are  first  paid  upon  the  spot,  out  of  the 
treasuries  of  the  respective  provinces  where  such 
expenses  are  incurred ;  and  the  remainder  is  re- 
mitted to  the  imperial  treasury  at  Pekin.  The 
surplus  amounted  in  the  year  1792.  according 
to  an  account  taken  from  a  statement  furnished 
by  Chow-ta-zhin,  to  the  sum  of  36,614,328 
ounces  of  silver,  or  £12,204,776.  The  annual 
expenses  of  government  are  large,  but  they  are 
regulated  in  such  a  manner  as  never  to  be  aug- 
mented, except  in  cases  of  the  utmost  necessity  ; 


it  even  happens  very  often  that  administration 
makes  great  savings.  The  surplus,  in  such  cases, 
encreases  the  general  treasure  of  the  empire,  and 
prevents  the  necessity  of  new  impositions  in  time 
of  war,  or  other  public  calamities.  The  greater 
part  of  the  taxes  are  paid  in  kind ;  those,  for  in 
stance,  who  breed  silk-worms,  pay  their  taxes  in 
silk,  the  husbandmen  in  grain,  the  gardeners  in 
fruits,  &c.  and  thus  the  servants  of  government 
are  furnished  with  food  and  clothing;  the  re- 
mainder only  being  sold,  and  the  produce  sent  to 
the  emperor.  The  taxes  paid  in  money  arise 
principally  from  the  customs,  and  the  sale  of  salt 
(which  belongs  entirely  to  the  emperor),  from 
the  duties  paid  by  vessels  entering  any  port,  and 
from  imposts  on  various  manufactures.  The 
taxes  upon  the  husbandman  are  regulated  in 
proportion  to  the  extent  and  fertility  of  his 
lands ;  and  the  greatest  care  has  been  taken  to 
manage  matters  so  that  he  may  neither  be  over- 
charged in  the  imposition,  nor  harassed  in  the 
levying  of  the  duties.  Yet  the  land-tax  forms  a 
very  considerable  portion  of  the  public  revenue. 
All  the  receipts  are  subjected  to  the  examination 
of  the  grand  tribunal  of  finances.  This  revises 
the  whole,  and  keeps  an  exact  account  of  what  is 
consumed,  and  of  whatever  surplus  may  be  left. 
Dr.  Morrison  calculates  from  the  Y-tung-che, 
the  Chinese  Encyclopaedia,  that  the  value  of  the 
imports  of  China  is  about  36,000,000  learg,  of 
6s.  Qd.  each,  or  £12,000,000  British  sterling. 
No  country  upon  earth  is  better  situated  for  com- 
merce, or  has  more  internal  facilities ;  but  the 
jealousy  of  all  the  public  authorities  has  wholly 
precluded  the  cultivation  of  its  great  resources 
in  this  respect,  except  through  Canton.  Here  the 
English  and  Americans  are  their  great  customers; 
our  trade  being  for  the  greater  part  a  monopoly 
conducted  by  the  East  India  Company.  There 
is  a  considerable  '  country  trade,'  as  it  is  called, 
between  the  ports  of  British  India  (direct)  and 
Canton.  The  business,  on  the  part  of  the  Chi- 
nese, is  conducted  entirely  by  certain  traders, 
called  after  their  warehouses,  hong-merchants,  to 
whom,  on  their  arrival,  all  cargoes  are  consigned, 
and  who  are  made  responsible  by  the  govern- 
ment for  all  the  dealings  and  behaviour  of  foreign 
crews.  They  prepare  also,  and  supply,  the  re- 
turn cargo.  No  foreign  vessel,  however,  is  al- 
lowed to  approach  the  city  nearer  than  Wham  poo, 
about  fifteen  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
which  is  here  about  as  broad  as  the  Thames  at 
the  Custom  House  :  on  the  bank  of  a  noble  quay 
are  here  erected  the  hongs  of  each  nation.  The 
duty  paid  to  the  public  treasury  is  here  leried 
on  each  ship  in  the  gross  bulk  of  her  cargo,  and 
in  a  manner  truly  original.  She  is  measured 
from  the  centre  of  the  foremast  to  thatofhermizen, 
and  the  breadth  is  taken  close  abaft  of  the  main 
mast.  The  length  being  now  multiplied  by  the 
breadth,  and  the  product  divided  by  ten,  this  is 
supposed  to  give  the  size  of  the  vessels.  The 
articles  sent  to  China  by  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, are  broad  and  long  cloths,  furs,  camhlets, 
copper,  tin,  and  lead  ;  but  broad-cloth  princi- 
pally, thevalueof  which  sometimes  amounts  annu- 
ally to  £1,000,000  sterling.  The  return  cargoes 
chiefly  consist  of  tea,  of  which  from  24,000,000 
to  30,000,000  Ibs.  are  taken  in  here  for  England, 
We  subjoin 


622 


CHINA. 


BRITISH  TRADE  WITH  CHINA. 

We  lay  before  our  readers  an  Abstract,  showing  the  amount  of  the  principal  articles  of  Import  and 
Export  on  British  account  during  the  year  ending  the  31st  of  March,  1832. 


Imports. 

Piculs. 

Exports. 

Piculs. 

Betelnut     ,    .     . 
Rattans       .     .          .     . 

6,691 
6,349 

Nankin  raw  silk  .     .     . 

6,283 
2  168 

Pepper        .     .     .    .     . 

15  771 

60  627 

Sandalwood     .... 
Saltpetre     .     .         .     . 

6,338 
7,068 
550 

Sugar  candy    .... 
Cassia  lignea  .... 
Ditto  buds      .... 

32,279 
7,096 
614 

Sharks'  fins      .... 

3,010 
460 

Mother-of-pearl  shells   .   - 
Rhubarb      

2,235 
763 

Tish  maws  ..... 

1,075 

20,476 

Rice  

51,496 

279 

38,705 

Star  aniseed     .     .     .    . 

477 

Steel                          .     . 

2,101 

144 

29,954 

Copper  (South  American) 

4,610 

Tin         

5,032 

Nankeen  cloth  pieces     . 

315,570 

Cotton  Yarn    .     .     .     ; 
Tin  plates,  boxes      .     . 
White  cotton  piece  goods 
Broad  cloth     .... 

4,852 
2,525 
65,298 
141,762 
140  000 

Treasure  in  broken  Sycee 
and  South  American  sil- 
ver ;  to  London       .     . 
Calcutta      

Sp.  dollars. 

1,976,930 
340  340 

14,621 

1  577,543 

Cotton,  Bengal     .     .     . 
Ditto    Bombay  .     .     . 

104,244 
324,281 
4  543 

Sundry  places      .     .     . 
Total      .     -         ... 

77,000 
3  971  813 

An  ACCOUNT  of  the  QUANTITY  of  TONNAGE,  the  VALUE  and  AMOUNT  of  the  BULLION  and  Cargoes 
IMPORTED,  and  of  the  QUANTITY  and  VALUE  of  TEAS  EXPORTED,  by  the  AMERICANS,  in  theii 
trade  with  the  Port  of  CANTON,  for  the  years  1816-19,  specifying  the  quantity  exported  by 
them  direct  to  the  United  States,  and  that  shipped  direct  for  Europe. — (From  the  Appendix 
to  the  Lords'  Report,  1821.) 


, 

Amount  of  Bullion  and  Cargoes 

Teas  exported  by  the 

Tonnage 

imported  by  the  Americans. 

Teas 

Americans. 

Seasons. 

exported  by 

Value  of  the 

by  the 
Americans 

Bullion. 

Merchan- 
dize. 

Total 
Value  and 
Amount. 

the 

Americans. 

same. 

For 
Europe. 

For  the 
United 
States. 

Tons. 

Dalian. 

Dollar*. 

Dollars. 

Ibs.  uciy'r.t. 

Dollars. 

Ids.  weight. 

Ibs.  weight. 

1815-16 

10,208 

1,922,000 

605,500 

2,527,500 

7,245,290 

no  value  stated.  2  ,  7  3  1  ,0  1  0 

4,514,280 

1816-17 

1  3.096 

4.545,000 

1,064,600 

5,609,600 

8,954,100 

ditto        2,880,000 

6,074,100 

1817-18 

14,325 

5,601,000 

1,475,828 

7,076,828 

9,622,130 

3,290,439   2,086,245 

7,535,885 

1818-19 

16,022 

7,414,000 

2,603,151 

10,017,151 

11,988,649 

3,457,256    3,103,651 

8,884,998 

1                       1 

! 

CHINA 


623 


The  disputes  concerning  the  limits  of  Russia 
and  China,  first  paved  the  way  to  commerce 
between  those  countries.  These  disputes  were 
settled  by  treaty  on  the  27th  August,  1689,  in 
the  reign  of  John  and  Peter  Alexiowitz.  The 
chief  of  the  embassy  on  the  part  of  Russia  w .;; 
Golovin,  governor  of  Siberia;  two  Jesuits  were 
deputed  on  the  part  of  the  emperor  of  China  ; 
and  the  conferences  were  held  in  Latin,  with  a 
German  in  the  Russian  ambassador's  train,  who 
was  acquainted  with  that  language.  By  this 
treaty  the  Russians  obtained  a  regular  and  per- 
manent trade  with  China,  which  they  had  long 
desired  ;  but  in  return  they  yielded  up  a  lar^e 
territory,  besides  the  navigation  of  the  river 
Amour.  The  first  intercourse  had  taken  place 
in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  at 
which  time  a  small  quantity  of  Chinese  merchan- 
dise was  procured  by  some  Russian  merchants 
from  the  Kalmuck  Tartars.  The  rapid  and  pro- 
fitable sale  of  these  commodities  encouraged 
certain  Siberian  Waywodes  to  attempt  a  direct 
and  open  communication  with  China.  For  this 
purpose  several  deputations  were  sent  to  the 
emperor ;  and  though  they  failed  of  obtaining 
the  grant  of  a  regular  commerce,  their  attempts 
were  attended  with  some  consequences  of  im- 
portance. Thus  the  Russian  merchants  were 
tempted  to  send  traders  to  Pekin ;  and  obtained, 
in  1692,  leave  to  despatch  a  caravan  thither. 
The  Mogul  desert,  on  the  frontier,  ultimately 
became  the  seat  of  an  annual  fair.  Complaints, 
however,  were  soon  made  of  the  disorderly  be- 
haviour of  the  Russians  ;  on  which  the  Chinese 
monarch  threatened  to  expel  them  from  his  do- 
minions, and  to  allow  them  neither  to  trade  with 
the  Chinese  nor  Moguls.  This  produced  another 
embassy  to  Pekin  in  1719,  when  matters  were 
again  adjusted.  But  this  reconciliation  was  of 
no  long  duration ;  for  the  Russians  having  re- 
newed their  disorderly  behaviour,  an  order  for 
their  expulsion  was  issued  in  1722.  The  dif- 
ferences were  once  more  made  up  in  1727,  and 
a  caravan  allowed  to  go  to  Pekin  once  in  three 
years,  provided  it  consisted  of  no  more  than  100 
persons ;  and  that  during  their  stay  their  ex- 
penses should  not,  as  formerly,  be  defrayed  by 
the  emperor  of  China.  The  Russians,  at  the 
same  time,  obtained  permission  to  build  a 
church  within  the  precincts  of  the  caravansary  ; 
and  four  priests  were  allowed  to  reside  at  Pekin 
for  the  celebration  of  divine  service ;  the  same 
indulgence  being  granted  to  some  Russian  scho- 
lars, for  the  purpose  of  learning  the  Chinese 
language,  and  qualifying  themselves  for  being 
interpreters  between  the  two  nations.  This  in- 
tercourse continued  till  1755  ;  since  which  time 
no  more  caravans  have  been  sent  to  China.  It 
was  first  interrupted  by  a  misunderstanding  be- 
twixt the  two  courts;  and,  though  that  difference 
was  afterwards  made  up,  caravans  have  not 
been  allowed  to  pass  since.  Kiackta  is  now  the 
appointed  mart  for  the  commerce  with  Russia, 
regulated  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  of  Canton. 
The  principal  exports  from  Russia  are  furs  of 
different  kinds ;  the  most  valuable  of  which  are 
those  of  sea-otters,  beavers,  wolves,  foxes,  mar- 
tins, sables,  and  ermines  ;  the  greater  part  being 
brought  from  Siberia  and  the  newly  discovered 


islands ;  but,  as  they  cannot  supply  the  demand, 
there  is  a  necessity  for  importing  foreign  furs  to 
Petersburgh,  which  are  afterwards  sent  to  Kiack- 
ta. Various  kinds  of  cloth  are  likewise  sent  to 
China,  as  well  as  hardware,  and  live  cattle,  such 
as  horses,  camels,  &c.  The  exports  from  China 
are,  raw  and  manufactured  silk,  cotton,  porce- 
lain, rhubarb,  musk,  &c.  The  government  of 
Russia  likewise  reserves  to  itself  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  purchasing  rhubarb.  It  is  generally 
brought  to  Kiackta  by  Buckharian  merchants, 
who  have  entered  into  a  contract  to  supply  the 
crown  with  it  in  exchange  for  furs. 

Sir  George  Staunton   has  recently  translated 
the  Chinese  narrative  of  an  embassy,  which  his 
imperial  majesty  condescended  to  send  to  the 
Tourgouth  Tartars,  in  the  beginning  of  the  last 
century,  and  in  which,  after  instructions  relative 
to  the  khan  of  the  Tourgouths,  he  is  directed  to 
meet  the  chau-han,  khan  of  Russia  (the  czar 
Peter), '  if  he  should  send  to  desire  a  confer- 
ence.'    He  is  ordered,  in  that  event,  to   '  con- 
form to  the   customs   and   ceremonies   of  that 
country.'     Of  China  he  is  directed  to  say  : — '  In 
our  empire,  fidelity,  filial  piety,  charity,  justice, 
and  sincerity,   are   esteemed  above   all   things. 
We  revere  and  abide  by  them.     They  are  the 
principles  upon  which  we  administer  the  empire, 
as  well  as  govern  ourselves.     In  the  face  of  dan- 
ger we   firmly  adhere  to  them.      We  likewise 
make  sacrifices  and  oblations  ;'we  pray  for  good 
things,  and  we  deprecate  evil  things ;  but  if  we 
did  not  act   honestly,  if  we  were  not  faithful, 
pious,  charitable,  just,  and  sincere,  of  what  avail 
would  be  our  prayers  and  sacrifices?     In  our 
empire,  fidelity,  filial  piety,  charity,  justice,  and 
sincerity,  are  our  ruling  principles,  the  objects  of 
our  veneration,  and  the  constant  guides  of  our 
conduct.     In  our  empire,  therefore,  there  is  no 
hostile  array  of  shields  and  spears,  no  severe  pu- 
nishments are  inflicted ;  we  have  now  for  a  long 
time  enjoyed  uninterrupted   peace  and  tranquil- 
lity.'    This,  Sir  George  observes,  is  a  summary 
of  Chinese  faith,  while  a  satire  upon  their  prac- 
tice.    To  any  enquiries  respecting  the  arts  and 
productions  of  the  empire  he  is  to  reply : — '  It 
is  with  us  as  with  other  countries,  some  districts 
are  rich,  others  are  poor;  and  he  is  to  remark, 
that  a  report  had  reached  China,  that  the  king- 
dom of  Russia  was  not  at  peace  with  its  neigh- 
bours, but  engaged  in  actual  hostilities ;  and  if 
so,  he  is  directed  to  inform  them,  that  as  his  im- 
perial majesty  has   no   designs   to  infringe  the 
peace,  '  they  may  immediately  remove  and  em- 
ploy their  frontier  troops,  if  they  see  occasion  to 
do  so,  without  the  least  hesitation  or  uneasiness.' 
At  the   productions   of  Russia  they  are   com- 
manded to  express  neither  admiration  nor  con- 
tempt, but  to  say,  '  whether  our  country  pos- 
sesses, or  not,  such  things  as  these,  it  is  quite  out 
of  our  province  to  determine ;  some  things,  in- 
deed, there  are,  which  we  have  seen  and  others 
have  not  seen ;  but  there  are  other  things,  again, 
which  others  have  seen  though  we  have  not ;  on 
these  subjects,  therefore,  we  are  by  no  means 
sufficiently  informed.'     They  are  instructed  to 
refuse  the  presents  that  may  be  offered  to  them 
again  and  again;  but  if  closely  pressed,  to  ac- 
cept a  small  part,  alleging  that  they  have  no- 


624 


CHINA. 


ching  valuable  to  give  in  acknowledgment.  They 
are  cautioned  against  drinking  wine  immode- 
rately, against  immodest  women,  and  against  the 
corrupt  manners  and  customs  of  the  Russians ; 
but  at  the  same  time  admonished,  that '  if  while 
they  are  within  the  Russian  territories,  they 
should  themselves  chance  to  see  any  of  the  wo- 
men of  the  country,  or  to  witness  any  occurrence 
that  may  seem  absurd  in  their  eyes,  they  are 
nevertheless  always  to  preserve  their  gravity.' 

The  only  money  anciently  used  in  China  was 
made  of  small  shells,  but  now  both  silver  and 
copper  coin  are  met  with.  The  latter  consist  of 
small  round  pieces  about  nine-tenths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  with  a  small  square  hole  in  the 
middle,  inscribed  with  two  Chinese  words  on 
one  side  and  two  Tartar  ones  on  the  other.  The 
silver  pieces  are  valued  only  by  their  weight. 
For  the  convenience  of  commerce  the  metal  is 
therefore  cast  into  plates  of  different  sizes ;  and 
for  want  of  small  coin  a  Chinese  always  carries 
abom  him  his  scales,  weights,  and  a  pair  of 
scissars  to  cut  the  metal.  In  giving  change, 
silver  is  not  valued  by  the  numerical  value  of 
copper,  this  being  entirely  regulated  by  the  in- 
trinsic value  of  the  metals.  Tims,  an  ounce  of 
silver  will  sometimes  be  worth  1000  copper 
pieces,  and  sometimes  only  800 ;  and  thus  the 
copper  money  of  China  may  frequently  be  sold 
for  more  than  it  would  pass  for  in  commerce. 
The  emperor  would  lose  much  by  this  recoinage, 
were  he  not  the  sole  proprietor  of  all  the  copper- 
mines  in  China.  If  the  value  of  unwrought 
copper  exceeds  that  of  the  coin,  a  quantity  of  the 
latter  is  fixed  to  restore  the  equilibrium.  To 
keep  up  a  constant  circulation  of  all  the  coin  in 
the  empirr,  the  Chinese  government  are  atten- 
tive to  preserve  an  equilibrium  between  the  pro- 
portional value  of  the  gold  and  silver ;  that  is, 
to  regulate  the  intrinsic  value  of  each  in  such  a 
manner,  that  the  possessor  of  silver  may  not  be 
afraid  to  exchange  it  for  copper,  nor  the  possessor 
of  copper  for  silver. 

In  all  the  Chinese  cities,  and  even  in  some  of 
their  ordinary  towns,  there  is  an  office  where 
money  may  be  borrowed  upon  pledges.  Every 
pledge  is  marked  with  a  number  when  left  at  the 
office,  and  must  be  produced  when  demanded  ; 
but  it  becomes  the  property  of  the  office  if  left 
there  a  single  day  longer  than  the  term  agreed 
on  for  re-payment.  The  whole  transaction  re- 
mains an  inviolable  secret ;  not  even  the  name 
of  the  person  who  leaves  the  pledge  being  en- 
quired after.  Lending  money  upon  interest  has 
been  in  use  in  China  for  about  2000  years.  It 
has  often  been  abolished,  and  as  often  esta- 
blished. The  interest  is  often  thirty  per  cent., 
and  the  year  is  only  lunar.  A  tenth  part  of  this 
interest  is  paid  monthly ;  and  concerning  neg- 
lects of  payment,  the  following  laws  have  been 
enacted.  '  However  much  the  debt  may  have 
accumulated  by  months  or  years,  the  principal 
and  interest  shall  remain  always  the  same. 
Whoever  infringes  this  law  shall  receive  forty 
blows  of  a  pant-see ;  or  1,00  if  he  uses  any  arti- 
fice to  add  the  principa.1  and  interest  together.' 
This  law  is  explained  by  the  following :  Who- 
ever shall  be  convicted  before  a  mandarin  of  not 
having  paid  a  month's  interest,  shall, receive  ten 


blows;  twenty  for  two  months;  and  thirty  for 
three ;  and  in  this  manner  as  far  as  sixty ;  that  is 
to  say,  to  the  sixth  month.  The  debtor  is  then 
obliged  to  pay  the  principal  and  interest;  but 
those  who  obtain  payment  by  using  violence 
are  condemned  to  receive  twenty-four  blows. 

Great  attention  is  said  to  be  paid  by  the  Chi- 
nese government  to  the  conveniency  of  travellers. 
The  roads  are  generally  broad,  all  of  them  paved 
in  the  southern  provinces,  and  some  in  the  nor- 
thern. In  many  places  valleys  have  been  filled 
up,  and  rocks  and  mountains  cut  through,  to 
make  commodious  high  ways,  and  to  preserve 
them  as  nearly  as  possible  on  a  regular  level. 
They  are  bordered  with  very  lofty  trees,  and  in 
some  places  with  walls  eight  or  ten  feet  high  ; 
but  openings  are  left,  which  give  a  passage  into 
cross  roads  that  lead  to  different  villages.  On 
all  the  great  roads,  covered  seats  are  erected 
where  travellers  may  take  shelter ;  temples  and 
pagodas  are  also  frequent,  into  which  travellers 
are  admitted  without  scruple  in  the  day,  but  often 
meet  with  a  refusal  in  the  night.  In  these  the 
mandarins  only  have  a  right  to  rest  as  long  as 
they  think  proper.  There  is,  however,  no  want 
of  -inns  on  the  great  or  even  the  cross  roads  in 
China  ;  but  they  are  ill  supplied  with  provisions; 
and  those  who  frequent  them  are  obliged  to  carry 
beds  along  with  them,  or  to  put  up  with  a  plain 
mat.  Towers  are  erected  at  intervals,  with  watch 
boxes  on  the  top,  and  flag  staffs  for  signals.  Those 
on  the  roads  conducting  to  the  court  are  furnished 
with  battlements,  and  have  also  large  bells  of 
cast  iron.  According  to  law  these  towers  should 
be  only  five  lees,  or  about  half  a  French  league, 
distance  from  each  other.  There  is  no  public 
post-office  in  China,  though  several  private  ones 
have  been  established ;  but  only  the  couriers 
and  officers  charged  with  despatches  for  the  em- 
pire have  a  right  to  use  them.  This  inconveni- 
ence excepted,  travellers  find  conveyance  very 
easy  from  one  part  of  China  to  another.  Por- 
ters are  employed  in  every  city,  who  are  associated 
under  the  conduct  of  a  chief,  who  regulates 
their  engagements,  fixes  the  price  of  their  labor, 
receives  their  hire,  and  is  responsible  for  every 
thing  they  carry.  On  the  great  roads  in  China 
there  are  also  several  officers  of  this  kind,  who 
have  a  settled  correspondence  with  others  ;  tra- 
vellers therefore  have  only  to  carry  to  one  of 
these  officers,  a  list  of  such  things  as  they  wish 
to  have  transported  :  this  is  immediately  written 
down,  and,  though  there  should  be  occasion  for 
200  or  even  400  carriers,  they  are  instantly  fur- 
nished 

In  our  account  of  the  religion  and  laws  of  this 
remarkable  people,  we  have  anticipated  much  of 
what  it  might  otherwise  be  necessary  to  state  re- 
specting their  morals  and  manners.  Innovation  is 
the  great  enemy  dreaded,  apparently,in  every  thing. 
Males  and  females  reason,  when  they  do  exercise 
that  faculty,  converse,  construct,  and  furnish  every 
apartment  of  their  houses,  and  every  article  of 
their  dress,  as  did  their  grandsires  and  grandames, 
and  great,  great  grandsires  and  grandames,  2000 
years  since :  only  the  higher  the  station  of  a 
Chines*3  in  society,  the  more  rigorous  is  his  con- 
formity to  ancient  rule. 

In  person,  the  Chinese  are  about  the  middle 


CHINA. 


625 


size ;  but  their  general  appearance  is  sufficiently 
remarkable  to  have  obtained  for  them  from  Lin- 
njeus  a  place  among  the  homines  monstrosi.  The 
face  is  triangular,  having  a  projection  of  the  upper 
jaw  above  the  lower,  and  on  the  latter  very  little 
beard.  The  nose  has  a  broad  root,  and  the  eye 
is  peculiarly  long,  narrow,  and  feebly  opened ; 
the  eye-brow  linear  and  finely  arched.  The  men 
uniformly  plait  their  strong  black  hair  into  a  long 
tail,  like  the  lash  of  a  whip,  sometimes  extending 
below  the  waist  to  the  calf  of  the  leg :  the  scalp 
is  closely  shaved,  and  the  scattered  hairs  of  the 
beard  pulled  out  till  nearly  the  age  of  forty,  when 
its  growth  is  promoted. 

We  have  noticed  the  comfortable  clothing  in 
which  the  great  mass  of  the  people  appear  :  but 
their  personal  habits  are  far  from  cleanly. 
Mr.  Ellis  confirms  Mr.  Barrow's  opinion  of  the 
Chinese,  generally,  as  a  '  frowsy  people  ;'  filth 
and  stench  he  found  to  pervade  all  ranks.  '  The 
stench  arising  from  the  numbers  on  board  was 
not  sensible  only  but  oppressive.'  We  transcribe 
his  account  of  a  bath  near  the  temple  of  Kwan- 
yin,  within  one  of  the  gates  of  Nankin,  the  old 
capital  of  China.  '  Near  this  temple  is  a  public 
vapor-bath,  called,  or  rather  miscalled,  the  bath 
of  fragrant  water,  where  dirty  Chinese  may  be 
stewed  clean  for  ten  chens,  or  three  farthings : 
the  bath  is  a  small  room  of  100  feet  area,  divided 
into  four  compartments,  and  paved  with  coarse 
marble;  the  heat  is  considerable,  and,  as  the 
number  admitted  into  the  bath  has  no  limits  but 
the  capacity  of  the  area,  the  stench  is  excessive  : 
altogether  I  thought  it  the  most  disgusting  clean- 
sing apparatus  I  had  ever  seen,  and  worthy  of 
this  nasty  nation.' 

Rank  and  dignity  are  distinguished  by  certain 
accessory  ornaments ;  and  the  person  would  be 
severely  chastised  who  should  presume  to  as- 
sume them  without  being  properly  authorised  : 
but  there  is  little  ordinary  distinction  in  China 
between  the  dress  of  men  and  women.  That  of 
the  former  in  general  consists  of  a  long  vest 
which  reaches  to  the  ground.  The  left  side  folds 
over  the  other,  and  is  fastened  to  the  right  by  four 
or  five  small  gold  or  silver  buttons,  placed  at  a 
little  distance  from  one  another.  The  sleeves  are 
wide  towards  the  shoulder,  growing  narrower  as 
they  approach  the  wrist,  where  they  terminate  in 
the  form  of  a  horse  shoe,  covering  the  hands  en- 
tirely, and  leaving  nothing  but  the  ends  of  the 
fingers  to  be  seen.  Round  the  middle  they  wear 
a  large  girdle  of  silk,  the  ends  of  which  hang 
down  to  their  knees.  From  this  is  suspended  a 
sheath,  containing  a  knife  and  two  small  sticks 
which  they  use  as  forks.  Below  this  robe  is  a 
pair  of  drawers,  in  summer  made  of  linen,  and 
•  in  winter  of  satin  lined  with  fur,  sometimes  of 
cotton,  and  in  some  of  the  northern  provinces  of 
skins.  These  are  sometimes  covered  with  ano- 
ther pair  of  white  taffety.  Their  shirts  are  always 
very  short  and  wide.  Under  these  they  wear  a 
silk  net  to  prevent  it  from  adhering  to  the  skin. 
In  warm  weather  they  have  their  necks  always 
bare ;  in  cold,  they  wear  a  collar  made  of  silk, 
sable,  or  fox's  skin,  joined  to  their  robe,  which 
in  winter  is  trimmed  with  sheep's  skin,  or  quilted 
with  silk  and  cotton.  That  of  people  of  quality 
is  lined  with  beautiful  sable  skins  brought  from 
VOL.  V. 


Tartary,  or  with  the  finest  fox's  skin,  trimmed 
with  sable;  in  spring  it  is  lined  with  ermine. 
Above  their  robe  they  wear  also  a  kind  of  sur- 
tout,  with  wide  sleeves,  but  very  shoit,  and  lined 
in  the  same  manner. 

The  emperor  and  princes  of  the  blood  only 
have  a  right  to  wear  yellow  ;  certain  mandarins 
have  liberty  to  wear  satin  of  a  red  ground, 
but  only  upon  days  of  ceremony ;  in  general 
they  are  clothed  in  black,  blue,  or  violet.  The 
inferior  ranks  are  allowed  to  wear  no  other 
colors  but  blue  or  black;  and  their  dress  is 
always  composed  of  plain  cotton  cloth.  For- 
merly the  Chinese  were  at  great  pains  to  preserve 
their  hair ;  but  the  Tartars  compelled  them  to 
cut  off  the  greater  part  of  it,  and  to  alter  the 
form  of  their  clothes  after  their  fashion.  This 
revolution  in  dress  was  not  effected  without 
bloodshed,  though  the  conqueror  at  the  same 
time  adopted  in  other  respects  the  laws,  man- 
ners, and  customs  of  the  conquered  people.  In 
summer  they  wear  a  cap  shaped  like  an  inverted 
cone,  lined  with  satin,  and  covered  with  ratan  or 
cane  neatly  wrought.  The  top  terminates  in  a 
point,  to  which  they  affix  a  tuft  of  red  hair, 
which  spreads  over  it  and  covers  it  to  the  brims. 
The  mandarins  and  literati  wear  a  cap  of  the 
same  form ;  only  it  is  lined  with  red  satin,  and 
covered  on  the  outside  with  white.  A  large  tuft 
of  the  finest  red  silk  is  fixed  over  it,  which  hangs 
down  or  waves  with  the  wind.  People  of  dis- 
tinction generally  use  the  common  cap  on  horse- 
back or  during  bad  weather,  to  keep  off  rain, 
and  shelter  them  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  In 
winter  they  have  another  cap  bordered  with 
sable,  ermine,  or  fox's  skin,  and  ornamented  with 
a  tuft  of  silk  like  the  former.  These  fur  trim- 
mings have  sometimes  forty  or  fifty  ounces  of 
silver  upon  them.  Men  of  rank  never  go  abroad 
without  boots  made  of  satin  or  some  other  silk, 
and  sometimes  of  cotton,  but  always  dyed.  They 
have  neither  heel  nor  top,  but  are  made  to  fit 
the  foot  exactly.  When  on  horseback,  however, 
they  have  others  made  of  the  skin  of  a  cow  or  a 
horse,  and  very  pliable.  The  inferor  ranks  wear 
black  slippers  made  of  cotton  cloth.  The  fan  is 
also  an  appendage  of  the  Chinese  dress,  reckoned 
equally  necessary  with  the  boots. 

The  dress  of  the  women  consists  of  a  long 
robe  close  at  top,  and  long  enough  to  cover  even 
their  toes,  with  sleeves  so  long  that  they  would 
hang  down  upon  the  ground  did  they  not  take 
care  to  tuck  them  up ;  but  their  hands  are  sel- 
dom seen.  The  color  of  their  dresses  is  entirely 
arbitrary,  but  black  and  violet  are  generally 
chosen  by  those  advanced  in  life.  Young  ladies 
use  paint.  Their  head-dress  consists  in  arranging 
their  hair  in  several  curls,  interspersed  with  tufts 
of  gold  or  silver  flowers.  According  to.  Du 
Halde,  some  of  them  ornament  their  heads  with 
the  image  of  a  fabulous  bird,  concerning  which 
many  stories  are  told.  This  is  made  of  copper 
or  silver  gilt,  its  wings  extended  and  pretty  close 
to  the  head-dress,  embracing  the  upper  part  of 
their  temples,  while  the  long  spreading  tail  forms 
a  kind  of  plume  on  the  top  of  the  head.  Its 
body  is  directly  over  the  head,  and  the  neck  and 
bill  hang  down,  the  former  being  joined  to  'he 
body  by  a  concealed  hinge,  that  it  may  play 

2  S 


626 


CHINA. 


freely,  and  move  aoout  on  the  least  motion  of 
the  head.  The  whole  bird  adheres  to  the  head 
by  the  claws,  which  are  fixed  in  the  hair.  Ladies 
of  quality  sometimes  wear  several  of  these  birds 
made  up  into  a  single  ornament,  the  workman- 
ship of  which  is  very  expensive.  Young  persons 
wear  also  a  crown  of  pasteboard,  the  fore  part 
of  which  rises  in  a  point  above  the  forehead,  and 
is  covered  with  jewels.  The  rest  of  the  head  is 
decorated  with  natural  or  artificial  flowers, 
among  which  small  diamond  pins  are  inter- 
spersed. The  head-dress  of  the  ordinary  class 
of  women,  especially  when  advanced  in  years, 
consists  only  of  a  piece  of  very  fine  silk  wrapped 
round  their  heads.  The  Chinese  use  white  as  the 
color  proper  for  mourning.  A  son  can  use  no 
other  for  three  years  after  the  death  of  his  father 
or  mother;  and  ever  afterwards  his  clothes  must 
be  of  one  color.  The  law  has  forbidden  the  use 
of  silks  and  furs  to  children. 

The  character  of  their  diet  is  expressed  by  Mr. 
Ellis  in  two  words,  as '  greasy  insipidity.'  Insipid 
however  as  it  may  be,  observes  the  Quarterly 
Review,  we  will  venture  to  say,  that  no  alderman 
at  a  civic  feast  could  possibly  play  off  his  knife 
and  fork  to  better  purpose,  than  a  mandarin,  at 
his  solitary  meal,  his  little  chop-sticks :  but  we 
doubt  the  fact;  we  should  rather  say,  that  their 
food  in  general  is  prepared  with  stimulants  of  too 
pungent  a  nature,  and  that  their  various  soups, 
gravies,  jellies,  soys,  and  other  condiments,  are 
too  highly  seasoned.  The  poor,  it  is  true,  feed 
miserably  enough,  and  are  too  happy  to  obtain 
rats,  cats,  dogs,  and  other  animals,  which  we  are 
in  the  habit  of  considering  as  nauseous:  nnd 
sometimes,  we  doubt  not,  passengers  in  the 
barges  are  infested,  as  Mr.  Ellis  was,  by  a  most 
diabolical  stench,  proceeding  from  a  choice  pre- 
paration of  stinking  fish;  but  it  might  also  hap- 
pen that  his  olfactory  nerves  would  sometimes  be 
offended  by  an  agreeable  companion  in  a  stage- 
coach, even  in  England. 

On  the  other  hand,  this  gentleman  bears  testi- 
mony to  their  very  orderly  manners.  '  In  passing 
through  the  streets  it  was  impossible  not  to  be 
struck  with  the  silence  and  regularity  of  the  crowds 
of  spectators;  although  every  countenance  ex- 
pressed curiosity,  scarcely  an  observation  was 
made ;  there  was  no  pointing  with  fingers ;  and 
though  the  streets  may  be  said  to  have  been  lined 
with  soldiers  at  inconsiderable  intervals,  the  exer- 
cise of  their  authority  did  not  seem  necessary  to 
maintain  tranquillity.  Again,  of  the  progress  of 
the  embassy  through  Tien-tieng,  he  says,  we  were 
two  hours  and  a  half  passing  from  the  beginning  of 
the  line  of  houses  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  to 
our  anchorage.  A  salute  was  fired  from  a  small 
fort;  and  nearly  opposite  troops  were  drawn  up. 
Among  them  were  matchlock  men,  wearing  black 
caps.  We  observed  some  companies  dressed  in 
long  yellow  and  black  striped  garments,  covering 
them  literally  from  head  to  foot;  they  are  in- 
tended to  represent  tigers,  but  certainly  are  more 
likely  to  excite  ridicule  than  terror;  defence, 
from  the  spread  of  their  shields,  would  seem 
their  great  object.  A  short  distance  from  our 
anchorage,  we  passed  on.  our  left  the  branch  of 
the  river  leading  to  the  canal,  and  thence  to  Can- 
ton. The  excess  of  population  was  here  most 


striking.  I  counted  200  spectators  upon  one 
junk,  and  these  vessels  were  innumerable.  The 
pyramids  of  salt  were  so  covered  with  them,  that 
they  actually  became  pyramids  of  men.  Some 
crowds  of  boys  remained  standing  above  their 
knees  in  the  water  for  nearly  an  hour  to  satiate 
their  curiosity.  A  more  orderly  assemblage  could 
not,  however,  I  believe,  be  presented  in  any 
other  country  ;  and  the  soldiers  had  but  seldom 
occasion  to  use  even  threatening  gestures  to 
maintain  order.  I  had  not  before  conceived 
that  human  heads  could  be  so  closely  packed ; 
they  might  have  been  by  screws  squeezed  into 
each  other,  but  there  was  often  no  possible  va- 
cancy to  be  observed.  All  these  Chinese  spec- 
tators were  exposed,  bareheaded,  to  the  rays  of 
the  mid-day  sun,  when  the  thermometer  in  the 
shade  stood  at  eighty-eight.  Females  were  not 
numerous  in  the  crowd,  and  these  generally  old, 
and  always  of  the  lower  orders.' 

And  the  Chinese  are,  upon  the  whole,  a  very 
temperate  people.  Mr.  Ellis  indeed  says,  that 
drunkenness,  unaccompanied  with  exposure,  is  re- 
garded as  a  venial  offence;  and  that  it  is  not  un- 
usual to  compliment  a  man  upon  the  hardness  of 
his  head  or  the  capacity  of  his  stomach,  by 
saying  he  has  a  large  wine-measure;  but  he  after- 
wards allows  that  in  general  he  found  them  to 
prefer  raspberry  vinegar  and  water,  to  wines  and 
cordials'.  Tea  is  the  universal  beverage.  A 
small  quantity  of  bohea,  sufficient  to  tinge  the 
water  and  render  it  palatable  (for  they  drink  no 
green),  is  taken  in  the  morning,  and  thrown  into 
a  vessel  adapted  to  the  number  in  the  family. 
This  stands  till  milk  warm;  in  which  state  it  is 
kept  the  whole  day,  and  a  cup  is  taken  now  and 
then  without  sugar  or  milk ;  if  a  stranger  call  by 
accident,  or  a  visit,  or  by  appointment,  the  first 
thing  presented  is  a  small  pipe  filled  with  tobacco 
of  their  own  growth,  and  a  cup  of  tea  with  sweet- 
meats, &c. 

Few  opportunities  are  given  to  a  stranger  of 
observing  much  of  the  fair  sex.  Mr.  Ellis  found 
them  always  sent  into  the  back  ground,  in  fact 
there  was  a  proclamation  stuck  up  along  their 
route,  prohibiting  women  from  appearing  in  the 
streets  and  exposing  themselves  to  the  gaze  of  the 
tribute-bearers.  The  populace  on  each  bank  of 
the  river  (it  said)  are  not  allowed  to  laugh  and 
talk  with  the  foreigners,  nor  are  women  and  girls 
allowed  to  show  their  faces.  Female  curiosity, 
however,  says  Mr.  E.  was  not  to  be  overcome 
even  by  the  apprehensions  of  incurring  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  son  of  heaven.  In  the  streets  of 
Gan-king-foo,  the  women  showed  themselves 
at  the  doors,  and  from  their  gestures  and  appear- 
ance I  should  imagine  that  they  were  prouder  of 
their  beauty  than  their  modesty. 

The  Chinese  women  carry  themselves  even  to  old 
age  remarkably  upright;  and  our  traveller  conjec- 
tured that,  as  cramping  the  feet  is  so  general  that 
no  exception  occurred,  their  uprightness  may  be 
owing  to  the  smallness  of  the  base  on  which  they 
stand.  When  lord  Macartney  pressed  his  friend, 
Chouta-jin,  on  this  subject,  all  he  could  get  from 
him  was,  that  '  it  was  an  ancient  custom  :'  he  ad- 
mitted, however,  that  it  might  possibly  have  taken 
its  rise  in  jealousy ;  'which,' says  his  lordship,  'has 
always  been  ingenious  in  its  contrivances  for  se- 


CHINA. 


627 


curing  the  ladies  to  their  owners,  and  might 
plausibly  suggest,  that  a  good  way  of  keeping 
them  at  home  was  to  make  it  very  painful  to  them 
to  gad  abroad.'  It  is  a  fact  that  every  possible 
method  is  used  to  press  the  feet  of  young  females 
into  the  almost  incredible  smallness  of  the 
Chinese  shoe,  which  is  so  often  brought  into  this 
country. 

We  are  disposed  to  enter  but  briefly  on  the  in- 
tricate subject  of  Chinese  history.  The  common 
school-book  of  the  young,  Siao-ul-lun  (Instruction 
for  little  Children),  is  said  to  contain  the  following 
remarkable  passage :  '  In  remote  antiquity  the 
waters  rushed  in — the  waters  flowed  abundantly 
— the  waters  became  at  rest — the  waters  subsided 
(each  of  these  four  states  of  the  water  is  ex- 
pressed by  a  single  symbol),  and  having  cut  off 
the  higher  or  more  ancient  periods  of  time,  ma- 
terial bodies  were  produced.  The  venerable 
family  of  heaven,  great  and  small,  were  thirteen 
persons,  each  lived  18,000  years;  the  venerable 
family  of  earth,  great  and  small,  were  eleven 
persons,  each  lived  18,000  years;  the  venerable 
family  of  man  were  nine  persons,  each  lived 
45,600  years ;  the  family  of  Yen-quo  (fruit- 
bearing)  taught  men  to  till  the  ground,  to  plant 
trees  and  fruits,  and  to  build  houses ;  the  family 
of  Lui-quin  (man  of  fire),  by  the  friction  of 
wood,  produced  fire,  instructed  men  to  melt  and 
forge  the  different  metals,  and  to  boil  their  vic- 
tuals.' 

With  these  18,000  and  45,600  years  we  really 
cannot  encounter.  Some  ingenious  European 
historians  have  contracted  them  into  days,  and 
found  them  thus  to  agree  with  the  Mosaic  ac- 
count. The  fact  is,  a  tradition  of  the  flood  is 
universal,  and  the  confirmation  of  that  remark- 
able circumstance  is  all  the  history  of  China  is 
worth,  until  about  A.  A.  C.  213.  The  inaccuracy 
of  the  Chinese  annals  is  complained  of,  even  by 
Confucius,  who  affirms,  that,  before  his  time, 
many  of  the  oldest  materials  for  writing  such  an- 
nals had  been  destroyed.  Puonku  was,  according 
to  these  annals,  the  first  monarch  of  earth,  and 
succeeded  by  Tiene-hoang,  which  signifies  the 
emperor  of  heaven.  They  call  him  also  the  in- 
telligent heaven,  the  supreme  king  of  the  middle 
heaven,  &c.  According  to  some  of  their  his- 
torians, he  was  the  inventor  of  letters,  and  of  the 
Cyclic  characters.  Tiene-hoang  was  succeeded 
by  Ti-hoang  (the  emperor  of  the  earth),  who 
divided  the  day  and  night,  appointing  thirty  days 
to  make  one  moon,  and  fixed  the  winter  solstice 
to  the  eleventh  moon.  Ti-hoang  was  succeeded 
by  Gine-hoang  (sovereign  of  men),  who,  with 
his  nine  brothers,  shared  the  government  among 
them.  They  built  cities,  and  surrounded  them 
Tvith  walls ;  made  a  distinction  between  the  so- 
vereign and  subjects;  instituted  marriage,  &c. 
The  reigns  of  these  four  emperors  make  up  one 
of  what  the  Chinese  called  ki,  ages,  or  periods  ; 
of  which  there  were  nine  before  Fo-hi,  whom 
their  better  informed  literati  acknowledge  as  the 
founder  of  their  empire. 

In  the  ninth  period,  we  find  the  invention,  or 
at  least  the  origin  of  letters,  attributed  to  Tsang- 
hie,  who  received  them  from  a  divine  tortoise, 
that  carried  them  on  his  shell,  and  delivered 
them  into  the  hands  of  Tsang-hie.  During  this 


period  also,  music,  money,  carriages,  merchandise, 
and  commerce,  &c.  were  invented.  There  are 
various  calculations  of  the  length  of  these  pe- 
riods. Some  make  the  time  from  Puan-ku  to 
Confucius,  who  flourished  about  A.  A.  C.  479, 
to  contain  279,000  years ;  others,  2,276,000  ; 
some,  2,759,860  years;  others,  3,276,000;  and 
some  no  less  than  96,961,740  years.  These  ex- 
travagant accounts  are  by  some  thought  to  contain 
obscure  and  imperfect  hints  concerning  the  cos- 
mogony and  creation  of  the  world,  &c.  and  the 
the  ten  ki,  or  ages,  nine  of  which  preceded  Fo-hi, 
to-mean  the  ten  generations  preceding  Noah. 
This  may  possibly  be  the  case ;  for,  about  A.  A.  C. 
300,  we  know  several  Jews  travelled  into  China, 
who  might  make  known  there  the  Mosaic 
writings. 

The  above  is  the  substance  of  that  part  of  the 
Chinese  history  which  is  fabulous.  The  Chinese 
historians  speak  of  knotted  cords,  twisted  from 
the  inner  bark  of  trees,  being  made  use  of  to  re- 
gister events  at  this  period  of  their  history ;  a 
circumstance  that  only  deserves  notice,  as  Barrow 
remarks,  from  the  remarkable  coincidence  of  a  na- 
tion (the  Mexicans),  having  been  discovered 
many  thousand  years  afterwards,  on  a  different 
continent,  and  the  antipodes  almost  of  China, 
who  were  actually  in  the  practice  of  using  the 
same  means  for  the  same  purpose. 

After  Fo-hi  followed  a  series  of  emperors,  of 
whom  nothing  remarkable  is  recorded,  except 
that  in  the  reign  of  Yau,  the  seventh  after  Fo-hi, 
the  sun  did  not  set  for  ten  days.  This  event 
the  compilers  of  the  Universal  History  take 
to  be  the  same  with  that  mentioned  in  the  book 
of  Joshua,  when  the  sun  and  moon  stood  still  for 
about  a  day.  Fo-hi  they  suppose  to  be  the 
same  with  Noah  :  that  after  the  deluge  he  re- 
mained some  time  with  his  descendants;  but 
that,  on  their  combination  to  build  the  tower  of 
Babel,  he  separated  himself  with  as  many  as  he 
could  persuade  to  go  along  with  him ;  and  that, 
travelling  eastward,  he  at  last  entered  the  fertile 
country  of  China,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  that 
vast  empire.  As  the  Chinese,  contrary  to  the 
practice  of  almost  all  nations,  have  never  sought 
to  conquer  other  countries,  their  history  for  many 
ages  furnishes  nothing  remarkable.  The  whole 
of  their  emperors  (excluding  those  of  the  fabu- 
lous times)  are  comprehended  in  twenty-two 
dynasties,  enumerated  in  the  following  table  : 

CHINESE  DYNASTIES. 


1.  Hya,  containing 

2.  Shang,  or  Ing    . 

3.  Chew 

4.  Tsin 

5.  Han 

6.  Hew-han   . 

7.  Tsin 

8.  Song 

9.  Tsi    . 

10.  Lyang 

11.  Chin 

12.  Swi    . 

13.  Twang 

14.  Hew-tyang 


Emperors. 

A.  A.  C. 

17 

2207 

28 

1766 

35 

1122 

4 

248 

25 

206 

A.  D. 

2 

220 

15 

465 

8 

220 

5 

479 

4 

502 

4 

557 

3 

A.A.C, 

20 

618 

2 

907 

2  S  2 


CHINA. 


l.V  Hew-tang 

\C).  llew-tsin    . 

1 7.  Ilew-han    . 

18.  Hew-chew 

19.  Song 

20.  Ywen 

21.  Ming 

22.  Tsing 


Emperors. 

4 

2 

2 

3 
18 

9 
16 


A.A.C. 

923 

936 

947 

951 

960 

1280 

1368 

1645 


The  compilers  of  the  Unirersal  History  make 
Yau  contemporary  with  Joshua,  and  the  dynasty 
of  Hya  to  commence  A.  A.  C.  1357  ;  but,  to,ac- 
commodate  the  history  to  their  hypothesis,  great 
alterations  must  be  made  in  the  duration  of  the 
dynasties.  The  most  interesting  particulars  of 
the  Chinese  history  relate  to  the  incursions  of  the 
Tartars,  who  at  last  conquered  the  whole  em- 
pire, and  who  still  continue  to  hold  the  sove- 
reignty ;  though  by  transferring  the  seat  of  em- 
pire to  Pekin,  and  adopting  the  Chinese  language, 
manners,  &c.  Tartary  would  seem  rather  to 
have  been  conquered  by  China,  than  China  by 
Tartary.  These  incursions  are  said  to  have 
begun  very  early  ;  even  in  the  time  of  Shun, 
successor  to  Yau.  At  first  the  Tartars  were  re- 
pulsed, and  obliged  to  retire  into  their  own  ter- 
ritories. They  continued,  however,  to  threaten 
the  empire  with  invasions,  and  the  northern  pro- 
vinces were  often  ravaged  by  them.  About 
A.A.C.  213,  Shi-whangti,  having  subdued  all 
the  kings  of  the  different  provinces,  became  sole 
emperor  of  China.  He  now  divided  the  empire 
into  thirty-six  provinces;  and,  finding  the  north 
part  much  incommoded  by  the  barbarians,  he 
sent  a  formidable  army  against  them,  which 
drove  them  far  beyond  the  boundaries  of  China- 
Proper.  To  prevent  their  return  he  built  the 
famous  wall  which  separates  China  from  Tar- 
tary. After  this,  being  elated  with  his  own  ex- 
ploits, he  formed  a  design  of  making  posterity 
believe  that  he  had  been  the  first  Chinese  em- 
peror that  ever  sat  on  the  throne.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  is  said  to  have  ordered  all  the  historical 
writings  to  be  burnt,  and  caused  many  of  ttfe 
learned  men  to  be  buried  alive  lest  they  should 
have  committed  to  writing,  from  their  memories, 
any  part  of  the  former  history  of  the  empire. 

In  the  tenth  century  of  the  Christian  era  those 
of  Kitan  or  Lyau  got  a  footing  in  China.  Having 
subdued  the  country  between  Korea  and  Kashgar, 
they  became  much  more  troublesome  to  the  Chi- 
nese than  all  the  other  Tartars.  Their  empire 
commenced  about  A.  D.  916,  in  the  fourth  year 
of  Mo-ti-kyan-ti,  second  emperor  of  the  four- 
teenth dynasty. 

In  A.  D.  999,  they  laid  siege  to  a  city  in  Pe- 
cheli ;  but  Ching-tsong,  successor  to  Tay-tsong, 
came  upon  them  with  his  army  so  suddenly,  that 
they  betook  themselves  to  flight.  But  instead  of 
pursuing  this  victory,  tie  bought  a  peace,  by  con- 
senting to  pay  annually  100,000  tael  (about 
£34,000),  and  200,000  pieces  of  silk.  The 
youth  and  pacific  disposition  of  Jin-tsong,  suc- 
cessor to  Ching-tsong,  revived  the  courage  of  the 
Kitan;  and,  in  1055,  war  would  have  been  re- 
newed, had  not  the  emperor  concluded  another 
shameful  treaty  with  them.  Two  years  after,  the 
Tartars  demanded  restitution  of  ten  cities  in  Pe- 


cheli,  which  had  been  taken  by  Ko-ghey;  upon 
which  Jin-tsong  engaged  to  pay  them  an  annual 
tribute  of  2(. 0,000  taels  of  silver,  and  300,000 
pieces  of  silk  in  lieu  of  these  cities.  From  this 
time,  the  Kitan  remained  in  peaceable  possession 
of  their  Chinese  dominions  till  A.  D.  1117. 
Whey-tsong,  at  that  time  emperor,  being  able 
neither  to  bear  their  ravages,  nor  by  himself  to 
put  a  stop  to  them,  resolved  upon  a  remedy 
which  at  last  proved  worse  than  the  disease. 
This  was  to  call  in  the  Nu-che,  Nyu-che,  or 
Eastern  Tartars,  to  destroy  the  kingdom  of  the 
Kitan.  Joining  his  forces  to  those  of  the  Nu-che, 
the  Kitan  were  every  where  defeated  ;  and  at  last 
reduced  to  such  extremity,  that  those  who  re- 
mained were  forced  to  leave  their  country,  and 
fly  to  the  mountains  of  the  west. 

The  Tartar  general,  elated  with  his  conquest, 
gave  the  name  of  Kin  to  his  new  dominion,  as- 
sumed the  title  of  emperor,  and  broke  the  treaties 
concluded  with  the  Chinese,  until  invading  the 
provinces  of  Pecheli  and  Shen-si,  he  made  him- 
self master  of  the  greater  part  of  them.  Whey- 
tsong,  finding  himself  in  danger  of  losing  his 
dominions,  made  several  advantageous  proposals 
to  the  Tartars;  but  the  Kin  monarch  pursued 
his  conquest,  and  Whey-tsong  was  finally  seized 
by  the  Tartars,  and  kept  a  prisoner  under  a  strong 
guard  until  his  death  in  1126.  He  had  two  or 
three  feeble  successors. 

In  1163  the  Tartars  entered  the  southern  pro- 
vince with  a  formidable  army,  and  took  the  city 
of  Yang-chew.  From  this  time  nothing  remark- 
able occurs  in  the  Chinese  history  till  1210, 
when  Jenghiz  khan,  chief  of  the  Moguls,  quar- 
relled with  Yong-tsi,  emperor  of  the  Kin ;  and 
at  the  same  time  the  king  of  Hya,  disgusted  at 
being  refused  assistance  against  Jenghiz  khan, 
threatened  him  with  an  invasion  on  the  west  side. 
Yong-tsi  prepared  for  his  defence;  but  in  1211, 
receiving  news  that  Jenghiz  khan  was  advancing 
southward  with  his  whole  army,  he  made  propo- 
sals of  peace,  which  were  rejected.  In  1212  the 
Mogul  general  forced  the  great  wall ;  or,  accord- 
ing to  some  writers,  had  one  of  the  gates  treach- 
erously opened,  and  made  incursions  as  far  as 
Pekin,  the  capital  of  the  Kin  empire.  At  the 
same  time  the  province  of  Lyau-tong  was  almost 
totally  reduced  by  several  Kitan  lords  who  had 
joined  Jenghiz  khan  ;  several  strong  places  were 
taken,  and  an  army  of  300,000  Kin  were  defeated 
by  the  Moguls.  In  autumn  they  laid  siege  to  the 
city  of  Taytong-su  ;  where,  although  the  governor 
Hujaku  fled,  yet  Jenghiz  khan  met  with  consi- 
derable resistance.  Having  lost  a  vast  number 
of  men,  and  being  himself  wounded  by  an  arrow, 
he  was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  and  retire  into 
Tartary;  after  which  the  Kin  took  several  cities. 
The  next  year,  however,  Jenghiz  khan  re-entered 
China ;  retook  the  cities  which  the  Kin  had  re- 
duced the  year  before ;  and  overthrew  their  ar- 
mies in  two  bloody  battles,  in  one  of  which  the 
ground  was  strewed  with  dead  bodies  for  up- 
wards of  four  leagues.  The  same  year  Yong-tsi 
was  slain  by  his  general  Hujaku ;  and  Sun,  a 
prince  of  the  blood,  advanced  in  his  room.  After 
this  the  Moguls,  attacking  the  empire  with  four 
armies  at  once,  laid  waste  Shansi,  Honan,  Pe- 
cheli, and  Shantong.  In  1214  Jenghiz  khan  sat 


C    H    I     N    A  . 


629 


down  before  Pekin ;  but  instead  of  assaulting 
the  city,  offered  terras  of  peace,  which  were  ac- 
cepted, and  the  Moguls  retired  into  Tartary. 

The  emperor,  leaving  his  son  at  Pekin,  re- 
moved the  court  to  Pyen-lyang  near  Kay-song-fu, 
the  capital  of  Honan.    At  this  Jenghiz  khan,  be- 
ing offended,  immediateiy  sent  troops  to  besiege 
Pekin,  which  held  out  till  May,  1215,  and  then 
surrendered.     At  the   same   time  the    Moguls 
finished  the  conquest   of  Lyau-tong;  and   the 
Song  refused  to  pay  the  usual  tribute  to  the  Kin. 
In  1216   Jenghiz  khan  returned  to  pursue  his 
conquests  in  the  west  of  Asia,  where  he  staid 
seven  years,  during  which  time  his  general  Mu- 
huli  made  great  progress  in  China  against  the 
Kin  emperor.     He  was  much  assisted  by  the 
motions  of  Ning-tsong,  emperor  of  Song;  who, 
incensed  by  the  frequent  perfidies  of  the  Kin,  had 
declared  war  against  them,  and  would  hearken 
to  no  terms  of  peace.     Notwithstanding   this 
however,  in  1220  the  Kin,  exerting  themselves, 
raised   two  great  armies  in  Shensi  and  Shang- 
ton :  the  former  baffled  the  attempts  of  the  Song 
and  the  king  of  Hya,  who  had  united  against 
them ;    but  the  latter,  though  no    fewer    than 
200,000,  were  entirely  defeated  by  Muhuli.     In 
1221  that  officer  passed  the  Whang-ho,  and  died 
after  conquering  several  cities.     In  1224  the  Kin 
emperor  died  ;  and  was  succeeded  by  his  sor 
Shew,  who  made  peace  with  the  king  of  Hya : 
but  next  year  that  kingdom  was  entirely  detroyed 
by  Jenghiz  khan.     In  1226  Otkay,  son  to  Jeng- 
hiz khan,   marched  into  Honan,    and  besieged 
Kay-song-fu,  capital  of  the  Kin  empire ;  but  was 
obliged  to  withdraw  into  Shensi,  where  he  took 
several  cities,  and  cut  in  pieces  an  army  of  30,000 
men.     In  1227  Jenghiz  khan  died,  after  having 
desired  his  sons  to  demand  a  passage  for  their  ar- 
my through  the  dominions  of  the  Song,  without 
which,  he  said,  they  could  not  easily  vanquish  the 
Kin.  The  war  was  caried  on  with  various  success, 
until  January,  1234,  the  Kin  having  lost  all  his 
best  officers,  resigned  the  crown  to  Cheng-lin,  a 
prince  of  the  blood.     The  next  morning,  while 
the  ceremony  of  investing  the  new  emperor  was 
performing,  the  enemy  mounted  the  south  walls 
of  jMiiing-fu,   and  the   gate   being  abandoned, 
the  whole  army  broke  in.     They  were  opposed, 
however,  by  Hu-sye-hu,  who,  with  1000  soldiers 
continued  to  fight  with  amazing  intrepidity.  In  the 
mean  time  Shew-fu,  seeing  every  thing  irrepara- 
bly lost,  lodged  the  seal  of  the  empire  in  a  house, 
and  then  causing  sheaves  of  straw  to  be  set  round 
it,  ordered  it  to  be  set  on  fire  as  soon  as  he  was 
dead.   After  giving  this  order  he  hanged  himself, 
and  his  commands  were  executed  by  his  domes- 
tics.    Hu-sye-hu,  who  still   continued  fighting 
with  great  bravery,  no  sooner  heard  of  the  tra- 
gical death  of  the   emperor,  than  he  drowned 
himself  in  the  river  Ju;  as  did  also  500  of  his 
most  resolute  soldiers.     The  same  day  the  new 
emperor,  Cheng-lin,  was  slain  in  a  tumult;  and 
thus  an  end  was  put  to  the  dominion  of  the  Kin 
Tartars  in  China.    The  empire  of  China  was  now 
to  be  shared  between  the  Song,  or  Southern  Chi- 
nese, and  the  Moguls. 

It  had  been  agreed  upon,  that  the  province  of 
Honan  should  be  delivered  up  to  the  Song  as 
soon  as  the  war  was  finished.  But  they,  without 


waiting  for  the  expiration  of  the  term,   or  giving 
Oktay  notice  of   their  proceedings,  introduced 
their  troops  into  Kay-song-fu,  Lo-yang,  and  other 
considerable  cities.      On  this  the  Mogul  general 
resolved   to    attack    them ;   and,  repassing  the 
Whang-ho,  cut  off  part  of  the  garrison  of  Lo- 
yang,  while  they  were  out  in  search  of  provisions. 
The  garrison  of  Kay-song-fu  likewise  abandoned 
that  place  ;  and  the  Song  emperor  degraded  the 
officers  who  had  been  guilty  of  those  irregula- 
rities, sending  ambassadors  to  Oktay,  at  the  same 
time,  to  desire  a  continuance  of  the  peace.     The 
event  showed  that  Oktay  was  not  well  pleased ;  for, 
in  1235,  he  ordered  his  second  son  prince  Koto- 
van,  and  his  general  Chahay,  to  attack  the  Song 
in  Se-chwen,  while  others  marched  towards  the 
borders   of  Kyang-nan.       In  1236  the  Moguls 
made  great  progress  in  the  province  of  Huquang, 
where  they  took  several  cities,  and  put  vast  num- 
bers to  the  sword.     This  year  they  introduced 
paper  or  silk  money,  which  had  formerly  been 
ised  by  Chang-tsong,  sixth  emperor  of  the  Kin. 
Prince  Kotovan  forced  the  passages  into  the  dis- 
trict of  Hang-chon-fu  in  Shensi,  which  he  entered 
with  an  army  of  500,000  men.     Here  a  terrible 
battle  was  fought  between  the  vast  army  of  the 
Moguls  and  the  Chinese  troops,  who  had  beer* 
driven  from  the  passages  they  defended.      The 
latter  consisted  only  of  10,000  horse  and  foot, 
who  were  almost  entirely  cut  off;  and  the  Mo- 
guls lost  such  a  number  of  men,  that  blood  is 
said  to  have  run  for  two  leagues  together.    After 
this  victory  the  Moguls  entered  the  province  of 
Se-chwen ;  but  still  met  with  vigorous  opposition. 
Though  the  Chinese  were  always  beaten,  being 
greatly  inferior  in  number  to  their  enemies,  yet 
they  generally  retook  the  cities  the  Moguls  had 
reduced,  as  the  latter  were  commonly  obliged  to 
withdraw  for  want  of  provisions  and  forage.     In 
1259,  they  undertook  the  siege  of  Ho-chew,  a 
strong  city  to  the  west  of  Pekin,  before  which 
fell  the  Mogul  emperor,  Meng-ko,  himself.     A 
treaty  was  finally  concluded,  by  which  the  Song 
became  tributary  to  the  Moguls,  but  170  of  the 
Mogul  army  having  staid  on  the  other  side  of  the 
river  Kyang  were  put  to  death  by  Kya-tse-tau, 
the  Chinese  minister,  who  made  his  master  be- 
lieve that  the  enemy  had  been  defeated,  and  com- 
pelled to  retreat.     This  proved  the  ruin  of  the 
empire;  for,  in  1260,  the  Mogul  emperor  sent 
Hauking  to  the  Chinese    court   to  execute  the 
treaty  according  to  terms  agreed  on  with  Kya- 
tse-tau.      The  minister,  dreading  the  arrival  of 
this  envoy,    imprisoned  him  near  Nankin ;  and 
took  care  that  neither  Hupilay,  nor  Li-tsong  the 
Chinese  emperor,  should  hear  any  thing  of  him. 
Such  unparalleled  conduct  could  not  fail  to  pro- 
duce a  new  war.     Hostilities  were  accordingly- 
renewed  in  1268.    The  Mogul  army  amounted  to 
300,000    men ;    but    little  progess  was  at   first 
made.      In  the  beginning  of  1273  they  planted 
their  engines  against  Fan-ching,  and  presently 
made  a  breach  in  the  walls.     After  a  bloody  con- 
flict the  Moguls  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
suburbs,  walls,  and  gates  of  the  city;  but  a  Chi- 
nese officer,  with  only  100  soldiers,  resolved  to 
fight  from  street  to  street.     This  he  did  for  a  long 
time  with  the  greatest  obstinacy,  killing  vast  num- 
bers of  the  Moguls;  and  both  parties  arc  said  U* 


630 


CHINA. 


have  been  so  much  overcome  with  thirst,  that 
they  drank  human  blood  to  quench  it.  The  Chi- 
nese set  fire  to  the  houses,  and  multitudes  put  an 
end  to  their  own  lives.  In  1274,  Pe-yen,  an 
officer  of  great  valor  and  humanity,  was  promo- 
ted to  the  command  of  the  Mogul  army.  Having 
taken  Nanking,  and  some  other  cities,  he  marched 
towards  Hang-chew-fu,  the  capital  of  the  Song 
empire.  Peace  was  now  again  proposed  but  re- 
jected ;  and  at  last  the  empress  was  constrained 
to  put  herself,  with  her  son,  then  an  infant,  into 
the  hands  of  Pe-yen,  who  immediately  sent  them 
to  Hupilay.  This  however  did  not  yet  put  an 
end  to  the  war.  Many  of  the  chief  officers  swore 
to  do  their  utmost  to  rescue  the  empress  and, 
raised  an  army  of  40,000  men.  This  army  attacked 
the  city  where  the  young  emperor  Kongtsong  was 
lodged,  but  without  success  ;  after  which,  they 
raised  one  of  his  brothers  to  the  throne,  who  took 
the  name  of  Twon-tsong.  He  was  only  nine 
years  of  age,  and  enjoyed  it  but  a  very  short  time. 
In  1277  he  was  in  great  danger  of  perishing,  a  ship 
on  board  which  he  was  being  cast  away.  Soon  after 
he  made  offers  of  submission  to  Hupilay.  These 
however,  were  not  accepted;  and  in  1278  he  re- 
tired into  a  desert  island  on  the  coast  of  Quang- 
tong,  where  he  died.  On  this  the  mandarins 
raised  .to  the  throne  his  brother,  Te-ping,  then 
only  eight  years  of  age.  His  army  consisted  of 
no  fewer  than  200,000  men  ;  but  being  utterly 
void  of  discipline,  and  experience,  they  were  de- 
feated with  20,000  Mogul  troops,  and  thus  ended 
the  Chinese  race  of  emperors ;  and  the  Mogul 
dynasty,  known  by  the  name  of  Ywen,  com- 
menced. 

Though  no  race  of  men  that  ever  existed  were 
more  remarkable  for  cruelty  and  barbarity  than 
the  Moguls,  yet  the  emperors  of  the  Ywen  dy- 
nasty were  not  in  any  respect  worse  than  their 
predecessors.  On  the  contrary  Hupilay,  by  the 
Chinese  "called  Shitsu,  found  the  way  of  recon- 
ciling the  people  to  his  government,  and  even  of 
endearing  himself  to  them  so  much,  that  the  reign 
of  his  family  is  to  this  day  styled  by  the  Chinese 
the  wise  government.  This  he  accomplished  by 
keeping  close  to  their  ancient  laws  and  customs, 
by  his  mild  and  just  government,  and  by  his  re- 
gard for  their  learned  men.  He  was  indeed 
ashamed  of  the  ignorance  of  his  Mogul  subjects, 
•when  compared  with  the  Chinese.  At  his  first 
accession  he  fixed  his  residence  at  Tay-ywen-su, 
the  capital  of  Shen-si ;  but  afterwards  removed 
it  to  Pekin.  Here,  being  informed  that  the 
barks  which  brought  to  court  the  tribute  of  the 
southern  provinces,  or  carried  on  trade,  were  ob- 
liged to  come  by  sea,  and  often  suffered  ship- 
wreck, he  caused  that  celebrated  canal  to  be 
made,  which  is  at  present  one  of  the  wonders  of 
the  Chinese  empire. 

In  the  third  year  of  his  reign  Shi-tsu  formed  a 
design  of  reducing  the  islands  of  Japan,  and  the 
kingdoms  of  Tonquin  and  Cochin  China.  But 
these  enterprises  ended  unfortunately.  Shi-tsu 
reigned  fifteen  years.  The  Ywen  family  pre- 
served itself  on  the  throne  till  1367,  when  Shun- 
ti,  the  last  of  the  dynasty,  was  driven  out  by  a 
Chinese  named  Chu.  'After  various  successful 
conflicts  with  the  forces,  naval  and  military,  of 
Shun-ti,  he  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  at  Nan- 


king on  the  1st  of  January,  1368.  After  this  his 
troops  entered  Honan,  which  they  presently 
reduced.  In  the  third  month,  Chu,  who  had 
now  taken  the  name  of  Hong-vu,  or  Tay-tsu, 
reduced  the  fortress  of  Tongquan ;  after  which 
his  troops  entered  Pecheli  from  Honan  on  the 
one  side,  and  Shang-tong  on  the  other;  took  the 
city  of  Tong-chew;  and  then  prepared  to  attack 
the  capital,  from  which  they  were  but  twelve 
miles  distant.  On  their  approach,  the  emperor 
fled  with  all  his  family  beyond  the  great  \va\\ 
and  thus  put  an  end  to  the  dynasty  of  Ywen. 
In  1370  he  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
whom  the  successor  of  Hong-vu  drove  beyond 
the  Kobi,  or  Great  Desert,  which  separates  China 
from  Tartary.  They  continued  their  incursions 
however  for  many  years;  nor  did  they  cease 
their  attempts  till  1583,  when  vast  numbers  of 
them  were  cut  off  by  the  Chinese  troops. 

The  twenty-first  dynasty  of  Chinese  emperors, 
founded  in  1368  by  Chu,  continued  till  1644, 
when  they  were  again  expelled  by  the  Tartars, 
who  established  the  present  reigning  house. 
The  last  Chinese  emperor  was  Whey-tsong,  who 
ascended  the  throne  in  1628.  He  was  a  great 
lover  of  the  sciences,  and  a  favorer  of  the 
Christians;  though  much  addicted  to  the  super- 
stitions of  the  bonzes  or  priests.  He  found  him- 
self engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Tartars,  while  a 
number  of  rebels  rose  in  the  different  provinces. 
Through  the  treachery  of  one  of  his  generals,  the 
former  advanced  to  Pekin,  but  were  repulsed. 
In  1636  the  rebels  composed  four  great  armies, 
commanded  by  as  many  generals;  which,  how- 
ever, were  soon  reduced  to  two,  commanded  by 
Li  and  Chang.  These  agreed  to  divide  the 
empire  between  them;  Chang  taking  the  west- 
ern, and  Li,  the  eastern  provinces.  The  latter 
seized  on  part  of  Shen-si  and  Honan,  whose 
capital,  named  Kay-song-fu,  he  laid  siege  to, 
but  was  repulsed  with  loss.  He  renewed  it  six 
months  after,  but  without  success :  the  besieged 
choosing  rather  to  feed  on  human  flesh  than  sur- 
render. After  this  Li  marched  into  the  provin- 
ces of  Shen-si  and  Honan,  and  thought  himself 
strong  enough  to  assume  the  title  of  emperor. 
He  next  advanced  towards  the  capital,  which, 
though  well  garrisoned,  was  divided  into  fac- 
tions. The  gates  were  opened  to  him  the  third 
day  after  his  arrival,  whilst  the  emperor  was 
shut  up  in  his  palace,  busied  only  with  his  su- 
perstitions. It  was  not  long,  however,  before  he 
found  himself  betrayed ;  upon  which  he  retired 
with  his  empress,  and  a  princess,  her  daughter, 
into  a  private  part  of  the  garden,  where  she 
hung  herself  on  a  tree  in  a  silken  string :  her 
husband  stayed  only  to  write  on  the  border  of 
his  vest,  'I  have  been  basely  deserted  by  my 
subjects;  do  what  you  will  with  me,  but  spare 
my  people.'  He  then  cut  off  the  young  prin- 
cess's head  with  his  scymitar,  and  hanged  him- 
self on  another  tree,  in  the  seventeenth  year  of 
his  reign,  and  thirty-sixth  of  his  age.  The  empire 
now  submitted  peaceably  to  the  usurper,  except 
prince  U-san-ghey,  who  commanded  the  impe- 
rial forces  in  the  province  of  Lyau-tong.  This 
brave  general  invited  the  Tartars  to  his  assist- 
ance, and  Tsonge-te,  their  king,  immediately 
joined  him  with  an  army  of  80,000  men.  Upon 


CHINA. 


631 


this  the  usurper  marched  directly  to  Pekin;  but, 
not  thinking  himself  safe  there,  plundered  and 
burnt  the  palace,  and  fled  with  an  immense 
treasure.  The  young  Tartar  monarch  was  im- 
mediately declared  emperor  ofChina;  his  father, 
Tsong-te,  having  died  almost  as  soon  as  he 
crossed  the  frontier. 

The  new  emperor,  named  Shun-chi,  or  Xun- 
chi,  began  his  reign  by  conferring  upon  U-san- 
ghey  the  title  of  king;  and  assigned  nim  the  city 
of  Si-gnan-fu,  the  capital  of  Shen-si,  for  his 
residence.  This,  however,  did  not  hinder 
U-san-ghey  from  repenting  of  his  error  in  calling 
in  the  Tartars,  or,  as  he  himself  phrased  it,  •'  in 
sending  for  lions  to  drive  away  dogs.'  In  1674 
he  formed  a  strong  alliance  against  them,  and 
had  probably  prevailed  if  his  allies  had  been 
faithful ;  but  they  treacherously  deserted  him 
one  after  another:  his  projects  utterly  failed, 
and  he  died  soon  after.  In  1681  Hong-wha, 
son  to  U-san-ghey,  who  continued  his  efforts 
against  the  Tartars,  was  reduced  to  such  straits, 
that  he  put  an  end  to  his  own  life.  During  this 
space  resistance  had  been  made  to  the  Tartars  in 
many  of  the  provinces.  Two  princes  of  Chinese 
extraction  were  at  different  times  proclaimed 
emperors;  but  were  overcome  and  put  to  death. 
In  1682  the  whole  fifteen  provinces  were  so 
effectually  subdued,  that  the  emperor  Kang-hi, 
successor  to  Shun-chi,  determined  to  visit  his 
native  dominions  of  Tartary.  He  was  accom- 
panied by  an  army  of  70,000  men,  and  continued 
for  some  months  taking  the  diversion  of  hunting. 
He  continued  to  make  this  visit  for  several  years; 
and  in  his  journeys  took  father  Verbeist,  the 
Jesuit,  along  with  him ;  from  whom  we  have  a 
better  description  of  these  countries  than  could 
otherwise  have  been  obtained.  This  prince  was 
a  great  encourager  of  learning  and  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion ;  in  favor  of  which  he  published  a 
decree,  dated  in  1692.  In  1716,  however,  he 
revived  some  obsolete  laws  against  the  Chris- 
tians; nor  could  the  Jesuits  with  all  their  art 
preserve  the  footing  they  had  obtained.  He 
died  in  1722,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Yon-ching ,  who  not  only  gave  the  missionaries 
no  encouragement,  but  persecuted  all  Christians 
indiscriminately.  At  the  beginning  of  his  reign 
he  banished  the  Jesuits  to  the  city  of  Canton, 
and  from  thence  finally  to  the  island  of  Macao. 
He  died  in  1736. 

The  next  memorable  occurrence  in  the  history 
of  China  is  the  voluntary  migration  of  a  vast 
number  of  Russian  Tartars  into  China.  In  1771 
the  Tartars  which  composed  the  nation  of  the 
Tourgouths,  left  their  settlements  under  the  Rus- 
sian government  on  the  banks  of  the  Wolga,  and 
the  Yaick,  near  the  Caspian  sea,  and,  in  a  body 
of  50,000  families,  passed  through  the  country 
of  the  Hasacks.  After  a  march  of  eight  months 
they  arrived  in  the  plains  on  the  frontier  of 
Carapan,  near  the  river  Ily,  and  offered  them- 
selves as  subjects  to  Kien-lung,  emperor  of 
China,  then  in  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  his  reign. 
He  received  them  graciously,  furnished  them 
with  provisions,  clothes,  and  money,  and  allotted 
to  each  family  a  portion  of  land  for  agriculture 
and  pasturage.  In  1772  there  was  a  second 
emigration  of  about  30  000  other  Tartar  families, 


who  also  quitted  their  settlements  under  the 
Russian  government,  and  submitted  to  the 
Chinese.  The  emperor  caused  the  history  of 
these  emigrations  to  be  engraven  on  stone  in  four 
different  languages. 

In  1792  the  British  government  despatched 
a  splendid  embassy  to  this  monarch,  under 
lord  Macartney.  Kien-lung  was  then  in  the 
eighty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  and  fifty-seventh 
of  his  reign.  The  embassy  consisted  of  forty- 
four  persons,  besides  the  earl,  and  his  secre- 
tary, Sir  George  Staunton  ;  having  a  guard  of 
honor  of  fifty  soldiers.  The  earl  and  his  suite 
set  sail  from  Portsmouth,  Sept.  25th,  1792,  hi 
the  Lion,  of  sixty-four  guns,  accompanied  by  the 
Ilindostan  East  Indiaman,  and  the  Jackall  brig. 
On  the  17th  of  August  they  arrived  at  Pekin; 
where,  after  being  detained  fourteen  days,  lord 
Macartney  learned  that  the  emperor  was  at  Jehol 
in  Tartary.  He  accordingly  set  off  for  that 
place  on  the  2nd  of  September,  leaving  great 
part  of  his  train  at  Pekin  ;  and  airived  at  Jehol, 
on  the  8th,  where  his  reception  was  very  cool. 
On  the  12th  a  part  of  the  presents  were  sent  to 
the  emperor,  and  on  the  14th,  the  earl  had  his 
first  interview,  and  delivered  his  credentials, 
which  were  received  with  great  formality  : 
on  the  15th  and  17th  he  had  his  second  and 
third  audiences,  and  on  the  18th  his  audience  of 
leave,  when  the  emperor  refused  to  enter  into 
any  written  treaty  with  his  Britannic  Majesty ; 
upon  a  fundamental  principle  in  Chinese  politics 
that  innovation,  of  whatever  kind,  is  pregnant 
with  ruin.  He,  expressed,  however,  his  high 
respect  for  the  British  nation ;  his  inclination 
to  grant  them  greater  indulgences  than  any  other 
European  power,  and  to  diminish  the  duties 
payable  by  them  at  Canton,  provided  it  could 
be  done  without  prejudice  to  his  own  subjects. 
He  then  delivered  to  the  earl,  a  box,  containing 
the  miniature  pictures  of  all  his  imperial  pre- 
decessors, with  verses  by  each,  descriptive  of 
himself;  which  he  said,  was  '  the  most  valuable 
present  his  empire  could  furnish,  as  it  had  been 
transmitted  through  a  long  line  of  ancestors,  and 
was  the  last  token  of  affection  which  he  had  re- 
served for  his  only  son.'  On  the  21st  of  Sept. 
lord  Macartney  returned  to  Pekin :  the  emperor 
followed  on  the  28th,  and  the  remaining  presents 
were  soon  after  sent  to  his  palace.  At  last,  on 
the  7th  of  Oct.  the  gentlemen  of  the  embassy 
were  equally  surprised  and  mortified  by  a  sud- 
den and  most  unexpected  order  to  depart  in  two 
days.  Our  ambassador  and  his  suit  accordingly 
left  Pekin  for  Tong-tchew  on  the  9th  of  Oct. 
and  arrived  at  Spithead,  Sep.  3rd,  1794.  Thus 
the  hopes  of  any  great  advantages  resulting  from 
this  embassy  were  blasted,  and  particularly  the 
desire  of  our  government,  that  an  ambassador 
should  be  permitted  to  reside  at  the  imperial 
court. 

A  second  effort  of  the  same  kind  has  been 
made  with  even  less  success.  In  1816  lord 
Amherst  was  united  with  Sir  George  Staunton, 
and  H.  Ellis,  esq.  in  a  commission  of  embassy 
to  the  court  of  Pekin.  They  arrived  in  the  Golf 
of  Petchelee  on  the  25th  of  July.  According 
to  the  precedent  of  lord  Macartney's  embassy, 
two  mandarins  visited  the  ambassador  on  board, 


632 


CHINA. 


and  a  legate  received  him  on  shore.  After  some 
questions  of  routine,  as  to  the  objects  of  the  em- 
bassy, the  number  of  persons  it  consisted  of,  &c. 
they  adverted  to  the  ko-tou,  or  ceremony  of 
prostration,  and  observed  that  previous  practice 
would  be  required  to  secure  the  proper  perform- 
ance of  it  in  the  emperor's  presence.  Lord  Am- 
herst  only  observed,  on  this  occasion,  that  what- 
ever was  right  would  be  done. 

But  so  early  a  discussion  of  this  delicate 
topic  was  ominous  of  disaster.  Lord  Amherst 
now  formally  took  the  opinion  of  Sir  George 
Staunton  and  his  coadjutors :  when  Sir  George 
at  once  declared  that  the  performance  of  the 
ceremony  thus  demanded  was  not  <jnly  incom- 
patible with  personal  and  national  respectability, 
but  that  it  would  be  attended  with  the  most  in- 
jurious effects  on  the  Company's  interests  at 
Canton  :  which  were  maintained  principally  by 
a  respect  for  the  firmness  of  British  principles, 
known  to  be  pledged  on  this  subject. 

On  the  12th  of  August  they  reached  Tien-sing, 
and  an  entertainment  being  given  to  the  embassy 
on  the  following  day,  in  the  name  of  the  empe- 
ror, he,  argued  the  mandarins,  was  supposed  to 
be  present,  and  the  ko-tou  was  peremptorily  re- 
quired. Lord  Amherst  declared  his  intention 
of  following,  in  every  respect,  the  precedent 
established  by  lord  Macartney.  They  said  that 
lord  Macartney  had  performed  every  ceremony, 
and  especially  the  ko-tou,  not  only  in  the  pre- 
sence of  the  emperor  but  at  all  other  times ;  and 
Soo  declared  that  himself  remembered  his  hav- 
ing performed  it  at  Canton  :  they  had  even  -the 
assurance  to  appeal  to  Sir  George  Staunton  for 
the  truth  of  this  assertion.  Nor  was  this  all : 
they  produced  a  paper,  purporting  to  be  an 
extract  from  the  official  records  of  the  court  of 
ceremonies,  describing  the  whole  ceremony  as 
performed  by  lord  Macartney. 

Lord  Amherst,  however,  was  firm,  and  the 
utmost  ceremony  to  which  he  would  submit  was 
to  bow  nine  times  to  the  vacant  seat  of  the  em- 
peror, while  the  mandarins  performed  the  ko- 
tou.  From  Tong-choo,  notwithstanding  this,  a 
report  was  forwarded  to  the  emperor  that  the 
English  tribute-bearer  was  daily  practising  the 
ceremony  with  the  highest  possible  respect  and 
veneration.  We  have  noticed  the  haughty  de- 
mand of  his  imperial  majesty  on  the  arrival  of 
lord  Amherst  at  Pekin.  He  had  scarcely  taken 
his  seat,  after  travelling  all  night,  when  Chang, 
one  of  the  first  ministers  of  the  imperial  court, 
delivered  him  a  message  to  appear  with  his  suite, 
and  the  other  commissioners,  before  the  empe- 
ror instantly.  Much  surprise,  says  Mr.  Ellis, 
was  naturally  expressed  ;  the  previous  arrange- 
ment for  the  eighth  of  the  Chinese  month,  a  pe- 
riod certainly  much  too  early  for  comfort,  was 
adverted  to ;  and  the  utter  impossibility  of  his 
excellency  appearing  in  his  present  state  of 
fatigue,  inanition,  and  deficiency  of  every  neces- 
sary equipment,  was  strongly  urged.  Chang 
was  very  unwilling  to  be  the  bearer  of  this  answer, 
but  was  finally  obliged  to  consent.  During  this 
time  the  room  had  filled  with  spectators  of  all 
ages  and  ranks,  who  rudely  pressed  upon  us  to 
gratify  their  brutal  curiosity ;  for  such  it  may  be 
called,  as  they  seemed  to  regard  us  rather  as 


wild  beasts  than  mere  strangers  of  the  same 
species  with  themselves.  Some  other  messages 
were  interchanged  between  the  koong-yay  and 
lord  Amherst,  who,  in  addition  to  the  reason* 
already  given,  stated  the  indecorum  and  irregu- 
larity of  his  appearing  without  his  credentials. 
In  reply  to  this  it  was  said,  that  in  the  proposed 
audience  the  emperor  merely  wished  to  see  the 
ambassador,  and  had  no  intention  of  entering 
upon  business.  Lord  Amherst  having  persisted 
in  expressing  the  inadmissibility  of  the  proposi- 
tion, and  in  transmitting  through  the  koong-yay 
an  humble  request,  to  his  imperial  majesty,  that 
he  would  be  graciously  pleased  to  wait  till  to- 
morrow, Chang  and  another  mandarin  finally 
proposed  that  his  excellency  should  go  over  to 
the  koong-yay's  apartments,  whence  a  reference 
might  be  made  to  the  emperor.  Lord  Amherst, 
having  alleged  bodily  illness  as  one  of  the  rea- 
sons for  declining  the  audience,  readily  saw  that 
if  he  went  to  the  koong-yay  this  plea,  which  to 
the  Chinese  (though  now  scarcely  admitted)  was 
in  general  the  most  forcible,  would  cease  to 
avail  him ;  he  therefore  positively  declined  com- 
pliance :  this  produced  a  visit  from  the  koong- 
yay,  who,  too  much  interested  and  agitated  to 
heed  ceremony,  stood  by  lord  Amherst  and  used 
every  argument  to  induce  him  to  obey  the  em- 
peror's commands.  Among  other  topics  he  used 
that  of  being  received  with  our  own  ceremony, 
using  the  Chinese  words  ne-muntihlee,  your 
own  ceremony.  All  proving  ineffectual,  with 
some  roughness,  but  under  pretext  of  friendly 
violence,  he  laid  hands  upon  lord  Amherst,  to 
take  him  from  the  room ;  another  mandarin 
followed  his  example.  His  lordship,  with  great 
firmness  and  dignity  of  manner,  shook  them  off, 
declaring  that  nothing  but  the  extremest  violence 
should  induce  him  to  quit  that  room  for  any 
other  place  but  the  residence  assigned  to  him ; 
adding  that  he  was  so  overcome  by  fatigue  and 
bodily  illness  as  absolutely  to  require  repose. 
Lord  Amherst  further  pointed  out  the  gross  in- 
sult he  had  already  received  in  having  been  ex- 
posed to  the  intrusion  and  indecent  curiosity  of 
crowds,  who  appeared  to  view  him  rather  as  a 
wild  beast  than  the  representative  of  a  powerful 
sovereign  :  at  all  events  he  entreated  the  koong- 
yay  to  submit  his  request  to  his  Imperial  Majesty, 
who,  he  felt  confident,  would,  in  consideration 
of  his  illness  and  fatigue,  dispense  with  his  im- 
mediate appearance.  The  koong-yay  then  pres- 
sed lord  Amherst  to  come  to  his  apartments, 
alleging  that  they  were  cooler,  more  convenient, 
and  more  private  :  this  lord  Amherst  declined, 
saying  that  he  was  totally  unfit  for  any  place  but 
his  own  residence. 

They  now  drove  to  the  rest  of  the  party  at 
Hai-tien,  and  hither  the  emperor's  orders  follow- 
ed for  their  immediate  departure.  It  was  in  vain 
to  plead  fatigue  ;  no  consideration  could  weigh 
against  the  positive  imperial  command  ;  and,  at 
four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  lord  Amherst  had 
the  pleasure  of  a  second  night's  journey  round 
the  walls  of  Pekin,  within  which  he  was  not  suf- 
fered to  enter.  The  embassy  was  afterwards 
conducted  nearly  to  Canton,  and  some  gleams 
of  repentance  seem  to  have  entered  the  imperial 
mind ;  but  the  embassy  was  suffered  to  depart, 


CHI  633 

and  no  practical   advantage   seems  to  have  re- 


CHI 


such   as  CHINESE    TARTARY,    comprising   the 

suited  from  it.  countries  of  Mongolia,  Mantchoo,  Thibet,  &c. ; 

In  the  above  article  it  will  be  found  that  we  COREA,  the  Loo-cuoo  Islands,  Formosa,  Hainan 

have  strictly  confined  ourseh-es  to  China  Proper.  &c.  most   of  them  inhabited  by  races  of  men 

There  are  several  other  countries,  some  of  them  distinct  in  manners,  customs,  and  language ;  the 

of  immense  extent,  which   are   not  included  in  description   of  which    will  more   properly   fall 

it,  but  will  be  treated  of  in  their  proper  places,  under  their  respective  heads. 


CHI'NA  ORANGE,  n.  s.  From  China  and 
orange.  The  sweet  orange  ;  brought  originally 
from  China. 

Not  many  years  has  the  China  orange  been  propa- 
gated in  Portugal  and  Spain.  Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

CHI'NA  ROOT,  n.  s.  From  China  and  root. 
A  medicinal  root;  brought  originally  from 
China. 

CHINCHOOR,  a  town  in  Hindostan,  in  the 
province  of  Aurungabad,  between  Bombay  and 
Poonah.  It  is  a  neat  place  with  good  houses, 
and  well  supplied  shops,  pleasantly  situated  on 
the  bank  of  a  river,  with  about  5000  inhabitants, 
of  whom  there  are  300  brahmin  families.  It  is 
the  residence  of  Chintamun  Deo,  whom  the 
Mahrattas  believe  to  be  an  incarnation  of  their 
deity,  Goonputty.  The  present  is  the  eighth 
from  the  first,  and  they  alternately  assume  the 
names  Chintamun  Deo,  and  Narrain  Deo.  The 
Brahmins  say,  that,  at  the  death  of  each,  a 
small  image  of  the  deity  arises  from  the  ashes, 
which  they  deposit  in  the  tomb  and  worship ; 
and  the  Deo  worships  his  other  self  in  this  form. 
He  is  further  described  as  totally  unmindful  of 
worldly  affairs,  and  unable  to  hold  conversation 
beyond  the  simplest  question  and  answer.  He 
eats,  drinks,  takes  wives,  &c.  like  the  other 
brahmins.  In  1809  he  was  a  boy  of  twelve 
years  old.  His  palace,  near  the  Moorta,  is  a 
vast  but  inelegant  building,  having  its  floors  co- 
vered with  the  sacred  cow-dung,  and  near  it 
stand  the  tombs  of  the  former  deos,  in  the  form 
of  small  temples  surrounded  by  trees.  Here 
the  pilgrims  and  devotees  perform  their  ablu- 
tions, but  with  the  utmost  listlessness  and  apathy  ; 
the  women  pouring  oil,  water,  and  milk,  over 
the  images  of  the  gods,  and  the  children  dress- 
ing them  with  flowers. 

CHINCLEPUT,  a  town  and  district  on  the 
coast  of  Hindostan,  lying  betweet  Madras  and 
the  Palar  river.  After  having  been  subject  to  a 
native  chief  called  the  Rayeel,  k  was  conquered 
at  the  -close  of  the  seventeenth  century  by  the  Ma- 
hommedans,  and  made  over  by  Nabob  Moham- 
med Ali  Khan  in  1750,  to  the  English  East 
India  Company,  when  it  became  more  commonly 
known  as  the  Jaghire  district.  The  soil  is  poor 
and  parched,  but  it  has  lately  much  recovered, 
and  the  district  is  the  circuit  of  an  English 
judge,  collector  of  the  company,  &c.  Chincleput, 
the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  north-east  bank  of  the 
Palar  River,  thirty-nine  miles  from  Madras,  and 
is  a  fortress  of  some  importance.  It  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  the  year  1751,  but  shortly  after 
recovered  by  our  forces,  and,  during  the  con- 
flicts with  Hyder  Ali,  always  withstood  his  arms, 
and  served  as  a  depot  for  stores. 

GHI'NCOUGH,  n.  s.  Perhaps  more  pro- 
perly kincough,  from  kinchin,  Dutch,  to  pant, 


and  cough.  A  violent  and  convulsive  cough,  to 
which  children  are  subject. 

I  have  observed  a  chincmtgh,  complicated  with  an 
intermitting  fever.  Floyer  on  the  Humours. 

CHINCH,  n.  s.  Span,  chincke ;  Ital.  cimice  ; 
Lat.  cimex,-  A  bug. 

CHINE,  n.  s.  &cv.  a.  Fr.  echine;  Ital.  schien- 
na,  from  Lat.  spina.  The  back  bone  ;  a  piece 
of  the  back  of  an  animal.  To  chine,  is  to  cut 
into  chines. 

Cut  out  the  burly  boned  clown  in  chines  of  beef  ere 
thou  sleep.  Shakspeare. 

She  strake  him  such  a  blow  upon  his  chine,  that  she 
opened  all  his  body.  Sidney. 

He  presents  her  with  the  tusky  head, 

And  chine  with  rising  bristles  roughly  spread. 

Dryden. 

He  that  in  his  line  did  chine  the  long  ribbed  Apen- 
nine.  Id. 

He  had  killed  eight  fat  hogs  for  this  season,  and  lie 
had  dealt  about  his  chines  very  liberally  among  his 
neighbours.  Spectator. 

Sometimes  with  oysters  we  combine, 
Sometimes  assist  the  savory  chine, 
From  the  low  peasant  to  the  lord, 
The  turkey  smokes  on  every  board. 

CHING,  a  Chinese  musical 
instrument,  formed  by  cutting 
off  the  nack  of  a  gourd,  and 
reserving  the  lower  part,  B. 
To  this  a  cover  is  fitted,  having 
as  many  holes  as  are  equal  to 
the  number  of  sounds  required. 
In  each  of  these  holes  a  pipe, 
C,C,C,  made  of  bamboo  is 
fixed,  and  it  is  shorter  or  lon- 
ger according  to  the  tone  in- 
tended. The  mouth  of  the 
instrument  A,  is  formed  of 
another  pipe  shaped  like  the 
neck  of  a  goose  ;  which  is  fix- 
ed to  the  gourd  on  one  side, 
and  serves  to  convey  the  air  to 
all  the  pipes  it  contains  ;  see 
the  diagram. 

CHINK,  v.  a.  &  v.  n.  Piobably  from  gingle, 
to  sound.  To  sound  by  shaking  substances  to- 
gether, as  pieces  of  money  in  a  purse. 

He  c/im/.'.v  his  purse,  and  takes  his  seat  of  state  : 
With  ready  quills  the  dedicators  wait. 

Pope'i  Dunciad. 

Lord  Strutt's  money  shines  as  bright,  and  chinks  as 
well  as  'squire  South's. 

Arbuthnot's  History  of  John  Unit. 

CHINK,  n.  s.     )      Sax.   cyna ;    Goth,   gincu, 

CHI'NKY,  adj.  ]  from  gia,  gina ;  Sax.  cinan ; 
Xatvw.  A  small  opening;  a"  crevice;  a  small 
aperture  longwise ;  an  opening  or  gap  between 
the  parts  of  anything.  Full  of  holes;  gaping, 
opening  into  narrow  dpfo 


CHI 


634 


CHI 


Fyramus  and  Thisbe  did  talk  through  the  chink  of 
•  -wall.  Shakspeare. 

Plagues  aiso  have  been  raised  by  anointing  the 
eninlts  of  aoors,  and  the  like. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

Though  birds  have  no  epiglottis,  yet  they  so  con- 
tract the  chink  of  their  larinx,  as  to  prevent  the  ad- 
mission of  wet  or  dry  indigested. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 
But  plaister  thou  the  chinky  hives  with  clay. 

Dryden's  Virgil. 

Grimalkin,  to  domestick  vermin  sworn 
An  everlasting  foe,  with  watchful  eye 
Lies  nightly  brooding  o'er  a  chinky  gap, 
Protending  her  fell  claws,  to  thoughtless  mice 
Sure  ruin.  Philip's  Poems^ 

CHINNON  or  CHINON,  an  ancient  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Indre  and 
Loire,  in  the  ci-devant  province  of  Touraine  ; 
memorable  for  the  death  of  Henry  II.  of  En- 
gland, for  the  birth  of  the  famous  Rabelais  and 
Quillet,  and  for  the  first  appearance  of  that 
celebrated  heroine,  Joan  of  Arc,  in  her  military 
habit,  before  king  Charles  VII.  It  is  seated  on 
the  river  Vienne,  in  a  fertile  and  pleasant  coun- 
try, ten  miles  north  of  Richelieu,  and  150  south- 
west of  Paris.  Manufactures  of  serges  and 
other  woollen  stuffs  are  conducted  in  this  place. 

CHINNOR,  an  Hebrew  musical  instrument, 
on  which  David  played  before  Saul.  It  con- 
sisted of  thirty-two  chords.  The  annexed  dia- 
gram, from  Kircher,  was  taken  by  him  from  an 
old  manuscript  in  the  Vatican  ;  and  is  supposed 
to  exhibit  the  ancient  form  of  this  instrument. 


CHINSURA,  a  Dutch  town  and  settlement 
of  Hindostan,  in  Bengal,  situated  on  the  Hoogly, 
between  Chandernagore  and  the  old  town  of 
Hoogly,  twenty-two  miles  from  Calcutta.  It  is 
populous  and  commercial,  and  has  a  fortress  de- 
fended by  four  bastions  and  a  ditch.  The  pas- 
sage of  the  river  is  defended  by  twenty-four 
cannon.  This  town  was  taken  from  the  Dutch 
by  the  British  in  1795,  but  restored  at  the  late 
peace.  The  first  factory  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company  was  erected  here  in  1656,  and 
the  site  is  said  to  be  much  preferable  to  that  of 
Calcutta.  In  1769  Chinsura  was  blockaded  by 
the  nabob  of  Bengal's  forces,  to  compel  pay- 
ment of  the  arrears  of  duties  due  to  him. 

CHINTS,  n.  s.  Cloth  of  cotton  made  in 
India,  and  printed  with  colors. 

Let  a  charming  chints,  and  Brussels  lace, 
Wrap  my  cold  limbs,  and  shade  my  lifeless  face. 

Pope. 

CHIO.  or  CHIOS,  an  Asiatic  island,  lying  near 
U>c  coast  of  Natolia.  opposite  to  Ionia.  It  was 


also  known  to  the  ancients  by  the  names  of 
./Ethalia,  Macris,  Pithynia,  &c.  According  to 
Herodotus,  Chio  was  originally  peopled  from 
Ionia.  It  was  at  first  governed  by  kings ;  but 
became  afterwards  a  republic,  which  by  the 
direction  of  Tsocrates  was  modelled  after  that  of 
Athens.  The  people  were,  however,  soon  en- 
slaved by  tyrants,  and  afterwards  conquered  by 
Cyrus,  king  of  Persia.  They  joined  the  Gre- 
cians in  the  Ionian  revolt ;  but  were  shamefully 
abandoned  by  the  Samians,  Lesbians,  and  others 
of  their  allies ;  so  that  they  were  again  reduced 
under  the  yoke  of  the  Persians,  who  treated  them 
with  the  utmost  severity.  They  continued  sub- 
ject to  them  till  the  battle  of  Mycale,  when  they 
were  restored  to  their  ancient  liberty ;  which  they 
enjoyed  till  the  downfal  of  the  Persian  empire, 
when  they  became  subject  to  the  Macedonian 
princes.  In  the  time  of  Vespasian,  the  island 
was  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  Roman  province ; 
but  the  inhabitants  were  allowed  to  live  accord- 
ing to  their  own  laws,  under  the  superintendence 
of  a  praetor.  It  is  now  subject  to  the  Turks,  and 
is  called  Scio.  See  that  article,  and  GREECE. 

CHIOCOCCA,  strawberry-tree,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and  pentandria 
class  of  plants ;  natural  order  forty-eighth,  ag- 
gregatae :  COR.  funnel-shaped  and  equal ;  the 
berry  unilocular,  dfepermous,  inferior.  Species 
two,  natives  of  West  Indies. 

CHIONANTHUS,  the  snow-drop,  or  fringe- 
tree,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and  di- 
andria  class  of  plants  ;  natural  order  forty-fourth 
sepiariae:  COR.  quadrifid,  the  segments  very 
long :  the  fruit  is  a  plum.  The  principal  species 
is  Virginica,  common  in  Virginia  and  South 
Carolina,  where  it  grows  by  the  sides  of  rivulets. 
It  rises  to  ten  feet ;  the  leaves  are  as  large  -as 
those  of  the  laurel,  but  much  thinner.  The 
flowers  come  out  in  May,  and  are  of  a  pure 
white;  whence  the  name  of  snow-drop  tree. 
They  hang  down  in  large  branches,  and  are  cut 
into  narrow  segments ;  whence  its  other  name 
of  fringe-tree.  After  the  flowers  are  fallen  off, 
the  fryit  appears,  which  grows  to  the  size  of  a 
sloe,  having  a  stone  in  the  middle.  The  plants 
are  propagated  from  seed  sown  in  a  hot  bed,  and 
kept  in  a  stove.  Some  have  been  raised  from 
layers ;  but  this  method  is  very  precarious,  and 
therefore  the  other  is  to  be  preferred.  The  seeds 
must  be  procured  from  America,  for  they  never 
come  to  perfection  in  this  country. 

CHIONE,  in  fabulous  history,  the  daughter 
of  Dcedalion,  of  whom  Apollo  and  Mercury  be- 
came enamoured.  After  her  commerce  with  the 
gods,  she  was  changed  by  Juno  into  a  hawk. 

CHl'OPPINE,  n.s.  From  Span,  chapin.  A 
high  shoe,  formerly  worn  by  ladies. 

Your  ladyship  is  nearer  heaven  than  when  I  saw 

you  last,  by  the  altitude  of  a  chioppine.      Shakspeare. 

The  woman  was  a  giantess,  and  yet  walked  always 

in  chioppines.  Cowley. 

CHIOZZA,  or  CHIOGGIA,  a  well  built  old 
town  of  the  Venetian  states,  situated  on  an 
island  of  the  same  name  in  the  Adriatic,  not  far 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Brenta  Nuova,  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Lagunes  of  Venice. 
Here  are  three  churches  and  eight  monasteries, 
defended  by  a  citadel,  &c.  It  is  built  like  Venice 


CHI 


635 


CHI 


on  piles,  and  is  the  main  safe-guard  of  that  city. 
Population  20,000 :  fourteen  miles  south  of 
Venice. 

CHIP,  CHEAP,  CHIPPING,  in  the  names  of 
places,  imply  a  market ;  from  the  Saxon  cypoan 
ceapan,  to  buy. 

CHIP,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.    )       Swed.    kippa ;    Teut. 

CHI'PPING,  n.  s.  }  kippen.  Probably  cor- 
rupted from  chop.  To  cut  into  small  pieces ; 
to  diminish,  by  cutting  away  a  little  at  a  time. 

His  mangled  Myrmidons, 

Noseless,  Landless,  hackt  and  chipt,  came  to  him, 
Crying  on  Hector.      Shakspeare.    Troilus  and  Cressida. 

To  return  to  our  statue  in  the  block  of*  marble,  we 
see  it  sometimes  only  begun  to  be  chipped;  some- 
times rough  hewn,  and  just  sketched  into  an  human 
figure.  Addisun's  Spectator. 

Cucumbers  do  extremely  affect  moisture,  and  over- 
drink themselves,  which  chaff  or  chips  forbiddeth. 

Bacon. 

The  chippings  and  filings  of  these  jewels,  could 
they  be  preserved,  are  of  more  value  than  the  whole 
mass  of  ordinary  authors.  Fclton  on  the  Ciassicks. 

Chipping  Norton  has  a  market  founded  by  one 
Norton.  Gazetteer, 

CHIPPENHAM,  a  borough  and  market  town 
of  Wiltshire,  seated  on  the  Avon.  It  has  a 
handsome  stone  bridge,  over  the  river,  of  six- 
teen arches ;  and  sends  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment. It  was  anciently  a  seat  of  King  Alfred 
the  Great,  and  was  then  one  of  the  strongest 
towns  in  the  kingdom.  It  has  a  market  on  Sa- 
turday, and  four  fairs.  It  carries  on  a  manufac- 
ture of  superfine  woollen  cloth,  and  lies  twenty- 
one  miles  east  of  Bristol,  and  ninety-three  west 
of  London. 

CHIPPEWAYS,  or  CHEPEWAYS,  an  Indian 
tribe  in  North  America,  who  hunt  on  grounds 
surrounding  the  Sandy  Lake,  Leech  Lake,  Rainy 
Lake,  Red  Lake,  Lake  Winnipic,  Otter  Tail  lake, 
the  head  of  the  Red  River,  and  the  Mississippi. 
Some  of  them  are  also  found  along  the  north 
side  of  Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  the  sides  of 
Lakes  Michigan,  Huron,  and  Superior,  &c. 
They  are  said  to  be  much  attached  to  spirituous 
liquors,  and  to  be  almost  at  continual  war  with 
the  Sioux,  the  most  powerful  native  tribe 
of  this  continent ;  they  would  have  been  long 
ago  dispersed,  but  the  nature  of  the  country  ex- 
cludes the  possibility  of  an  attack  on  horseback, 
a  mode  of  warfare  peculiar  to  the  Sioux,  and 
that  by  which  they  are  so  formidable  to  the  other 
tribes.  Their  numbers  amounted  lately  to 
11,177,  of  which  2049  are  warriors.  In  1795 
they  made  a  formal  peace  with  the  United 
States. 

CHIPPEWAY  RIVER,  a  river  of  Louisiana, 
which  is  tributary  to  the  Mississippi,  at  its  junc- 
tion with  which  it  is  about  half  a  mile  wide. 
It  communicates  through  the  Montreal  river  with 
Lake  Superior,  and  on  its  banks  are  found  im- 
mense herds  of  elks  and  buffaloes. 

CHIPPEWAY,  or  CHEPEWYAN  FORT,  a  strong 
post  of  the  north-west  company,  situated  on  the 
Lake  of  the  Hills.  Here  Mackenzie  embarked 
for  the  Frozen  Ocean  in  1789. 

CHIPPING,  the  flying  off  of  small  pieces,  or 
breaking  at  the  edges,  of  porcelain,  stone,  or 


earthern-ware ;  an  accident  common  in  these 
manufactures.  Our  earthen-wares  are  parti- 
cularly subject  to  it,  and  are  spoiled  by  it  before 
any  other  flaw  appears  in  them.  Our  stone 
wares  escape  it  better ;  but  not  so  well  as  the 
porcelain  of  China,  which  is  less  subject  to  it 
than  any  other  manufacture  in  the  world.  The 
method  by  which  the  Chinese  defend  their  wares 
from  this  accident,  is  this : — they  carefully  bum 
some  small  bamboo  canes  to  a  charcoal,  which 
is  very  light,  and  very  black  ;  this  they  reduce  to 
a  fine  powder,  and  then  mix  it  into  a  thin  paste, 
with  some  of  the  varnish  they  use  for  their  ware; 
they  next  take  the  vessels  when  dried,  and  not 
yet  baked,  to  the  wheel ;  and  turning  them  softly 
round,  they,  with  a  pencil  dipt  into  this  paste, 
cover  the  whole  circumference  with  a  thin  coat 
of  it ;  after  this,  the  vessel  is  again  dried ;  and 
the  border  made  with  this  paste  appears  of  a 
pale  grayish  color  when  it  is  thoroughly  dry. 
They  work  on  it  afterwards  in  the  common  way, 
covering  both  this  edge  and  the  rest  of  the  ves- 
sel with  the  common  varnish.  When  the  whole 
is  baked  on,  the  color  given  by  the  ashes  disap- 
pears, and  the  edges  are  as  white  as  any  other 
part ;  only  when  the  baking  has  not  been  suffi- 
cient, or  the  edges  have  not  been  covered  with 
the  second  varnishing,  we  sometimes  find  a  dusky 
edge,  as  in  some  of  the  ordinary  thick  tea-cups. 
It  might  be  a  great  advantage  to  our  English 
manufacturers  to  attempt  something  of  this  kind. 
The  willow  makes  a  very  light  and  black  char- 
coal ;  but  the  elder,  though  seldom  used,  greatly 
exceeds  it.  The  young  green  shoots  of  this 
shrub,  which  are  almost  all  pith,  make  the  lightest 
and  the  blackest  of  all  charcoal;  this  readily 
mixes  with  any  liquid,  and  might  be  easily  used 
in  the  same  way  that  the  Chinese  use  the  char- 
coal of  the  bamboo  cane,  which  is  a  light  hollow 
vegetable,  more  resembling  the  elder  shoots  than 
any  other  English  plant.  The  fixed  salt  and  oil 
contained  in  this  charcoal  penetrates  the  yet  raw 
edges  of  the  ware,  and  gives  them  in  the  subse- 
quent baking  a  somewhat  different  degree  of  vi- 
trification from  the  other  parts  of  the  vessel ; 
which,  though,  if  given  to  the  whole,  it  might 
take  off  from  the  true  semi-vitrified  state  of  that 
ware,  yet  at  the  edges  is  not  to  be  regarded,  and 
only  serves  to  defend  them  from  common  acci- 
dents, and  keep  them  entire.  The  Chinese  use 
two  cautions  in  this  application  :  the  first  in  the 
preparation,  the  second  in  the  laying  it  on.  They 
prepare  the  bamboo  canes  for  burning  into  char- 
coal, by  peeling  off  the  rind.  This  might  easily 
be  done  with  our  elder  shoots,  which  are  so  suc- 
culent, that  the  bark  strips  off  with  a  touch.  The 
Chinese  say,  that  if  this  is  not  done  with  their 
bamboo,  the  edges  touched  with  the  paste  will 
burst  in  the  baking.  This  does  not  seem  indeed 
very  probable ;  but  the  charcoal  will  certainly 
be  lighter  made  from  the  peeled  sticks,  and  this 
is  a  known  advantage.  The  other  caution  is 
never  to  touch  the  vessel  with  hands  that  have 
any  greasy  or  fat  substance  about  them ;  for  if 
this  is  done,  they  always  find  the  vessel  crack  in 
that  place. 

CHIQUITOS,  a  tribe  of  native  Indians,  in 
Peru,  on  the  west  of  the  province  of  Santa  Cruz 
de  la  Sierra.  They  inhabit  a  forest  and  un- 


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healthy  country,  extending  from  lat.  16°  to  20° 
south.  The  inhabitants,  after  several  vain  attempts 
to  subdue  tlieii  by  armss  were  induced  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  last  century  by  the  persuasions  of  the 
Jesuits,  to  submit  to  tne  restraints  and  usages  of 
civilised  society,  and  the  country  was  divided 
into  settlements,  which  they  maintained  until  the 
year  1767.  Hunting,  fishing,  and  gathering  wild 
honey  and  bees'  wax,  together  with  a  small  manu- 
facture of  cotton,  constitute  the  principal  occu- 
pations of  these  tribes,  whose  trade  with  other 
countries  is  said  to  be  still  conducted  through 
the  medium  of  their  catholic  curates.  A  red  and 
very  venomous  spider  abounds  here. 

CHIRA'GRICAL,  adj.  From  Lat.  chiragra. 
Having  the  gout  in  the  hand  ;  subject  to  the  gout 
in  the  hand. 

Chiragrical  persons  do  suffer  in  the  finger  as  well  as 
in  the  rest,  and  sometimes  first  of  all. 

Browne't  Vulgar  Errauars. 

CHIRIQUT,  or  CHIRIQUITA,  a  town  of 
Mexico,  in  the  province  of  Veragua,  on  the  coast 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  with  a  harbour  about  three 
miles  from  the  sea,  and  eight  miles  from  the 
town.  It  is  thirty  leagues  west  of  St.  Jago. 

CHIROGRAPH,  an  ancient  deed,  which, 
requiring  a  counterpart,  was  engrossed  twice  on 
the  same  piece  of  parchment,  counterwise ;  leav- 
ing a  space  between,  wherein  was  written  chiro- 
graph ;  through  the  middle  whereof  the  parch- 
ment was  cut,  sometimes  straight,  sometimes 
indentedly  ;  and  a  moiety  given  to  each  of  the 
parties.  This  was  afterwards  called  dividenda, 
and  chartae  divisae ;  and  was  the  same  with  what 
we  now  call  charter-party.  See  CHARTER- 
PARTY.  The  first  use  of  these  chirographs  in 
Britain  was  in  the  time  of  Henry  III.  Chiro- 
graph was  also  anciently  used  for  a  fine  :  and 
the  manner  of  engrossing  the  fines,  and  cutting 
the  parchment  in  two  pieces,  is  still  retained  in 
the  chirographer's  office. 

CHIRO'GRAPHER,  n.  s.  ^     X«p  the  hand, 

CHIRO'GRAPHIST,  n.  s.          Sand     ypa0w    to 

CHIRO'GRAPHY,  n.  s.  j  write.     He  that 

exercises  or  professes  the  art  or  business  of  writ- 
ing. 

Thus  passeth  it  from  this  office  to  the  chirographer's, 
to  be  engrossed.  Bacon's  Office  nf  Alienation. 

CHIROGRAPUER  OF  FINES,,  an  officer  in  the 
Common  Pleas,  who  engrosses  fines  acknow- 
ledged in  that  court,  into  a  perpetual  record, 
(after  they  have  been  examined,  and  passed  by 
other  officers),  and  writes  and  delivers  the  inden- 
tures thereof  to  the  party.  He  makes  two  in- 
dentures ;  one  for  the  buyer,  the  other  for  the 
seller ;  and  a  third  indented  piece,  containing 
the  effect  of  the  fine,  and  called  the  foot  of  the 
fine  ;  and  delivers  it  to  the  custos  brevium.  This 
officer,  or  his  deputy,  proclaims  all  fines  in  court 
every  term,  and  indorses  the  proclamations  on 
the  back  side  of  the  foot ;  keeping  the  writ  of 
covenant,  and  the  note  of  the  fine. 

CHI'ROMANCY,  n.  s.   )       X«p  the  hand, 

CHI'ROMANCER,  ra.  *.  $  and  pavnq  a  pro- 
phet. The  art  of  foretelling  the  events  of  life, 
by  inspecting  the  hand.  ' 

Chiromancy  hath  these  aphorisms  to  foretell  melan- 
choly  The  Saturnine  line  going  from  the 


rascetta  through  the  hand,  to  Saturn's  mount,  and 
there  intersected  by  certain  little  lines,  argues  melan- 
choly ;  so  if  the  vital  and  natural  make  an  acute 
angle.  Burton's  Anatomy  of  Melancholy. 

There  is  not  much  considerable  in  that  doctrine  of 
chiromancy,  that  spots  in  the  top  of  the  nails  do  sig- 
nify things  past ;  in  the  middle,  things  present ;  and 
at  the  bottom,  events  to  come. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errourtm 

The  middle  sort,  who  have  not  much  to  spare, 
To  chiromancem'  cheaper  art  repair, 
Who  clap  the  pretty  palm,  to  make  the  lines  more 
fair.  Dryden's  Juvenal. 

CHIROMANCY.  See  DIVINATION. 
CHIRON,  the  son  of  Saturn  and  Phillyra, 
styled  by  Plutarch,  in  his  Dialogue  on  Music, 
The  Wise  Centaur.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  places 
his  birth  in  the  first  age  after  Deucalion's  deluge. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  born  in  Thessaly  among 
the  Centaurs,  who  were  the  first  Greeks  that  had 
acquired  the  art  of  breaking  and  riding  horses ; 
and  was  represented  by  the  ancients  as  one  of 
the  first  inventors  of  medicine,  botany,  and  sur- 
gery. He  inhabited  a  grotto  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Pelion,  which,  from  his  great  fame,  be- 
came the  most  frequented  schoo.  throughout 
Greece.  Almost  all  the  heroes  of  his  time  were 
proud  of  receiving  his  instructions.  It  is  pre- 
tended that  Bacchus  was  the  favorite  scholar  of 
the  Centaur ;  of  whom  he  learned  the  revels,, 
orgies,  bacchanalia,  and  other  ceremonies  of  his 
worship.  But  among  all  the  heroes  who  have 
been  his  disciples,  no  one  reflected  so  much  ho- 
nor upon  him  as  Achilles,  whose  renown  he  in 
some  measure  shared.  Apollodorus  tells  us, 
that  he  taught  him  music,  as  a  bridle  to  the  im- 
petuosity of  his  temper.  One  of  the  best  re- 
mains of  antique  painting  now  existing,  is  a 
picture  dug  out  of  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum,  in 
which  Chiron  is  teaching  young  Achilles  to  play 
on  the  lyre.  The  death  of  this  philosophic  mu- 
sician was  occasioned  by  an  accidental  wound  in 
the  knee  with  a  poisoned  arrow,  shot  by  his 
scholar  Hercules  at  another.  He  was  placed  by 
Musaeus  among  the  constellations,  in  gratitude 
for  the  great  services  which  he  had  rendered  the 
people  of  Greece. 

CHIRONIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order,  twentieth,  rotaceae :  COR.  wheel- 
shaped  :  PIST.  declining  downwards :  STAM. 
placed  in  the  tube  of  the  corolla:  ANTH.  in  their 
last  stage  spiral :  SEED-CASE  bilocular.  There 
are  eighteen  species,  of  which  the  most  remark- 
able is  the  C.  frutescens,  a  native  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  The  root  is  fibrous,  and  spreads 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  stalks 
round,  and  somewhat  ligneous,  but  of  a  very 
soft  texture.  They  rise  from  two  to  three  feet 
high. 

CHIROTHESIA,  from  Xap,  the  hand,  and 
TiGtipi,  to  lay,  the  imposition  of  hands  in  con- 
ferring priestly  orders. 

CHIROTONIA,  or  CHIROTONY,  from  ^etp  and 
ruviit,  to  stretch  forth,  in  antiquity,  the  stretching 
forth,  or  holding  up  of  hands,  in  electing  ma- 
gistrates, &c.  This  custom  was  first  established 
in  Greece ;  as  appears  from  an  oration  of  De- 
mosthenes against  Nesera,  and  that  of  JEschines 


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against  Ctesiphon  :  thence  it  passed  to  the  Ro- 
mans ;  and  from  profane  authors  it  passed  to  ec- 
clesiastical ones. 

CHIRP,v.a.,v.».&n.<.  }  Perhaps  contracted 
Cin'tPER,  n.  s.  $  from  cheer  np.  The 

Dutch  have  circken.  To  make  a  cheerful  noise, 
as  birds  when  they  call  without  singing ;  to 
make  cheerful ;  the  voice  of  birds  or  insects. 
The  audible  expression  of  happiness  from  the 
various  species  of  the  feathered  tribes  of  crea- 
tion. 

This  frere  ariseth  up  full  curtisly, 
And  hor  embraceth  in  his  armes  narwe, 
And  kisseth  her  swete  :  and  chirketh  as  a  sparrow 
With  his  lippes.  Chaucer. 

She  chirping  ran,  he  peeping  flew  away, 
Till  hard  by  them  both  he  and  she  did  stay. 

Sidney. 

Came  he  right  now  to  sing  a  raven's  note  ; 
And  thinks  he  that  the  chirping  of  a  wren 
Can  chase  away  the  first  conceived  sound  ? 

Shahspeare. 
No  chirping  lark  the  welkin  sheen  invokes. 

Gay's  Pastorals. 

Sir  Balaam  now,  he  lives  like  other  folks  ; 
He  takes  his  chirping  pint,  and  cracks  his  jokes. 

Pope. 

Winds  over  us  whispered,  flocks  by  us  did  bleat, 
And  chirp  went  the  grasshopper  under  our  feet. 

Spectator. 
The  careful  hen 
Calls  all  her  chirping  family  around. 

Thomson's  Spring. 

To  CHIRRE,  v.  n.  Sax.  ceoruan.  See 
CHURME.  To  coo  as  a  pigeon. 

CHI'RURGEON,  n.  s.  )  Xtiooupyoe,  from 
CHIRU'RGERY,  n.  s.  \xa?  ^e  hand,  and 
CHIRU'RGICAL,  adj.  itpyov  work.  One 
CHIRU'RGICK,  adj.  ^  that  cures  ailments, 

not  by  internal  medicines,  but  outward  applica- 
tions. It  is  now  generally  pronounced,  and  as 
generally  written,  surgeon.  The  art  of  curing 
by  external  applications.  This  is  called  sur- 
gery. Manual  in  general,  consisting  in  opera- 
tions of  the  hand.  This  sense,  though  the  first 
according  to  etymology,  is  now  scarce  found. 

Gynecia  having  skill  in  chirurgcry,  an  art  in  those 
days  much  esteemed.  Sidney. 

The  chirurgical  or  manual  part  doth  refer  to  the 
making  instruments,  and  exercising  particular  experi- 
ments. Wilkins. 
When  a  man's  wounds  cease  to  smart,  only  because 
he  has  lost  his  feeling,  they  are  nevertheless  mortal, 
for  his  not  seeing  his  need  of  a  chirurgeon 

South'i  Sermons. 

CHI'SEL,  v.a. &«.  s.  Span,  sincel ;  Fr.  ci- 
seau,  ciselle ;  Lat.  scinda.  A  carpenter's  paring 
tool.  To  chisel,  is  to  cut  or  pare  with  the  in- 
strument. 

What  fine  chisel 

Could  ever  yet  cut  breath?     Let  no  man  mock  me, 
For  I  will  kiss  her.  Shakspeare. 

Imperfect  shapes  :  in  marble  such  are  seen, 
When  the  rude  chisel  does  the  man  begin. 

Dry  den. 

CHIRURGEON.     See  SURGEON. 

CHISELS,  or  CHISSELS,  cutting  instruments, 
much  used  by  carpenters  and  joiners,  and  in 
carving  silver  work,  such  as  buckles,  spoons,  &c. 
There  are  chisels  of  different  kinds ;  though  their 


chief  difference  lies  in  their  different  size  awl 
strength,  as  being  all  made  of  steel  well  sharpened 
and  tempered ;  but  they  have  different  names, 
according  to  the  different  uses  to  which  they  are 
applied.  The  chisels  used  in  carpentry  and 
joinery  are,  1.  The  former;  which  is  used  first 
of  all,  just  after  the  work  is  scribed.  2.  The 
paring  chisel ;  which  has  a  fine  smooth  edge,  and 
is  used  to  pare  off  or  smooth  the  irregularities 
which  the  former  makes.  This  is  not  struck  with 
a  mallet  as  the  former  is,  but  is  pressed  down  by 
the  workman.  3.  The  skew-former,  is  used  for 
cleansing  acute  angles  with  the  point  or  corner 
of  its  narrow  edge.  4.  The  mortise  chisel  is 
narrow,  but  very  thick  and  strong,  to  endure  hard 
blows,  and  it  is  cut  to  a  very  broad  basil.  Its 
use  is  to  cut  deep  square  holes  in  the  wood  for 
mortises.  5.  The  gouge,  is  a  chisel  with  a  round 
edge ;  one  side  whereof  serves  to  prepare  the 
way  for  an  augre,  and  the  other  to  cut  such  wood 
as  is  to  be  rounded,  hollowed,  &c.  6.  Socket- 
chisels,  are  chiefly  used  by  carpenters,  &c.  have 
their  shanks  with  a  hollow  socket  at  top,  to 
receive  a  strong  wooden  sprig,  fitted  into  them 
with  a  shoulder.  These  chisels  are  distinguished, 
according  to  the  breadth  of  the  blade,  into  half- 
inch  chisels,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  chisels, 
&c.  7.  The  ripping  chisel,  is  a  socket-chisel  of 
an  inch  broad,  having  a  blunt  edge  with  no 
basil.  Its  use  is  to  rip  or  tear  two  pieces  of  wood 
asunder,  by  forcing  in  the  blunt  edge  between 
them. 

CHISHULL  (Edmund),  a  divine  of  some  ce- 
lebrity in  the  last  century,  was  born  at  Eyworth, 
in  Bedfordshire,  and  educated  at  Corpus  Christ! 
college,  Oxford.  In  1692  he  produced  an  elegant 
Latin  poem,  on  the  battle  of  La  Hogue,  and 
another,  in  1694,  on  the  death  of  queen  Mary. 
Having  obtained  a  travelling  fellowship,  he,  in 
1698,  visited  Turkey  and  the  Levant ;  and  settling 
at  Smyrna,  remained  there  for  some  years,  as 
chaplain  to  the  English  factory.  In  1705  we  find 
him  again  at  home,  publishing  the  Answer  to 
Dodwell's  Discourse  on  the  Mortality  of  the 
Soul.  He  obtained  the  vicarage  of  Walthamstow 
in  1708,  and  became  afterwards  chaplain  to  the 
queen.  His  most  important  works  are,  Inscriptio 
Sigaa  Antiquissima,  folio,  1721  ;  A  Dissertation 
on  certain  Medals  struck  at  Smyrna  in  honor  of 
Physicians,  which  he  added  to  Dr.  Mead's  Har- 
veian  Oration,  printed  in  1724  ;  and  Antiquitates 
Asiatics  Christianam  aeram  Antecedentes,  &c. 
folio.  His  death  took  place  in  1733. 

CHISLEY  LAND,  in  agriculture,  a  soil  of  a 
middle  nature,  between  sandy  and  clayey  land, 
with  a  large  admixture  of  pebbles. 

CHISME,  a  sea-port  of  Natolia,  seated  on  the 
strait  that  divides  the  continent  from  the  Isle  of 
Scio.  It  was  the  ancient  Cyssus,  and  famous 
for  the  victory  obtained  here  by  the  Romans  over 
the  fleet  of  Antiochus,  A.  A.  C.  191.  It  has  been 
no  less  distinguished  in  modern  times  by  the 
total  destruction  of  the  Turkish  fleet,  by  the 
Russians,  in  1770.  It  is  forty  miles  west  of 
Smyrna. 

CHISWICK,an  extensive  parish  of  Middlesex, 
comprising  the  hamlets  of  Turnham  Green, 
Strand  on  the  Green,  and  Little  Sutton.  It  is 
principally  noticed  for  the  beautiful  Roman  villa 


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of  the  duke  of  Devonshire,  built  by  the  celebrated 
Inigo  Jones.  The  ascent  to  the  house  is  by  a 
noble  double  flight  of  steps,  on  one  side  of  which 
is  a  statue  of  Palladio,  and  on  the  other  that  of 
Inigo  Jones.  The  portico  is  supported  by  six 
fluted  Corinthian  pillars,  with  a  pediment ;  and 
a  dome  at  the  top  enlightens  a  beautiful  octa- 
gonal saloon.  Two  wings  have  been  added  to 
the  house  from  the  designs  of  Mr.  Wyatt,  and 
fully  remove  the  objection  made  by  lord  Hervey, 
who  said,  '  This  house  was  too  small  to  live  in, 
and  too  large  to  hang  to  one's  watch.'  The 
gardens  are  laid  out  in  the  Italian  style,  and 
display  all  the  beauties  of  modern  planting.  The 
'church  is  a  very  old  building;  on  the  wall  of 
the  church-yard  is  the  following  curious  in- 
scription :  'This  wall  was  made  at  ye  charges  of 
ye  right  honourable  and  trulie  pious  Lorde 
Francis  Russel,  duke  of  Bedford,  out  of  true  zeal 
and  care  for  ye  keeping  of  this  church-yard,  and 
ye  wardrobe  of  God's  saints,  whose  bodies  lay 
therein  buried,  from  violating  by  swine  and  other 
profanation,  so  witnesseth  William  Walker,  V. 
A.  D.  1623.'  In  this  cemetery  is  the  tomb  of 
Hogarth,  bearing  the  following  epitaph,  by 
Garrick : — 

'  Farewell,  great  painter  of  mankind, 

Who  reach 'd  the  noblest  point  of  art ; 

Whose  pictured  morals  charm  the  mind, 

And  through  the  eye  correct  the  heart ! 

If  genius  fire  thee,  reader,  stay  j 

If  nature  move  thee,  drop  a  tear ; 

If  neither  touch  thee,  turn  away  : 

For  Hogarth's  honour'd  dust  lies  here.' 

It  is  four  miles  and  a  half  west  of  London,  and 
had  the  mingled  cares  and  honors  of  giving  birth 
to  the  present  work/ 

CHIT,  v.  n.  &  n.  s.     3        According  to  Dr. 

CHI'TTY,  adj.  $  Hickes,     from      kind, 

Germ,  child ,  perhaps  from  Span,  chico,  little. 

A  child ;  a  baby.  Generally  used  of  young 
persons  in  contempt.  Chitty  is  babyish,  like  a 
baby. 

These  will  appear  such  chits  in  story, 
'Twill  turn  all  politicks  to  jest.  Dryden. 

The  shoot  of  corn  from  the  end  of  the  grain. 
A  cant  term  with  malsters. 

Barley,  couched  four  days,  will  begin  to  show  the 
chit  or  sprit  at  the  root-end.  Mortimer's  Husbandry 

A  freckle ;  from  chick-peas.  In  this  sense  it 
is  seldom  used.  The  verb  is  used  only  in  the 
sense  of  sprouting  and  shooting  at  the  end  of  the 
grain.  It  is  not  legitimate. 

I  have  known  barley  chit  in  seven  hours  after  it  had 
been  thrown  forth.  Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

CHITCHAT,  n.  s.  Corrupted  by  reduplica- 
tion from  chat,  says  Johnson ;  but  it  is  probably 
from  chit  and  chat,  the  talk  of  a  chit,  of  a  baby. 
Prattle;  idle  prate;  idle  talk.  A  word  only 
used  in  ludicrous  conversation. 

I  am  a  member  of  a  female  society,  who  call  our- 
selves the  chitchat  club.  Spectator. 

CHITON,  from  xlrov,  a  coat  of  mail,  in 
zoology,  a  genus  of  the  order  of  vermes  testacece. 
The  shell  is  plated,  and  consists  of  many  valves, 
lying  upon  each  other  transversely :  the  inhabitant 
is  a  species  cf  doris.  They  are  common  on  the 


shores   of  Scarborough,  Aberdeen,   and   Loch- 
broom. 

CHITORE,  or  CHETORE,  a  town  and  district 
of  the  province  of  Ajimere,  Hiudostan,  subject  to 
the  ancient  family  of  the  ranah  of  Odeypore.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Mewar,  on  the  east 
by  Harrowly,  on  the  south  by  Jalore,  and  on  the 
west  by  Sarowy,  and  situated  about  the  twenty- 
fifth  degree  of  northern  latitude,  and  between  the 
seventy-fourth  and  seventy-fifth  degrees  of  eastern 
longitude.  The  capital  is  a  place  of  great  na- 
tural strength.  The  Mahommedans  possessed 
themselves  of  it  in  1303,  during  the  reign  of  Alia 
aud  Deen,  the  scourge  of  the  Hindoos.  In  1567 
it  was  taken  by  the  sultan  Acber,  and  once  more 
subdued  and  plundered  by  Azim  Ushaun,  son  of 
Aurengzebe,  in  1680.  It  was  taken  in  1790  by 
Madajee  Sindia,  from  Bheem  Singh,  a  rebellious 
subject  of  the  Odeypore  rajahs,  to  whom  it  was 
restored;  and  the  family  now  nominally  hold  it, 
but  with  little  real  power. 

CHITPORE,  the  name  of  two  towns  of  Hin- 
dostan,  in  the  province  of  Gujerat :  one  belonging 
to  an  independent  chief,  and  situated  among 
mountains,  in  long.  70°  47'  E.,  lat.  21°  20'  N. ; 
the  other  a  large  and  flourishing  place,  belonging 
to  the  Mahrattas,  and  celebrated  for  its  .manu- 
facture of  very  superior  chintzes.  It  stands  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Sursutty  river,  in  lat. 
23°  45'  N.,  long.  73°  3'  E. 

CHITRO,  a  town  of  European  Turkey,  seated 
on  the  bay  of  Salonichi,  in  Macedonia,  where 
the  mother,  wife,  and  son  of  Alexander  the 
Great  were  murdered  by  Cassander.  Near  this 
town  Perseus,  the  last  king  of  Macedon,  was 
defeated  by  the  Romans.  Long.  22°  35'  E.,  lat. 
40°  20'  N. 

CHITTAGONG,  a  large  district  in  the  south- 
east exremity  of  Bengal.  The  inhabitants  may 
be  comprised  under  two  classes ;  the  Choomeas, 
and  the  Rookies  or  Lunctas ;  the  former  are  a 
civilised  people,  under  a  rajah,  who  pays  an 
annual  tribute  to  government;  but  the  others 
are  a  wild,  uncultivated  race,  of  a  dark  com- 
plexion, and  low  stature,  having  broad  faces, 
flat  noses,  and  small  eyes,  like  the  Tartars,  or 
Chinese.  Their  only  occupations  are  hunting 
and  war,  in  which,  they  prefer  surprise  to  open 
combat,  marching  in  the  night,  and  concealing 
themselves  all  day,  so  that  some  have  entertained 
the  idea,  that  they  always  lived  in  trees.  When 
they  succeed  in  taking  any  of  their  enemies 
villages,  they  put  to  death  the  males,  and  carry 
away  the  women  and  children  for  slaves.  They  are 
so  revengeful,  and  so  invariably  require  blood 
for  blood,  that  if  even  a  tiger  kills  one  of  them 
the  whole  tribe  is  in  arms,  and  they  never  rest 
till  they  have  slain  him  and  roasted  and  eaten 
his  flesh.  The  flesh  of  the  elephant  they  consider 
a  great  dainty.  The  men  are  generally  naked ; 
the  women  have  a  petticoat  of  their  own  manu- 
facture round  their  loins,  reaching  to  the  middle 
of  the  thigh ;  but  both  sexes  occasionally  use  a 
large  sheet  to  protect  them  from  the  cold.  Their 
usual  arms  are  bows  and  arrows,  spears,  clubs,  and 
a  sort  of  sword,  which  serves  also  for  a  hatchet ; 
and  they  have  shields  made  of  the  skin  of  the 
gyals,  a  kind  of  wild  bull,  but  they  have  a  great 
dread  of  fire-arms.  Their  houses  are  built  on 


CHI 


639 


CHI 


the  tops  of  high  hills,  upon  platforms  of  bamboo 
or  timber,  six  feet  or  more  from  the  ground,  and 
are  entered  by  ladders,  or  by  a  stick,  with 
notches  cut  in  it  to  receive  the  naked  foot,  and 
their  goats  and  poultry  lie  underneath.  They 
dig  their  ground,  and  plant  their  seed  with  a 
sharp  stick.  The  productions  of  their  country 
are  rice,  in  great  variety,  Indian  corn,  a  number 
of  esculent  roots,  and  a  little  tobacco.  Salt 
they  obtain  from  the  Choomeas,  in  exchange  for 
ivory,  wax,  and  honey.  Their  domestic  animals 
consist  of  gyals,  goats,  hogs,  dogs,  and  fowls ; 
like  the  Birmans,  they  have  no  sheep.  The 
gyal  is  like  the  buffalo  in  shape,  but  much  less 
in  size,  and  its  color  is  brown.  The  Rookies 
have  but  one  wife,  but  concubinage  prevails  to 
a  great  extent ;  their  marriages  are  attended  with 
feasting  and  drinking  an  intoxicating  liquor 
distilled  from  rice,  by  means  of  two  earthen 
pots  and  a  bamboo.  The  bodies  of  persons 
dying  are  laid  on  a  stage,  and  guarded  till  a 
certain  day  in  the  year,  when  they  are  taken 
down  and  burned  on  one  funeral  pile.  They 
have  some  rude  ideas  of  God,  and  of  a  future 
state  of  rewards  and  punishments,  and  worship 
an  image  of  their  mediator,  called  Sheem  Sauk, 
(probably  Boodh,  who  is  sometimes  called 
Sauki),  before  which  they  place  the  heads  of  the 
slain,  when  they  return  from  battle.  They  have 
no  priests,  but  the  master  of  every  family  in- 
structs his  children  in  his  own  way.  Their  lan- 
guage is  similar  to  the  Mugg  or  Arracan,  and 
tribes  of  them  are  found  in  Ava  and  Cassay. 
See  BENGAL,  vol.  iv.  p.  24. 

CHITTENDEN,  a  county  in  the  state  of  Ver- 
mont, bounded  on  the  north  by  Canada,  on  the 
south  by  Addison  county,  on  the  east  by  Orange, 
and  on  the  west  by  Lake  Champlain,  which  sepa- 
rates it  from  New  York.  It  is  fifty-nine  miles 
long  and  fifty-seven  broad.  On  Lake  Champlain 
it  is  fertile,  but  in  the  east  it  is  mountainous*  It 
is  divided  into  forty-four  townships,  and  watered 
by  the  Lamoille,  Michiscoui,  and  Onion  rivers. 
Burlington  is  the  chief  town. 

CH1TTIM,  in  ancient  geography,  according 
to  Le  Clerc,  Calmet,  and  others,  was  the  same 
with  Macedonia,  peopled  by  Kittim,  the  son  of 
Javan,  the  grandson  of  Noah.  See  KITTIM. 

CHITTLEDROOG,  a  town  and  fortress  in 
Hindostan,  the  chief  place  of  a  district  belonging 
to  the  rajah  of  Mysore.  It  is  built  upon  a  rock, 
and  so  surrounded  with  fortifications,  that  it  is 
thought  by  the  natives  to  be  impregnable.  In 
1776  Hyder  Ali  besieged  it,  but  without  success, 
until  three  years  afterwards,  when  he  took  it  by 
treachery,  having  bribed  those  of  the  garrison 
that  were  Mahommedans  to  deliver  it  up.  At 
Tippoo's  death  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British, 
who  gave  it  to  the  above  mentioned  rajah.  The 
plain  in  its  vicinity  consists  of  a  black  soil,  and 
is  about  ten  miles  in  extent.  Deep  wells  must 
be  dug  to  get  water,  which  is  of  a  bad  quality ; 
it  therefore  produces  little  rice.  The  whole  sur- 
rounding country  is  unhealthy,  as  is  the  case,  the 
natives  say,  wherever  the  black  soil  prevails.  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  last  Mysore  war  Chittle- 
droog  was  almost  depopulated.  Its  latitude  is 
about  14°  N.,  and  longitude  76°  30'  E.,  being 
about  115  miles  north-west  of  Seriugapatam. 


CHITTOR,  a  town  and  fortress,  tne  residence 
of  a  British  judge  and  collector,  in  the  south  of 
India,  eighty  miles  east  of  Madras.  It  was  the 
capital  of  Tahir  Khan's  dominions,  and  well 
fortified,  but  taken  in  the  year  1780  by  Hyder 
Ali,  and  retaken  the  following  year  by  Sir  Eyre 
Coote.  The  garrison  has  long  been  withdrawn, 
and  the  place  is  not  now  considered  strong. 
CHI'VALRY,  n.  s.  )  Fr.  chevalerie;  Ital. 
CHI'VALROUS,  adj.  $  cavalleria,  hom-cheval,  a 
horse,  as  eques  in  Latin.  Knighthood ;  exploit ; 
adventure;  a  military  dignity;  warlike;  ad- 
venturous; daring;  noble;  qualities  arising 
out  of  courage  and  danger  ;  magnanimity  and 
temptation.  Generosity,  honor,  gallantry,  con- 
tempt of  death ;  devotion  to  chaste  love  and 
honorable  arms.  This  is  the  poetry  of  the 
thing.  Its  reality  does  not  read  so  well  in  his- 
tory. As  a  term  in  law,  it  is  thus  explained  by 
Cowell : — '  Servitium  militare,  of  the  French 
chevalier ;  a  tenure  of  land  by  knight's  service. 
There  is  no  land  but  is  holden  mediately  or  im- 
mediately of  the  crown,  by  some  service  or 
other ;  and  therefore  are  all  our  freeholds,  that 
are  to  us  and  our  heirs,  called  feuda,  fees,  as 
proceeding  from  the  benefit  of  the  king.  As  the 
king  gave  to  the  nobles  large  possessions  for  this 
or  that  rent  and  service,  so  they  parcelled  out 
their  lands,  so  received  for  rents  and  services,  as 
they  thought  good ;  and  those  services  are  by 
Littleton  divided  into  chivalry  and  soccage.  The 
one  is  martial  and  military ;  the  other  clownish 
and  rustic.  Chivalry,  therefore,  is  a  tenure  of 
service,  whereby  the  tenant  is  bound  to  perform 
some  noble  or  military  office  unto  his  lord ;  and 
is  of  two  sorts ;  either  regal,  that  is,  such  as  may 
hold  only  of  the  king,  or  such  as  may  also  hold 
of  a  common  person  as  well  as  of  the  king.  That 
which  may  hold  only  of  the  king,  is  properly 
called  sergeantry;  and  is  again  divided  into 
grand  or  petit,  i.  e.  great  or  small.  Chivalry 
that  may  hold  of  a  common  person,  as  well  as  of 
the  king,  is  called  scutagium.' 

This  knight  was  comen,  al  newly 
Fro  tourneying  there  faste  by, 
Where  he  had  done  grete  chivalry 
Through  his  vcrtue  and  his  maistrie  ; 
And  for  the  love  of  his  lemman 
He  coste  down  many  a  doughty  man. 

Chaucer's  Romaunt  of  the  Rote. 
Tarquinius  !  that  art  a  kinges  hey  re, 
And  shouldest,  as  by  linage  and  by  right, 
Done  as  a  lorde  and  as  a  very  knight ; 
Why  hast  thou  done  despite  to  chivalry  ? 
Why  hast  thou  done  thy  lady  vilanie  ? 
Alas  of  thce  this  was  a  vilianous  dede. 

Id.  Legende.  Lucrece. 
O  goodly  golden  chayne,  wherewith  yfure 
The  vertues  linked  are  in  lovely  wize  ; 
And  noble  mindes  of  yore  allyed  were 
In  brave  poursuit  of  chevalrous  emprize.        Speiuer. 

The  roiall  virgin  which  beheld  from  farre, 
In  pensive  plight  and  sad  perplexitie, 
The  whole  achievement  of  this  doubtful  warre. 
Came  running  fast  to  greet  his  victorie 
With  sober  gladnesse  and  myld  modestie  ; 
And,  with  sweet  Joyous  cheare,  him  thus  bespake  : 
Fayre  braunch  of  noblesse,  flower  of  chevalrie! 
That  with  your  worth  the  world  amazed  make, 
How  shall  I  quite  the  paynes  ye  suil'er  for  my  sake'. 

Id. 


640 


CHIVALRY. 


Thou  hast  slain 
The  flower  of  Europe  for  his  chivalry. 

Shakspeure. 

I  may  speak  it  to  my  shame, 
I  have  a  truant  been  to  chivalry.  Id. 

A  wight  he  was,  whose  v»ry  sight  would 
Intitle  him  mirrour  of  knighthood  ; 
That  never  bowed  his  stubborn  knee 
To  any  thing  but  chivalry.  Butler. 

Solemnly  he  swore, 

That,  by  the  faith  which  knights  to  knighthood  bore, 
And  whate'erelse  to  chivalry  belongs, 
He  would  not  cease  till  he  revenged  their  wrongs. 

Dry  den, 

Behold  the  hall  where  chiefs  were  late  convened  ! 
Oh  !  dome  displeasing  unto  British  eye  ! 
With  diadem  hight  foolscap,  lo!  a  fiend 
A  little  fiend  that  scoffs  incessantly, 
There  sits  in  parchment  robe  arrayed,  and  by 
His  side  is  hung  a  seal  and  sable  scroll, 
Where  blazoned  glare  names  known  to  cMralry, 
And  sundry  signatures  adorn  the  roll, 
Whereat  the  urchin  points,   and  laughs  with   all  his 
soul.  Byron. 

CHIVALRY,  Fr.  chevalier, is  a  term  not  merely 
synonymous  with  the  modern  word  cavalry,  and 
expressive  of  it,  as  our  best  poets  have  used 
it  to  signify  a  body  of  horse  soldiers ;  but  is 
descriptive  of  a  peculiar  class  of  persons  and 
customs  of  the  middle  ages,  that  form  a  connect- 
ing link  between  the  ancient  and  modern  modes 
of  warfare,  as  well  as  between  the  manners  of  the 
upper  chisses,  and  indeed  the  whole  frame-work 
of  polished  society  in  former  and  present  times. 

The  use  of  the  horse  in  military  expeditions 
formed  an  obvious  and  important  ground  of  dis- 
tinction between  soldiers,  at  an  early  period.  To 
procure  and  maintain  that  noble  animal;  to 
equip  and  to  manage  him,  have  been  important 
military  objects  from  the  earliest  wars  of  the 
Asiatic  monarchies.  In  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome  the  horse  (tiriroSopoc  Eicroc,  and  equites), 
always  therefore  was  held  in  a  superior  degree 
of  estimation  to  the  foot  soldier;  and  the  equites 
was  for  a  long  time  the  only  regular  body  of 
cavalry,  who  occupied  a  sort  of  middle  rank,  we 
know,  at  Rome,  between  the  senators  and  the 
plebeians.  We  find  traces  of  this  distinction 
even  amongst  the  most  barbarous  tribes.  To  use 
weapons  on  horseback  was  the  most  important 
application  of  muscular  strength,  and  manly 
vigor :  and  very  singularly,  according  to  Taci- 
tus, was  this  superiority  connected  among  the 
ancient  Germans  with  a  peculiar  degree  of  res- 
pect for  women,  and  enthusiastic  devotion  to  the 
service  of  the  unmarried  fair.  Thus,  in  his  De 
Moribus  Germanorum,  may  be  traced  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  most  refined  chivalry  of  the  middle 
ages.  The  women  of  these  tribes,  long  before 
their  incorporation  into  the  empire,  and  contrary 
to  what  we  find  among  most  other  rude  nations, 
were  always  treated  with  a  high  degree  of  vene- 
ration. They  did  not  vie  with  the  men  in  deeds 
of  valor,  but  they  animated  them  to  the  com- 
bat ;  and  virgins  especially  were  considered  as 
endowed  with  prophetic  powers,  capable  of  fore- 
seeing future  events,  and  of  influencing  the  will 
of  their  deities.  Hence,  though  domestic  duties 
were  their  peculiar  province,  yet  they  were  never 
harshly  treated,  nor  degraded  to  anything  like 


the  slavery  of  the  east  There  appears  indeed  a 
striking  analogy  between  their  condition  and  that 
of  the  Spartan  women,  except  that  the  treatment 
of  the  former  was  perhaps  the  most  honorable. 
When  those  nations  sallied  forth  from  their 
deserts  and  forests,  finally  to  overwhelm  their 
conquerors,  the  change  which  took  place  in  their 
manners  was  not  more  remarkable  than  advan- 
tageous. The  great  outline  might  still  remain  , 
the  leading  features  of  the  barbarian  character 
were  not  soon  effaced,  but  they  were  speedily 
modified  by  their  mixing  among  a  more  polished 
people,  becoming  acquainted  with  the  luxuries 
of  life,  and  acquiring  extensive  power  and  pro- 
perty. They  aspired  after  more  refined  pleasures, 
and  more  splendid  amusements,  than  had  before 
satisfied  them  :  the  equestrian  was  distinguished 
by  peculiar  honors:  and  eveiy  leading  warrior 
became  more  cultivated  and  more  humane.  The 
influence  of  Christianity  too,  which,  though 
grossly  corrupted,  was  still  favorable  to  the 
social  happiness  of  mankind,  concurred  to 
polish  their  manners,  and  exalt  their  character. 
Hence,  in  the  close  of  the  tenth,  and  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eleventh  century,  we  find  the 
dignity  of  knighthood  an  object  of  general  am- 
bition ;  and  its  chief  characteristics  from  the 
first  were  a  romantic  gallantry,  piety,  and  hu- 
manity. At  the  court  of  every  prince,  count,  or 
baron,  jousts  and  tournaments  became  the  favor- 
ite amusement :  and  skill  in  arms,  devotion  to 
the  fair  sex,  and  generous  courtesy,  were  at  once 
cultivated.  About  this  period  began  the  cru- 
sades; and  these,  to  which  alone  some  have 
referred  the  origin  of  chivalry,  though  they  could 
not  give  rise  to  what  was  already  in  existence, 
yet  moulded  the  form,  and  directed  the  spirit  of 
the  institution  in  such  a  manner  as  to  raise  it  by 
a  rapid  progress  from  infancy,  as  it  were,  to  full 
vigor  and  maturity.  Its  character,  thus  fully 
formed,  is  well  described  by  Gibbon  : — Between 
the  age  of  Charlemagne  and  that  of  the  crusades, 
a  revolution  had  taken  place  among  the  Spaniards, 
the  Normans,  and  the  French,  which  was  gradu- 
ally extended  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  ser- 
vice of  the  infantry  was  degraded  to  the  plebeians; 
the  cavalry  formed  the  strength  of  the  armies, 
and  the  honorable  name  of  miles,  or  soldier,  was 
confined  to  the  gentlemen  who  served  on  horse- 
back, and  were  invested  with  the  character  of 
knighthood.  The  dukes  and  counts,  who  had 
usurped  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  divided  the 
provinces  among  their  faithful  barons :  the 
barons  distributed  among  their  vassals,  the  fiefs, 
or  benefices  of  their  jurisdiction ;  and  these  mili- 
tary tenants,  the  peers  of  each  other  and  of  their 
lord,  composed  the  noble,  or  equestrian  order, 
which  disdained  to  conceive  the  peasant  or 
burgher  as  of  the  same  species  with  themselves. 
The  dignity  of  their  birth  was  preserved  by  pure 
and  equal  alliances ;  their  sons  alone,  who  could 
produce  four  quarters  or  lines  of  ancestry,  with- 
out spot  or  reproach,  might  legally  pretend  to 
the  honor  of  knighthood  ;  but  a  valiant  plebeian 
was  sometimes  enriched  and  ennobled  by  the 
sword,  and  became  the  father  of  a  new  race.  A 
single  knight  could  impart,  according  to  ms 
judgment,  the  character  which  he  received;  and 
the  warlike  sovereigns  of  Europe  derived  more 


CHIVALRY. 


641 


glory  from  this  personal  distinction  than  from 
the  lustre  of  their  diadem.  This  ceremony  was 
in  its  origin  simple  and  profane;  the  candidate, 
after  some  previous  trial,  was  invested  with  his 
sword  and  spurs;  and  his  cheek  or  shoulder 
was  touched  with  a  slight  blow,  as  an  emblem 
of  the  last  affront  which  it  was  lawful  for  him  to 
endure.  But  superstition  mingled  in  every  pub- 
lic and  private  action  of  life  ;  in  the  holy  wars, 
it  sanctified  the  profession  of  arms,  and  the 
order  of  chivalry  was  assimilated  in  its  rights 
and  privileges  to  the  sacred  orders  of  priesthood. 
The  bath  and  white  ^nrment  of  the  novice,  were 
an  indecent  copy  of  tha  regeneration  of  baptism; 
his  sword,  which,  he  offered  on  the  altar,  was 
blessed  by  the  ministers  of  religion  ;  his  solemn 
reception  was  preceded  by  fasts  and  vigils ;  and 
he  was  created  a  knight  in  the  name  of  God,  of 
St.  George,  and  of  St.  ^Michael  the  archangel. 
He  swore  to  accomplish  the  duties  of  his  pro- 
fession :  and  education,  example,  and  the  public 
opinion,  were  the  inviolable  guardians  of  his 
oath.  As  the  .champion  of  God  and  the  ladies, 
he  devoted  himself  to  speak  the  truth  ;  to  main- 
tain the  right ;  to  protect  the  distressed ;  to 
practise  courtesy,  a  virtue  less  familiar  to  the 
ancients;  to  pursue  the  infidels;  to  despise  the 
allurements  of  ease  and  safety;  and  to  vindicate 
in  every  perilous  adventure  the  honor  of  his  cha- 
racter. The  abuse  of  the  same  spirit  provoked 
the  illiterate  knight  to  disdain  the  arts  of  industry 
and  peace ;  to  esteem  himself  the  sole  judge  and 
avenger  of  his  own  injuries ;  and  proudly  to 
neglect  the  laws  of  civil  society  and  military  dis- 
cipline. Yet  the  benefits  of  this  institution,  to 
refine  the  temper  of  barbarians,  and  to  infuse 
some  principles  of  faith,  justice,  and  humanity, 
were  strongly  felt,  and  have  been  often  observed. 
The  asperity  of  national  prejudice  was  softened ; 
and  the  community  of  religion  and  arms  spread 
a  similar  color  and  generous  emulation  over  the 
face  of  Christendom.  Abroad,  in  enterprise  and 
pilgrimage ;  at  home,  in  martial  exercise,  the 
warriors  of  every  country  were  perpetually  asso- 
ciated ;  and  impartial  taste  must  prefer  a  Gothic 
tournament  to  the  Olympic  games  of  classic 
antiquity.  Instead  of  the  naked  spectacles  which 
corrupted  the  manners  of  the  Greeks,  and 
banished  from  the  stadium  the  virgins  and  ma- 
trons, the  pompous  decoration  of  the  lists  was 
crowned  with  the  presence  of  chaste  and  high- 
born beauty,  from  whose  hands  the  conqueror 
received  the  prize  of  his  dexterity  and  courage. 
The  skill  and  strength  that  were  exerted  in 
•wrestling  and  boxing,  bear  a  distant  and  doubt- 
ful relation  to  the  merit  of  a  soldier,  but  the 
tournaments,  as  they  were  invented  in  France, 
and  eagerly  adopted  both  in  the  east  and  west, 
presented  a  lively  image  of  the  business  of  the 
field.  The  single  combats,  the  general  skirmish, 
the  defence  of  a  pass  or  castle,  were  rehearsed 
as  in  actual  service;  and  the  contest,  both  in  real 
and  mimic  war,  was  decided  by  the  superior 
management  of  the  horse  and  lanre.  The  lauo" 
was  the  proper  and  peculiar  weapon  of  the 
knight :  his  horse  was  of  large  and  heavy  breed' 
but  this  charger,  till  he  was  roused  by  the  ap- 
proaching danger,  was  usually  led  by  an  attend- 
ant, and  he  quietly  rode  a  pad  o^  palfrey,  of  a 
VOL  V. 


more  easy  pace.  His  helmet  and  sword,  his 
greaves  and  buckler,  it  would  be  superfluous  to 
describe ;  but  I  may  remark,  that,  at  the  period 
of  the  crusades,  the  armor  was  less  ponderous 
than  in  later  times;  and  that,  instead  of  a  massy 
cuirass,  his  breast  was  defended  by  an  hauberk, 
or  coat  of  mail.  When  their  long  lances  were 
fixed  in  the  rest,  the  warriors  furiously  spurred 
their  horses  against  the  foe ;  and  the  light  cavalry 
of  the  Turks  and  Arabs  could  seldom  stand 
against  the  direct  and  impetuous  weight  of  their 
charge.  Each  knight  was  attended  to  the  field 
by  his  faithful  squire,  a  youth  of  equal  birth  and 
similar  hopes ;  he  was  followed  by  hrs  archers 
and  men  at  arms;  and  four,  five,  or  six  soldiers 
were  computed  as  the  furniture  of  a  complete 
lance.  In  the  expeditions  to  the  neighbouring 
kingdoms,  or  the  Holy  Land,  the  duties  of  the 
feudal  tenure  no  longer  subsisted ;  the  voluntary 
service  of  the  knights  and  their  followers  was 
either  prompted  by  zeal  or  attachment,  or  pur- 
chased with  rewards  and  promises;  and  the 
numbers  of  each  Squadron  were  measured  by  the 
power,  the  \vealth,  and  the  fame  of  each  inde- 
pendent chieftain.  They  were  distinguished  by 
his  banner,  his  armorial  coat,  and  his  cry  of  war; 
and  the  most  ancient  families  of  Europe  must 
seek  in  these  achievements  the  origin  and  proof 
of  their  nobility. 

Dr.  Robertson  eulogises  the  spirit  of  chivalry 
in  a  similar  manner,  and  traces  it  to  a  later 
period.  It  arose,  he  says,  naturally  from  the 
state  of  society  at  that  period,  and  had  a  very 
serious  influence  in  refining  the  manners  of  the 
European  nations.  The  feudal  state  was  a  state 
of  almost  perpetual  war,  rapine  and  anarchy ; 
during  which  the  weak  and  unarmed  were  ex- 
posed to  insults  or  injuries.  The  power  of  the 
sovereign  was  too  limited  to  prevent  these  wrongs, 
and  the  administration  of  justice  too  feeble  to 
redress  them.  The  most  effectual  protection 
against  violence  and  oppression  was  often  found 
to  be  that  which  the  valor  and  generosity  of 
private  persons  afforded.  The  same  spirit  of 
enterprise  which  had  prompted  so  many  gentle- 
men to  take  arms  in  defence  of  the  oppressed 
pilgrims  in  Palestine,  incited  others  to  declare 
themselves  the  patrons  and  avengers  of  injured 
innocence  at  home.  When  the  final  reduction 
of  the  holy  land  under  the  dominion  of  infidels 
put  an  end  to  these  foreign  expeditions,  the  latter 
was  the  only  employment  left  for  the  activity  and 
courage  of  adventurers.  To  check  the  insolence 
of  overgrown  oppressors ;  to  rescue  the  helpless 
from  captivity  ;  to  protect  or  to  avenge  women, 
protect  orphans,  and  ecclesiastics,  who  could 
not  bear  arms  in  their  own  defence ;  to  redress 
wrongs  and  to  remove  grievances,  were  deemed 
acts  of  the  highest  prowess  and  merit.  Valor, 
humanity,  courtesy,  justice,  honor,  were  the 
characteristic  qualities  of  chivalry.  To  these 
were  added  religion,  which  mingled  itself  with 
every  passion  and  institution  during  the  middl« 
ages,  and,  by  infusing  a  large  proportion  of  en- 
thusiastic zeal,  gave  them  such  force  as  carried 
them  to  romantic  excess.  Men  were  trained  to 
knighthood  by  a  long  previous  discipline  ;  they 
were  admitted  into  the  order  by  solemnities  n*> 
less  devout  than  pompous ;  every  person  of  noble 

2  T 


G42 


CHIVALRY. 


birth  courted  tha*  honor ;  it  was  deemed  a  dis- 
tinction superior  to  royalty ;  and  monarchs  were 
proud  to  receive  it  from  the  hands  of  private 
gentlemen. 

This  singular  institution,  in  which  valor,  gal- 
lantry, and  religion  were  so  strangely  blended, 
was  wonderfully  adapted  to  the  taste  and  genius 
of  martial  nobles;  and  its  effects  were  soon 
visible  in  their  manners.  War  was  carried  on 
with  less  ferocity,  when  humanity  came  to  be 
deemed  the  ornament  of  knighthood  no  lesstthan 
courage.  More  gentle  and  polished  manners  were 
introduced,  when  courtesy  was  recommended  as 
the  most  amiable  of  knightly  virtues.  Violence 
and  oppression  decreased,  when  it  was  reckoned 
meritorious  to  check  and.  to  punish  them.  A 
scrupulous  adherence  to  truth,  with  the  most 
religious  attention  to  fulfil  every  engagement, 
became  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  a  gen- 
tleman, because  chivalry  was  regarded  as  the 
school  of  honor,  and  inculcated  the  most  delicate 
sensibility  with  respect  to  those  points.  The 
admiration  of  these  qualities,  together  with  the 
high  distinction  and  prerogatives  conferred  on 
knighthood  in  every  part  of  Europe,  inspired 
persons  of  noble  birth  on  some  occasions  with  a 
species  of  military  fanaticism,  and  led  them  to 
extravagant  enterprises.  But  they  deeply  im- 
printed on  their  minds  the  principles  of  generosity 
and  honor.  These  were  strengthened  by  every 
thing  that  can  affect  the  senses  or  touch  the  heart. 
The  wild  exploits  of  these  romantic  knights  who 
sallied  forth  in  quest  of  adventures  are  well 
known,  and  have  been  treated  with  proper  ridi- 
cule. The  political  and  permanent  effects  of 
the  spirit  of  chivalry  have  been  less  observed. 
Perhaps  the  humanity  which  accompanies  all  the 
operations  of  war,  the  refinements  of  gallantry, 
and  the  point  of  honor,  the  three  chief  circum- 
stances which  distinguish  modern  from  ancient 
manners,  may  be  ascribed  in  a  great  measure  to 
this  institution,  which  has  appeared  whimsical 
to  superficial  observers,  but  by  its  effects  has 
proved  of  great  benefit  to  mankind.  The  senti- 
ments wh:ch  chivalry  inspired  had  a  wonderful 
influence  on  manners  and  conduct,  during  the 
twelfth,  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies. They  were  so  deeply  rooted,  that  they 
continued  to  operate  after  the  vigor  and  reputa- 
tion of  the  institution  itself  began  to  decline. 

Among  our  Anglo-Saxon  ancestors  there  is  little 
evidence  of  the  refined  chivalry  of  later  periods  : 
but  in  its  less  polished  form  of  military  investiture, 
conferred  with  religious  ceremonies,  it  certainly 
subsisted.  Ingulf,  the  secretary  of  William  the 
conqueror  thus  relates  an  adventure  in  the  life 
of  liereward,  an  Anglo-Saxon  warrior  of  Edward 
the  confessor's  reign.  Considering,  says  he,  that 
be  was  at  the  head  of  very  brave  men,  and  com- 
manded some  milites,  and  had  not  yet  been 
legally  bound  with  the  bell,  according  to  the 
military  custom,  he  took  with  him  a  very  few 
tyros  of  his  cohort,  to  be  legitimately  consociated 
with  himself  to  warfare,  and  went  to  his  uncle, 
the  abbot  of  Peterborough,  named  Brand,  a  very 
religious  man  (as  I  have  heard  from  my  pre- 
decessor, my  lord  Ulketul,  abbot,  and  many 
others),  much  given  to  charity,  and  adorned  with 
all  the  virtues ;  and  having  first  of  all  made  a 


confession  of  his  sins,  and  received  absolution, 
he  very  urgently  prayed  that  he  might  be  made 
a  legitimate  miles.  For  it  was  the  custom  of 
the  English,  that  every  one  that  was  to  be  con- 
secrated to  the  legitimate  militia,  should,  on  the 
evening  preceding  the  day  of  his  consecration, 
with  contrition  and  compunction,  make  a  con- 
fession of  all  his  sins  to  a  bishop,  an  abbot,  a 
monk,  or  some  priest ;  and  devoted  wholly  to 
prayers,  devotions,  and  mortifications,  should 
pass  the  night  in  the  church;  in  the  next  morning 
should  hear  mass,  should  offer  his  sword  on  the 
altar,  and  after  the  gospel  had  been  read,  the 
priest  having  blessed  the  sword,  should  place  it 
on  the  neck  of  the  miles,  with  his  benediction. 
Having  communicated  at  the  same  mass  with 
the  sacred  mysteries,  he  would  afterwards  remain 
a  legitimate  miles.  This  custom,  of  consecrating 
a  miles,  the  Normans  regarded  as  abomination, 
and  did  not  hold  such  a  one  a  legitimate  miles, 
but  reckoned  him  a  slothful  equitem  and  de- 
generate quiritem. 

Sir  W alter  Scott,  in  one  of  the  most  elegant 
and  amusing  of  his  prose  productions,  furnishes 
us  with  some  striking  illustrations  of  the  enthu- 
siasm of  this  spirit.  '  Among  the  earliest  in- 
stances of  the  use  of  the  English  language  at 
the  court  of  the  Norman  monarchs,'  he  says,  'is 
the  distich  painted  in  the  shield  of  Edward  III. 
under  the  figure  of  a  white  swan,  being  the 
device  which  that  warlike  monarch  wore  at  a 
tournay,  at  Windsor. 

Ha  !  ha  !  the  white  swan, 
By  God  his  soul,  I  am  thy  man. 
'  The  choice  of  these  devices  was  a  very  serious 
matter ;   and   the   usurpation   of  such   as   any 
knight  had  previously  used  and  adopted,  was 
often  the  foundation  of  a   regular   quarrel,    of 
which  many  instances  occur  in  Froissart   and 
o'.her  writers. 

'  The  ladies,  bound  as  they  were  in  honor  to 
requite  the  passion  of  their  knights,  were  wont, 
on  such  occasions,  to  dignify  them  by  the  present 
of  a  scarf,  ribbon,  or  glove,  which  was  to  be 
worn  in  the  press  of  battle  and  tournament. 
These  marks  of  favor  they  displayed  on  their 
helmets,  and  they  were  accounted  the  best 
incentives  to  deeds  of  valor.  The  custom  ap- 
pears to  have  prevailed  in  France  to  a  late 
period,  though  polluted  with  the  grossness  so 
often  mixed  with  the  affected  refinement  and 
gallantry  of  that  nation.  In  the  attack  made  by 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham  upon  the  Isle  of  Rhe, 
favors  were  found  on  the  persons  of  many  of 
the  French  soldiers  who  fell  at  the  skirmish  on 
the  landing. 

'  Sometimes  the  ladies,  in  conferring  these 
tokens  of  their  favor,  clogged  them  with  the 
most  extravagant  and  severe  conditions.  But 
the  lover  had  this  advantage  in  such  cases,  that 
if  he  ventured  to  encounter  the  hazard  imposed, 
and  chanced  to  survive  it,  he  had,  according  to 
the  fashion  of  the  age,  the  right  of  exacting, 
from  the  lady,  favors  corresponding  in  import- 
ance. The  annals  of  chivalry  abound  with 
stories  of  cruel  and  cold  fair  ones  who  subjected 
their  lovers  to  extremes  of  danger,  in  hopes 
that  they  might  get  rid  of  their  addresses,  bu| 
were,  upon  their  unexpected  success,  c aught  in 


CHIVALRY. 


643 


their  own  snare,  and,  as  ladies  who  would  not 
have  their  name  made  the  theme  of  reproach  hy 
every  minstrel,  compelled  to  recompense  the 
deeds  which  their  champion  had  achieved  in 
their  name.  There  are  instances  in  which  the 
lover  used  his  right  of  reprisals  with  some 
rigor,  as  in  the  well  known  fabliau  of  the  three 
knights  and  the  shift;  in  which  a  lady  proposes 
to  her  three  lovers,  successively,  the  task  of 
entering-,  unarmed,  into  the  melee  of  a  tourna- 
ment arrayed  only  in  one  of  her  shifts.  The 
perilous  proposal  is  declined  by  two  of  the 
knights  and  accepted  by  the  third,  who  thrusts 
himself,  in  the  unprotected  state  required,  into 
all  the  hazards  of  the  tournament,  sustains  many 
wounds,  and  carries  off  the  prize  of  the  day. 
On  the  next  day  the  husband  of  the  lady  (for 
she  was  married)  was  to  give  a  superb  banquet 
to  the  knights  and  nobles  who  had  attended  the 
tournay.  The  wounded  victor  sends  the  shift 
back  to  its  owner,  with  his  request,  that  she 
would  wear  it  over  her  rich  dress  on  this  solemn 
occasion,  soiled  and  torn  as  it  was,  and  stained 
all  over  with  the  blood  of  its  late  wearer.  The 
lady  did  not  hesitate  to  comply,  declaring  that 
she  regarded  this  shift,  stained  with  the  blood  of 
her  '  fair  friend,  as  more  precious  than  if  it  were 
of  the  most  costly  materials.'  Jaques  de  Basin, 
the  minstrel,  who  relates  this  curious  tale,  is  at  a 
loss  to  say  whether  the  palm  of  true  love  should 
be  given  to  the  knight  or  to  the  lady  on  this 
remarkable  occasion.  The  husband,  he  assures 
us,  had  the  good  sense  to  seem  to  perceive 
nothing  uncommon  in  the  singular  vestment  with 
which  his  lady  was  attired,  and  the  rest  of  the 
good  company  highly  admired  her  courageous 
requital  of  the  knight's  gallantry. 

Sometimes  the  patience  of  the  lover  was 
exhausted  by  the  cold-hearted  vanity  which 
thrust  him  on  such  perilous  enterprises.  At  the 
court  of  one  of  the  German  Emperors,  while 
some  ladies  and  gallants  of  the  court  were 
looking  into  a  den  where  two  lions  were  con- 
fined, one  of  them  purposely  let  her  glove  fall 
within  the  palisade  which  enclosed  the  animals, 
and  commanded  her  lover,  as  a  true  knight,  to 
fetch  it  out  to  her.  He  did  not  hesitate  to  obey; 
jumped  over  the  enclosure ;  threw  his  mantle 
towards  the  animals  as  they  sprung  at  him; 
snatched  up  the  glove,  and  regained  the  outside 
of  the  palisade.  But  when  in  safety,  he  pro- 
claimed aloud,  that  what  he  had  achieved  was 
done  for  the  sake  of  his  own  reputation,  and  not 
for  that  of  a  false  lady,  who  could  for  her  sport 
and  cold-blooded  vanity  force  a  brave  man  on  a 
duel  so  desperate.  And,  with  the  applause  of 
all  present,  he  renounced  her  love  for  ever. 
This,  however,  was  an  uncommon  circumstance. 
In  general,  the  lady  was  supposed  to  have  her 
lover's  character  as  much  at  heart  as  hei  own, 
and  to  mean,  by  pushing  him  upon  enterprises 
of  hazard,  only  to  give  him  an  opportunity  of 
meriting  her  good  graces,  which  she  could  not 
with  honor  confer  upon  one  undistinguished  by 
deeds  of  chivalry.  An  affecting  instance  is 
given  by  Godscroft. 

At  the  time  when  the  Scotch  were  struggling 
to  recover  from  the  usurpation  of  Edward  I., 
the  castle  of  Douglas  was  repeatedly  garrisoned 


by  the  English,  and  these  garrisons  were  as 
frequently  surprised,  and  cut  to  pieces  by  the 
good  lord  James  of  Douglas,  who,  lying  in  the 
mountainous  wilds  of  Cairntable,  and  favored  by 
the  intelligence  which  he  maintained  among  his 
vassals,  took  opportunity  of  the  slightest  relaxa- 
tion of  vigilance  to  surprise  the  fortress.  At 
length,  a  fair  dame  of  England  announced  to 
the  numerous  suitors  who  sought  her  hand,  that 
she  would  confer  it  on  the  man  who  should  keep 
the  perilous  castle  of  Douglas  (so  it  was  called) 
for  a  year  and  a  day.  The  knight  who  under- 
took this  dangerous  task  at  her  request  discharged 
his  duty  like  a  careful  soldier  for  several  months, 
and  the  lady  relenting  at  the  prospect  of  his 
continued  absence,  sent  a  letter  to  recall  him, 
declaring  she  held  his  probation  as  accomplished. 
In  the  meantime,  however,  he  had  received  a 
defiance  from  Douglas,  threatening  him,  that,  let 
him  use  his  utmost  vigilance,  he  would  recover 
from  him  his  father's  castle  before  Palm-Sunday. 
The  English  knight  deemed  that  he  could  not  in 
honor  leave  the  castle  till  this  day  was  past ;  and 
on  the  very  eve  of  Palm-Sunday  was  surprised 
and  slain  with  the  lady's  letter  in  his  pocket. — 
Supplement  to  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica, 
article  CHIVALRY. 

The  joust  and  the  tournament,  while  exercises 
of  personal  strength  and  schools  of  military 
discipline,  were  also  amusements  of  the  pri- 
vileged orders  of  society.  Froissart  preserves 
a  singular  challenge  to  '  a  deed  of  arms,'  sent 
by  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  to  our  Henry  IV., 
in  which  he  says,  '  considering  idleness  to  be 
the  bane  of  lords  of  high  birth,  which  do  not 
employ  themselves  inarms,'  he  thought  he  could 
'  in  no  way  better  seek  renown,'  than  in  proposing 
to  meet  Henry  at  an  appointed  place,  with  on«< 
hundred  knights  and  esquires,  '  and  with  the 
usual  arms,'  that  is  to  say,  '  lance,  battle-axe, 
sword  and  dagger,  each  to  employ  them  as  he 
shall  think  most  to  his  advantage,  without  aiding 
himself  by  any  bodkins,  hooks,  bearded  darts, 
poisoned  needles,  or  razors,  as  may  be  done 
(this  is  a  singular  admission)  by  persons  unless 
they  be  positively  ordered  to  the  contrary. 
Several  of  the  varieties  that  are  found  in 'ancient 
helmets,  in  the  structure  of  the  lance,  &c.  owe 
their  origin  to  their  being  used  in  the  amusements 
of  the  tilt  or  tournament  field,  as  distinguisha- 
ble from  those  designed  for  serious  combat  in  war. 

Chivalry,  in  its  most  polished  forms,  appears 
to  have  been  first  exhibited  in  this  country  in 
the  reign  of  William  II.,  and  to  have  flourished 
in  its  maturity  under  the  auspices  of  Edward  the 
Black  Prince. 

But  these  occupations  for  '  idleness,'  being 
confined  by  the  rules  of  chivalry  to  the  great, 
burgesses  and  yeomen  established  certain  imita- 
tions of  them ;  thus  we  have  the  troy  game  of 
the  Roman  youths  performed  among  '  great 
crowds  of  Londoners,'  in  the  reigns  of  our 
Stephen  and  Henry  II.,  both  on  land  and  water. 
A  species  of  wooden  shields  was  tilted  against 
in  boats  on  the  bosom  of  father  Thames,  or 
suspended  from  a  stake  fixed  on  the  ground. 
Similar  sports  are  traced  in  Oxfordshire  and 
throughout  the  country.  It  was  particular)/ 
accounted  an  Easter  holiday  amusement. 

•2  T  2 


CHI 


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CHL 


The  wager  of  battle,  a  legal  appeal  in  this 
country  w;*hH  the  last  ten  years,  may  be  said  to 
nave  been  our  final  relic  of  chivalrous  justice. 
It  was  the  right  of  persons  of  all  degrees  thus  to 
terminate  certain  suits,  and  particularly  that  of 
a  near  relative  of  a  slain  man,  to  challenge  a 
supposed  murderer,  although  a  jury  should 
acquit  him.  In  the  memorable  combat  scene  of 
Ivanhoe,  vol.  iii.  p.  328,  345,  our  great  histori- 
cal novelist  has  forcibly  depicted  the  sincere  and 
solemn  feelings  of  our  forefathers  on  many  of 
these  occasions,  and  Shakspeare  alludes  to  the 
custom  both  as  practised  among  the  higher  and 
lower  ranks.  The  royal  championship  of  Eng- 
land still  rests  on  the  foundation  of  this  ancient 
appeal,  and  conveys  the  fair  manor  of  Scrivelsby 
'  by  grand  serjeantry ;  to  wit,  by  the  service  of 
finding,  on  the  day  of  coronation,  an  armed 
knight  who  shall  prove  by  his  body,  if  need  be, 
that  the  king  is  true  and  lawful  heir  to  the  king- 
dom.' So  that  this  splendid  exhibition  of 
ancient  feudal  service  is  not  likely  to  be  soon 
discontinued ;  although  the  legal  wager  of  battle, 
in  all  other  cases,  was  finally  abolished  during 
the  regency  of  his  present  Majesty,  59  Geo.  III. 
cap.  46. 

CHI  VAS,  or  CHIVASSO,  a  strong  town  of  Pied- 
mont, situated  in  a  plain  near  the  union  of  the 
Doria  and  the  Po.  It  is  defended  with  walls, 
bastions,  and  large  fosses  filled  with  water;  it  is 
well  supplied  with  artillery  and  a  numerous  gar- 
rison, especially  in  the  time  of  war.  The  situa- 
tion is  so  advantageous  that  whoever  are  masters 
of  this  town  are  said  to  possess  the  key  of  the 
country  of  Turin,  and  of  Lombardy.  It  has 
several  churches  and  convents.  It  was  taken  by 
the  French  in  1705,  and  afterwards  re-taken  by 
the  allies;  and  in  1798  it  surrendered  to  the 
French  republicans,  though  the  garrison  consisted 
of  800  men.  It  lies  eleven  miles  north-east  of 
Turin,  and  twelve  south  of  Ivrea. 

CHIVES,  M.S.  Ital.  cima;  Lat.  cyma.  The 
threads  or  filaments  rising  in  flowers  with  seeds 
iit  the  end. 

The  masculine  or  prolific  seed  contained  in  the 
chives  or  apices  of  the  stamina.  Ray  on  the  Creation. 

CHIVES,  n.  s.  Tr.cives;  Lat.  cepe.  Very 
small  onions. 

CHIVES.     See  BOTANY,  Index. 

CHIUM  MARMOR,  Chian  marble,  in  the  na- 
tural history  of  the  ancients,  the  name  of  a  black 
marble,  called  also  the  lapis  opsidianus.  It  is 
very  hard,  and  of  a  fine  black,  and  is  well  known 
nmong  goldsmiths  by  the  name  of  the  touchstone; 
it  being  much  used  for  this  purpose:  though  the 
basaltes  is  preferable.  This  is  a  very  fine  and 
elegantly  smooth  marble,  of  a  compact  texture, 
and  fine  glossy  black,  but  showing  no  glittering 
particles  when  fresh  broken,  as  most  of  the  black 
marbles.  The  ancients  had  it  from  Ethiopia  and 
the  island  of  Chios  ;  it  is  now  found  in  Italy. 

CHIUM  VINUM,  Chian  wine,  or  wine  of  the 
growth  of  the  island  of  Chios,  is  commended  by 
Dioscorides  as  affording  good  nourishment,  fit  to 
drink,  less  disposed  to 'intoxicate,  endued  with 
the  virtue  of  restraining  defluxions,  and  a  proper 
ingredient  in  opthalmic  medicines.  Hence  Scri- 


bonus  Largus  directs  the  dry  ingredients  in 
colly ria  for  the  eyes  to  be  made  up  with  Chian 
wine. 

CHIUSI,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  Tuscany,  anciently 
called  Clusium,  and  one  of  the  twelve  ancient 
cities  of  Etruria.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  but, 
being  unhealthy,  is  not  populous.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  its  marble.  It  lies  thirty-five  miles  south- 
east of  Sienna.  Long.  10°  52'  E.,  lat.  43°  2'  N. 

CHUTAYE,  a  considerable  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey  the  capital  of  Natolia  Proper,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  in  a  fertile  and  healthy 
country,  defended  by  a  castle  built  on  a  rock.  It 
contains  several  mosques,  and  three  Armenian 
churches.  It  was  the  residence  of  the  grand 
seignior  before  the  taking  of  Adrianople.  Long. 
30°  47'  E.,  lat.  39°  30'  N. 

CHLAMYS,  in  antiquity,  a  military  habit 
worn  by  the  ancients  over  the  tunica.  It  belonged 
to  the  patricians,  and  answered  in  time  of  war  to 
the  toga  in  time  of  peace.  This  sort  of  gown 
was  called  picta  from  the  rich  embroidery  with 
figures  in  Phrygian  work ;  and  purpurea,  because 
the  ground  work  was  purple.  The  chlamydes  ot 
the  emperors  were  all  purple,  adorned  with  a 
golden  embroidered  border. 

CHLOEIA,  in  antiquity  a  festival  celebrated 
at  Athens  in  honor  of  Ceres,  to  whom  under  the 
name  XXoj;,  i.  e.  grass,  they  sacrificed  a  ram. 

CHLORA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  and  octandria  class  of  plants  :  CAL.  oc- 
tophyllous:  COR.  monopetalous  and  octofid:  CAP. 
unilocular,  bivalved,  and  polyspermous.  Five 
species ;  chiefly  natives  of  America,  and  the 
south  of  Europe;  but  C.  perfoliata  is  indigenous 
to  the  pastures  of  our  own  country,  and  named 
yellow  centaury. 

CHLORANTHUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  class  tetrandria  and  order  monogynia : 
CAL.  none :  COR.  petal  three-lobed,  seated  by  the 
side  of  the  germ  ;  anthers  growing  to  the  petal ; 
SEED  monospermous  berry.  Species  one  only  ; 
a  fleshy  shrub,  native  of  Japan. 

CHLORIC  ACID,  in  chemistry.  This  acid 
was  first  discovered  by  Gay  Lussac  in  pouring 
weak  sulphuric  acid  on  a  solution  of  chlorate  of 
barytes,  or,  as  it  was  originally  called,  hyperoxy- 
muriate  of  barytes.  By  adding  the  sulphuric 
acid  with  caution,  he  at  length  obtained  a  liquid 
entirely  free  both  from  barytes  and  sulphuric  acid, 
which  was  the  chloric  acid  in  water.  This  acid 
has  neither  smell  nor  color  ;  it  is  decomposed  by 
heat  into  oxygen  and  chlorine,  but  part  is  gene- 
rally volatilised  without  alteration.  The  muriatic 
and  sulphurous  acids,  and  sulphureted  hydrogen, 
act  upon  it  in  a  similar  manner,  but  no  change  is 
produced  by  the  application  of  nitric  acid.  When 
mixed  with  muriatic  acid  water  is  formed,  and 
both  acids  are  converted  into  chlorine.  Chloric 
acid  combines  with  bases,  and  forms  thechlorites 
long  known  by  the  name  of  the  hyperoxygenised 
muriates.  They  may  be  formed  either  by  satu- 
rating the  base  with  the  chloric  acid,  or  by  the 
old  process  of  transmitting  chlorine  through  their 
solutions,  in  Woolfe's  bottles.  Chlorate  of  potash 
has  been  long  well  known  as  hyperoxymuiiaie  of 
potash,  and  is  procured  by  introducing  chlorine 
as  it  is  formed,  into  a  solution  of  the  salt.  When 


CHL 


C45 


C11L 


the  solution  is  saturated,  evaporate  it  gently,  and 
the  first  crystals  produced  will  be  the  salt  desired, 
this  crystallising  before  the  simple  muriate,  which 
is  produced  soon  after.  Its  crystals  are  in  shining 
hexahedral  laminae,  or  rhomboidal  plates.  It  is 
soluble  in  seventeen  parts  of  cold  water;  and, 
but  very  sparingly,  in  alcohol.  Its  taste  is  cooling 
and  rather  unpleasant.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
2*0.  The  purest  oxygen  is  extracted  from  this 
salt,  by  exposing  it  to  a  gentle  red  heat.  100 
grains  yield  about  115  cubic  inches  of  gas.  It 
consists  of  9'5  chloric  acid  +  6  potash  ~  15'5, 
which  is  the  prime  equivalent  of  the  salt.  If  this 
salt  be  combined  with  sulphur,  it  produces  a 
strong  .detonating  powder,  as  it  does  with  either 
phosphorus,  common  sugar,  or  charcoal.  Phos- 
phorus may  also  be  inflamed  by  it  under  water, 
by  putting  into  a  glass,  nearly  filled  with  that 
liquid,  one  part  of  phosphorus  to  two  parts  of 
chlorate;  and  pouring  through  a  syphon  immersed 
in  the  glass,  three  or  four  parts  of  sulphuric  acid. 
All  these  experiments,  however,  are  very  dange- 
rous, and  should  never  be  undertaken  but  by 
those  who  have  correct  knowledge  of  the  power 
of  the  substances  employed. 

Chlorate  of  soda  is  procured  in  a  similar  man- 
ner to  the  preceding,  but,  on  account  of  its  easy 
solubility  in  water,  is  difficult  to  obtain  separate 
from  the  muriate.  Vauquelin  formed  it  by  satu- 
rating chloric  acid  with  soda ;  500  parts  of  the 
dry  carbonate  yielding  1100  parts  of  crystallised 
chlorate.  It  consists  of  4  soda  +  9'5  acid  —  13-5, 
which  is  its  prime  equivalent.  Its  other  proper- 
ties so  nearly  resemble  chloride  of  potash,  that 
they  need  no  repetition. 

Chlorate  of  barytes,  from  which  the  acid  was 
first  obtained,  is  best  formed  by  passing  chlorine 
through  a  solution  of  that  earth  in  warm  water, 
but,  as  this  also  forms  some  common  muriate,  the 
latter  must  be  separated  by  boiling  with  it  phos- 
phate of  silver,  which  will  neutralise  the  muri- 
ate, and  the  chlorate  may  then  be  obtained  by 
simple  evaporation.  Chlorate  of  strontite,  and 
the  chlorate  of  lime,  are  obtained  in  the  same 
manner,  and  are  both  deliquescent  and  cool  in 
the  mouth,  and  easily  soluble  in  alcohol,  as  is  also 
the  chlorate  of  magnesia,  which  is  obtained  by 
the  same  method.  The  chlorate  of  ammonia  is 
formed  by  double  affinity,  the  carbonate  of  am- 
monia decomposing  the  earthy  salts  of  this  genus, 
giving  up  its  carbonic  acid  to  their  base,  and 
combining  with  their  acid  into  chlorate  of  ammo- 
nia. Chlorate  of  lime  is  now  employed  with  great 
advantage  as  a  disinfectant,  and  on  that  account 
becomes  a  powerful  agent  in  the  dissecting  room. 

Chlorate  of  alumina  has  never  yet  been  obtained 
separate.  See  CHEMISTRY. 

CHLORINE,  in  chemistry,  the  modern  name 
for  the  oxymuriatic  acid  gas  of  the  French,  and 
given  to  it  on  account  of  its  green-yellow  color. 
Sir  H.  Davy  having  in  vain  tried  every  known 
method  of  decomposition  on  this  substance  pro- 
nounced it  an  element,  and  it  was  therefore 
thought  improper  to  apply  the  term  oxymuriatic 
to  that  which  could  contain  no  oxygen,  and  from 
which  no  muriatic  acid  could  be  extracted.  In 
the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1809  first  ap- 
peared the  researches  of  that  eminent  chemist 
on  oxymuriatic  acid. 


'  In  the  Bakerian  lectures  for  1808,'  says  Sir 
Humphry,  '  I  have  given  an  account  of  the  ac- 
tion of  potassium  upon  muriatic  acid  gas,  bv 
which  more  than  one-third  of  its  volume  of  hy- 
drogen is  produced  ;  and  I  have  stated,  that  mu- 
riatic acid  can,  in  no  instance,  be  procured  from 
oxymuriatic  acid,  or  from  dry  muriates,  unless 
water  or  its  elements  be  present. 

'  In  the  second  volume  of  the  Memoires 
D'Arcueil,  M..M.  Gay  Lussac  and  Thenard 
have  detailed  an  extensive  series  of  facts  upon 
muriatic  acid,  and  oxymuriatic  acid.  Some  of 
their  experiments  are  similar  to  those  I  have  de- 
tailed in  the  paper  just  referred  to;  others  are 
peculiarly  their  own,  and  of  a  very  curious  kind : 
their  general  conclusion  is,  that  muriatic  acid  gas 
contains  about  one  quarter  of  its  weight  of  water; 
and  that  oxymuriatic  acid  is  not  decomposable 
by  any  substances  but  hydrogen,  or  such  as  can 
form  triple  combinations  with  it. 

'  One  of  the  most  singular  facts  that  I  have 
observed  on  this  subject,  ard  which  I  have 
before  referred  to,  is  that  charcoal,  even  when 
ignited  to  whiteness  in  oxymuriatic  or  muriatic 
acid  gases,  by  the  voltaic  battery,  effects  no 
change  in  them,  if  it  has  been  previously  freed 
from  hydrogen  and  moisture  by  intense  ignition 
in  vacuo. 

'  This  experiment,  which  I  have  several  times 
repeated,  led  me  to  doubt  of  the  existence  of 
oxygen  in  that  substance,  which  has  been  sup- 
posed to  contain  it,  above  all  others,  in  a  loose 
and  active  state ;  and  to  make  a  more  rigorous 
investigation  than  had  hitherto  been  attempted 
for  its  detection.' 

Although  some  envious  attempts  have  been 
made  to  give  the  honor  of  this  discovery  to  the 
French  chemists,  we  consider  the  fact  too  well 
established  to  need  any  discussion.  Indeed  so 
far  from  the  chloridic  theory  originating  in 
France,  it  was  only  the  researches  on  iodine,  so 
admirably  conducted  by  M.  Gay  Lussac,  that, 
by  their  auxiliary  attack  on  the  oxygen  hypo- 
thesis, eventually  opened  the  minds  of  its  adhe- 
rents to  the  evidence  long  before  advanced  by 
Sir  H.  Davy.  The  following  are  the  most  re- 
markable experiments  of  Sir  Humphry,  which  we 
abridge  from  Dr.  Ure  : — 

If  oxymuriatic  acid  gas  be  introduced  into  a 
vessel  exhausted  of  air,  containing  tin,  and  the 
tin  be  gently  heated,  and  the  gas  in  sufficient 
quantity,  the  tin  and  the  gas  disappear,  and  a 
limpid  fluid,  precisely  the  same  as  Libavius's 
liquor,  is  formed.  If  this  substance  is  a  combi- 
nation of  muriatic  acid  and  oxide  of  tin,  oxide  of 
tin  ought  to  be  separated  from  it  by  means  of 
ammonia.  He  admitted  ammoniacal  gas  over 
mercury  to  a  small  quantity  of  the  liquor  of  Li- 
bavius ;  it  was  absorbed  with  great  heat,  and  no 
gas  was  generated ;  a  solid  result  was  obtained, 
which  was  of  a  dull  white  color :  some  of  it  was 
heated,  to  ascertain  if  it  contained  oxide  of  tin  ; 
but  the  whole  volatilised,  producing  dense  pun- 
gent fumes. 

He  made  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  solid 
compound  of  oxymuriatic  acid  and  phosphorus 
by  combustion,  and  saturated  it  with  ammonia, 
by  heating  it  in  a  proper  receiver  filled  with  am 
moniacal   gas,   on   wlvch    it   acted   with   great 


C11L 


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CHO 


energy,  producing  much  heat ;  and  they  formed 
a  white  opaque  powder.  Supposing  that  this 
substance  was  composed  of  the  dry  muriates  and 
phosphates  of  ammonia;  as  muriate  of  ammo- 
nia is  very  volatile^  and  as  ammonia  is  driven  off 
from  phosphoric  acid  by  a  heat  below  redness, 
he  conceived  that,  by  igniting  the  product  ob- 
tained, he  should  procure  phosphoric  acid;  he 
therefore  introduced  some  of  the  powder  into  a 
tube  of  green  glass,  and  heated  it  to  redness, 
out  of  the  contact  of  air,  by  a  spirit  lamp ;  but 
found,  to  his  great  surprise,  that  it  was  not  at  all 
volatile,  nor  decomposable  at  this  degree  of  heat, 
and  that  it  gave  off  no  gaseous  matter. 

He  caused  strong  explosions  from  an  electrical 
jar  to  pass  through  oxymuriatic  gas,  by  means  of 
points  of  platina,  for  several  hours  in  succession, 
but  it  seemed  not  to  undergo  the  slightest  change. 

He  electrised  the  oxymuriates  of  phosphorus 
and  sulphur  for  some  hours,  by  the  power  of 
the  voltaic  apparatus  of  2000  double  plates,  in 
which  the  discharge  was  from  platina  wires,  and 
in  which  the  mercury  used  for  confining  the  li- 
quor was  carefully  boiled,  and  there  was  no  pro- 
duction of  any  permanent  elastic  matter. 

He  mixed  together  sulphureted  hydrogen  in  a 
high  degree  of  purity,  and  oxymuriatic  acid  gas, 
both  dried,  in  equal  volumes.  In  this  instance  the 
condensation  was  not  ^5 ;  sulphur,  which  seemed 
to  contain  a  little  oxymuriatic  acid,  was  formed 
on  the  sides  of  the  vessel ;  no  vapor  was  depo- 
sited, and  the  residual  gas  contained  about  i|j  of 
muriatic  acid  gas,  and  the  remainder  was  in- 
flammable. 

Sir.  H.  Davy  used  in  all  cases  small  retorts  of 
green  glass,  containing  from  three  to  six  cubical 
inches,  furnished  with  stop-cocks.  The  metallic 
substances  were  introduced,  the  retort  exhausted 
and  filled  with  the  gas  to  be  acted  upon,  heat 
was  applied  by  means  of  a  spirit  lamp,  and  after 
cooling  the  results  were  examined,  and  the  resid- 
ual gas  analysed. 

All  the  metals  that  he  tried,  except  silver,  lead, 
nickel,  cobalt,  and  gold,  when  heated,  burnt  in 
the  oxymuriatic  gas,  and  the  volatile  metals  with 
flame.  Arsenic,  antimony,  tellurium,  and  zinc, 
with  a  white  flame,  mercury  with  a  red  flame. 
Tin  became  ignited  to  whiteness,  and  iron  and 
copper  to  redness;  tungsten  and  manganese  to 
dull  redness;  platina  was  scarcely  acted  upon  at 
the  heat  of  fusion  of  the  glass. 

The  product  from  mercury  was  corrosive  sub- 
limate. That  from  zinc  was  similar  in  color  to 
that  from  antimony,  but  was  much  less  volatile. 

Silver  and  lead  produced  horn-silver  and  horn- 
lead;  and  bismuth,  butter  of  bismuth. 

In  acting  upon  metallic  oxides  by  oxymuriatic 
gas,  he  found  that  those  of  lead,  silver,  tin,  cop- 
per, antimony,  bismuth,  and  tellurium,  were  de- 
composed in  a  heat  below  redness,  but  the  oxides 
of  the  volatile  metals  more  readily  than  those  of 
the  fixed  ones.  The  oxides  of  cobalt  and  nickel 
were  scarcely  acted  upon  at  a  dull  red  heat.  The 
red  oxide  of  iron  was  not  affected  at  a  strong 
red  heat,  whilst  the  black  oxide  was  readily  de- 
composed at  a  much  lower  temperature ;  arseni- 
cal acid  underwent  no  change  at  the  greatest 
lieat  that  could  be  given  it  in  the  glass  retort, 
whilst  the  white  oxide  readily  decomposed. 


In  cases  where  oxygen  was  given  off,  it  wag 
found  exactly  the  same  in  quantity  as  that  which 
had  been  absorbed  by  the  metal.  Thus  two 
grains  of  red  oxide  of  mercury  absorbed  •£,  of  a 
cubical  inch  of  oxymuriatic  gas,  and  afforded 
0-45  of  oxygen.  Two  grains  of  dark  olive  >xide 
from  calomel  decomposed  by  potash,  absorbed 
about  $„  of  oxymuriatic  gas,  and  afforded  -$5  of 
oxygen,  and  corrosive  sublimate  was  produced 
in  both  cases. 

Chlorine  if  taken  into  the  lungs,  even  much 
diluted  with  air,  occasions  a  sense  of  strangula- 
tion, constriction  of  the  thorax,  and  a  copious 
discharge  from  the  nostrils.  If  respired  in  larger 
quantity  it  excites  violent  coughing,  with  spit- 
ting of  blood,  and  would  speedily  destroy  the  in- 
dividual. 

Water  condenses  1J  times  its  own  volume  of 
this  gas  at  68°  Fahr.,  which  is  known  by  the 
name  liquid  chlorine.  This  mixture  at  40° 
Fahr.  congeals  into  yellow  crystals,  which,  if 
suddenly  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays,  detonate 
with  considerable  force  ;  and  chlorine  if  mixed 
with  nitrogen  also  makes  a  violent  explosion. 
See  CHEMISTRY,  Nitrogen.  The  principal  use 
of  this  gas,  in  the  arts,  is  in  bleaching,  as  it  turns 
all  vegetable  colors  of  a  fine  white  if  mixed  with 
a  very  small  quantity  of  water.  For  euchlorate, 
and  perchlorate,  see  CHEMISTRY. 

CHLORIODIC  ACID.  The  discovery  of  the 
acid  is  another  of  the  contributions  of  Sir  H,. 
Davy  to  the  progress  of  science.  In  a  commu- 
nication from  Florence  to  the  Royal  Society,  in 
March,  1814,  he  gives  a  curious  detail  of  its  pre- 
paration and  properties.  He  formed  it  by  ad- 
mitting chlorine  in  excess  to  known  quantities 
of  iodine,  in  vessels  exhausted  of  air,  and  re- 
peatedly heating  the  sublimate.  For  a  descrip- 
tion of  this  acid,  see  CHEMISTRY. 

CHLORIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  class 
polygamia,  order  monrecia  :  male;  CAL.  glume 
bi-valved,  two-flowered  and  awned  :  COR.  none  ; 
stamens  three;  styles  two:  SEED  one:  female,  ses- 
sile :  CAL.  two-valved  glume.  Species  five ;  all 
natives  of  the  West  Indies. 

CHLOROCYANIC  ACID,  the  mixture  of  hy- 
drocyanic acid  with  chlorine,  by  which  the  for- 
mer acquires  entirely  new  properties :  first  dis- 
covered by  M.  Berthollet.  It  formerly  had  the 
name  of  oxvprussic  because  it  was  supposed  to 
have  acquired  oxygen,  but  on  examination  by  M 
Gay  Lussac  it  was  found  to  consist  of  equal  vo- 
lumes of  chlorine  and  cyanogen,  whence  its  new 
name.  For  a  description  of  its  properties,  see 
CHEMISTRY,  529. 

CHLORO'SIS,  n.  s.  From  x^poc,  green. 
The  green  sickness. 

CHLOROSIS,  in  medicine,  a  genus  of  disease  in 
the  class  chachexiae,  and  order  impetigines  of  Cul- 
len.  It  is  a  disease  which  affects  young  females, 
who  labor  under  a  suppression  of  the  menses. 
The  general  characteristics  of  the  complaint  are 
heaviness,  fatigue  on  the  least  exercise,  palpita- 
tions of  the  heart,  pains  in  the  back,  loins,  and 
hip,  and  acidity  of  the  stomach. 

CHOAK.     See  CHOKE. 

CHOASPES,  in  ancient  geography,  a  river  in 
the  north  of  Persia,  which,  after  passing  Susa, 
falls  into  the  gulph  of  Dassora.  It  is  supposed  to 


CHO 


be  the  Ulai  mentioned  by  Daniel,  chap.  viii.  2. 
Its  water  is  said  to  have  been  so  excellent,  that 
the  Persian  monarchs  had  it  always  carried  along 
with  them  when  they  travelled. 

CHOCO,  a  woody  province  of  Colombia, 
South  America,  separated  from  the  valley  of  the 
Cauca,  by  the  western  chain  of  the  Andes.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Darien  and  Carthagena, 
on  the  west  by  the  Pacific,  on  the  east  by  An- 
tioquia,  and  on  the  south  by  Popayan.  Here 
are  various  Negro  settlements  connected  with  the 
mines  ;  and  the  whole  province  may  contain  5000 
persons  :  but  it  is  very  unproductive,  without 
roads,  and  without  pasture.  The  first  Spanish 
settlers  came  here  about  1539.  Platina  is  the 
most  remarkable  production  of  this  and  the 
neighbouring  province  of  Antioquia.  Here  it  is 
found  only  in  grains  and  in  alluvions  grounds 
between  the  second  and  sixth  degrees  of  north 
latitude.  The  ravine  of  Oro,  between  the  towns 
of  Tado  and  Nevita,  yields  it  in  great  quantity. 
On  the  spot  the  price  is  about  £l.  13s.  English 
per  pound. 

The  Atrato,  formed  by  the  Junction  of  the  San 
Juan,  Quito,  Angeda,  and  Zitara,  is  the  principal 
stream.  It  is  said  that  there  has  existed  in  this 
province,  an  actual  communication  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  since  the  year  1788  : 
for  at  that  period  a  monk  of  Zitara,  in  the  ravine 
of  Raspadura,  caused  a  small  canal  to  be  dug,  by 
which  the  rains  are  conducted  across  it,  and  unite 
the  San  Juan  with  the  Quito,  so  that  canoes 
loaded  with  cacao  frequently  pass  from  one  ocean 
to  the  other,  a  distance  in  this  direction  of  about 
seven:y-five  leagues.  Valuable  gold  washings  are 
found  in  Novita,  Zitara,  and  the  river  Andegada  : 
all  the  ground  between  this  river,  the  liver  Sau 
J  uan.  the  ri  verTamana,  and  the  river  San  Augustin, 
is  auriferous.  Twenty-five  pounds  was  the  weight 
of  the  largest  piece  of  gold  ever  found  in  Choco  ; 
but  tie  negro  who  discovered  it  did  not  even  ob- 
tain his  liberty.  His  master  sent  it  to  the  king's 
cabinet,  in  hopes  of  obtaining  a  title  ;  but  it  was 
with  difficulty  that  he  obtained  even  the  value  of 
its  weight.  Ten  thousand  eight  hundred  gold 
marks  are  about  the  annual  produce  of  the  wash- 
ings of  Choco  ;  the  metal  being  about  twenty-one 
carats  fine.  The  principal  settlements  are  Novita, 
Zitara,  and  Tado. 

In  the  coast  district  of  Biriquite  is  the  settle- 
ment of  Noanamas,  which  is  situated  on  a  river  of 
that  name  170  miles  north-west  of  Popayan. 
The  district  contains  some  few  of  the  native 
tribes  who  are  independent.  It  was  discovered 
by  Pizarro,  who  called  the  people  Pueblo  Que- 
mado,  or  the  burnt  people. 

CHO'COLATE,  n.  s.          >       Fr.     chocolat; 

CHO'COLATL  HOUSE,  n.  s.  $  Ital.  cioccolata. 
A  cake  or  mass  formed  of  the  kernel  of  the  ca- 
cao nut,  with  other  substances  ;  and  the  liquor 
made  from  it.  Chocolate  house  is  a  house  of 
entertainment  where  chocolate  is  provided  as  the 
chief  beverage. 

For  wine  and  strong  drink  make  tumults  encrease, 
Chocolate,  tea,  and  coffee  are  liquors  of  peace  ; 
No  quarrels    or   oaths    are   among   those    -who    drink 

'em, 

Tis  Bacchus  and  the  brewer  swear  damn  'em   and 
sink  'cyi.  .1/,/nvM. 


647  CHO 

In  fumes  of  burning  cltocolait  shall  glow, 
And  tremble  at  the  sea  that  froths  below  ' 


The  Spaniards  were  the  first  who  brought  ch.icoL;!e 
into  use  in  Europe,  to  promote  the  consumption  of 
their  cacao-nuts,  achiot,  and  other  drugs,  which  their 
West  Indies  furnish,  and  which  enter  the  composition 
of  cliocolate.  Chambers. 

Ever  since  that  time,  Lisander  has  been  twice  a 
day  at  the  chocolate-house.  Tatler. 

CHOCOLATE,  the  substance  made  by  grinding 
the  nut  of  the  cacao  with  vanillas  and  other  herbs, 
to  be  dissolved  in  hot  water.  The  Indians,  in 
their  first  making  of  chocolate,  used  to  roast  the 
cacao  in  earthern  pots  ;  and  having  afterwards 
cleared  it  of  the  husks,  and  bruised  it  between 
two  stones,  they  made  it  into  cakes  with  their 
hands.  The  Spaniards  when  the  cacao  is  properly 
roasted  and  well  cleaned,  pound  it  in  a  mortar, 
to  reduce  it  into  a  coarse  mass,  which  they  after- 
wards grind  on  a  stone  till  it  be  of  the  utmost 
fineness  :  the  paste  being  sufficiently  ground,  is 
put  quite  hot  into  tin  moulds,  in  which  it  congeals 
in  a  very  little  time.  The  form  of  these  moulds 
is  arbitrary  :  the  cylindrical  ones,  holding  two  or 
three  pounds,  are  the  most  proper  ;  because  the 
bigger  the  cakes  are,  the  longer  they  will  keep. 
These  cakes  are  very  liable  to  take  any  good  or 
bad  scent,  and  therefore  they  must  be  carefully 
wrapt  up  in  paper,  and  kept  in  a  dry  place. 
The  Spaniards  mix  with  the  cacao  nuts  a  great 
quantity  of  cloves  and  cinnamon  and  other  drugs. 
The  grocers  in  Paris  use  few  or  none  of  these 
ingredients  ;  they  choose  the  best  nuts,  which  are 
called  Caracca,  from  the  place  whence  they  are 
brought;  and  with  these  they  mix  a  very  small 
quantity  of  cinnamon,  the  freshest  vanilla,  and 
the  finest  sugar,  but  very  seldom  any  cloves.  In 
England,  the  chocolate  is  made  of  the  simple 
cacao,  excepting  that  sometimes  sugar,  and  some- 
times vanilla  is  added.  The  chocolate  made  in 
Portugal  and  Spain  is  not  near  so  well  prepared 
as  the  English,  depending  perhaps  on  the  machine 
employed,  viz.  the  double  cylinder,  which  seems 
very  well  calculated  for  exact  triture.  If  perfectly 
prepared,  no  oil  appears  on  the  solution.  London 
chocolate  gives  up  no  oil  like  the  foreign  ;  and  it 
also  may,  in  some  measure,  depend  on  the  thick- 
ness of  the  preparation.  The  solution  requires 
more  care  than  is  commonly  imagined,  it  is 
proper  to  break  it  down,  and  dissolve  it  tho- 
roughly in  cold  water,  by  milling  it  with  the 
chocolate  stick.  If  heat  is  applied,  it  should  be 
done  slowly:  for  if  suddenly,  the  heat  will  not 
only  coagulate  it,  but  separate  the  oil  ;  and 
therefore  much  boiling  after  it  is  dissolved  is 
hurtful.  Chocolate  is  a  common  beverage  witli 
people  of  weak  stomachs  ;  but  often  rejected  for 
want  of  proper  preparation.  When  properly 
prepared,  it  is  easily  dissolved  ;  and  an  excellent 
food  where  a  liquid  nutrient  vegetable  one  is 
required.  It  is  less  flatulent  than  any  of  the 
farinacea. 

Choolate  ready  made,  and  cocoa  paste,  are 
prohibited  to  be  imported  from  any  part  beyond 
the  seas.  If  made  and  sold  in  Great  Britain, 
it  pays  inland  duty  Is.  6rf.  per  pound  avoirdu- 
pois :  it  must  be  enclosed  in  papers  containing 
one  pound  each,  and  produced  at  the  excise- 
office  to  be  stumped.  Upon  three  days  noticv 


CHO 


648 


CHO 


given  to  the  officer  of  excise,  private  families 
may  vnake  chocolate  for  their  own  use,  provided 
no  less  than  half  a  cwt.  of  nuts  be  made  at  one 
time. 

Mr.  Henly,  an  ingenious  electrician,  disco- 
vered that  chocolate,  fresh  from  the  mill,  as  it 
cools  in  the  tin-pans  into  which  it  is  received, 
becomes  strongly  electrical ;  and  that  it  retains 
this  property  for  some  time  after  it  has  been 
turned  out  of  the  pans,  but  soon  loses  it  by 
handling.  The  power  may  be  once  or  twice 
renewed  by  melting  it  again  in  an  iron  ladle, 
and  pouring  it  into  the  tin  pans  as  at  first ;  but 
when  it  becomes  dry  and  powdery,  the  powder 
is  not  capable  of  being  revived  by  simple  melt- 
ing :  but  if  a  small  quantity  of  olive  oil  be 
added,  and  well  mixed  with  the  chocolate  in  the 
ladle,  its  electricity  will  be  completely  restored 
by  cooling  it  in  the  tin  pan  as  before. 

CHOCZIM,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Podolia, 
in  European  Russia,  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Dniester ;  it  is  near  the  frontier  of  ancient  Po- 
land, and  was  formerly  included  in  Moldavia.  In 
1739  a  great  battle  was  fought  here  between  the 
Russians  and  Turks,  and  this  town  was  sur- 
rendered to  the  former  people.  It  successively 
passed  from  the  one  to  the  other  for  a  series  of 
years ;  but  was  finally  ceded  to  the  Russians 
by  a  late  treaty,  together  with  part  of  Molda- 
via. It  lies  110  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Jassy,  and 
in  long.  26°  30'  E.,  lat.  48°  30'  N. 

CHOICE,  n.  s.  &  adj.-}  See  To  CHOOSE. 
CHO'ICELESS,  adj.  \^T-  choix.  The  act 
CHO'ICELY,  adv.  £  of  choosing;  deter- 

CHO'ICENESS,  n.  s.  )  mination  between  dif- 
ferent things  proposed  ;  election.  The  power  of 
choosing;  election.  The  thing  chosen;  the 
thing  taken,  or  approved,  in  preference  to  others. 
Care  in  choosing  ;  curiosity  of  distinction.  The 
best  part  of  any  thing,  that  is  more  properly  the 
object  of  choice.  Several  things  proposed  at 
once,  as  objects  of  judgment  and  election.  Se- 
lect ;  of  extraordinary  value. 

The  choice  and  flower  of  all  things  profitable  in 
other  books,  the  Psalms  do  both  more  briefly  contain, 
and  more  movingly  also  express.  Hooker. 

Choice  there  is  not,  unless  the  thing  which  we  take 
be  so  in  our  power,  that  we  might  have  refused  it. 
If  fire  consume  the  stable,  it  chooseth  not  so  to  do, 
because  the  nature  thereof  is  such  that  it  can  do  no 
other.  Id. 

Thence  passing  forth,  they  shortly  do  arrive 
Whereat  the  Bower  of  Bliss  was  situate  -, 
4  place  picked  out  by  choice  of  best  alive, 
That  nature's  work  by  art  can  imitate.          Spenser. 

Julius  Oaesar  did  write  a  collection  of  apophthegms  : 
it  is  pity  his  book  is  lost ;  for  I  imagine  they  were 
collected  with  judgment  and  choice. 

Bacon's  Apophthegms. 

Your  choice  is  not  so  rich  in  birth  as  beauty ; 
That  you  might  well  enjoy  her.  Shakspeare. 

A  baud  of  men, 
Collected  choicely  from  each  county  some.  Id. 

A  braver  choice  of  dauntless  spirits 
Did  never  float  upon  the  'swelling  tide.  Id. 

Take  to  thee,  from  among  the  cherubim, 
Thy  choice  of  flaming  warriours. 

Milton's  Paradise  Lost, 


He  that  is  choice  of  his  time,  will  also  be  clvniM  of 
his  company,  and  choice  of  his  actions. 

Taylor's  Holy  Li>;iw. 

Far  different  motives  yet  engaged  them  thus, 
Necessity  did  them,  but  choice  did  us; 
A  choice  which  did  the  highest  worth  express, 
And  was  attended  by  as  high  success.  Maruell. 

As  when  the  sun  restores  the  glittering  day, 
The  world  late  clothed  in  night's  black  livery, 
Doth  now  a  thousand  colours  fair  display, 
And  paints  itself  in  choice  variety  ; 
Which  late  one  colour  hid,  the  eye  deceiving. 
All  so  this  prince  those  shapes  obscure  receiving, 
With  his  suffused  light  makes  ready  to  conceiving. 
Fletcher's  Purple  Island, 

Neither  the  weight  of  the  matter  of  which  the  cy- 
linder is  made,  nor  the  round  voluble  form  of  it,  are 
any  more  imputable  to  that  dead  choiceless  creature, 
than  the  first  motion  of  it ;  and,  therefore,  it  cannot 
be  a  fit  resemblance  to  shew  the  reconcileableness  of 
fate  with  choice.  Hammond^ 

It  is  certain  it  is  choicely  good. 

Walton's  Angler. 

Carry  into  the  shade  such  auriculas,  seedlings,  or 
plants,  as  are  for  their  choiceness  reserved  in  pots. 

Evelyn's  Kalendar. 

But  like  the  birds,  great  Nature's  happy  commoners, 
That  haunt  the  woods  in  meads,  and  flowery  gardens, 
Rifle  the  sweets  and  taste  the  choicest  fruits, 
Yet  scorn  to  ask  the  lordly  owners'  leave. 

Rowe's  Fair  Penitent. 
He  is  the  happy  man,  whose  life  e'en  now 
Shows  somewhat  of  that  happier  life  to  come, 
Who,  doomed  to  an  obscure  but  tranquil  state, 
Is  pleased  with  it ;  and  were  he  free  to  choose, 
Would  make  his  fate  his  choice.  Cowper. 

Those  that  lie  here  stretched  before  us,  ths  wise 
and  the  powerful  of  ancient  times,  warn  us  to  remem- 
ber the  shortness  of  our  present  state  ;  they  were,  per- 
haps, snatched  away  while  they  were  busy,  like  us,  in 
the  choice  of  life.  Johnson's  Rasselas. 

'Mid  many  things  most  new  to  ear  and  eye, 
The  pilgrim  rested  here  his  weary  feet, 
And  gazed  around  on  Moslem  luxury ; 
Till  quickly  wearied  with  that  spacious  seat 
Of  wealth  and  wantonness,  the  choice  retreat 
Of  sated  grandeur  from  the  city's  noise.         Byron. 

CHOIR,  n.  s.  Lat.  chorus.  An  assembly  or 
band  of  singers  ;  the  singers  in  divine  worship ; 
the  part  of  the  church  where  the  choristers  or 
singers  are  placed.  Applied  to  songsters  of  every 
description,  who  unite  their  vocal  melodies. 

The  choir, 

With  all  the  choicest  musick  of  the  kingdom, 
Together  sung  Te  Deum.  Shakspeare. 

The  lords  and  ladies,  having  brought  the  queen 
To  a  prepared  place  in  the  choir,  fell  off 
At  distance  from  her.  Id. 

They  now  assist  the  choir 
Of  angels,  who  their  songs  admire.  Waller 

Your  voice,  the  sweetest  of  the  clunr, 
Shall  draw  heaven  nearer,  raise  us  higher, 

ManeU. 

Hush,  ye  pretty  warbling  choir, 
Your  thrilling  strains 
Awake  my  pains, 
And  kindle  soft  desire.  Gay. 

CHOIR,  that  part  of  the  church  where  the 
choristers  sing  in  divine  service.  It  is  separated 
from  the  chancel  where  the  communion  is  cele- 
brated, and  from  the  nave  of  the  church  where 


OHO 


649 


CHO 


the  people  are  placed  ;  the  patron  is  said  to  be 
obliged  to  repair  the  choir  of  the  church.  It 
«vas  in  the  time  of  Constantine  that  the  choir 
was  separated  from  the  nave.  In  the  twelfth 
century,  they  began  to  enclose  it  with  walls  ; 
but  the  ancient  balustrades  have  been  since  re- 
stored, out  of  the  view  to  the  beauty  of  archi- 
tecture. Choir,  in  nunneries,  is  a  large  hall 
adjoining  to  the  body  of  the  church,  separated 
by  a  grate,  where  the  nuns  sing  the  office. 

CHOISI  (Francis  Timoleon  de),  dean  of  the 
cathedral  of  Bayeux,  and  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1644. 
In  1685,  he  was  sent  with  the  chevalier  de 
Chaumont  to  the  king  of  Siam,  and  was  or- 
dained priest  in  the  Indies  by  the  apostolical 
vicar.  He  wrote  a  great  number  of  works,  in  a 
polite,  florid,  and  easy  style;  the  principal  of 
which  are,  1.  Four  Dialogues  on  the  Immortality 
of  the  Soul,  &c.  2.  Account  of  a  Voyage  to 
Siam.  3.  An  Ecclesiastical  History,  in  two 
volumes,  4to.  4.  Life  of  David,  with  an  inter- 
pretation of  the  Psalms.  5.  Life  of  Solomon, 
Sec.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1724. 

CHOKE,  v.  a. }      Sax.  aceocan,  from  ceoca, 

CHO'KER,  n.  s.  >the   cheek  or    mouth.      Ac- 

CHO'KY,  adj.     j  cording    to    Minshew,   from 

3H  J      whence,     probably,  the  Spanish   akogar. 

To  suffocate;  to  kill  by  stopping  the  breath;  to 

shut  up  ;  to  stifle;  to  obstruct;  to  block  up  a 

passage ;  to   intercept  the   growth   by   pressing 

contiguity  ;  to  suppress;  to  extinguish  from  the 

same  cause. 

But  when  to  my  good  lord  I  prove  untrue, 
I'll  choke  myself.  Shakspeare. 

And  yet  \ve  ventured  ;  for  the  gain  proposed 
Choked  the  respect  of  likely  peril  feared.  Id. 

Confess  thee  freely  of  thy  sin  : 
For  to  deny  each  article  with  oath, 
Cannot  remove  nor  choke  the  strong  conception 
That  I  do  groan  withal  Id. 

As  a  lamp  is  choked  with  a  multitude  of  oyl,  or  a 
little  fire,  with  overmuch  wood,  quite  extinguished  ; 
so  is  the  natural  heat,  with  immoderate  heating, 
strangled  in  the  body.  Burton's  Anat.  Mel 

You  must  make  the  mould  big  enough  to  contain 
the  -whole  fruit,  when  it  is  grown  to  the  greatest ;  for 
else  you  will  choke  the  spreading  of  the  fruit. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

Men  trooped  up  to  the  king's  capacious  court, 
Whose  porticos  were  choked  with  the  resort. 

Chapman. 

While  you  thundered,  clouds  oi  dust  did  choke 
Contending  troops.  Waller. 

No  fruitful  crop  the  sickly  fields  return  ; 
But  oats  and  darnel  choke  the  rising  corn. 

Drydcn's  Past. 

Or  plunged  in  miry  pounds  he  gasping  lies, 
Mud  choaks  his  mouth,  and  plasters  o'er  his  eyes. 

Gay. 

What  means  yon  peasant's  daily  toil  ? 
From  choking  weeds  to  rid  the  soil.  Id. 

While  prayers  and  tears  his  destined  progress  stay, 
And  crowds  of  mourners  choke  their  sovereign's  way. 

Tickell. 

CHO'KE-PEAR,  n.  s.  From  choke  and 
pear.  A  rough,  harsh,  unpalatable  pear;  any 


aspersion  or  sarcasm,  by  which  another  is  put  to 
silence ;  a  low  term. 

Pardon  me  for  going  so  low  as  to  talk  of  giving 
chuke-pears.  Clarissa. 

CHO'KE-WEED,  n.  s.     Ervangina.  A  plant. 

CHO'LAGOGUES,  n.s.  XV\OQ,  bile.  Me- 
dicines which  have  the  power  of  purging  bile  or 
choler. 

CHOLALLAN,  one  of  the  most  considerable 
states  near  the  mountain  of  Popocatepee,  in 
Mexico.  Thi?,  and  the  state  Haexotzinco,  having, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  Tlascalans,  shaken  off 
the  Mexican  yoke,  re-established  their  former 
aristocratical  government. 

CHOLEDOCHUS,  from  Xo\»j,  choler,  and 
,  to  contain,  in  anatomy,  a  term  applied 
to  a  canal,  or  duct,  called  also  ductus  com  munis ; 
formed  of  the  union  of  the  porus  bilarius  and 
ductus  cysticus.  Passing  obliquely  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  duodenum,  it  serves  to  convey  the  bile 
from  the  liver  to  the  intestines.  See  ANATOMY. 

CHOLESTERIC  ACID,  a  French  name  for  the 
acid  formed  by  an  union  of  nitric  acid  and  the 
fat  matter  of  the  human  biliary  calculi.  To  ob- 
tain it,  chemists  cause  the  cholesterine  to  be 
heated  with  concentrated  nitric  acid  of  its  own 
weight,  by  which  it  is  speedily  attacked  and  dis- 
solved. There  is  disengaged  at  this  time  much 
oxide  of  azote ;  and  the  liquor  on  cooling,  and 
especially  on  the  addition  of  water,  lets  fall  a 
yellow  matter,  which  is  the  cholesteric  acid  im- 
pure, or  impregnated  with  nitric  acid.  It  is  pu- 
rified by  repeated  washings  in  boiling  water.  It 
is  better  after  having  washed  it,  however,  to  ef- 
fect its  fusion  in  the  midst  of  hot  water  ;  to  add 
to  it  a  small  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lead  ;  to 
let  the  whole  boil  for  some  hours,  decanting  and 
renewing  the  water  from  time  to  time ;  then  to 
put  the  remaining  dried  mass  in  contact  with  al- 
cohol, and  to  evaporate  the  alcoholic  solution. 
The  residuum  now  obtained  is  the  purest  pos- 
sible cholesteric  acid.  Its  base  is  treated  at  con- 
siderable length  in  our  article  CHEMISTRY, 
which  see. 

CHO'LER,  n.  s.  ^       Lat.  cholera,  from 

CHO'LEKICK,  adj.          >  x°*-l-    The  bile ;  the 
CHO'LERICKNESS,  n.  s.  j  humor  which,  by  its 
super-abundance,  is  supposed  to  produce   iras- 
cibility ;  anger ;  rage ;  irascibility ;  peevishness. 

It  engenders  choler,  planteth  anger  ; 
And  better  'twere  that  both  of  us  did  fast, 
Since,  of  ourselves,  ourselves  are  cholerick, 
Than  feed  it  with  such  over-roasted  flesh. 

Sliahspeare. 

Another  suitor  I  had  was  a  very  cholerick  fellow  ; 
but  I  so  handled  him,  that  for  all  his  fuming,  I 
brought  him  upon  his  knees  ;  if  there  had  been  an 
excellent  bit  in  the  market,  any  novelty,  any  fish,  fruit 
or  fowl,  muskadel  or  malmesy,  or  a  cup  of  neat  wine, 
it  was  presently  presented  to  me,  though  never  so 
dear,  hard  to  come  by,  yet  I  had  it :  the  poor  fellow 
was  so  fond  of  me  at  last,  that  I  think  if  I  would  I 
might  have  Lad  one  of  his  eyes  out  of  his  head. 

Burton's  Anat.  Mel. 

The  gall  placed  in  the  concave  of  the  liver,  extracts 
choler  to  it ;  spleen  melancholy  ;  which  is  situate  on 
the  left  side,  over  against  the  liver,  a  spongy  mattrr 


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»'vat  draws  this  black  choler  to  it  by  a  secret  virtue  and 
l;-e<is  upon  it.  Id. 

IJpcanus  threaten°th  all  that  road  him,  using  his 
confident,  or  rather  cholerick,  speech. 

Raleigh's  History  of  the  World. 
And  all  with  sun  and  choler  come  adust, 

And  threaten  Hyde  to  raise  a  greater  dust. 

Marvell. 

Our  two  great  poets  being  so  different  in  their  tem- 
pers, the  one  cholerick  and  sanguine,  the  other  phleg- 
inatick  and  melancholick.  Dryden. 

He,  methinks,  is  no  great  scholar., 
Who  can  mistake  desire  for  choler.  Prtor. 

Bull,  in  the  main,  was  an  honest,  plain-dealing 
fellow,  cholerick,  bold,  and  of  a  very  unconstant  tem- 
per Arbuthnot. 

CHOLER.     See  BILE,  GALL,  and  MEDICINE 

CHOLERA  MORBUS,  in  medicine,  a  sudden 
eruption  or  overflowing  of  ttie  bile  or  bilious 
matters,  attended  with  spasms  and  gripings  in 
the  stomach.  It  sometimes  occurs  in  warm 
climates,  without  any  apparent  cause,  but  more 
frequently  from  the  use  of  indigestible  food,  which 
irritates  the  stomach.  In  England  it  seldom 
occurred  until  the  year  1832,  when  the  cholera 
asphyxia,  or  malignant  cholera,  ravaged  not 
only  the  British  islands,  where  it  carried  off  about 
12,000  souls,  but  also  traversed  the  whole  conti- 
nent of  Europe  with  even  more  fatal  consequences. 
C  HOLD  LA,  an  ancient  city  and  independent 
district  of  Mexico,  in  the  present  intendency  of 
Puebla,  which  long  resisted  the  Mexican  power. 
Cortes  calls  it  Chunultecol,  and  it  contained,  at 
the  period  of  the  Spanish  conquest,  40,000 
houses,  independent  of  the  suburbs,  which  were 
as  large  as  the  city  itself.  Cholula  was  at  this 
time  the  supreme  seat  of  the  Mexican  religion. 
Cortes  mentions  that  he  found  400  temples  here, 
and  one,  more  especially,  erected  on  an  artificial 
mountain,  which  attracted  innumerable  pilgrims 
from  the  distant  provinces.  Its  ruins  are  yet 
seen.  Humboldt  says,  that  it  has  four  stories 
all  of  equal  height,  and  appears  to  have  been 
constructed  exactly  in  the  direction  of  the  four 
cardinal  points  ;  but  is  so  covered  with  vege- 
tation that  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  this  exactly. 
The  perpendicular  height  of  the  edifice  is  164 
feet,  and  at  the  base  it  measures  at  each  side 
1450  feet.  The  platform  on  the  top  measures 
about  16,000  square  feet.  The  whole  is  built 
of  alternate  layers  of  clay  and  bricks.  It  stands 
to  the  east  of  the  city,  on  the  road  to  Puebla. 
No  remaining  monuments  of  the  ancient  ecclesi- 
astical edifices  of  Mexico  exceed  this  in  splen- 
dor. Cholula  is  situated  in  a  fine  plain,  about 
eighty  miles  east  of  Mexico.  It  contains  about 
16,000  inhabitants. 

CHOMELIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants, 
class  tetrandria,  order  rnonogynia :  CAL.  four- 
parted  :  COR.  salver-shaped,  four-parted ;  drupe 
inferior,  with  a  two-celled  nut;  stigmas  two, 
thickish.  Species,  one  only ;  an  American. 

CHONDRILLA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
polygamia  equalis  order,  and  syngenesia  class 
of  plants  ;  natural  order  forty-ninth,  compositae. 
receptacle  naked :  CAL.  calyculated  ;  the  pappus 
simple  and  stalked ;  the  florets  in  a  manifold 
series ;  seeds  muricate.  Species  three,  natives  of 
Italy,  Egypt,  and  Asia. 


CIIONDROPTERYGII,  in  ichthyology,  n 
term  formerly  applied  to  the  order  of  fishes,  now 
called  amphibia  nantes,  by  Linnaeus.  See  AM- 
PHIBIA. 

CHOOSE,  v.a.&v.n.  )  Goth,  kinsa  ;  Teut. 
CHO'OSER,  n.  s.  $  kiesen  ;  Swed.  keca; 

Sax.  ceosan ;  Fr.  choisir.  To  take  by  way  of 
preference  of  several  things  offered ;  to  select ; 
to  pick  out  of  a  number.  The  neuter  verb  sig- 
nifies to  have  the  power  of  a  choice  between  dif- 
ferent things.  It  is  often  joined  with  a  negative, 
implying  an  impossibility  that  the  thing  can  be 
otherwise.  It  must  of  necessity  ;  it  is  not  of 
choice  to  be  different.  See  instances  below. 

How  much  less  shall  I  answer  him,  and  choose  out 
my  words  to  reason  with  him  ?  Job. 

And  there  as  ye  of  poverte  me  reprove, 
The  highe  God,  on  whom  that  we  beleve, 
In  wilful  poverte  chose  to  lede  his  lif ; 
And  certes,  every  man,  maiden,  or  wif, 
May  understond,  that  Jesus  heven  king 
Ne  wold  not  chese  a  vicious  living.  Chaucer. 

Without  the  influence  of  the  Deity  supporting 
things,  their  utter  annihilation  could  not  choose  but 
follow.  Hooker. 

Knaves  abroad, 

Who  having  by  their  own  importunate  suit 
Convinced  or  supplied  thorn,  they  cannot  choose, 
But  they  must  blab.  Shakspeare. 

If  he  should  offer  to  choote,  and  choose  the  right 
casket,  you  should  refuse  to  perform  your  father's 
will,  if  you  should  refuse  to  accept  him.  Id. 

When  a  favourite  shall  be  raised  upon  the  founda- 
tion of  merit,  than  can  he  not  choose  but  prosper. 

Bacon. 

Come  all  into  this  nut,  quoth  she  j 
Come  closely  in,  be  ruled  by  me, 
Each  one  may  here  a  chooser  be, 

For  room  you  need  not  wrestle.       Drayton. 

At  her  feet  were  laid 

The  sceptres  of  the  earth,  exposed  on  heaps 
To  chitse  where  she  should  reign. 

Dryden's  All  for  Love. 
Threw  down  a  golden  apple  in  her  way  ; 
For  all  her  haste,  she  could  not  choose  but  stay. 

.  Dryden. 

Those  wno  are  persuaded  that  they  shall  continue 
for  ever,  cannot  choose  but  aspire  after  a  happiness 
commensurate  to  their  duration.  Tillotsun. 

This  generality  is  not  sufficient  to  make  a  good 
chooser,  without  a  more  particular  contraction  of  his 
judgment.  Wotton. 

I  never  wander  where  the  bordering  reeds 
O'erlook  the  muddy  stream  ;  whose  tangling  weeds 
Perplex  the  fisher ;  I  ne'er  chuse  to  bear 
The  thievish  nightly  net  nor  barbed  spear. 

Gay's  Rural  Sports. 

Perhaps  I  loved  it  well  :  and  should  I  lay 
My  ashes  in  a  soil  which  is  not  mine, 
My  spirit  shall  resume  it — if  we  may 
Unbodied  choose  a  sanctuary.  Byron. 

CHOP,  v.  a.  &  v.  n.  ^  Koirru;  Swe-!. 
CHO'PPING, part.  I  kappa;  Bel.  kup- 

CHO'PHOUSE,  [pen;    Dut.   kappe ; 

CHO'PPING-BLOCK,  n.  s.  (  Fr.  couper.  To  cut 
CHO'PPING-KNIFE,  n.s.  with  a  quick  blow. 
CHO'PPV,  adj.  J  It  is  applied  to  the 

quick  motion  of  the  jaws,  in  devouring  vora- 
ciously;  to  eat  rapidly,  therefore,  is  to  chop  up. 
To  mince;  to  cut  into  small  pieces;  to  break 
into  clefts  and  chasms.  To  do  any  thing  with  a 


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quick  and  unexpected  motion,  like  that  of  a 
blow  ;  as  we  say  the  wind  chops  about,  that  is, 
changes  suddenly.  A  chop  is  a  piece  chopped 
off,  whether  of  meat  or  anything  else ;  but 
usually  applied  to  mutton  ;  a  crack  or  cleft.  A 
chophouse  is  a  place  of  entertainment,  which 
takes  its  name  from  furnishing  the  guests  with 
steaks  and  £hops  only.  Chop  also  signifies  the 
jaw,  from  chaw.  See  JAW. 

What  shall  we  do,  if  we  perceive 
Lord  Hastings  will  not  yield  to  our  complots  ? 

Chop  off  his  head,  man.  Shakspeare. 

You  seem  to  understand  me, 
By  each  at  once  her  choppy  finger  laying 
Upon  her  skinny  lips.  Id. 

Here  comes  Dametas,  with  a  sword  by  his  side,  a 
forest  bill  on  his  neck,  and  a  chojtping-knife  under  his 
girdle.  Sidney. 

Water  will  make  wood  to  swell ;  as  we  see  in  the 
filling  of  the  chops  of  bowls,  by  laying  them  in  water. 

Bacon. 

Sir  William  Capel  compounded  for  fifteen  hundred 
pounds ;  yet  Empson  would  have  cut  another  chop  out 
of  him,  if  the  king  had  not  died.  Id. 

If  the  body  repercussing  bo  near,  and  yet  not  so 
near  as  to  make  a  concurrent  echo,  it  choppeth  with 
you  upon  the  sudden.  Bacon's  Natural  History. 

Out  of  greediness  to  get  both,  he  chops  at  the  sha- 
dow, and  loses  the  substance.  L'Estrange. 

By  dividing  of  them  into  chapters  and  verses,  they 
are  so  chopped,  and  minced,  and  stand  so  broken  and 
divided,  that  the  common  people  take  the  verses 
usually  for  different  aphorisms.  Locke. 

You  are  for  making  a  hasty  meal,  and  for  chopping 
up  your  entertainment  like  an  hungry  clown.  Dryden. 

The  straight  smooth  elms  are  good  for  axle-trees, 
boards,  chopping-blocks.  Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

Old  cross  condemns  all  persons  to  be  fops, 

That  can't  regale  themselves  with  mutton-c/wp*. 

King's  Cook. 

While  you  and  every  courtly  fop, 
Fawn  on  the  devil  for  a  chop, 
I've  the  humanity  to  hate 
A  butcher,  though  he  brings  me  meat.       Gay. 

I  lost  my  place  at  the  chop-howe,  where  every  man 
eats  in  publick  a  mess  of  broth,  or  chop  of  meat,  in 
silence.  Spectator. 

CHOP,  v.  a.  Golh.kiop;  Teut.  kaup;  Sax. 
ceap.  See  CHEAP.  To  purchase  generally  by 
way  of  truck ;  to  give  one  thing  for  another.  To 
put  one  thing  in  the  place  of  another;  to  bandy  ; 
to  altercate ;  to  return  one  thing  or  word  for 
another. 

The  chopping  of  bargains,  when  a  man  buys  not  to 

hold  but  to  sell  again,  grindeth   upon  the   seller  and 

the  buyer.  Bacon. 

Let  not  the  council  at  the  bar  chop  with  the  judge, 

nor  wind  himself  into   the  handling  of  the  cause  a- 

ncw,  after  the  judge  hath  declared  his  sentence.      Id. 

You'll  never  leave   off  your  chopping  of  logick,  till 

your  skin  is  turned  over  your  ears  for  prating. 

L'Estranye. 

We  go  on  chopping  and  changing  our  friends,  as 
•well  as  our  horses.  Id. 

The  beast  had  now  no  time  to  lose 
Sets  up  communities  and  senses, 
To  chop  and  change  intelligences.  Hudibris. 

In  chopping  logic  with  his  foes.  Beattie. 


Cuo'i'PiNG,  (iflj.  Goth,  skapung ;  Sax.  scop- 
geong.  A  shapely  child  ;  large,  healthy,  stout. 

Both  Jack  Freeman  and  Ned  Wild 
Would  own  the  fair  and  chopping  child.     Fenton. 

CHOTIN,  n.  s.  French.  A  French  liquid 
measure,  containing  nearly  a  pint  of  Winchester. 
A  term  used  in  Scotland  for  a  quart  of  wine 
measure. 

CHOPIN  (Rene),  a  celebrated  civilian,  born  at 
Bailluel,  in  Anjou,  in  1537.  He  was  advocate 
in  the  parliament  of  Paris,  where  he  pleaded 
for  a  long  time  with  great  reputation.  He  com- 
posed many  works,  which  have  been  collected, 
and  printed  in  six  volumes  folio.  He  died  in 
Paris  in  1606. 

CHOPS,  n.  s.  without  a  singular.  Corrupted 
probably  from  chaps.  The  mouth  of  a  beast. 
The  mouth  of  a  man,  used  in  contempt.  The 
mouth  of  anything,  in  familiar  language. 

He  ne'er  shook  hands,  nor  bid  farewel  to  him, 
Till  he  unseau.ed  him  from  the  nape  to  th'  chop*. 

ShaJixpeare. 

CHOPSTICKS,  n.  s.  Two  slips  of,  wood  or 
ivory,  used  by  the  Chinese  to  eat  with. 

CHOPTANK,  a  large  navigable  river  of  the 
United  States,  which  rises  in  Kent  county,  in 
the  state  of  Delaware,  and  after  running  S.  S.W. 
for  about  forty-three  miles,  through  the  eastern 
shore  of  Maryland,  it  turns  suddenly  W.  N.  W. 
and  falls  into  the  Chesapeak  between  Cook's 
Point  and  Tilghman's  Island. 

CHOPUNfSH,  or  pierced-nosed  Indians, 
a  tribe  of  about  3000  native  Indians  of  North 
America,  who  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Koos- 
kooskee  and  Lewis  rivers,  to  the  west  of  the 
Rocky  mountains.  Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke 
describe  them  as  of  amiable  manners,  and  con- 
siderably advanced  in  civilisation.  The  men 
are  generally  well  formed  and  robust ;  the 
women  small  and  pretty :  but  both  sexes  very 
dark  in  their  complexion.  In  their  dress  they 
delight  in  ornaments  made  of  beads,  sea-shells, 
and  feathers.  In  winter  they  wear  a  shirt  of 
buffalo  or  elk  skins  dressed,  long  painted 
leggins,  and  a  plait  of  twisted  brass  round  the 
neck.  The  dress  of  the  women  is,  at  this  season, 
a  long  shirt  of  ibex  skin,  reaching  down  to  the 
ancles,  with  a  girdle.  The  men  also  wear  a 
cap  of  fox  or  otter  skin,  with  or  without  the  fur, 
and  the  women  a  cap  without  a  rim,  formed  of 
bear  grass  and  cedar  bark ;  the  hair  of  both 
sexes  rlows  in  rows  down  the  front  of  the  body. 
Collars  of  bears'  claws  are  not  uncommon.  An 
ornament  much  esteemed  is  a  breast-plate,  made 
of  a  strip  of  otter  skin,  six  inches  wide,  cut  out 
of  the  whole  length  of  the  back  of  the  animal, 
and  including  the  head  ;  this  being  dressed  with 
the  hair  on,  a  hole  is  made  at  the  upper  end, 
through  which  the  head  of  the  wearer  is  placed, 
and  the  skin  hangs  in  front  with  the  tail  reaching 
below  the  knee,  ornamented  with  pieces  of  pearl, 
red  cloth,  or  wampum  shells.  One  of  the  chiefs 
is  said  to  have  worn  a  tippit  of  human  scalps, 
adorned  with  several  thumbs  and  fingers.  They 
show  much  respect  for  their  dead,  whom  they 
place  in  wooden  roofed  sepulchres,  rolling  tbem 
first  in  skins,  and  separating  them  from  each 
other  bv  boards.  They  offer  the  horses  and 


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other  animals  in  sacrifice  to  their  deceased 
friends.  These  American  travellers  found  them 
anxious  for  tomahawks,  kettles,  blankets,  and 
awls :  and  by  no  means  ignorant  of  the  use  of 
fire-arms  and  ammunition. 

CHORAGUS,  in  the  ancient  theatres,  an  offi- 
cer who  superintended  the  chorus. 

CHORAL,  a  person  who,  by  virtue  of  the 
orders  of  the  clergy,  was  in  ancient  times  ad- 
mitted to  sit  and  serve  in  the  choir. 

CHORASAN,  or  CHORASSAN.  See  KHO- 
RASSAN,  and  PERSIA. 

CHORAX,  or  CHARAX,  a  city  of  Characene, 
in  Persia,  called  also  Alexandria,  from  Alexan- 
der the  Great ;  afterwards  Antiochia,  from  An- 
tiochus  V.  king  of  Syria ;  and  lastly,  Chorax 
Spasinse  or  Pasinse,  i.  e.  the  Mole  of  the  Spa- 
sines;  an  Arabian  king  of  that  name  having 
secured  it  against  the  overflowing  of  the  Tigris, 
by  a  mole  extending  three  miles,  which  serves 
as  a  fence  to  the  whole  country. 

CHORAZIM,  or  CIIORAZIN,  a  town  of  Ga- 
lilee, the  unbelief  of  whose  inhabitants  was 
lamented  by  our  Saviour.  It  is  two  miles  dis- 
tant from  Capernaum,  and  is  now  desolate. 

CHORD,  n.  a.  Lat.  chorda.  When  it  sig- 
nifies a  rope  or  string  in  general,  it  is  written 
cord:  when  its  primitive  signification  is  pre- 
served, the  h  is  retained.  The  string  of  a  musi- 
cal instrument. 

Who  moved 

Their  stops  and  chords,  was  seen  ;  his  volant  touch 
Instinct  through  all  proportions,  low  and  high, 
Fled  and  pursued  transverse  the  resonant  fugue. 

Milton. 

In  geometry.  A  right  line,  which  joins  the 
two  ends  of  any  arch  of  a  circle. 

CHORD,  v.  a.  From  the  noun.  To  furnish 
with  strings  or  chords ;  to  string. 

What  passion  cannot  musick  raise  and  quell  ? 
When  Jubal  struck  the  chorded  shell, 
His  listening  brethren  stood  around.  Dryden. 

CHORD,  in  music,  the  union  of  two  or  more 
sounds  uttered  at  the  same  time,  and  forming 
together  an  entire  harmony.  The  natural  har- 
mony produced  by  the  resonance  of  a  sounding 
body,  is  composed  of  three  different  sounds, 
without  reckoning  their  octaves;  which  form 
among  themselves  the  most  agreeable  and  per- 
fect chord  that  can  possibly  be  heard  ;  for  which 
reason  they  are  called,  on  account  of  their  ex- 
cellence, perfect  chords.  Hence,  in  order  to 
render  that  harmony  complete,  it  is  necessary 
that  each  chord  should  at  least  consist  of  three 
sounds.  The  trio  is  likewise  found  by  musi- 
cians to  include  the  perfection  of  harmony; 
whether  because  in  this  all  the  chords,  and  each 
in  its  full  perfection,  are  used ;  or  because  upon 
such  occasions  as  render  it  improper  to  use  them 
all,  and  each  in  its  integrity,  arts  have  been  suc- 
cessfully practised  to  deceive  the  ear,  and  give 
it  contrary  persuasion,  by  deluding  it  with  the 
principal  sounds  of  each  chord,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  render  it  forgetful  of  the  other  sounds 
necessary  to  their  completion.  Yet  the  octave 
of  the  principal  sound  produces  new  relations, 
and  new  consonances,  by  the  completion  of  the 
intervals;  they  commonly  add  this  octave,  to 
have  the  assemblage  of  all  the  consonances  in 


one  and  the  same   chord.     See   COXSON/JNCE. 
And  the   addition  of  the  dissonance  (see  Drs- 
CORD),  producing  a  fourth  sound  superadded  to. 
the  perfect  chord,  it  becomes  indispensably  ne- 
cessary, to  render  the  chord  full,  that  we  should 
include  a  fourth  part  to  express  this  dissonance. 
Thus,  the  series  of  chords  can  neither  be  com- 
plete nor  connected,  but  by  means  of  four  parts 
Chords  are  divided  into  perfect  and  imperfect 
or  more  properly,  direct  and  reversed. 

CHORD,  DIRECT,  or  PERFECT,  is  that  which  is 
composed  of  the  fundamental  sound  below,  of 
its  third,  its  fifth,  and  its  octave  :  they  are  like 
wise  subdivided  into  major  and  minor,  according 
as  the  thirds  which  enter  into  their  composition 
are  flat  or  sharp.  See  INTERVAL.  Some  au- 
thors likewise  give  the  name  of  perfect  to  all 
chords,  even  to  dissonances,  whose  fundamental 
sounds  are  below. 

CHORD,  IMPERFECT,  or  REVERSED,  is  that  in 
which  the  sixth,  instead  of  the  fifth,  prevails, 
and  in  general  all  those  whose  lowest  are  no*, 
their  fundamental  sounds. 

CHORDS  are  also  divided  into  consonances  and 
dissonances.  The  chords  denominated  conso- 
nances, are  the  perfect  chord,  and  its  deriva- 
tives :  every  other  chord  is  a  dissonance.  A 
table  of  both,  according  to  the  system  of  M. 
Rameau,  may  be  seen  in  Rousseau's  Musical  Dic- 
tionary, vol.  i.  p.  27.  After  this  table,  he  adds 
the  following  judicious  and  important  observa- 
tions. 1.  '  It  is  a  capital  error  to  imagine,  that 
the  methods  of  inverting  the  same  chord  are  in 
all  cases  equally  eligible  for  the  harmony  and 
for  the  expression.  There  is  not  one  of  these 
different  arrangements  but  has  its  proper  cha- 
racter. Every  one  feels  the  contrast  between 
the  softness  of  the  false  fifth,  and  the  grating 
sound  of  the  tritone,  though  the  one  of  these 
intervals  is  produced  by  a  method  of  inverting 
the  other.  With  the  seventh  diminished,  and 
the  second  redundant,  the  case  is  the  same  with 
the  interval  of  the  second  in  general  use,  and 
the  seventh.  Who  does  not  feel  how  much 
more  vocal  and  sonorous  the  fifth  appears  when, 
compared  with  the  fourth  ?  The  chord  of  the 
great  sixth,  and  that  of  the  lesser  sixth  minor, 
are  two  forms  of  the  same  fundamental  chord  : 
but  how  much  less  is  the  one  harmonious  than 
the  other.  On  the  contrary,  the  chord  of  the 
lesser  sixth  major  is  much  more  pleasing  and 
cheerful  than  that  of  the  false  fifth.  And  only 
to  mention  the  most  simple  of  all  chords,  re- 
flect on  the  majesty  of  the  perfect  chord,  the  sweet- 
ness of  that  which  is  called  the  chord  of  the 
sixth,  and  the  insipidity  of  that  which  is  com- 
posed of  a  sixth  and  a  fourth;  all  of  them,  how- 
ever, composed  of  the  same  sounds.  In  general, 
the  redundant  intervals,  the  sharps  in  the  higher 
part,  are  proper  by  their  severity  to  express 
violent  emotions  of  mind,  such  as  anger  and  the 
rougher  passions.  On  the  contrary,  flats  in  the 
higher  parts,  and  diminished  intervals,  form  a 
plaintive  harmony  which  melts  the  heart.  There 
are  a  multitude  of  similar  observations,  of  which 
when  a  musician  knows  how  to  avail  himself, 
he  may  command  at  will  the  affections  of  tliobfc 
who  hear  him.  2.  The  choice  of  simple  inter- 
vals is  scarcely  of  less  importance  than  that  of 


CHO 


(353 


CHO 


the  chords,  with  regard  to  the  stations  in  which 
they  ought  to  be  placed.  It  is,  for  instance,  in 
the  lower  parts  that  the  fifth  and  octave  should 
be  used  in  preference  ;  in  the  upper  parts  the 
third  and  sixth  are  more  proper.  If  you  trans- 
pose this  order  the  harmony  will  be  ruined, 
even  though  the  same  chords  are  preserved. 
3.  In  a  word,  the  chords  are  rendered  still 
more  harmonious,  by  being  approximated  and 
•  only  divided  by  the  smallest  practicable  inter- 
vals, which  are  more  suitable  to  the  capacity  of 
the  ear  than  such  as  are  remote.  This  is  what 
•we  call  contracting  the  harmony,  an  art  which 
few  composers  have  skill  and  abilities  enough 
to  put  in  practice.  The  limits  in  the  natural 
compass  of  voices,  afford  an  additional  reason 
for  lessening  the  distance  of  the  intervals,  which 
compose  the  harmony  of  the  chorus,  as  much  as 
possible.  We  may  affirm,  that  a  chorus  is  im- 
properly composed,  when  the  distance  between 
the  chords  increases ;  when  those  who  perform 
the  different  parts  are  obliged  to  scream;  when 
the  voices  raise  above  their  natural  extent,  and 
are  so  remotely  distant  one  from  the  other,  that 
the  perception  of  harmonical  relations  between 
them  is  lost.  \Ye  say,  likewise,  that  an  instru- 
ment is  in  concord  when  the  intervals  between 
its  fixed  sounds  are  what  they  ought  to  be  ;  we 
say,  in  this  sense,  that  the  chords  of  an  instru- 
ment are  true  or  false,  that  it  preserves  or  does 
not  preserve  its  chords.  The  same  form  of 
speaking  is  used  for  two  voices  which  sing  to- 
gether, or  for  two  sounds  which  are  heard  at 
the  same  time,  whether  in  unison  or  in  parts.' 

CHORDS,  or  CORDS,  of  musical  instruments,  are 
strings,  by  the  vibration  of  which  the  sensation 
of  sound  is  excited,  and  by  the  divisions  of  which 
the  several  degrees  of  tone  are  determined. 

CHORDA,  in  anatomy,  a  small  nerve  extend- 
ing over  the  drum  of  the  ear. 

CHORDEE,  in  medicine  and  surgery,  a 
symptom  attending  a  gonorrhoea,  consisting  in  a 
violent  pain  under  the  frenum,  and  along  the 
duct  of  the  urethra,  during  the  erection  of  the 
penis,  which  is  incurvated  downwards.  These 
erections  are  frequent  and  involuntary. 

CHOREA  SANCTI  VITI.  St.  Vitus's  dance, 
so  called  because  some  devotees  of  St.  Vitus 
danced  themselves  into  fits.  It  is  a  disease 
ranked  by  Cullen  in  the  class  neuroses,  order 
spasmi.  It  consists  of  certain  convulsive  invo- 
luntary motions  of  the  muscles,  generally  con- 
fined to  one  side.  It  seldom  occurs  after  the 
age  of  puberty.  See  MEDICINE. 

CHOREPISCOPUS,  from  Xo>poc,  a  region, 
and  (TTiaKOTroc.,  a  bishop.  In  the  ancient  church, 
an  officer  about  whose  function  the  learned  are 
not  agreed.  -The  chorepiscopi  were  suffragan  or 
local  bishops,  holding  a  middle  rank  between 
bishops  and  presbyters,  and  delegated  to  exercise 
episcopal  jurisdiction  within  certain  districts, 
when  the  boundaries  of  particular  churches,  over 
which  separate  bishops  preside,  were  considerably 
enlarged.  It  is  not  certain  when  this  office  was 
first  introduced ;  some  trace  it  to  the  close  of 
the  first  century ;  others  tell  us,  that  chorepis- 
copi were  not  known  in  the  east  till  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourth  century;  and  in  the  west  about 
A.  D.  439.  They  ceased  in  both  in  the  tenth  cen- 


tury. Also  the  name  of  a  dignity  still  subsisting 
in  some  cathedrals,  particularly  in  Germany ; 
signifying  the  same  with  chori  episcopus,  bishop 
of  the  choir. 

CHOR1AMBUS,  in  ancient  poetry,  a  foot 
compounded  of  a  trochee  and  an  iambus,  and 
consisting  of  four  syllables,  whereof  the  first  and 
last  are  long,  and  the  two  middle  ones  are  short; 
such  is  the  word  nobilitas. 

CHO'RION,  n.  s.  Xwp«v,  to  contain.  The 
outward  membrane  that  enwraps  the  foetus. 

CHOROBATA,  or  CHOROBATES,  a  kind  of 
water  level  among  the  ancients,  of  the  figure  of 
the  letter  T,  according  to  Vitruvius's  description. 
CHORO'GRAPHER,  n.  s.  From  Xwp»j,  a 
region,  and  -ypa^w,  to  describe.  He  that  de- 
scribes particular  regions  or  countries. 

CHOROGRA'PHICAL,  adj.  See  CHORO- 
GRAPHER.  Descriptive  of  particular  regions  or 
countries. 

I  have  added  a   chorographical   description    of  this 
terrestrial  Paradise.       Raleigh's  History  of  the  World. 
CHOROGRA'PHICALLY,a£fo.     From  cho- 
rographical.    In  a  chorographical  manner ;  ac- 
cording to  the  rule  of  chorography. 

CHORO'GRAPHY,  n.  s.  See  CHOROCRA- 
PHER.  The  art  or  practice  of  describing  particu- 
lar regions,  or  laying  down  the  limits  and  boun- 
daries of  particular  provinces.  It  is  less  in  its 
object  than  geography,  and  greater  than  topo- 
graphy. 

CHOROIDES,  or  CHOROEIDES,  from  Xopiov. 
chorion,  and  «&>c,  likeness.  In  anatomy,  a  term 
applied  to  several  parts  of  the  body,  bearing  some 
resemblance  to  the  chorion :  as,  the  inner  mem- 
brane which  invests  the  brain,  more  usually  called 
pia  mater :  also  the  inner  tunic  of  the  eye.  It 
is  soft,  thin,  and  black;  and  its  inner  or  concave 
surface  is  very  smooth  and  polished.  See  AXA- 
TOMY. 

CHOROMETRY,  from  Xop»/,and  /urpsw,  to 
measure.  The  art  of  surveying  countries. 

CHO'RUS,  n.s.     "}      Lat.  chorus.      A  con- 
CHO'RAL,  adj.          Scert,  composed  of  a  nuiw- 
CIIO'RISTER,  n.  s.   j  ber  of  singers,  either  sa- 
cred,   dramatic,    or    social.    •  Chorister    is    an 
individual  of  this  number,  and  choral  that  which 
appertains  to  chorus,  concert,  or  choir ;  likewise 
singing  in  a  choir. 

And  let  the  roaring  organs  loudly  play 
The  praises  of  the  Lord  in  lively  notes  ; 
The  whiles,  with  hollow  throats, 
The  choristers  the  joyous  anthem  sing.      Spenser. 

For  supply, 

Admit  me  chorus  to  this  history.      Shakspeare. 
Speak  ye  who  best  can  tell,  ye  sons  of  light, 
Angels  ;  for  ye  behold  him,  and  with  songs 
And  choral  symphonies,  day  without  night, 
Circle  his  throne  rejoicing  ;  ye  in  heaven. 
On  earth,  join  all  ye  creatures  to  extol 
Him  first.  Him  last,  Him  midst,  and  without  end. 

Milton. 

The  new-born  pho?nix  takes  his  way  ; 
Of  airy  choristers  a  numerous  train 
Attend  his  progress.  Dryden. 

The  Grecian  tragedy  was  at  first  nothing  but  a 
chorus  of  singers  :  afterwards  one  actor  was  introduced. 

Id. 

The  musical  voices  and  accents  of  the  aerial  chi>- 
risters.  Kay  on  the  Creation. 


CHO 


654 


CHO 


In  praise  so  just  let  every  voice  be  joined, 

A  ad  fill  the  general  chorus  of  mankind !  Pope. 

And  choral  seraphs  sing  the  second  day. 

Amhurst. 

Join,  ye  loud  spheres,  the  vocal  choir  ; 
Thou  dazzling  orb  of  liquid  fire, 
The  mighty  chorus  aid. 
Soon  as  grey  evening  gilds  the  plain, 
Thou,  moon,  protract  the  melting  strain, 

And  praise  him  in  the  shade.  Ogilvie. 

They  formed  a  very  nymph-like  looking  crew, 
Which  might  have  called  Diana's  chorus  '  cousin,' 
As  far  as  outward  show  may  correspond  ; 
I  won't  be  bail  for  any  thing  beyond.  Byron. 

CHORUS,  in  dramatic  poetry,  a  song  between 
the  acts.  Tragedy  in  its  origin  was  no  more 
than  a  single  chorus,  who  trod  the  stage  alone, 
and  without  any  actors,  singing  dithyramhics  or 
hymns  in  honor  of  Bacchus.  Thespis,  to  relieve 
the  chorus,  added  an  actor,  who  rehearsed  the 
adventures  of  some  of  their  heroes  ;  and  jEschy- 
lus,  finding  a  single  person  too  dry  an  entertain- 
ment, added  a  second,  at  the  same  time  reducing 
the  singing  of  the  chorus,  to  make  more  room 
for  the  recitation.  But  when  tragedy  began  to 
be  formed,  the  recitative,  which  at  first  was  in- 
tended only  as  an  accessory  part  to  give  the 
chorus  a  breathing  time,  became  a  principal  part 
of  the  tragedy.  At  length,  however,  the  chorus 
became  incorporated  into  the  action :  sometimes 
it  was  to  speak;  and  then  their  chief,  whom 
they  called  coryphaeus,  spoke  in  behalf  of  the 
rest:  the  singing  was  performed  by  the  whole 
company;  so  that  when  the  coryphaeus  struck 
into  a  song,  the  chorus  immediately  joined  him. 
The  chorus  sometimes  also  joined  the  actors  in 
the  course  of  the  representation,  with  their  plaints 
and  lamentations  on  account  of  any  unhappy 
accidents  that  befel  them ;  but  the  proper  func- 
tion, and  that  for  which  it  seemed  chiefly  re- 
tained, was  to  show  the  intervals  of  the  acts ; 
while  the  actors  were  behind  the  scenes,  the 
chorus  engaged  the  spectators ;  their  songs  usually 
turned  on  what  was  exhibited,  and  contained 
nothing  but  what  was  suited  to  the  subject,  and 
had  a  natural  connexion  with  it ;  so  that  the 
chorus  concurred  with  the  actors  for  advancing 
the  action.  In  the  modern  tragedies  the  chorus 
is  laid  aside,  and  the  music  supplies  its  place. 
M.  Dacier  observes,  also,  that  there  was  a  chorus 
in  the  ancient  comedy  :  but  this  is  suppressed 
in  the  new  comedy,  because  it  was  used  to  re- 
prove vices  by  attacking  particular  persons;  as 
the  chorus  of  the  tragedy  was  laid  aside  to  give 
the  greater  probability  to  those  kinds  of  intrigue 
which  require  secresy. 

CHOSE.  The  preter  tense,  and  sometimes 
the  participle  passive,  from  to  choose. 

Yet  never  he  his  hart  to  her  revealed, 
But  rather  chnse  to  dye  for  sorow  great, 
Then  with  dishonorable  terms  her  to  entreat. 

Spenser. 

Our  sovereign  here  above  the  rest  might  stand, 
And  here  be  chose  again  to  rule  the  land.  Dryden. 
CHOSE,  in  common  law,  is  used  with  divers 
epithets;  as  chose  local,  chose  transitory,  and 
chose  in  action.  Chose  ifi  action  is  a  tiling  in- 
corporeal, and  only  a  right,  as  an  ob'igation  for 
debt,  annuity,  &c.  In  general  all  causes  of  suit 


for  any  debt,  duty,  or  wrong,  are  to  be  accounted 
choses  in  action,  or  in  suspense ;  because  the* 
have  no  real  existence,  nor  can  properly  be  said 
to  be  in  our  possession.  Chose  transitory  .» 
a  thing  which  is  moveable,  and  may  be  taken 
away,  or  carried  from  place  to  place. 

CHO'SEN.  The  participle  passive,  from  to 
choose. 

If  king  Lewis  vouchsafe  to  furnish  us 
With  some  few  bands  of  chosen  soldiers, 
I'll  undertake  to  land  them  on  our  coast. 

Shakspeam. 
He  tells  how  Hubert  thither  bends  his  course 

With  furious  Borgio,  and  a  desparate  train, 
All  chosen  warriors  of  experienced  force, 

Drawn  from  the  squadrons  on  the  Brescian  plain. 

Gay. 

CHOSROES  I.  surnamed  the  Great,  king  of 
Persia,  succeeded  his  father  Cabades,  A.  D.  532. 
He  at  first  made  peace  with  the  Romans ;  but 
broke  it  in  the  third  year,  and  after  a  long  war 
forced  Justinian  to  make  a  disadvantageous 
peace.  He  was  so  puffed  up  with  his  victories, 
as  to  bid  the  emperor's  ambassador  follow  him 
for  audience  to  Ceesarea;  on  winch  Tiberius  sent 
an  army  under  Justinian,  who  made  himself 
master  of  the  country,  and  put  Chosroes  to  death. 

CHOTEESGOUR,  a  large  country,  in  the 
province  of  Gundwana,  Hindostan,  between  22° 
and  23°  N.  lat.,  and  82°  and  83°  E.  long. 
It  is  often  called  Ruttunpore,  from  its  chief 
place.  It  contains  about  20,000  square  miles, 
in  the  compass  of  which  there  are  thirty-four 
forts.  It  is  generally  unproductive,  but  ou 
the  southern  part  there  is  a  fine  champaign 
distiict,  watered  by  numerous  little  rivers,  and 
full  of  villages,  ornamented  with  groves  and 
tanks.  Near  Ryepoor,  great  quantities  of  wheat 
are  grown,  but  rice  is  not  plentiful,  as  large  re- 
servoirs of  water  and  a  suitable  declivity  in  the 
land  is  necessary  for  its  cultivation.  Ruttunpoor, 
Ryepoor,  and  Nowagur  are  its  principal  towns ; 
but  its  villages  are  numerous  though  poor.  The 
country  abounds  in  cattle,  especially  brood  mares 
of  the  tattoo  species.  A  few  elephants,  camels, 
and  shawls,  are  brought  for  sale  by  foreign  mer- 
chants, but  the  commerce  is  chiefly  conducted 
by  the  brinjarries,  or  itinerant  dealers  in  grain. 
It  has  been  said,  that  in  productive  seasons  they 
can  employ  100,000  bullocks  in  exportation. 
Salt  is  imported  from  the  Circars,  and  is  extra- 
vagantly dear.  The  chief  rivers  of  Choteesgour 
are  the  Hatsoo  and  the  Caroon,  both  branches 
of  the  Mahanady.  This  district  in  tho  reign  of 
Aurengzebe  was  annexed  to  Allahabad,  though 
but  nominally  subject  to  the  Mogul  empire ;  in 
1752  it  was  conquered  by  Ilagojee  Bhooslah, 
and  has  ever  since  been  held  by  the  Mahratta 
rajahs  of  Nagpoor. 

CHOUGH,  n.  s.  Sax.  ceo ;  Fr.  choucus.  A 
bird  which  frequents  the  rocks  by  the  sea-side, 
like  a  jackdaw,  but  bigger. 

In  birds,  kites  and  kestrels  have  a  resemblance 
with  hawks,  crows  with  ravens,  daws  and  chough*. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

To  crows  the  like  impartial  grace  affords, 
And  choughs  and  daws,  and  such  rcpublick  bir<!s. 

Dryden. 

CIIOUGH.    See  Couvus. 


CHR 


655 


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CtlOULE,  n.  s.  Commonly  pronounced 
and  written  jowl.  The  crop  of  a  bird. 

The  choule  or  crop  adhering  uuto  the  lower  side  of 
the  bill,  and  so  descending  by  the  throat,  is  a  bag  or 
sachel.  Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

CHOUS,  in  the  eastern  military  orders,  mes- 
sengers of  the  divan  of  janissaries.  There  are 
several  degrees  of  honor  in  this  post.  When  a 
person  is  first  advanced  to  it,  he  is  called  cu- 
chak,  or  minor  chous ;  after  this  he  is  advanced 
to  be  the  alloy  chous  ;  that  is,  the  messenger 'of 
ceremonies  ;  and  from  this,  having  passed  through 
the  office  of  petelma,  or  procurator  of  the  effects 
of  the  body,  he  is  advanced  to  be  the  bas  chous. 

CHOUSE,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.  The  original  of  this 
word  is  much  doubted  by  Skinner,  who  tries  to 
deduce  it  from  the  French,  gosser,  to  laugh  at ; 
or  joucher,  to  wheedle;  and  from  the  Teutonick, 
kosen,  to  prattle.  It  is  perhaps  a  fortuitous  and 
cant  word,  without  etymology.  The  noun  is 
derived  by  Henshaw  from  kiaus,  or  chiaus,  a 
messenger  of  the  Turkish  court ;  who,  says  he, 
is  little  better  than  a  fool.  It  signifies  a  bubble  ; 
a  tool ;  a  man  fit  to  be  cheated ;  a  trick. 

When  geese  and  pullen  are  seduced, 
And  sows  of  surking  pigs  are  choused.    Hudibras, 

A  sottish  chottte, 

Who,  when  a  thief  has  robbed  his  house, 
Applies  himself  to  cunning  men.  Id. 

Freedom  and  zeal  have  choused  you  o'er  and  o'er ; 
Pray  give  us  leave  to  bubble  you  once  more.    Drydeii. 

CIIOWAN,  a  county  of  North  Carolina,  in 
F.denton  district,  bounded  on  the  south  by  Albe- 
marle  Sound,  on  the  north-east  by  Perquiman's, 
on  the  north  by  Gates,  and  on  the  west  by  Har- 
ford  counties.  Edenton  is  the  chief  town. 

CHOWAN,  a  considerable  river  of  North  Caro- 
lina, formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Black-water, 
Meherrin  and  Nottaway  rivers,  which  rise  in 
Virginia  and  unite  in  North  Carolina;  for  fifteen 
miles  upwards  to  Holliday's  Island  it  is  navi- 
gable for  small  vessels. 

CHOWDER  BEER,  a  cheap  and  easily  pre- 
pared drink,  highly  commended  for  preventing 
the  scurvy  in  long  voyages,  or  for  the  cure  of  it 
where  it  may  have  been  contracted.  It  is  pre- 
pared as  follows :  take  twelve  gallons  of  water, 
in  which  put  three  pounds  and  a  half  of  black 
spruce  :  boil  it  for  three  hours,  and,  having  taken 
out  the  spruce,  mix  with  the  liquor  seven  pounds 
of  molasses,  and  boil  it  up  ;  strain  it  through  a 
sieve,  and  when  milk  warm  put  to  it  about  four 
spoonfuls  of  yeast  to  work  it.  In  two  or  three 
days  stop  the  bung  of  the  cask  ;  and  in  five  or 
six  days,  when  fine,  bottle  it  for  drinking. 

To  CHO'WTER,  v.  n.  To  grumble  or  mutter 
like  a  froward  child 

CHRABRATE,  in  lithology,  a  pellucid  stone 
mentioned  by  writers  of  the  middle  age,  supposed 
to  be  the  common  pebble  crystal. 

CHREMNITZ,  the  principal  of  the  mine 
towns  in  Upper  Hungary,  ninety  miles  north-east 
of  Presburg.  Long-.  19°  27'  E.';  lat.  48°  59'  N. 

CHRENECRUDA,  a  term  occurring  in 
writers  of  the  middle  age,  and  expressing  a  cus- 
tom of  those  times;  but  its  signification  is 
doubtful.  It  is  mentioned  in  Lege  Salica,  tit. 
61,  which  says,  he  who  kills  a  man,  and  hath 


not  wherewithal  to  satisfy  the  law,  or  pay  the 
fine,  makes  oath  that  he  hath  delivered  up  every 
thing  that  he  was  possessed  of;  the  truth  of  which 
must  be  confirmed  by  the  oaths  of  twelve  other 
persons.  Then  he  invites  his  next  relations  by 
the  father's  side  to  pay  off  the  remainder  of  the 
fine,  having  first  made  over  to  them  all  his  effects 
by  the  following  ceremony.  He  goes  into  his 
house,  and  taking  in  his  hand  a  small  quantity 
of  dust  from  each  of  the  four  corners,  he  returns 
to  the  door,  and,  with  his  face  inwards,  throws 
the  dust  with  his  left  hand  over  his  shoulders 
upon  his  nearest  of  kin.  Which  done,  he  strips 
to  his  shirt ;  and  coming  out  with  a  pole  in  his 
hand,  jumps  over  the  hedge.  His  relations, 
whether  one  or  several,  are  upon  this  obliged  to 
pay  off  the  composition  for  the  murder.  And  if 
these  (or  any  one  of  them)  are  not  able  to  pay, 
iterum  super  ilium  chrenecruda,  qui  pauperior 
est,  jactat,  et  ille  totam  legem  componat.  Whence 
it  appears,  that  chrenecruda  jactare  is  the  same 
with  throwing  the  dust  gathered  from  the  four 
corners  of  the  house.  Goldastus  and  Spelman 
translate  it  viridem  herbam,  green  grass,  from 
the  German  gruen  kraut,  or  from  the  Dutch 
groen,  green,  and  gruid,  grass.  Wendelinus 
thinks,  that  by  this  word  is  meant  the  proof  of 
purification,  from  chrein,  pure,  and  keuren,  to 
prove ;  so  that  it  must  refer  to  the  oaths  of  the 
twelve  jurors.  King  Childebert  reformed  this 
law,  because  it  savored  of  pagan  ceremonies,  and 
because  several  persons  were  thereby  obliged  to 
make  over  all  their  effects. 

CHRISM,  n.s.  Xp«£/ia,  an  ointment.  Un- 
guent, or  unction :  it  is  only  applied  to  sacred 
ceremonies. 

One  act,  never  to  be  repeated,  is  not  the  thing  that 
Christ's  eternal  priesthood,  denoted  especially  by  his 
unction  or  chrism,  refers  to. 

Hammond's  Practical  Catechism. 

CHRISM,  oil  consecrated  by  the  bishop,  and 
used  in  the  Romish  and  Greek  churches,  in  the 
administration  of  baptism,  confirmation,  ordina- 
tion, and  extreme  unction.  It  is  prepared  on 
Holy  Thursday  with  much  ceremony.  In  Spain 
it  was  anciently  the  custom  for  the  bishop  to 
take  one-third  of  a  sol  for  the  chrism  distributed 
to  each  church,  on  account  of  the  balsam  that 
entereth  its  composition.  Du  Cange  observes, 
that  there  are  two  kinds  of  chrism  ;  the  one  pre- 
pared of  oil  and  balsam,  used  in  baptism,  con- 
firmation and  ordination ;  the  other  of  oil  alone, 
consecrated  by  the  bishop,  used  anciently  for  the 
catechumens,  and  still  in  extreme  unction.  The 
Maronites  before  their  reconciliation  with  Rome, 
besides  oil  and  balsam,  used  musk,  saffron,  cin- 
namon, roses,  white  frankincense,  and  seve-a 
other  drugs  mentioned  by  Rinaldus,  in  1541 
Dandini,  the  Jesuit,  who  went  to  mount  Libanus 
in  quality  of  the  pope's  nuncio,  ordained,  in  a 
synod  held  there  in  1596,  that  chrism  should  be 
made  only  of  two  ingredients,  oil  and  balsam  ; 
the  one  representing  the  human  nature  of  Jesus 
Christ,  the  other  his  divine  nature. 

CHRISM  PENCE,  CHRISMATIS  DENARII,  or 
CHRISMALES  DENARII,  a  tribute  anciently  paid 
to  the  bishop  by  the  parish  clergy,  fortheir  chrism, 
consecrated  at  Easter  for  the  ensuing  year :  after- 
wards condemned  as  simoniacal. 


CHR 


656 


CHR 


CHRISOM,  n.  s.  See  CHRISM.  A  child 
that  dies  within  a  month  after  its  birth.  So  called 
from  the  chrisom-cloth. 

When  the  convulsions  were  but  few,  the  number 
of  chrisoms  and  infants  was  greater. 

Graunt's  Bills  of  Mortality. 

CHRISOM,  CHRISMALE,  or  CHRISOM  CLOTH, 
the  face  cloth,  or  piece  of  linen,  laid  over  the 
child's  head  when  baptised. 

CHRIST,  n.s.          "|      Xpc<roc,  the  anointed ; 


CHRI'STIAN,  n.s. 
CHRISTIA'NITY,  n.  s. 


synonymous  with  Mes- 
siah.      The   Christian 

CHRISTENDOM,  n.  s.  ^-religion  derives  its  name 
CHRI'STIAN  ISM,  n.  s.  I  from  the  official  appel- 
CHRI'STIANISE,  v.  a.     lation     of    its  Divine 
CHRI'STIANLY,  adv.  j  Author.       Christianity 
is  the  religion  of  Christ.     A  Christian  is  one  who 
professes  that  religion.     Christendom  is  the  lo- 
cal extent  of  its  profession.     Christianly  is  to  be 
like  a  Christian.     To  christianise  is  to  convert  or 
persuade  to  the  Christian  faith,  and  christiauism 
comprehends  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  and 
the  nations  that  profess  to  have  embraced. 

In.  all  that  lond,  no  Cristen  dorste  route  ; 
All  Cristen  folk  ben  fled  fro  that  contre, 
Thurgh  payenes,  that  conquereden  all  aboute 
The  plages  of  the  North  by  lond  and  see ; 
To  Wales  fled  the  Cristianitee 
Of  olde  Bretons,  dwelling  in  this  isle, 
Ther  was  hir  refuge  for  the  mene  while. 
Bnt  yet  ne'er  Cristen  Bretons  so  exiled, 
That  ther  n'ere  som  which  in  her  privitie 
Honoured  Crist ;  and  Hethen  folk  begiled, 
And  neigh  the  castle  swiche  ther  dwelten  three. 

Chaucer's  Man  of  L/iwes  Tale. 
Marcus  Stoycus  the  second,  so  pepil  him  highte, 
That  is  to   mene  in  our  constent,  a  keeper  of  the 

night : 
And  so  he  did  full  trewe;  for  the  record   and   the 

plees, 

He  wrote  them  ever  trewly,  and  took  none  other  fees 
But  such  as  was  ordeyned  to  take  by  the  yere, 
Now,  Lord  God  !  in  Cristendom  I  wold  it  were  so  clere. 
Id.  Merchant'*  Second  Tale. 

What  hath  been  done,  the  parts  of  Christendom 
most  afflicted  can  best  testify.  Id. 

An  older  and  a  better  soldier,  none 
That  Christendom  gives  out.  Shakspeare. 

I'll  not  be  made  a  soft  and  dull-eyed  fool, 
To  shake  the  head,  relent,  and  sigh,  and  yield 
To  Christian  intercessors.  Id. 

If  the  Roman  church,  good  Christians,  oblige  ye 
To  believe  man  and  beast  to  have  spoken  in  effigie, 
Why  should  we  not  credit  the  public  discourses 
In  a  dialogue  between  two  inanimate  horses.  Marvell. 

The  good  old  man,  too  eager  to  dispute, 
Flew  high,  and,  as  his  Christian  fury  rose, 
Damned  all  for  heretics  who  durst  oppose.   Dryden. 
The  principles  of  platonick  philosophy,  as  it  is  now 
Christianised.  Id, 

Every  one  who  lives  in  the  habitual  practice  of  any 
voluntary  sin,  cuts  himself  off  from  Christianity. 

A  ddison. 

We  Christians  have  certainly  the  best  and  the  ho- 
liest, the  wisest  and  most  reasonable,  religion  in  the 
world.  Tillotson. 

The  Christian  religion,  according  to  my  creed,  is  a 
Tery  simple  thing,  .intelligible  to  the  meanest  capa- 
city, and  what,  if  we  are  at  pains  to  join  practice  to 
knowledge,  we  may  maker  ourselves  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with,  without  turning  over  many  books. 

Beattie. 
CHRISTIAN  (Edward),  chief  justice  of  the  Isle 


of  Ely,  and  Downing  professor  of  law  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge.  He  graduated  at  St. 
John's  in  1779,  having  obtained  the  chancellor's 
prize  medal  that  same  year,  for  his  classical  at- 
tainments. He  first  iniquitously  revived  the  mo- 
dern claim  of  the  Universities  and  other  public 
libraries  to  eleven  copies  of  every  work  printed 
in  the  British  dominions,  and  published  Exami- 
nation of  Precedents,  &c.  whereby  it  appears 
that  an  Impeachment  is  determined  by  a  dissolu- 
tion of  Parliament,  8vo,  1790;  A  Dissertation 
Respecting  the  Rules  of  Evidence  before  the 
House  of  Lords,  8vo,  1 792  ;  a  new  edition  of 
Blackstone's  Commentaries,  to  which  he  added 
copious  notes  of  his  own,  8vo,  4  vols.  1795 ;  a 
Syllabus  of  Lectures,  delivered  at  Cambridge, 
and  printed  in  1797,  8vo;  an  Account  of  the 
Origin  of  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament,  with  a 
Statement  of  the  Privileges  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, 8vo,  1810;  a  Treatise  on  the  Bankrupt 
Laws,  1812,  2  vols.  8vo;  another  on  the  Game 
Laws,  8vo  :  and  a  Plan  for  a  Country  Provident 
Bank,  8vo,  both  in  1816.  The  peculiar  pomp 
of  his  manner,  and  his  frequent  allusions  to  the 
decisions  of  the  chief  justice  of  the  Isle  of  Ely, 
as  law,  will  not  soon  be  forgotten  by  those  who 
have  heaid  him  lecture,  with  respect  to  constitu- 
tional principles,  he  was  more  than  a  century 
behind  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  He  died  in 
Downing  College,  March  29th,  1823. 

CHRIST-CHURCH,  a  borough  town  of  England, 
in  Hampshire,  situated  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Avon,  about  three  miles  from  the  sea,  with  a 
good  salmon  fishery,  and  a  considerable  trade  in 
knit  silk  stockings  and  watch  chains.  It  has  a 
small  haven  which  admits  vessels  of  light  burden 
at  high  water ;  and  there  is  a  weekly  market  on 
Monday.  This  borough  sends  one  member  to 
parliament.  It  is  thirteen  miles  east  of  Poole, 
and  102  W.S.W.  of  London. 

CHRI'STEN,  v.  a.    )      Sax.  chrurrman.    To 

CHRISTENING,  n.  s.  5  baptise;  to  initiate  into 
Christianity  by  water.  To  name ;  to  denomi- 
nate. The  ceremony  of  the  first  initiation  into 
Christianity. 

The  queen  was  with  great  solemnity  crowned  at 
Westminster,  about  two  years  after  the  marriage  \ 
like  an  old  christening  that  had  staid  long  for  god- 
fathers. Bacon^ 

Where  such  evils  as  these  reign,  christen  the  thing 
what  you  will,  it  can  be  no-  better  than  a  mock  mil- 
lennium. Burnet. 

We  shall  insert  the  causes  why  the  account  of 
christenings  hath  been  neglected  more  than  that  of 
burials.  Graunt. 

The  day  of  the  christening  being  come,  the  house 
was  filled  with  gossips.  Arbttthnot  and  Pope. 

CHRISTENING.     See  BAPTISM. 

CHRISTIAN,  the  name  of  seven  kings  of  Den- 
mark. See  DENMARK,  HISTORY  OF. 

Most  CHRISTIAN  KING,  a  title  of  the  kings  of 
France.  The  French  antiquaries  trace  the  origin 
of  this  title  up  to  Pope  Gregory  the  Great,  who, 
writing  a  letter  to  Charles  Martel,  styled  him 
Most  Christian  King,  a  title  which  his  successors 
retained. 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  JOHN,  a  sect  of  Chris- 
tians very  numerous  in  Balsora  and  the  neigh- 
bouring towns ;  they  formerly  inhabited  along; 
ihe  river  Jordan,  where  St.  John  baptised,  from 


CHR 


657 


CHR 


tvhom  they  had  their  name.  They  hold  an  an- 
niversary feast  of  five  days ;  during  which  they 
all  go  to  the  bishop,  who  baptises  them  with  the 
baptism  of  St.  John.  Their  baptism  is  also  per- 
formed in  rivers ;  and  that  only  on  Sundays : 
they  have  no  notion  of  the  Trinity ;  or  the  Holy 
Ghost;  nor  have  they  any  canonical  book,  but 
abundance  of  charms,  &c.  Their  bishoprics  de- 
scend by  inheritance,  though  they  have  the 
ceremony  of  an  election. 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  THOMAS,  a  sort  of  Chris- 
tians in  a  peninsula  of  India  on  this  side  of  the 
gulf:  they  inhabit  chiefly  at  Cranganor,  and  the 
neighbouring  country  :  they  admit  of  no  images : 
hut  pay  a  great  veneration  to  the  cross :  they 
affirm,  that  the  souls  of  the  saints  do  not  see  God 
till  after  the  day  of  judgment :  they  acknowledge 
three  sacraments,  viz.  baptism,  orders,  and  the 
eucharist :  they  make  no  use  of  holy  oils  in  the 
administration  of  baptism;  but,  after  the  cere- 
mony, anoint  the  infant  with  an  unction  com- 
posed of  oil  and  walnuts,  without  any  benedic- 
tion. In  the  eucharist,  they  consecrate  with 
little  cakes  made  of  oil  and  salt,  and  instead  of 
wine  make  use  of  water  in  which  raisins  have 
neen  infused. 

CHRISTIANA,  a  town  of  Delaware,  seated 
on  a  creek,  in  Newcastle  county.  It  is  the  great- 
est carrying  place  between  the  waters  of  the  De- 
laware and  Chesapeake,  which  are  here  only  thir- 
teen miles  asunder.  It  is  four  miles  south-west  of 
Newcastle,  and  seven  south-west  of  Wilmington. 

CHRISTIANA,  or  CHRISTIANIA,  the  capital  of 
Norway,  and  seat  of  the  government,  latitude 
nearly  60°  N.,  longitude  nearly  ll°E. ;  250 
miles  west  of  Stockholm.  It  lies  in  a  fruitful 
valley,  in  the  south  of  the  province  of  Agger- 
huus,  at  the  bottom  of  the  gulf  of  Biornia,  which 
runs  into  the  interior  more  than  fifty  miles,  filled 
with  rocky  islands,  beautifully  and  romantically 
disposed.  It  is  the  best  built  place  in  the  king- 
dom, though  it  is  but  small,  having  only  1500 
neat  stone  houses,  and  about  8000  inhabitants ; 
it  is  in  a  very  thriving  condition.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  governor  of  Aggerhuus,  who  holds  a  su- 
preme court  of  justice,  and  of  a  bishop,  the  me- 
tropolitan of  the  country.  It  takes  its  name  from 
its  founder,  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  who  built 
it  in  1624,  after  a  fire  which  destroyed  the  old 
town  of  Opslow,  formerly  occupying  part  of  the 
same  site.  The  best  part  is  the  quartal,  near  the 
harbour,  inhabited  by  the  public  officers  and 
merchants.  Some  of  the  houses,  especially  in 
the  suburbs,  are  constructed  of  wood,  as  is  like- 
wise the  great  military  hospital,  built  in  1806, 
on  an  adjoining  hill.  It  has  a  house  of  correc- 
tion, an  academy  (made  a  university  in  1812),  a 
military  school,  and  two  theatres,  the  Norwe- 
gians being  very  fond  of  these  entertainments. 
The  harbour  is  excellent,  in  which  a  consider- 
able trade  is  carried  on,  and  on  the  13th  of  Ja- 
nuary a  great  fair  is  held  annually.  Its  manu- 
factures are  not  of  consequence,  chiefly  coarse 
cloth  and  cordage  ;  it  exports,  principally  to  Bri- 
tain, fish,  tar,  soap,  vitriol,  alum,  iron,  copper, 
and  timber. 

CHRISTIANA,  a  ^  ery  extensive  bailiwic  of  Nor- 
way, in  the  government  of  Aggerhuus,  contains 
66,300  inhabitants. 

Vor     V. 


CHRISTIANITY,  as  a  system  of  religious  truth, 
supposes,  and  indeed  is  altogether  grounded  on, 
the  prior  existence  of  the  Jewish  religion.  Chris- 
tians, whatever  their  particular  tenets  may  be, 
acknowledge  equally  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  as  the  foundation  of  their  faith 
and  practice.  Roman  Catholics  indeed,  unite 
with  this  the  tradition  of  their  church  as  a  basis 
of  the  doctrines  and  duties  of  Christianity ;  but 
they  contend  that  such  traditions  are  in  no  way 
contrary  to  the  written  word  of  God.  These 
books,  or  at  least  particular  passages  in  them, 
have,  from  the  ambiguity  of  language,  been  va- 
riously interpreted  by  different  commentators, 
and  these  diversities  have  given  birth  to  a  mul- 
tiplicity of  different  sects.  But  it  cannot  be  ex- 
pected, that  in  giving  an  account  of  Christia- 
nity, we  should  comprehend  all  the  opinions 
which  have  been  exhibited  by  historical,  syste- 
matical, or  polemical  authors.  These,  in  such  a 
work  as  this,  can  only  be  briefly  noticed  under 
their  proper  articles.  The  great  question  upon 
any  general  treatise  on  this  subject  -must  be, 
what  is  recognised  and  admitted  as  the  common 
basis  of  their  faith  by  the  great  majority  of 
Christians  ?  And  the  answer  to  this  is  clearly, 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  If  asked  by  what 
authority  these  books  claim  an  absolute  right,  to 
determine  the  consciences  and  understandings 
of  men,  with  regard  to  what  they  should  believe 
and  what  they  should  do?  Christians  answer, 
that  all  Scripture,  whether  for  doctrine,  correc- 
tion, or  reproof,  was  given  by  immediate  inspi- 
ration from  God.  If  again  interrogated  how 
those  books,  which  they  call  Scripture,  are  au- 
thenticated ?  They  reply,  that  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  are  proved  to  be  the  Word  of  God, 
by  evidences  both  external  and  internal.  And 
such  evidence  involves  the  whole  question  o» 
Revelation.  We,  as  Christians,  believe  that  the 
advantages  of  all  the  revealed  will  of  God,  are 
derived  to  us  from  our  '  holy  profession.'  The 
Old  Testament  must  be  true,  or  the  New  is  false  : 
hence  we  conceive  that  the  evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity are  more  properly  to  be  exhibited  under 
the  word  REVELATION,  and  to  that  refer  the 
reader. 

CHRISTIANOPLE,  a  fortified  port  town  of 
Sweden,  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  in  the  territory  of 
Blecking,  and  province  of  South  Gothland, 
thirteen  miles  north-east  of  Carlscrona. 

CHRISTIANSAND,  a  bishopric  and  govern- 
ment of  Norway,  bounded  on  the  east  by  Chris- 
tiana, on  the  north  by  Bergen,  on  the  west  by 
the  German  Ocean,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Sca- 
gerrack,  forms  the  entire  south-west  province  of 
that  kingdom,  and  contains  133,000  inhabitants. 
The  annual  importations  of  corn  are  consider- 
able, the  soil  being  very  barren,  and  the  fisheries 
and  timber  trade  being  the  chief  pursuits  of  the 
population. 

CHRISTIANSAND,  trie  capital  of  the  above  bi- 
shopric, is  a  sea-port  on  the  south  coast,  close  to 
the  sea,  and  was  founded  in  1641  by  Christian 
IV.  of  Denmark.  It  is  considered  the  fourth  town 
in  Norway  in  point  of  importance,  but  the  cathe- 
dral is  the  only  public  building  worth  notice.  It 
is  in  general  well  built,  and  the  streets,  though 
short,  are  broad,  arid  straight,  large  gardens  sur- 

2  I) 


658 


CHRISTINA    ALEXANDRA. 


rounding  many  of  the  houses.  It  is  the  residence  of 
the  governor  of  the  province  and  the  bishop.  The 
town  is  built  on  a  sandy  plain,  quite  close  to  the 
sea.  The  harbour  is  one  of  the  best  sheltered  in 
Norway ;  vessels  come  up  to  the  doors  of  the 
•warehouses,  and  the  inhabitants  carry  on  a  brisk 
timber  trade  and  ship-building. 

CHRISTIANSBORG,  a  Danish  African  fort 
and  settlement  on  the  Gold  Coast.  The  Danes,  it 
is  said,  have  set  the  example  of  first  abolishing  the 
slave  trade,  and  have  made  noble  exertions  to 
introduce  cultivation.  They  had  a  plantation 
extending  fifteen  miles  inland,  which  the  Ashan- 
tees  destroyed  in  the  late  war. 

CHRISTIANSBURG,  a  town  of  Virginia, 
and  the  capital  of  Montgomery  county,  seated 
near  the  west  side  of  a  branch  of  Little  River, 
which  falls  into  the  Kenhawa.  It  has  a  court- 
house and  a  jail,  and  a  court  is  held  in  it  month- 
ly. It  is  200  miles  W.  S.W.  of  Richmond,  and 
478  of  Philadelphia :  from  which  it  lies  in  long. 
5°  35'  W.,  lat.  37°  5'  N. 

CHRISTIANS-OE,  a  group  of  Danish  islands 
in  the  Baltic,  known  also  by  the  name  of  Ert- 
Holm.  But  Christians-Oe  is  the  name  of  the  prin- 
cipal island,  which  is  much  frequented  by  vessels 
navigating  the  Baltic.  Here  is  a  light-house  and 
castle,  constructed  by  Christian  V.,  the  latter  of 
which  is  sometimes  used  as  a  state  prison.  Long. 
14°  47'  E.,  lat.  55°  13'  N. 

CHRISTIANSTADT,  a  province  of  Sweden, 
containing  the  northern  part  of  Scania,  and  is 
bounded  by  Halland  and  Kronoberg  on  the  north, 
Blekingen  on  the  north-east,  the  Baltic  on  the 
south-east  and  south,  Malmohus  on  the  south- 
west, and  the  Categat  on  the  west.  It  contains 
2370  square  miles,  and  a  population  (in  1811) 
of  120,547.  The  capital,  of  the  same  name,  is 
situated  in  a  marshy  plain,  on  the  Helge-a,  which 
flows  into  the  Baltic,  about  ten  miles  below. 
Population  2260.  Fifty-seven  miles  west  by 
south  of  Carlscrona,  and  sixty-five  north-east  of 
Copenhagen. 

CHRISTIANSTED,  the  chief  town  of  the 
the  island  of  Santa  Cruz,  on  the  north  coast  of 
the  island.  It  has  a  fine  harbour,  defended  by  a 
fortress.  Long.  63°  23'  W.,  lat.  17°  46'  N. 

CHRISTIANSUND,  a  town  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Drontheim,  on  the  east  coast  of  Norway, 
situated  partly  on  a  a  peninsula,  but  chiefly  on 
three  small  rocky  islands,  which  surround  a  spa- 
cious harbour.  Its  principal  privileges  were 
granted  by  Christian  VI.  of  Denmark.  There 
are  scarcely  any  streets  regularly  formed,  but  the 
communication  between  one  part  of  the  town 
and  another  is  kept  up  by  water.  Population 
1650.  Thirty-six  miles  north-west  of  Dron- 
theim. 

CHRISTINA  (Alexandra),  daughter  of  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  was  born  in 
1626,  and  succeeded  to  the  crown  in  1633, 
when  only  seven  years  of  age.  This  princess 
discovered  even  in  her  infancy,  what  she  after- 
wards expressed  in  her  memoirs,  an  invincible 
antipathy  for  the  employments  and  conversation 
of  women.  She  was  fond  of  violent  exercises, 
and  such  amusements .  as  consist  in  feats  of 
strength  and  activity.  She  had  also  both  ability 


and  taste  for  abstract  speculations ;  and  amused 
herself  with  language  and  the  sciences,  particu- 
larly that  of  legislature  and  government.  She 
derived  her  knowledge  of  ancient  history  from 
its  source ;  and  Polybius  and  Thucydides  were 
her  favorite  authors.  As  she  was  the  sovereign 
of  a  powerful  kingdom,  many  of  the  princes  in 
Europe  aspired  to  the  honor  of  her  alliance. 
Among  her  suitors  were  the  prince  of  Denmark, 
the  elector  Palatine,  the  elector  of  Brandenburgh, 
the  king  of  Spain,  the  king  of  the  Romans,  Don 
John  of  Austria,  Sigismund  of  Rokocci,  count 
and  general  of  Cassovia,  Stanislaus  king  of 
Poland,  John  Casimir  his  brother,  and  Charles 
Gustavus,  duke  of  Deux-Ponts,  son  of  the  great 
Gustavus's  sister,  and  consequently  her  first 
cousin.  To  this  nobleman,  as  well  as  to  all  his 
rivals,  she  rufused  her  hand ;  but  she  caused 
him  to  be  appointed  her  successor  by  the  states. 
Political  interests,  differences  of  religion,  and 
contrariety  of  manners,  furnished  Christina  with 
pretences  for  rejecting  all  her  suitors ;  but  her 
true  motives  were  the  love  of  independence,  and 
a  strong  aversion  she  had  conceived,  even  in  her 
infancy,  for  the  marriage  yoke.  '  Do  not  force 
me  to  marry,'  said  she  to  the  states.  '  for  if  I 
should  have  a  son,  it  is  not  more  probable  that  he 
should  be  an  Augustus  than  a  Nero.'  An  acci- 
dent happened  in  the  beginning  of  her  reign 
which  gave  her  a  remarkable  opportunity  of  dis- 
playing the  strength  and  equanimity  of  her 
mind.  As  she  was  at  the  chapel  cf  the  castle 
of  Stockholm,  with  the  principal  lords  of  her 
court,  a  poor  wretch,  who  was  disordered  in  his 
mind,  came  to  the  place  with  a  design  to  assas- 
sinate her.  This  man,  who  was  in  the  full  vigor 
of  his  age,  chose,  for  the  execution  of  his  design, 
the  moment  in  which  the  assembly  was  perform- 
ing what  in  the  Swedish  church  is  called  an  act 
of  recollection — a  silent  and  separate  act  of  de- 
votion, performed  by  each  individual  kneeling, 
and  hiding  the  face  with  the  hand.  Taking  this 
opportunity  he  rushed  through  the  crowd  and 
mounted  a  balustrade,  within  which  the  queen 
was  upon  her  knees.  The  baron  Braki,  chief 
justice  of  Sweden,  was  alarmed,  and  the  guards 
crossed  their  partisans  to  prevent  his  coming 
further;  but  he  struck  them  furiously  on  one 
side,  leaped  over  the  barrier,  arid  being  then 
close  to  the  queen  made  a  blow  at  her  with  a 
knife,  which  he  had  concealed  without  a  sheath 
in  his  sleeve.  The  queen  avoided  the  blow,  and 
pushed  the  captain  of  her  guards,  who  instantly 
threw  himself  upon  the  assassin,  and  seized  him 
by  the  hair.  All  this  happened  in  a  moment. 
The  man  was  known  to  be  mad,  and  therefore 
nobody  supposed  he  had  any  accomplices  :  they 
therefore  contented  themselves  with  locking  him 
up,  and  the  queen  returned  to  her  devotion  with- 
out the  least  trepidation.  One  of  the  great 
affairs  which  engaged  Christina's  attention  while 
she  was  upon  the  throne  was  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia :  it  was  concluded  in  October,  1648.  The 
success  of  the  Swedish  arms  rendered  Christina 
the  arbitress  of  the  treaty.  No  other  public 
event  of  importance  took  place  during  the  rest  of 
Christina's  reign;  for  there  were  neither  wars 
abroad  nor  troubles  at  home.  Her  reign  was 


CHRISTINA    ALEXANDRA. 


659 


that  of  learning  and  genius.  She  drew  about 
her,  wherever  she  was,  all  the  distinguished  cha- 
racters of  her  time, — Grotius,  Pascal,  Bochart, 
Descartes,  Gassendi,  Saumaise,  Naude,  Vossius, 
Heinsius,  Menage,  Lucas,  Holstenius,  Bayle, 
madam  Dacier,  Filicaia,  and  many  others.  The 
arts  never  fail  to  immortalise  the  prince  who 
protects  them  :  and  almost  all  these  illustrious 
persons  have  celebrated  Christina,  either  in 
poems,  letters,  or  other  literary  productions, 
which  form  a  general  mass  of  testimonials,  that 
may  be  considered  as  a  solid  basis  of  reputation. 
Christina,  however,  may  be  justly  censured  with 
•want  of  taste  in  not "  properly  distinguishing 
merit.  The  rapid  fortune  which  the  adventurer 
Michon,  known  by  the  name  Bourdelot,  ac- 
quired by  her  countenance  and  liberality,  was 
also  a  great  scandal  to  literature.  He  had  no 
pretensions  to  learning,  and,  though  sprightly, 
was  yet  indecent.  He  was  brought  to  court  by 
the  learned  Saumaise ;  and.  for  a  time,  drove  IH 
terary  merit  out  of  it,  making  learning  the  object 
of  his  ridicule,  and  exacting  from  Christina  an 
exorbitant  tribute  to  the  weakness  and  incon- 
stancy of  her  sex.  At  last  she  was  compelled  by 
the  public  indignation  to  banish  this  unworthy 
minion  and  she  immediately  forgot  him.  This 
Bourdelot,  during  his  ascendancy  over  the  queen, 
had  supplanted  count  Magnus  de  la  Gardie,  son 
of  the  constable  of  Sweden,  who  was  a  relation, 
a  favorite,  and  perhaps  the  lover  of  Christina. 
M.  de  Motteville,  who  had  seen  him  ambassador 
in  France,  says,  in  her  memoirs,  that  he  spoke  of 
his  queen  in  terms  so  passionate  and  respectful, 
that  every  one  concluded  his  attachment  to  her 
to  be  more  ardent  and  tender  than  a  mere  sense 
of  duty  can  produce.  This  nobleman  fell  into 
disgrace  because  he  showed  some  inclination  to 
govern;  while  M.  Bourdelot  seemed  to  aim  at 
nothing  more  than  to  amuse,  and  concealed, 
tinder  the  unsuspected  character  of  a  droll,  the 
real  ascendancy  which  he  exercised  over  the 
queen's  mind.  About  this  time  an  accident  hap- 
pened to  Christina,  which  again  displayed  her 
presence  of  mind.  Having  ordered  some  ships 
of  war  to  be  built  at  the  port  of  Stockholm,  she 
went  to  see  them  when  finished ;  and  as  she  was 
going  on  board,  across  a  narrow  plank,  with  ad- 
miral Fleeming,  his  foot  slipping,  he  fell,  and 
drew  the  queen  with  him  into  the  sea,  which  in 
that  place  was  nearly  ninety  feet  deep.  Anthony 
Steinberg,  the  queen's  first  equerry,  instantly 
threw  himself  into  the  water,  laid  hold  of  her 
robe,  and,  with  such  assistance  as  was  given 
him,  got  the  queen  ashore ;  during  the  time  of 
this  accident  her  recollection  was  such  that  the 
moment  her  lips  were  above  water  she  cried, 
*  Take  care  of  the  admiral.'  When  she  was  got 
out  of  the  water  she  discovered  no  emotion,  either 
by  her  gesture  or  countenance ;  and  she  dined 
the  same  day  in  public,  where  she  gave  a  hu- 
morous account  of  her  adventure.  Though  she 
was  at  first  fond  of  the  power  and  splendor  of 
royalty,  yet  she  began  at  length  to  feel  that  it 
embarrassed  her  ;  and  the  same  love  of  indepen- 
dence which  had  determined  her  against  mar- 
riage, at  length  made  her  weary  of  her  crown. 
At  last  she  lesolved  to  abdicate;  and,  in  1652, 
communicated  her  resolution  to  the  senate.  The 


senate  zealously  remonstrated  against  it,  and 
were  joined  by  the  people,  and  even  by  Charles 
Gustavus  himself,  who  was  to  succeed  her :  she 
yielded  to  their  importunities,  and  continued  to 
sacrifice  her  own  pleasure  to  the  will  of  the 
public  till  1654,  when  she  carried  her  design 
into  execution.  The  ceremony  of  her  abdication 
was  a  mournful  solemnity,  a  mixture  of  pomp 
and  sadness,  in  which  scarcely  any  eyes  but  her 
own  were  dry.  She  continued  firm  and  com- 
posed through  the  whole ;  and  as  soon  as  it  was 
over  prepared  to  remove  into  a  country  more 
favorable  to  science  than  Sweden  was.  Concern- 
ing the  merit  of  this  action  the  world  has  always 
been  divided  in  opinion ;  it  has  been  condemned 
alike  both  by  the  ignorant  and  the  learned,  the 
trifler  and  the  sage.  It  was  admired,  however, 
by  the  great  Conde" :  *  How  great  was  the  mag- 
nanimity of  this  princess,'  said  he,  '  who  could 
so  easily  give  up  that  for  which  the  rest  of  man- 
kind are  continually  destroying  each  other,  and 
which  so  many  throughout  their  whole  lives  pur- 
sue without  attaining'.'  Christina,  besides  ab- 
dicating her  crown,  abjured  her  religion  ;  an  act 
universally  approved  by  one  party  and  censured 
by  another ;  the  Papists  triumphed  and  the  Pro- 
testants were  offended.  No  prince,  after  a  long 
imprisonment,  ever  showed  so  much  joy  upon 
Jbeing  restored  to  his  kingdom  as  Christina  did  in 
quitting  hers.  When  she  came  to  a  little  brook, 
which  separates  Sweden  from  Norway,  then 
under  the  dominion  of  Denmark,  she  got  out  of 
her  carrriage,  and  leaping  to  the  other  side,  cried 
out  in  a  transport  of  joy,  '  At  last  I  am  free,  and 
out  of  Sweden,  whither,  I  hope,  I  shall  never  re- 
turn.' She  dismissed  her  women,  and  laid  aside 
the  habit  of  her  sex.  '  I  would  become  a  man.' 
said  she,  '  yet  I  do  not  love  men  because  they 
are  men,  but  because  they  are  not  women.'  She 
made  her  abjuration  at  Brussels,  where  she  saw 
the  great  Conde,  who,  after  his  defection,  made 
that  city  his  asylum.  '  Cousin,'  said  she,  '  who 
would  have  thought,  ten  years  ago,  that  we 
should  have  met  at  this  distance  from  our  coun- 
tries?' The  inconstancy  of  Christina's  temper 
appeared  in  her  continually  travelling  from 
place  to  place :  from  Brussels  she  went  to 
Rome,  from  Rome  to  France,  and  from  France 
she  returned  to  Rome*  again ;  after  this  she  went 
to  Sweden,  where  she  was  not  very  well  re- 
ceived; from  Sweden  she  went  to  Hamburgh, 
where  she  continued  a  year,  and  then  went  again 
to  Rome ;  from  Rome  she  returned  to  Ham- 
burgh, and  again  to  Sweden,  where  she  was  still 
worse  received  than  before;  upon  which  she 
•went  back  to  Hamburgh,  and  from  Hamburgh 
again  to  Rome.  She  intended  another  journey 
to  Sweden,  but  it  did  not  take  place ;  she  also 
planned  an  expedition  to  England,  where  Crom- 
well did  not  seem  well  disposed  to  receive  her ; 
and  after  many  wanderings,  and  many  purposes 
of  wandering  still  more,  she  at  last  died  at 
Rome,  in  1689.  Her  journeys  to  Sweden,  how- 
ever, had  motives  of  necessity,  for  her  appoint- 
ments were  very  ill  paid,  though  the  states  often 
confirmed  them  after  her  abdication:  but  to 
other  places  she  was  led  merely  by  a  roving 
disposition,  and  there  was  no  event  in  Europe 
in  which  she  was  not  ambitious  of  acting  a  prin- 

2  U2 


CHR 


660 


CHR 


•cipal  part.     During  the  troubles  in  France,  by 
the  faction  called  the  Fronde,  she  wrote  with 
great  eagerness   to   all   the    interested   parties, 
officiously   offering   her   mediation  to  reconcile 
their  interests  and  calm  their  passions,  the  secret 
springs  of  which  it  was  altogether  impossible  she 
should  know     This  was  first  thought  a  dan- 
gerous, and  afterwards  a  ridiculous  behaviour. 
During  her  residence  in  France  she  gave  uni- 
versal disgust,  not  only  by  violating  all  the  cus- 
toms of  the  country,  but  by  practising  others 
directly  opposite.     She  treated  the  ladies  of  the 
court  with   the   greatest   rudeness:    when  they 
came  to  embrace  her,  she,  being  in  man's  habit, 
cried  out,  '  What  a  strange  eagerness  have  these 
women  to  kiss  me !     Is  it  because  I  look  like  a 
man  ?'    The  murder  of  Monaldeschi  is,  to  this 
hour,  an  inscrutable  mystery.     It  is,  however,  of 
a  piece  with  the  expressions  constantly  used  by 
Christina  in  her  letters,  with  respect  to  those 
with  whom  she  was  offended ;  for  she  scarcely 
ever  signified  her  displeasure  without  threaten- 
ing the  life  of  the  offender.   *  If  you  fail  in  your 
duty,'  said  she  to  her  secretary,  whom  she  sent 
to  Stockholm  after  her  abdication,  '  not  all  the 
power  of  the  king  of  Sweden  shall  save  your  life, 
though   you   should  take   shelter  in  his  arms.' 
Bayle  was  also  threatened  for  having  said  that 
the  letter  which  Christina  wrote,  upon  the  re- 
vocation of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  was  *  a  remain 
of  Protestanism  ;'   but  he  made  his  peace  by 
apologies  and  submission.     She  had  wit,  taste, 
parts,  and  learning :  she  was  indefatigable  upon 
the  throne;   great  in  private  life;   firm  in  mis- 
fortunes ;  impatient  of  contradiction,  and,  except 
in  her  love  of  learning,  inconstant  in  her  incli- 
nations.    The  most  remarkable  instance  of  this 
fickleness  is,  that  after  sue  had  abdicated  the 
crown  of  Sweden  she  intrigued  for  that  of  Poland. 
She  was,  in  every  action  and  pursuit,  violent 
and  ardent  in  the  highest  degree ;  impetuous  in 
her  desires,   dreadful   in   her   resentment,   and 
fickle  in  her  conduct.    She  says  of  herself  that 
'  she   was    mistrustful,    ambitious,    passionate, 
haughty,  impatient,  contemptuous,  satyrical,  in- 
credulous, undevout,  of  an  ardent  and  violent 
temper,  and  extremely  amourous ;'  a  disposition, 
however,  to  which,  if  she  may  be  believed,  her 
pride  and  her  virtue  were  always  superior.     In 
general  her  failings  were  those  of  her  own,  and 
her  virtues  those  of  the  other  sex. 

CHRI'STMAS,  n.  s.  From  Christ  and  mass. 
The  day  on  which  the  nativity  of  our  blessed  Sa- 
viour is  celebrated,  by  the  particular  service  of 
the  church. 

For  their  part  they  are  true  to  the  church,  their 
infants  are  questioned  and  sprinkled  ; '  their  wives 
pay  a  shilling  and  are  churched  ;  they  are  funny  at  a 
wedding,  and  feel  no  expense  but  the  ring ;  they  eat 
cross-buns  on  Good  Friday,  they  are  merry  at  Easter, 
and  mad  at  Christmas  ;  they  pay  small  tythes  through 
life,  and  are  buried  in  form  when  they  die  ;  and  they 
call  this  the  Christian  religion  in  the  best  constituted 
church  in  the  world,  and  abuse  all  that  think  other- 
wise, as  knaves  and  fools,  ignorant  of  God,  and  dis- 
loyal to  the  king.  Robinson. 

CHRISTMAS.  As 'to  the  antiquity  of  this 
festival,  the  first  footsteps  we  find  of  it  are  in 
the  second  century,  about  the  time  of  the  empe- 


ror Commodus.  The  decretal  epistles  indeed 
carry  it  up  a  little  higher ;  and  say  that  Teles- 
phorus,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius, 
ordered  divine  service  to  be  celebrated,  and  an 
angelical  hymn  to  be  sung,  the  night  before  the 
nativity  of  our  Saviour.  That  it  was  kept  before 
the  time  of  Constantine  we  have  a  melancholy 
proof:  for  whilst  the  persecution  raged  under 
Dioclesian,  who  then  kept  his  court  at  Nicome- 
dia,  that  tyrant,  among  other  acts  of  cruelty, 
finding  multitudes  of  Christians  assembled  toge- 
ther to  celebrate  Christ's  nativity,  commanded 
the  church  doors  where  they  were  met  to  be  shut, 
and  fire  to  be  put  to  it,  which  soon  reduced  them 
and  the  church  to  ashes. 

CHRI'STMAS-BOX,  n.  s.  From  Christmas  and 
box.  A  box  in  which  little  presents  are  col- 
lected at  Christmas. 

When  time  comes  round,  a  Christmas-box  they  bear, 
And  one  day  makes  them  rich  for  all  the  year. 

Gay's  Trivia. 

CHRI'STMAS-FLOWER,  n.  s.  Hellebore. 
CHRISTMAS  HARBOUR  is  described  by  captain 
Cook  as  a  good  and  safe  harbour,  on  the  north 
coast  of  Kerguelen's  Island,  abounding  with 
seals  and  water-fowl ;  but  remarkably  destitute 
of  vegetation.  He  found  here  a  bottle,  contain- 
ing a  parchment  memorial  of  the  place  having 
been  visited  by  a  French  vessel  in  1772-3. 

CHRISTMAS  ISLAND,  an  island  nearly  in  the 
centre  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  so  named  by 
captain  Cook,  on  account  of  his  first  landing  here 
on  Christmas-day,  1777.  It  is  forty-five  miles 
in  circumference ;  bounded  by  a  reef  of  coral 
rocks,  on  the  west  side  of  which  is  a  bank  of  fine 
sand,  extending  a  mile  into  the  sea,  and  affording 
good  anchorage.  The  soil,  in  some  places,  is 
light  and  black,  composed  of  decayed  vegetables, 
the  dung  of  birds,  and  sand  :  in  others,  nothing 
but  broken  corals  and  shells  are  to  be  seen.  No 
fresh  water  was  found  by  digging.  The  vege- 
table productions  are  only  a  few  cocoa-nut  trees, 
and  some  low  trees,  shrubs,  and  plants,  such  as 
are  found  on  other  islands  of  the  same  appear- 
ance, in  a  soil  half  formed.  It  is  frequented  by 
several  sorts  of  birds,  and  plenty  of  fish  and  tur- 
tles are  found  on  its  coast.  Long.  157°  30'  W., 
lat.  1°  59'  N. 

CHRISTMAS  ROSE.  See  HELLEBORUS. 
CHRISTMAS  SOUND,  a  bay  on  the  south  coast 
of  Terra  del  Fuego,  thus  named  by  captain  Cook, 
in  December,  1774.  Here  is  anchorage  in  from 
fifteen  to  thirty  fathoms ;  and  tufts  of  wood,  fresh 
water,  and  wild  fowl,  near.  A  copious  descrip- 
tion of  it,  that  great  navigator  says,  is  unnecessary, 
as  no  one  would  be  benefited  by  it. 

CHRISTOPHERSON  (John),  a  learned 
English  bishop  of  the  sixteenth  century,  born  in 
Lancashire,  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  one  of 
the  first  fellows  of  Trinity  College.  In  1554  he 
was  made  dean  of  Norwich,  but  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.  he  lived  abroad  in  a  state  of  exile. 
On  the  accession  of  Mary  I.  he  returned,  and 
was  made  bishop  of  Chichester.  He  died  a  short 
time  before  that  bloody  monarch.  He  translated 
Philo  Judaeus  into  Latin,  and  the  ecclesiastical 
histories  of  Eusebius,  Socrates,  Sozomen,  Eva- 
grius,  and  Theodoret;  but  his  translations  are 
censured  as  not  only  barbarous  in  style,  but  as 


CHR 


661 


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defective,  erroneous,  and  deranged.  He  is  ac- 
cused of  acting  the  commentator  rather  than  the 
translator ;  of  enlarging,  retrenching,  and  trans- 
posing at  pleasure,  and  altering  not  only  the 
sense,  but  even  the  chapters  of  his  authors. 
Hence  Baronius  and  others,  who  have  trusted  to 
his  translations,  have  been  led  into  great  mistakes. 

CHRIST,  ORDER  OF.  1.  A  military  order, 
founded  by  Dionysius  I.  king  of  Portugal,  to 
animate  his  nobles  against  the  Moors.  The  arms 
of  this  order  are  gules,  patriarchal  cross,  charged 
with  another  cross  argent :  they  had  their  resi- 
dence, first,  at  Castromarin,  afterwards  at  Tho- 
mar;  which  was  near  to  the  Moors  of  Andalusia 
and  Estremadura.  2.  Another  military  order  in 
Livonia,  instituted  in  1205,  by  Albert,  bishop  of 
Riga,  to  defend  the  new  Christians,  who  were 
daily  converted  in  Livonia,  but  persecuted  by 
Jie  heathens.  They  wore  on  their  cloaks  a  sword 
with  a  cross  over  it,  whence  they  were  also  de- 
nominated brothers  of  the  sword. 

CHRISTOPHE,  a  ci-devant  emperor  and 
aegro  of  remarkable  character,  was  born  in  the 
.sland  of  St.  Kill's,  but  conveyed,  in  1780,  to  St. 
Domingo  as  a  slave,  being  then  about  twelve 
years  old.  Skilful  in  the  art  of  cookery,  he  was 
much  employed  in  a  tavern  at  Cape  Town,  and 
took  an  active  part  among  the  first  revolutionists. 
Being  entrusted,  by  general  Leclerc,  with  the 
command  of  a  division  of  the  French  troops,  he 
went  over  to  the  black  army ;  and,  on  the  death 
of  Dessalines,  he  rose  to  the  supreme  command, 
and  shortly  after  assumed  the  title  of  Henry  I. 
emperor  of  Hayti.  He  maintained  a  strong  mili- 
tary force,  and  built  the  town  of  Sans  Souci,  with 
a  splendid  palace,  defended  by  forts  and  re- 
doubts ;  but  at  length  fell  by  a  conspiracy,  the 
8th  of  October,  1820;  when,  finding  that  his 
troops  were  not  to  be  relied  on,  he  shot  himself 
through  the  heart.  His  character  was  that  of  a 
ferocious  despot,  but  he  learned  how  to  play  this 
part  in  the  school  of  his  former  masters. 

CHRISTOPHER'S,  (St.)  called  by  English 
sailors  generally  St.  Kill's,  is  eight  miles  south- 
east of  Eustalia,  and  conlains  43,726  acres,  or 
almosl  seventy  square  miles.  The  interior  is 
chiefly  composed  of  barren  precipices  and  moun- 
tains. The  loftiest  of  them,  Mount  Misery,  rises 
3,711  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  evi- 
denlly  an  exhausled  volcano.  The  soil  near  the 
sea  is  extremely  fertile,  and  exceeded  by  no  part 
of  the  West  Indies  in  the  production  of  sugar. 
Particular  spots  have  been  known  to  yield  five 
hhds.  of  sixteen  cwt.  each,  to  the  acre,  and  a 
whole  plantation  has  yielded  four  hhds.  The 
island  has  been  estimated  to  contain  43,726 
acres;  17,000  are  devoted  to  sugar,  4000  to 
pasturage,  and  perhaps  2000  or  3000  to  cotlon, 
indigo,  and  provisions;  the  rest  is  unfit  for  cul- 
tivation. The  official  value  of  the  exports  and 
imports  amounled, 

Imports.  Exports. 

In  1309,  lo     .     £266,064     ,     £132,845 
1810,    .     .        253,611     .          89,362 
The  nrincipal  imports  were, 

Coffee.       Sugar.          Rum.  Cotton. 

cwt.  cwt.  galls.  Ibs. 

1809,  433      166,053     343,075     112,327 

1810,  13t      167,943     220,886       26,853 


By  an  estimale,  in  1805,  the  whites  and  people 
of  color  amounted  to  1998.  More  recently  the 
population  has  been  taken  at  31,700,  of  whcm- 
about  30,000  are  slaves.  Basseterre,  the  capital, 
is  on  the  south-west  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  a 
river,  opening  into  a  bay  called  Basseterre  Road. 
It  contains  800  houses,  and  has  three  batteries. 

CHRISTOVAL,  (St.)  a  strong  sea-port  town 
of  Brasil,  in  the  province  of  Bahia.  Its  popula- 
tion is  not  considerable,  but  sugar  is  grown  in 
the  neighbourhood  in  great  abundance.  Twenty 
miles  north-easl  of  Sergippe.  Long.  37°  30'  W., 
lal.  12°40'S.  There  are  various  other  minor 
selllements  of  this  name  in  different  parts  of 
South  America. 

CHRISTOVAL,  (St.)  one  of  five  lakes  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  valley  of  Mexico,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
city  of  lhal  name.  A  small  town  of  this  name 
also  stands  on  its  shores,  with  sixty  families  of 
Indians,  besides  Spaniards.  Eighteen  miles 
north  of  Mexico.  Long.  99°  5'  W.,  lat.  19° 
34' N. 

CHRIST'S  THORN,  n.  s.  So  called,  as  Skin- 
ner fancies,  because  the  thorns  have  some  like- 
ness to  a  cross.  A  plant.  It  has  long  sharp 
spines  :  the  flower  has  five  leaves,  in  form  of  a 
rose  :  out  of  the  flower-cup,  which  is  divided  into 
several  segments,  rises  the  pointal,  which  becomes 
a  fruit,  shaped  like  a  bonnet,  having  a  shell 
almost  globular,  which  is  divided  into  three  cells, 
in  each  of  which  is  contained  a  roundish  seed. 
This  is  by  many  persons  supposed  to  be  the 
plant  from  which  our  Saviour's  crown  of  thorns 
was  composed. 

CHROASTACES,  in  natural  history,  a  genus 
of  pellucid  gems,  comprehending  all  those  of  va- 
riable colors,  as  viewed  in  different  lights;  of 
which  kinds  are  the  opal  and  the  asteria  or  ocu- 
lus  felis.  See  OPAL  and  ASTERIA. 

CHROMA,  in  rhetoric,  elegance  of  expres- 
sion. 

CHROMATIC,  adj.  Xpa^a,  color.  Relat- 
ing to  color. 

I  am  now  come  to  the  third  part  of  painting,  which 
is  called  the  chromatick,  or  colouring. 

DryderCs  Dufremoy. 

Relating  to  a  certain  species  of  ancient  mu- 
sic, now  unknown. 

It  was  observed,  he  never  touched  his  lyre  in  such 
a  truly  chromatick  and  enhannonick  manner. 

Arbuthnot  and  Pope. 

CHROMATIC,  a  kind  of  music,  which  pro- 
ceeds by  several  semi-tones  in  succession.  For 
this  denomination  several  causes  are  assigned,  of 
which  the  following  appears  to  be  the  most  satis- 
factory. Xpw/ia  may  signify  that  shade  of  a  co- 
lor by  which  it  melts  into  another,  or  what  the 
French  call  nuance.  It  this  sense  it  will  apply 
to  semi-tones,  which,  being  the  smallest  intervals 
allowed  in  the  diatonic  scale,  will  most  easily 
run  one  into  another.  To  find  the  reasons 
assigned  by  the  ancients  for  this  denomination, 
and  the  various  divisions  of  the  chromatic  species, 
the  reader  may  have  recourse  to  the  same  article 
in  Rousseau's  Musical  Dictionary.  At  present, 
that  species  consists  in  giving  such  a  procedure 
to  the  fundamental  bass,  that  the  parts  in  the 
harmony,  or  at  least  some  of  them,  may  pro- 
ceed by  semi-tones,  as  well  in  rising  as  descendr 


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662 


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ing ;  which  is  most  frequently  found  in  the  mi- 
nor mode,  from  the  alteration  to  which  the  sixth 
and  seventh  note  are  subjected,  by  the  nature  of 
the  mode  itself.  The  successive  semi-tones  used 
in  the  chromatic  species  are  rarely  of  the  same 
kind;  but  alternatively  major  and  minor,  that  is 
to  say,  chromatic  and  diatonic :  for  the  interval 
of  a  minor  tone  contains  a  minor  or  chromatic 
semi-tone,  and  another  which  is  major  or  diato- 
nic; a  measure  which  temperament  renders 
common  to  all  tones;  so  that  we  cannot  proceed 
by  two  minor  semi-tones  which  are  conjunctive 
in  succession,  without  entering  into  the  enhar- 
monic species;  but  two  major  semi-tones  twice 
follow  each  other  in  the  chromatic  order  of 
the  scale.  The  most  certain  precedures  of  the 
fundamental  bass  to  generate  the  chromatic  ele- 
ments in  ascent,  is  alternately  to  descend  by 
thirds  and  rise  by  fourths,  whilst  all  the  chords 
carry  the  third  major.  If  the  fundamental  bass 
proceeds  from  dominant  to  dominant  by  perfect 
cadences  avoided,  it  produces  the  chromatic  in 
descending.  To  produce  both  at  once,  inter- 
weave the  perfect  and  broken  cadences,  but  at 
the  same  time  avoid  them.  As  at  every  note  in 
the  chromatic  species  one  must  change  the  tone, 
that  succession  ought  to  be  regulated  and  limited 
to  prevent  deviation.  For  this  purpose  the  space 
most  suitable  to  chromatic  movements  is  be- 
tween the  extremes  of  the  dominant  and  the 
tonic  in  ascending,  and  between  the  tonic  and 
the  dominant  in  descending.  In  the  major 
mode  one  may  also  chromatically  descend  from 
the  dominant  upon  the  second  note.  This 
transition  is  very  common  in  Italy ;  and,  not- 
withstanding its  beauty,  begins  to  be  a  little 
too  common  amongst  us.  The  chromatic  species 
is  admirably  fitted  to  express  grief  and  affliction  : 
these  sounds  boldly  struck  in  ascending,  tear  the 
soul.  Their  power  is  no  less  magical  in  descend- 
ing ;  it  is  then  that  the  ear  seems  to  be  pierced  with 
real  groans.  Attended  with  its  proper  harmony, 
this  species  appears  proper  to  express  everything; 
but  its  completion,  by  concealing  the  melody, 
sacrifices  a  part  of  its  expression  ;  and  for  this 
disadvantage,  arising  from  the  fulness  of  the  har- 
mony, it  can  only  be  compensated  by  the  nature 
and  genius  of  the  movement. 

CHROMATIC,  ENHARMONIC.  See  ENHARMONIC. 

CHROMATICS.     See  OPTICS. 

CHROMIC  ACID,  in  chemistry.  This  acid  was 
discovered  by  Vauquelin,  and  was  extracted  from 
the  lead  ore  of  Siberia  by  means  of  carbonate  of 
potash,  which  was  afterwards  separated  by  a  more 
powerful  acid.  In  this  state  it  is  a  red  or  orange- 
colored  powder,  of  a  peculiar  rough  metallic  taste, 
which  is  more  sensible  in  it  than  in  any  other  me- 
tallic acid.  If  this  powder  be  exposed  to  the  action 
of  light  and  heat,  it  loses  its  acidity,  and  is  con- 
verted into  green  oxide  of  chrome,  giving  out  pure 
oxygen  gas.  The  chromic  acid  is  the  first  that 
*»as  been  found  to  deoxygenate  itself  easily  by 
the  action  of  heat,  and  afford  oxygen  gas  by  this 
simple  operation.  It  appears  that  several  of  its 
properties  are  owing  to  the  weak  adhesion  of  a 
part,  at  least,  of  its  oxygen.  The  green  oxide  of 
chrome  cannot  be  brought  back  to  the  state  of  an 
iicid,  unless  its  oxygen  be  restored  by  treating  it 
with  some  other  acid. 


The  extraction  of  chromic  acid  from  the  French 
ore  is  performed  by  igniting  it  with  its  own 
weight  of  nitre  in  a  crucible.  The  residue  is 
lixiviated  with  water,  which  being  then  filtered, 
contains  the  chromate  of  potash.  On  pouring 
into  this  a  little  nitric  acid,  and  muriate  of  bary- 
tes,  an  instantaneous  precipitate  of  the  chromate 
of  barytes  takes  place.  After  having  procured  a 
certain  quantity  of  this  salt,  it  must  be  put  in  its 
moist  state  into  a  capsule,  and  dissolved  in  the 
smallest  possible  quantity  of  nitric  acid.  The 
barytes  is  to  be  then  precipitated  by  very  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  taking  care  not  to  add  an  excess 
of  it.  When  the  liquid  is  found  by  trial  to  con- 
tain neither  sulphuric  acid  nor  barytes,  it  must 
be  filtered.  It  now  consists  of  water,  with  nitric 
and  chromic  acids.  The  whole  is  to  be  evapo- 
rated to  dryness,  conducting  the  heat  at  the  end 
so  as  not  to  endanger  the  decomposition  of  the 
chromic  acid,  which  will  remain  in  the  capsule 
under  the  form  of  a  reddish  matter.  It  must  be 
kept  in  a  glass  phial  well  corked. 

The  chromic  acid  is  soluble  in  water,  and 
crystallises,  by  cooling  and  evaporation,  in  long- 
ish  prisms  of  a  ruby  red.  Its  taste  is  acrid  and 
styptic.  Its  specific  gravity  is  not  exactly  known ; 
but  it  exceeds  that  of  water.  It  powerfully  red- 
dens the  tincture  of  turnsole. 

It  readily  unites  with  alkalis,  arid  is  the  only 
acid  that  has  the  property  of  coloring  its  salts, 
whence  the  name  of  chromic  has  been  given  it.  If 
it  be  strongly  heated  with  charcoal,  it  grows  black, 
and  passes  to  the  metallic  state  without  melting. 

Of  the  acids,  the  action  of  the  muriatic  on  it  is 
the  most  remarkable.  If  this  be  distilled  with 
the  chromic  acid,  by  a  gentle  heat,  it  is  readily 
converted  into  chlorine.  It  likewise  imparts  to 
it  by  mixture  the  property  of  dissolving  gold  ; 
in  which  the  chromic  resembles  the  nitric  acid. 

CHROMIUM,  xpw/ui,  color,  in  chemistry  and 
metallurgy,  a  metal  discovered  by  the  celebrated 
Vauquelin  in  1797,  and  so  called  from  its  power 
of  coloring  all  its  combinations.  It  may  be  ex- 
tracted either  from  the  native  chromates  of  lead 
or  iron.  The  brown  chromate  of  iron,  which  is 
usually  employed,  is  best  acted  upon  by  nitrate  of 
potash.  As  this  metal  belongs  more  to  the  labo- 
ratory of  the  chemist  than  to  any  branch  of  arts  or 
manufactures,  we  have  treated  on  it  at  length  under 
the  article  CHEMISTRY,  to  which  we  therefore  re- 
fer the  reader. 

CHRO'NICAL,  adj.   >     - 

CHRO'NICK.  \    From  XPovoc,  time. 

A  chronical  distemper  is  of  length ;  as  dropsies, 
asthmas,  and  the  like.  Quincy. 

Of  diseases  some  are  chronical,  and  of  long  dura- 
tion; as  quartane  agues,  scurvy,  wherein  we  defer 
the  cure  unto  more  advantageous  seasons. 

Rrowne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

The  lady's  use  of  these  exce'lencies  is  to  divert  the 
old  man  when  he  is  out  of  the  pangs  of  a  chronical  dis- 
temper. Spectator. 

CHRO'NICLE,  n.  s.  )      Fr.  chronique,  from 

CHRO'NICLER,  n.  s.  $  xpovof,  time.  A  re- 
gister or  account  of  events  in  order  of  time.  A 
history.  To  register  ;  to  record.  A  historian  ; 
one  that  keeps  up  the  memory  of  things  past. 

This  to  rehearse,  should  rather  be  to  chronicle  times 
than  to  search  into  reformation  of  abuses  in  that  realm. 

Spenter. 


CHRONOLOGY. 


6G3 


I  do  herein  rely  vpon  these  bards,  or  Irish  chroni- 
cler*. Id. 
You  lean  too  confidently  on  those   Irish   chronicles, 
which  are  most  fabulous  and  forged.     Id.  on  Ireland. 
This  custom  -was  held  by  the  Druids   and   bards  of 
our  ancient  Britons,  and  of  latter  times  by  the  Irish 
chroniclers,  called  rimers. 

Raleigh's  History  of  the  World. 
If  from  the  field  I  should  return  once  more, 
I  and  my  sword  will  earn  my  chronicle. 

Shakspeare.  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 
To  suckle  fools,  and  chronicle  small  beer. 

Id.  Othello. 

I  am  traduced  by  tongues,  which  neither  know 
My  faculties  nor  person,  yet  will  be 
The  chronicles  of  my  doing.  Shakspeare, 

Here  gathering  chroniclers,  and  by  them  stand 
Giddy  fantastick  poets  of  each  land.  Donne. 

The  bloody  Scottish  chronicle  read  o'er, 
Shewed  him  how  many  kings  in  purple  gore 
Were  hurled  to  hell  by  cruel  tyrants  lore. 

Marvell. 

Apostolizing  from  our  arts,  and  us 

To  turn  the  chronicler  to  Sparticus.  Id. 

I  give  up   to   historians  the   generals   and   heroes 

which  croud  their  annals,  together  with  those  which 

you  are  to  produce  for  the  British  chronicle.     Dryden. 

I  shall  be  the  jest  of  the  town  ;  nay,  in  two  days, 

I  expect  to  be  chronicled  in  ditty,  and  sung   in  woeful 

ballad.  Congreve. 

CHRONICLES,  BOOKS  OF,  canonical  writings  of 

the  Old  Testament.     It  is  uncertain  whether  the 

Books  of  Kings  or  Chronicles  were  written  first, 

as  each  refer  to  the  other.  The  latter,  however,  are 

often  more  full  and  comprehensive  than  the  former. 

Whence  the  Greek   interpreters  call   these  two 

books  TlapaXeairoiJitva,  Supplements,  Additions, 

because  they  contain  some  circumstances  which 

are  omitted  in  the  other  historical  books.     The 

Jews  make  but  one  book  of  the  Ohrormlat.  «*- 


der  the  title  of  Dibre-Haiamim,  i  e.  Journals, 
or  Annals.  Ezra  is  generally  believed  to  be  the 
author  of  these  books.  It  is  certain  they  were 
written  after  the  end  of  the  Babylonish  captivity 
and  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  of  whom 
mention  is  made  in  the  last  chapter  of  the  second 
book.  They  are  an  abridgment  of  all  the  sa- 
cred history,  from  the  beginning  of  the  Jewish 
nation  to  their  first  return  from  the  captivity 
taken  out  of  those  books  of  the  Bible  which  we 
still  have,  and  out  of  other  annals  which  the  au- 
thor had  then  by  him.  The  design  of  the  writer 
was  to  give  the  Jews  a  series  of  their  history. 
The  first  book  relates  to  the  rise  and  propagation 
of  the  people  of  Israel  from  Adam,  and  gives  j» 
punctual  and  exact  account  of  the  reign  of 
David.  The  second  book  sets  down  the  pro- 
gress and  end  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  to  the 
very  year  of  their  return  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity. 

CIIRO'NOGRAM,  n.  s.  Xpoj>oc  time,  and 
ypcz0w  to  write.  An  inscription  including  the 
date  of  any  action.  Of  this  kind  the  following 
is  an  example : 

Gloria  lausque  Deo,  sxCLorVM  in  sascFla  sunto. 

A  chronogrammatieal  verse,  which  includes  not  only 
this  year,,  1660,  but  numerical  letters  enough  to  reach 
above  a  thousand  years  further,  until  the  year  2867. 

Howel. 

CHRONOGRAMMA'TICAL,  adj.  From 
chronogram.  Belonging  to  a  chronogram.  See 
the  last  example. 

CHRONOGRA'MMATIST,  n.  s.  From  chro- 
nogram. A  writer  of  chronograms. 

There  are  foreign  universities,  where,  as  you  prais« 
a  man  in  England  for  being  an  excellent  philosopher, 
or  poet,  it  is  an  ordinary  character  to  be  a  great  chro- 
nogrammatist.  AddisoH. 


CHRONOLOGY 


CHRONO'LOGY,  n.  s.  -\     Xpovoc  time,  and 
CHRONO'LOGER,  n.  s.         I  Xoyof   doctrine. — 
CHRONOLO'GICAL,  adj.       >The     science     of 
CHRONOLO'GICALLY,  adv.  i  computing  and  ad- 
CHRONO'LOGIST,  n.  s.        J  justing  the  periods 
of  time  ;   as  the  revolution  of  the  sun  and  moon  : 
and  of  computing  time  past,  and  referring  each 
event  to  the  proper  year.     The  derivations  bear 
so  evident  a  relation  to  every  part  of  this  defini- 
tion, that  to  explain  them  is  unnecessary. 

Thus  much  touching  the  chronological  account  of 
some  times  and  things  past,  without  confining  my- 
self to  the  exactness  of  years. 

Hole's  Origin  of  Mankind. 

According  to  these  chronologists,  the  prophecy  of  the 
Rabbin,  that  the  world  should  last  but  six  thousand 
years,  has  been  long  disproved. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errows. 

And  when  the  measure   of  the  year  not  being  so 
perfectly  known  to  the  ancients,  rendered  it  very  dif- 
ficult for  them  to  transmit  a  true  chronology  to  suc- 
ceeding ages.  Holder  on  Time. 
Chronologers  differ  among  themselves    about   most 
great  epochas.  Id. 
All  that  learned  noise  and  dust  of  the  chronologist 
i*  wholly  to  be  avoided.                    Locke  on  EdiKation. 


CHRONOLOGY,  as  the  science  which  discourses 
upon  time,  for  our  assistance  in  the  knowledge 
of  history,  might  be  expected  to  be  of  easy  at- 
tainment, and  to  be  rather  a  topic  of  useful, 
occasional  reference,  '  as  men  set  their  watches 
by  a  regulator,'  than  a  separate  study  of  much 
importance.  The  truth,  however,  is  far  other- 
wise. Upon  no  science  ought  the  student  to  enter 
with  a  greater  anticipation  of  difficulties :  pro- 
portionably  to  its  importance,  we  know  of  none 
so  much  neglected ;  none  in  which  the  best  autho- 
rities differ  more  among  themselves.  '  The 
answer  of  a  great  man,'  quoted  by  Locke,  *  to 
one  who  asked  him  what  time  was  ?  Si  non 
rogas  intelligo,'  which  amounts  to  this,  '  the  more 
I  set  myself  to  think  of  it,  the  less  I  understand 
it,'  might,  therefore,  with  great  propriety,  be 
transferred  to  a  similar  question  respecting  chro- 
nology. The  reason  of  this,  perhaps,  on  reflec- 
tion, is  not  very  difficult  to  divine.  Until  history 
assumed  a  definite  and  regular  form,  this  assist- 
ant study  was  not  needed  ;  and  until  astronomi- 
cal observations  were  made  with  some  kind  of 
accuracy,  and  properly  recorded,  it  could  not  be 
pursued.  In  the  most  ancient  and  difficult 


664 


CHRONOLOGY. 


periods  of  history,  therefore,  we  find  the  greatest 
•want  of  modern  accuracy,  and  some  of  our  most 
important  discoveries  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  as 
a  foundation  of  this  science.  Nor  is  it  enough 
to  say  they  did  not  exist;  the  observations  that 
•were  made  must  be  investigated ;  the  best  pos- 
sible scientific  data  explored  and  harmonised, 
and  the  records  of  all  ancient  nations  examined 
and  compared.  Without  leading  points  and 
dates,  history  is  undistinguishable  from  fables  ; 
and  thus  have  we  evinced,  as  we  apprehend,  the 
absolute  and  peculiar  necessity  for  a  systematic 
study  of  this  important  sister-science. 

It  is  generally  divided  into  two  parts ;  the  first 
of  which  is  technical,  and  treats  of  the  proper 
measurement  of  time,  and  its  divisions ;  the  se- 
cond historical,  fixing  the  dates  of  the  events 
recorded  in  history,  and  ranging  them  in  the 
order  in  which  they  happened. 

The  ancient  heathen  poets,  as  we  should  expect, 
appear  to  have  been  entirely  unacquainted  with 
it ;  neither  Homer  nor  Hesiod  mention  anything 
like  a  formal  calendar  in  any  part  of  their  writ- 
ings. The  only  measurement  of  time  in  those 
early  periods  was  by  the  seasons,  the  revolutions 
of  the  sun  and  moon;  and  many  ages  seem  to 
have  elapsed  before  the  mode  of  computation  by 
dating  events  came  into  general  use.  Several 
centuries  intervened  between  the  era  of  the  Olym- 
pic games  and  the  first  histonans ;  and  several 
more  between  these  and  the  first  authors  of  chro- 
nology. 

When  time  first  began  to  be  reckoned,  we  find 
its  measures  very  indeterminate.  The  succession 
of  Juno's  priestesses  at  Argos  served  Hellanicus 
for  the  regulation  of  his  narrative ;  while  Epho- 
rus  reckoned  his  matters  by  generations.  Even 
in  the  histories  of  Herodotus  and  Thucydides, 
we  find  no  regular  dates  for  the  events  recorded. 
No  effort  appears  to  have  been  made  to  esta- 
blish a  fixed  era  until  the  time  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  who  attempted  it  by  comparing 
and  correcting  the  dates  of  the  olympiads,  the 
kings  of  Sparta,  and  the  succession  of  the  priest- 
esses of  Jnno  at  Argos.  Eratosthenes  and 
Apollodorus  digested  the  events  recorded  by 
them,  according  to  the  succession  of  the  olym- 
piads and  of  the  Spartan  kings.  The  uncer- 
tainty of  the  measures  of  time  in  the  most  early 
periods,  renders  the  histories  of  those  times 
equally  uncertain  ;  and,  even  after  the  invention 
of  dates  and  eras,  we  find  the  ancient  historians 
rery  inattentive  to  them,  and  inaccurate  in  their 
computations.  Frequently  their  eras  and  years 
were  reckoned  differently,  without  their  being 
sensible  of  it,  or  at  least  without  giving  the  rea- 
der any  information  concerning  it ;  a  circum- 
stance which  has  rendered  the  fragments  of  their 
works,  now  remaining,  of  very  little  use  to  pos- 
terity. 

The  Chaldean  and  Egyptian  writers  are  gene- 
rally acknowledged  to  be  fabulous  ;  and  Strabo 
acquaints  us,  that  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  the 
other  early  historians  of  Greece,  were  ill  informed 
and  credulous.  Hence  the  disagreement  among 
the  ancient  historians,  and  the  extreme  confusion 
and  contradiction  we  meet  with  on  comparing 
their  works.  Hellanicus  and  Acusilaus  dis- 
agreed about  their  genealogies;  the  latter  re- 


jected the  traditions  of  Ilesiod.  Timseus  accused 
Ephorus  of  falsehood,  and  the  rest  of  the  world 
accused  Timaeus.  The  most  fabulous  legends 
were  imposed  on  the  world  by  Herodotus  ;  and 
even  Thucydides  and  Diodorus,  generally  ac- 
counted able  historians,  have  been  convicted  of 
error.  The  chronology  of  the  Latins  is  still  more 
uncertain.  The  records  of  the  Romans  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  Gauls ;  and  Fabius  Pictor,  the 
most  ancient  of  their  historians,  was  obliged  to 
borrow  the  greatest  part  of  his  information 
from  the  Greeks.  In  other  European  nations 
the  chronology  is  still  more  imperfect,  and  of  a 
later  date ;  and  even  in  modern  times,  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  confusion  and  inaccuracy 
has  arisen  from  want  of  attention  in  the  histo- 
rians, to  ascertain  the  dates  and  epochs  with 
precision. 

Tt  is  obvious,  therefore,  how  necessary  a  pro- 
per system  of  chronology  must  be  for  the  right 
understanding  of  history,  and  likewise  how  very 
difficult  it  is  to  establish  such  a  system.  To 
this  important  point,  however,  several  learned 
men  have  directed  their  attention,  particularly 
Tulius  Africanus,  Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  George 
Syncellus,  John  of  Antioch,  Denis  Petau,  Clu- 
vier,  Calvisius,  Usher,  Simson,  Marsham,  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  Bishops  Beveridge  and  Clayton, 
Jackson,  Blair,  Playfair,  and  Dr.  Hales. 

The  last  of  these  able  writers  has  indeed  but 
too  well  corroborated  our  introductory  remarks 
as  to  the  difficulties  of  this  science,  and  the  ge- 
neral uncertainty  of  many  of  its  principal  topics 
of  enquiry.  In  every  system  of  chronology,  as 
he  observes,  the  two  grand  eras  of  the  Creation 
of  the  world,  and  the  Nativity  of  Christ,  must  be 
the  punctastantia,  the  fixed  points,  or  standards,  by 
reference  to  which  all  subordinate  epoch *,  eras 
and  periods,  are  to  be  adjusted,  such  as  those  of 
the  deluge,  the  exodiad  of  the  Jews  from  Egypt, 
the  reign  of  Sesostris,  the  destruction  of  Troy,  the 
overthrow  of  Nineveh,  the  foundation  of  Solo- 
mon's temple,  foundation  of  Rome,  era  of  the 
olympiads,  the  eclipse  of  Thales,  &c.  And,  to 
show  the  singular  state  of  discordance  in  which 
the  testimonies  of  different  chronologers  will  be 
found,  he  subjoins  in  his  New  Analysis  of  Chrono- 
logy, vol.  i.  p.  3. ;  a  list  of  1 20  different  opinions 
of  the  epoch  of  the  creation,  as  compared  with 
the  nativity,  varying  in  their  extremes  no  less 
than  3268  years.  Dr.  Hales  himself  fixes  that 
event  B.  C.  5411,  differing  from  the  Usherian, 
or  commonly  received  chronology,  1497  years. 
We  insert  this  curious  table  at  the  close  of  our 
article :  even  the  epochs  of  the  nativity,  as  com- 
pared with  the  era  of  the  foundation  of  Rome, 
vary  according  to  the  following  celebrated  systems 
no  less  than  ten  years. 

EPOCHS  OF  THE  NATIVITY. 

u.  c.  B.  c. 

Tillemont,  Mann,  Priestley     .     .     .     747  7 

Kepler,  Capellus,  Dodwell,  Pagi     .     748  6 

Chrysostom,  Petavius,  Prideaux,  Play- 
fair,  Hales  "  749  .5 

Sulpitius  Severus,  Usher    ....     750  4 

Irenaeus,  Tertullian,  Clemens  Alex. 
Eusebius,,  Syncellus,  Baronius, 

Calvisius,  Vossius 751  3 


CHRONOLOGY. 


f/65 


tJ.  C.    B.  C. 

Epiphanius,  Jerome,  Orosius,  Bede, 

Salian,  Sigonius,  Scaliger  ...  752  7 

Chronicon  Alexand.  Dionysius,  Lu- 
ther, Labbaeus 753  1 

A.  D. 

Aerwart 754         1 

Paul  of  Middleburgh 755         2 

Lydiat        756         3 

Chronology  may  be  said  to  be  founded  :  1 .  On 
astronomical  observations,  particularly  of  the 
eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon,  combined  with 
the  calculations  of  the  eras  and  years  of  different 
nations.  2.  The  testimonies  of  credible  authors. 
3.  Those  epochs  in  history,  which  are  so  well 
attested  and  determined,  that  they  have  never 
been  controverted.  4.  Ancient  medals,  coins, 
monuments,  and  inscriptions.  None  of  these, 
however,  can  be  sufficiently  intelligible  without 
an  explanation  of  the  first  part,  which  considers 
the  divisions  of  time,  and  of  which  therefore  we 
shall  treat  in  the  first  place. 

.PART  I. 

OF  THE  DIVISIONS  OF  TIME,  OR  TECH- 
NICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

SECT.  I. — OF  THE  COMPUTATIONS  AND  DI- 
VISIONS OF  THE  DAY. 

The  most  obvious  division  of  time  is  de- 
rived from  the  apparent  revolutions  of  the 
celestial  bodies,  particularly  of  the  sun,  which, 
by  the  vicissitudes  of  day  and  night,  become 
evident  to  the  most  barbarous  and  ignorant 
nations.  In  strict  propriety  of  speech  the  word 
day  signifies  only  that  portion  of  time  during 
which  the  sun  diffuses  light  on  any  part  of  the 
earth  ;  but,  in  the  most  comprehensive  sense,  it 
includes  the  night  also,  and  is  called  by  chro- 
nologers  a  civil  day  ;  by  astronomers  a  natural, 
and  sometimes  an  artificial  day. 

By  a  civil  day  is  meant  the  interval  between 
the  sun's  departure  from  any  given  point  in  the 
heavens  and  his  return  to  it ;  with  as  much  more 
as  answers  to  his  diurnal  motion  eastward,  which 
is  at  the  rate  of  fifty-nine  minutes  and  eight 
seconds  of  a  degree,  or  three  minutes  and  fifty- 
seven  seconds  of  time.  It  is  also  called  a  solar 
day,  and  is  longer  than  a  sidereal  one,  insomuch 
that,  if  the  former  be  divided  into  twenty-four 
equal  parts  or  hours,  the  latter  will  consist  only 
of  twenty-three  hours,  fifty-six  minutes.  The 
apparent  inequality  of  the  sun's  motion  likewise, 
arising  from  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  pro- 
duces another  inequality  in  the  length  of  the 
days  :  and  hence  the  difference  betwixt  real  and 
apparent  time,  so  that  the  apparent  motion  of  the 
sun  cannot  always  be  a  true  measure  of  duration. 
Those  inequalities,  however,  are  capable,  of  being 
reduced  to  a  general  standard,  which  furnishes 
an  exact  measure  throughout  the  year ;  whence 
has  arisen  the  difference  between  mean  and  appa- 
rent times.  See  ASTRONOMY,  Index. 

The  commencement  and  conclusion  of  the  day 
have  been  very  differently  reckoned  by  different 
nations.  The  beginning  of  the  day  was  counted 
from  sunrise  by  the  Babylonians,  Syrians,  Per- 


sians, and  Indians.  The  civil  day  of  the  Jews 
was  begun  from  sunrise,  and  their  sacred  one 
from  sunset ;  the  latter  mode  of  computation 
being  followed  by  the  Athenians,  Arabs,  ancient 
Gauls,  and  other  European  nations ;  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Campbell  found  some  native  tribes  of  the 
southern  regions  of  Africa  adopting  the  same 
mode.  According  to  some,  the  Egyptians  began 
their  day  at  sunset,  while  others  are  of  opinion 
that  they  computed  from  noon  or  from  sunrise ; 
Pliny  informs  us  that  they  computed  their  civil 
day  from  one  midnight  to  another.  It  is  pro- 
bable, however,  that  they  had  different  modes  of 
computation  in  different  provinces  or  cities.  The 
Ausonians,  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Italy, 
computed  the  day  from  midnight ;  a  mode  adopt- 
ed in  the  second  century  by  Hipparchus  :  after- 
wards by  Copernicus,  and  other  astronomers,  and 
now  in  common  use  among  ourselves.  The  Astro- 
nomical day,  however,  as  it  is  called,  on  account 
of  its  being  used  in  astronomical  calculations, 
commences  at  noon,  and  ends  at  the  same  time 
the  following  day.  The  Mahommedans  reckon 
from  one  twilight  to  another. 

Dr.  Hales  observes,  that  the  133  -31^  evening- 
morning,  of  the  Jews  (used  by  Daniel  to  denote 
a  civil  day  in  his  celebrated  prophecy,  chap.  viii. 
14,)  was  probably  adopted  by  the  Greeks.  Hence 
Hesiod  represents  the  occultation  of  the  Pleiades 
as  lasting  VVKTO.G  TZ  Kai  ij^iara  Tfffffapaicovra, 
forty  nights  and  days,  i.  e.  calendar  days ;  and  Dr. 
H.  regards  the  Greek  compound  voxnptpov,  as 
denoting  the  same  mode  of  reckoning.  We 
appear  also  to  have  retained  this  mode  from 
our  Celtic  ancestors,  in  the  English  seven-night,  or 
se'nnight,  and  fortnight ;  and  the  French  in 
their  anuit  (old  French),  '  to-day.'  '  Chro- 
nologers,'  he  adds,  have  generally  supposed  that 
the  civil  day  began  at  sunset,  according  to  pri- 
mitive usage.  But  this  is  a  mistake  :  it  did  not 
begin  till  night-fall :  till  the  end  of  day-light, 
and  commencement  of  twilight,  at  the  first  ap- 
pearance of  the  stars  after  sunset ;  which  begins 
as  soon  as  the  sun  has  arrived  at  a  depression  of 
twelve  degrees  below  the  horizon ;  when  stars  of 
the  first  magnitude  begin  to  shine.  But  this 
does  not  take  place  till  uear  an  hour  after  sunset, 
in  the  temperate  zones.  Nor  is  it  full  night  till 
the  sun  is  depressed  about  eighteen  degrees ; 
when  the  smallest  stars  become  visible;  and 
star-light  shines  out  in  all  its  lustre,  as  soon  as 
the  milky  way  makes  its  appearance,  at  about 
twenty  degrees  of  depression.  The  evening  twi- 
light, therefore,  or  nightfall,  is  the  natural  limit 
between  day  and  night;  as  the  morning  twilight, 
or  dawn,  or  day-break,  is,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
natural  limit  between  night  and  day. 

'  On  this  astronomical  distinction  was  founded 
the  Jewish  law.  '  From  evening  unto  evening 
ye  shall  hallow  your  sabbath.'  Levit.  xxiii,  32. 
That  is  from  evening  twilight  until  evening  twi- 
light again,  For  the  most  skilful  commentators 
assure  us,  that  'the  sabbath  among  the  Jews  was 
always  reckoned  to  begin  from  the  first  appear- 
ance of  the  stars  on  Friday  evening,  and  to  end 
at  their  appearance  again  on  ti»i  day  we  call 
Saturday.' — West  on  the  Resurrection,  p.  85. 
And  this  satisfactorily  explains  a  difficult  passage 
expressing  the  time  when  our  Lord's  interment 


666 


CHRONOLOGY. 


was  finished. 

parov 

preparation-day  (Friday),  and  the  sabbath  was 


Kcri  ly/wpa  ijv  -irapaffKtvrt,  Kai  ffafi-    the  whole  of  Italy,  a  few  provinces  only  excepted, 
Luke,  xxiii.  54.     'And  it  was     notwithstanding  several  attempts  to  suppress  it 

The  subdivisions  of  the  day  have  not  been  less 


going  to  dawn,'  i.  e.  at  the  dawn  of  night,  or     various  than  the  computations  of  the   day  itself. 


evening  twilight.  Our  public  translation,  'and 
the  sabbath  drew  on/  gives  the  meaning  cor- 
rectly, but  not  a  literal  translation  of  the 
phrase.' 

We  add  another  valuable  remark  of  the  same 
kind  from  this  learned  author  : — 

'The  Jews  reckoned  two  evenings;  the  former 
began  at  the  ninth  hour  of  the  natural  day,  or 
the  third,  afternoon ;  the  latter  at  the  eleventh 


The  most  obvious  division,  and  which  could  at 
no  time,  nor  in  no  age,  be  mistaken,  was  that  of 
morning  and  evening.  In  process  of  time  the 
two  intermediate  points  of  noon  and  midnight 
were  determined  ;  and  this  division  into  quarters 
was  in  use  long  before  the  invention  of  hours. 

The  first  subdivision  of  these  quarters  pro- 
bably was  that  of  the  Jews  and  Romans,  who  di- 
vided the  day  and  night  into  four  vigils  or  watches. 


hour.     Thus  the  paschal  lamb  was  required  to    The  first  began  at  sun-rising,  or  six  in  the  morn- 


be  sacrificed,  D'D"lJ?nf3,  'between  the  evenings.' 
Exod.  xii.  6;  Levit.  xxiii.  4;  which  is  admira- 
bly explained  by  Josephus,  Zlaff^a, — icaS*  r\v 
Svafft  ptv  airo  ivvaTtjf  wpac  l*£X9l  ^vStKarijs- 
The  passover, — on  which  day  they  sacrificed 
from  the  ninth  hour  until  the  eleventh. — Bell. 


ing  ;  the  second  at  nine  ;  the  third  at  twelve ;  and 
the  fourth  at  three  in  the  afternoon.  In  like  man- 
ner the  night  was  divided  into  four  parts ;  the  first 
beginning  at  six  in  the  evening,  the  second  at 
nine,  the  third  at  twelve,  and  the  fourth  at  three 
in  the  morning.  The  first  of  these  divisions  was 


Jud.  6,  9,  3.  p.  1291.    Hence  the  law  requiring    called  by  the  Jews  the  third  hour  of  the  day  ;  the 

__  j  A| • .i        _r  _  -i_  •     i  -i_  ,»  *    .1        f  _i 


the  paschal  lamb  to  be  sacrificed,  'at  even,  at 
the  going  of  the  sun,'  Deut.  xvi.  6,  expressed 


second  the  sixth ;  the  third  the  ninth ;  and  the  fourth 
the  twelfth,and  sometimesthe  eleventh.  The  learned 


both"  evenings.     It   is   truly   remarkable,    that    author,  already  quoted,  however  seems  to  prove 


'  Christ  our  passover,'  expired  at  the  ninth  hour, 
and  was  taken  down  from  the  cross  at  the 
eleventh,  or  sun-set.  Matt,  xxvii.  46,  57. 

There  was  a  prophetic  use  of  the  word  day 
among  the  Jews,  which  does  not  strictly,  per- 
haps, belong  to  chronological  science,  but  which 


that  three  divisions  of  the  day,  answering  to  the 
morning,  noon,  and  evening  of  the  pious  psalmist, 
Ps.  liv.  17,  and  three  watches  of  the  night,  was 
the  primitive  division.  He  quotes  the  scriptural 
phrases,  the  first  or  beginning  of  watches,  Lam. 
xi.  19  ;  the  middle  watch,  Judges  vii.  19;  and  the 


may  furnish  data  finally  important  to  the  under-  morning  watch,  Exod.  xiv.  24.  The  last,  we 
standing  of  the  prophecies,  Ezek.  iv.  v.  vi.  God  may  observe  is  the  first  place  of  scripture  in 
here  expressly  expounds  the  day  to  signify  a  which  a  subdivision  of  this  kind  is  mentioned, 


and  was  as  probably  an  Egyptian  as  a  Jewish 
division  of  time.  Calmet  renders  it  the  watch 
of  day-break,  which  he  says,  as  the  Jews  de- 
parted from  Egypt  in  the  vernal  equinox, 
would  answer  to  our  four  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
See  also  1  Sam.  xi.  11.  Precisely  with  this 
triple  division  of  the  night  agreesthe  rema  rk  of 


year ;  and  commentators  have  thus  generally 
interpreted  the  prophetic  periods,  Deut.  viii.  14  : 
xii.  11,  12;  and  Rev.  xi.  3.  We  lately  thought 
also  the  suggestion  of  a  learned  Jew  worth  con- 
sidering, whether  the  threatening,  Gen.  xi,  17. 
'In  the  day  that  thou  eatest  thereof,  thou  shall 
surely  die,'  might  not  intend  the  unique  period 
of  a  thousand  years,  within  which  the  life  of  Homer 

Adam,  and  all  the  longest-lived  of  the  human    Acpa  &  Sr{  ^o^^^  ,rapa.x,,«v  St  TrXtwv  wK, 
race  terminated .  fuv  $vo  uotpawv,  TOITO.TI)  S'tri  uoipa  \t\tnrTcu. 

A  singular  method  of  computation  takes  place 

in  Italy.  The  civil  day  commences  at  some  in-  <  The  stars  are  now  far  advanced ;  more  than  two 
determinate  point  after  sunset;  whence  the  time  of  parts  of  the  night  are  passed  ;  a  third  part  only 
noon  varies  with  the  season  of  the  year.  At  the  is  left.'  The  introduction  of  the  fourth  watch 
summer  solstice,  the  clock  strikes  sixteen  at  noon,  has  been  ascribed  to  the  stricter  military  disci- 
and  nineteen  at  the  time  of  the  winter  solstice,  pline  of  later  times  :  it  was  clearly  adopted  both 


Thus  the  length  of  each  day  differs  by  several 
minutes  from  that  immediately  preceding  or  fol- 
lowing it.  This  variation  occasions  a  considerable 
difficulty  in  adjusting  their  time  by  clocks.  It  is 
accomplished,  however,  by  a  sudden  movement 
which  corrects  the  difference  when  it  amounts  to 
a  quarter  of  an  hour ;  and  this  it  does  sometimes 


in  the  Roman  and  Jewish  mode  of  dividing  the 
night  in  the  time  of  Christ,  who  accurately  de- 
scribes the  four  watches  as  oty,  the  late  watch  ; 
fitovvKTiu,  midnight;  aXdcropo^ximac,  the  cock- 
crowing,  and  Trpwt,  the  early  or  morning  watch. 
Mark  xiii.  35.  The  Jews  say  that  they  have 
derived  the  hours  of  prayer,  i.  e.  at  morning, 


at  the  end  of  eight  days,  sometimes  at  the  end  of    noon,  and  evening,  from  the  patriarchs  ;  the  first 


fifteen,  and  sometimes  at  the  end  of  forty.  In- 
formation of  this  is  given  by  a  kalendar,  which 
announces,  that  from  the  16th  of  February,  for 
instance,  to  the  24th,  it  will  be  noon  at  a  quarter 
past  eighteen  ;  from  the  24th  of  February  to  the 
6th  of  March,  it  will  be  uoon  at  eighteen  o'clock 
precisely;  from  the  1st  of  June  to  the  13th  of 
July,  the  hour  of  noon  will  be  at  sixteen  o'clock ; 
on  the  13th  of  July  it  will  be  at  half  an  hour 
after  sixteen ;  and  so  on -throughout  the  different 


from  Abraham,  the  second  from  Isaac,  and  the 
third  from  Jacob.  Vid.  Ludor.  Capell.  in  Acti 
iii.  1.  Hence  the  Papists  have  borrowed  their 
canonical  hours. 

Some  learned  authorities  inform  us,  that  the 
primary  mode  of  dividing  the  day  was  by  the 
measurement  of  the  human  shadow.  Thus,  when 
their  shadow  was  of  a  certain  length,  they  break- 
fasted ;  when  of  a  certain  length  they  dined ;  and 
when  of  a  certain  length  they  supped  ;  and  that 


months  of  the   year.     This  absurd   method  of    hence  arose  the  use  of  the  dial,  &c.     See  Brown's 
measuring  the  day  has  long  continued,  throughout    Antiquities  of  the   Jews,  v.  xi.  387.     Anothev 


CHRONOLOGY. 


667 


division  in  use,  among  these  nations,  as  well  as 
the  Greeks,  was  that  which  reckoned  the  first 
quarter  from  sunset  to  midnight;  the  second  from 
midnight  to  sunrise  ;  the  third,  or  morning  watch, 
from  morning  to  noon;  and  the  fourth  from  noon 
to  sunset. 

The  more  minute  subdivision  of  the  day  into 
hours  is  a  comparatively  modern  invention ;  but 
at  what  time  it  first  commenced  is  uncertain. 
It  does  not  appear  from  the  writings  of  Moses 
that  he  was  acquainted  with  it,  as  he  mentions 
only  the  morning,  mid-day,  evening  and  sunset. 
Hence  we  may  conclude,  that  the  Egyptians  at 
that  time  knew  nothing  of  it,  as  Moses  was  well 
skilled  in  their  learning.  According  to  Herodo- 
tus, the  Greeks  received  the  knowledge  of  the 
twelve  hours  of  the  day  from  the  Babylonians. 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  division  was  ac- 
tually known  and  in  use  before  the  name  hour 
was  applied  to  it ;  as  Censorinus  informs  us  that 
the  term  was  not  made  use  of  in  iiorne  for  300 
years  after  its  foundation ;  nor  was  it  known  at 
the  time  the  XII.  tables  were  constructed.  In 
confirmation  of  the  testimony  of  Herodotus,  we 
have  the  first  mention  of  hours  in  the  Bible  by 
the  prophet  Daniel,  c.  iii.  6,  while  a  captive  in 
Babylon.  See  also  Dan.  iv.  19,  33,  &c. 

The  eastern  nations  divide  the  day  and  night 
in  a  very  singular  manner ;  the  origin  of  which 
is  not  easily  discovered.  The  Chinese  have  five 
watches  in  the  night,  which  are  announced  by  a 
certain  number  of  strokes  on  a  bell  or  drum.  By 
the  ancient  Tartars,  Indians,  and  Persians,  the 
day  was  divided  into  eight  parts,  each  of  which 
contained  seven  hours  and  a  half.  On  the  coast 
of  Malabar  the  day  is  divided  into  six  parts, 
called  najikas ;  each  of  these  six  parts  is  subdi- 
vided into  sixty  others,  called  venaigas ;.  the  ve- 
naiga  into  sixty  birpes ;  the  birpe  into  ten  keni- 
kans ;  the  kenikan  into  four  mattires ;  the  mattire 
into  eight  kaunimas  or  caignodes;  which  divi- 
sions, according  to  our  mode  of  computation, 
stand  as  follows : — 

Najika,  24  hours.  Venaiga,  24  rain.  Birpe,  4  sec. 
Kenikan,  f  sec.  Mattire,  -fa  sec.  Caignode,  ^5  sec. 

The  Chinese  day  begins  at  midnight,  and  ends 
with  the  midnight  following.  It  is  divided  into 
twelve  hours,  each  distinguished  by  a  particular 
name  and  figure.  They  also  divide  the  natural 
day  into  100  parts,  and  each  of  these  into  100 
minutes  ;  so  that  the  whole  contains  10,000  mi- 
nutes. In  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  where 
only  two  seasons  are  reckoned  in  the  year,  the 
divisions  of  the  day  and  night  are  considerably 
larger  than  with  us.  In  Iceland  the  twenty-four 
hours  are  divided  into  eight  parts ;  the  first  of 
which  commences  at  three  in  the  morning  ;  the 
second  at  five ;  the  third  at  half  an  hour  after 
eight ;  the  fourth  at  eleven  ;  the  fifth  at  three  in 
the  afternoon ;  the  sixth  at  six  in  the  evening ; 
the  seventh  at  eight;  and  last  at  midnight.  In 
the  eastern  part  of  Turkestan  the  day  is  divided 
into  twelve  equal  parts,  each  of  which  is  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  some  animal.  These 
are  subdivided  into  eight  keh;  so  that  the  whole 
twenty-four  hours  contain  ninety-six  keh. 

The  modern  divisions  of  the  hour  in  use  among 
us  are  into  minutes,  seconds,  thirds,  fourths,  Sec. 
each  being  a  sixtieth  part  of  the  former  subdivi- 


sion. By  the  Chaldaeans,  Jews,  and  Arabians, 
the  hour  is  divided  into  1080  scruples  :  so  that 
one  hour  contains  sixty  minutes,  and  one  minute, 
twenty-eight  scruples.  The  ancient  Persians 
and  Arabs  were  likewise  acquainted  with  this 
division ;  but  the  Jews  are  so  fond  of  it,  that 
they  pretend  to  have  received  it  in  a  supernatural 
manner.  '  Issachar,'  say  they,  '  ascended  into 
heaven,  and  brought  from  thence  1080  parts  for 
the  benefit  of  the  nation.' 

The  division  of  the  day  being  ascertained,  it 
soon  became  an  object  to  indicate  in  a  public 
manner  the  expiration  of  any  particular  hour  or 
division;  as  without  some  general  knowledge  of 
this  kind,  it  would  be  in  a  great  measure  impos- 
sible to  carry  on  business.  The  methods  of 
announcing  this  have  been  likewise  very  dif- 
ferent. 

Among  the  Egyptians  it  was  customary  for 
the  priests  to  proclaim  the  hours  like  watchmen 
among  us.  The  same  method  was  followed  at 
Rome  ;  nor  was  there  any  other  method  of  know- 
ing the  hours  until  A.  A.  C.  293,  when  Papirius 
Cursor  first  set  up  a  sun-dial  in  the  capitol.  A 
similar  method  is  practised  among  the  Turks, 
whose  priests  proclaim  from  the  top  of  their 
mosques,  the  cock-crowing,  day-break,  mid-day, 
three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  twilight,  be- 
ing their  appointed  times  of  worship.  As  this 
mode  of  proclaiming  the  hour  could  not  but  be 
very  inconvenient,  as  well  as  imperfect,  the  intro- 
duction of  an  instrument  which  every  one  could 
have  in  his  possession,  and  which  might  answer 
the  same  purpose,  must  have  been  considered  as 
a  valuable  acquisition.  One  of  the  first  of  these 
was  the  clepsydra  or  water  clock.  See  CLEPSYDRA. 
Various  kinds  of  clepsydrae  were  in  use  among 
the  Egyptians  at  a  very  early  period.  The  in- 
vention of  the  instrument  is  attributed  to  Thoth 
or  Mercury,  and  it  was  afterwards  improved  by 
Ctesibius  of  Alexandria.  It  was  a  common 
measure  of  time  among  the  Greeks,  Indians  and 
Chaldaeans,  as  well  as  the  Egyptians,  but  was 
not  introduced  into  Rome  till  the  time  of  Scipio 
Nasica.  The  Chinese  astronomers  have  long 
made  use  of  it;  and  by  its  means  have  divided 
the  zodiac  into  twelve  parts;  but  it  is  a  very  in 
accurate  measure  of  time,  varying,  not  only  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  vessel, 
but  according  to  the  state  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  clepsydra  was  succeeded  by  the  gnomon  or 
sun-dial.  This,  at  first,  was  no  more  than  a 
stile  erected  perpendicularly  to  the  horizon ;  and 
it  was  a  long  time  before  the  principles  of  it 
came  to  be  thoroughly  understood.  The  inven- 
tion is  with  great  probability  attributed  to  the 
Babylonians,  from  whom  the  Jews  received  it 
before  the  time  of  Ahaz,  when  we  know  that  a 
sun-dial  was  already  erected  at  Jerusalem. 

The  Chinese  and  Egyptians  were  also  ac- 
quainted with  the  use  of  the  dial  at  a  very  early 
period,  and  it  was  considerably  improved  by 
Anaximander  or  Anaximenes ;  one  of  whom  is 
for  that  reason  looked  upon  to  be  the  inventor. 
Various  kinds  of  dials,  however,  were  invented 
and  used  in  diflf?  -ent  nations  long  before  their  in- 
troduction at  Rome.  Papirius  Cursor  erected 
the  first ;  and,  thirty  years  after,  Valerius  Mes- 
sala  brought  one  from  Sicily,  which  was  used  in 


668 


CHRONOLOGY. 


Rome  for  no  less  than  ninetv-nine  years,  though 
constructed  for  a  Sicilian  latitude,  and  conse- 
quently incapable  of  showing  the  hours  exactly 
in  any  other  place ;  but  at  last  another  was  con- 
t  structed  by  L.  Philippus,  capable  of  measuring 
time  with  greater  accuracy. 

It  was  long  after  the  invention  of  dials  before 
mankind  began  to  form  any  idea  of  clocks ;  nor 
is  it  well  known  at  what  period  they  were  first 
invented.  A  clock  was  sent  by  Pope  Paul  I.  to 
Pepin  king  of  France,  which  at  that  time  was 
supposed  to  be  the  only  one  in  the  world.  A 
very  curious  one  was  also  sent  to  Charles  the 
Great  from  the  caliph  Haroun  Alraschid,  which 
the  historians  of  the  time  speak  of  with  surprise 
and  admiration  :  but  the  greatest  improvement 
was  that  of  Mr.  Huygens,  who  added  the  pendu- 
lum to  it.  Still,  however,  the  instruments  for  di- 
viding time  were  found  to  be  inaccurate  for  nice 
purposes.  The  expansion  of  the  materials  by 
neat,  and  their  contraction  by  cold,  would  cause 
a  very  perceptible  alteration  in  the  going  of  an 
instrument  in  the  same  place  at  different  times 
of  the  year,  and  much  more  if  carried  from  one 
climate  to  another.  Various  methods  have  been 
contrived  to  correct  this ;  which  indeed  can  be 
done  very  effectually  at  land  by  a  certain  con- 
struction of  the  pendulum  ;  but  at  sea,  where  a 
pendulum  cannot  be  used,  the  inaccuracy  is  of 
consequence  much  greater  :  nor  was  it  thought 
possible  to  correct  the  errors  arising  from  these 
causes  in  any  tolerable  degree,  until  the  inven- 
tion of  Harrison's  time-piece.  This  has  since 
been  greatly  improved,  and  time  is  now  very  ac- 
curately measured  at  sea  See  CLOCK-MAKING, 
and  WATCHES. 

SECT.  II — OF  WEEKS. 

We  now  proceed  to  the  larger  divisions  of 
time,  which  more  properly  belong  to  chronology, 
and  which  must  be  kept  on  record,  as  no  instru- 
ment can  be  made  to  point  them  out.  Of  these 
the  division  into  weeks  of  seven  days  is  one  of 
the  most  ancient,  and  probably  took  place  from 
the  creation  of  the  world.  Some,  indeed,  are  of 
opinion  that  the  week  was  invented*  some  time 
after  for  the  more  convenient  notation  of  time ; 
but  whatever  may  be  in  this,  we  are  certain  that 
it  is  of  the  highest  antiquity ;  being  adopted  in 
the  Mosaic  narrative  of  the  creation,  and  that  even 
the  most  rude  and  barbarous  nations  have  used 
it.  The  ancient  Greeks,  however,  were  ignorant 
of  this  division ;  and  M.  Goguet  informs  us  that 
they  were  almost  the  only  nation  who  were  so. 
By  them  the  month  of  thirty  days  was  divided 
into  three  times  ten,  and  the  days  of  it  named  ac- 
cordingly :  thus  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  month 
was  called  the  second  fifth,  or  fifth  of  the  second 
tenth ;  the  twenty-fourth  was  called  the  third 
fourth,  or  the  fourth  day  of  the  third  tenth.  This 
method  was  in  use  in  the  days  of  Hesiod,  and  it 
was  not  until  several  ages  had  elapsed  that  the 
use  of  weeks  was  received  into  Greece  from  the 
Egyptians. 

The  week  was  likewise  unknown  to  the  ancient 
Persians  and  to  the  Mexicans ;  the  former  having 
a  different  name  for  every  day  of  the  month,  and 
the  latter  making  use  of  a  cycle  of  thirteen  days. 


But  almost  all  other  nations  adopted  the  week  of 
seven  days  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  cne  day  in 
the  week  has  always  been  accounted  sacred  by 
most  nations.  Thus  Saturday  was  consecrated  to 
pious  purposes  among  the  Jews,  Friday  by  the 
Turks,  Tuesday  by  the  Africans  of  Guinea,  and 
Sunday  by  the  Christians.  Hence  also  the  ori- 
gin of  Feriffi  or  holidays,  frequently  made  use  of 
in  Systems  of  Chronology. 

Chronologers  have  remarked  that  the  week 
seems  a  natural  measure  of  time  furnished  by 
the  four  principal  phases  or  quarters  of  the 
moon.  Dr.  Hales,  however,  insists  that  it  was 
derived  from  a  divina  institution,  at  the  creation, 
and  handed  down  by  primitive  tradition.  It 
seems  also  that  Noah  adopted  it,  Gen.  viii. 
10  —  12,  and  that  it  was  known  to  the  patriarchs, 
Gen.  xxix.  7.  But  our  author  rests  the  proof  of 
it  principally  on  the  singular  fact  that  the  word 
sabbat  or  sabbata  denoted  a  week  among  the 
Syrians,  Arabians,  Ethiopians,  and  Persians,  from 
a  very  remote  period  ;  and  quotes  the  following 
ancient  Syriac  calendar  of  the  week  (expressed 
in  the  Chaldee  alphabet)  from  Michaelis's  Intro- 
duction to  the  New  Testament,  by  Dr.  Marsh. 


One  of  the  Sabbath  Sunday. 

Two  of  the  Sabbath  Monday. 
Three  of  the  Sabbath  Tuesday. 
Four  of  the  Sabbath  Wednesday. 

Five  of  the  Sabbath  Thursday. 

Six  of  the  Sabbath  Friday. 

The  SABBATH.  Saturday. 


All  the  evangelists  seem,  as  Dr.  Hales  observes, 
to  have  used  this  calender,  both  in  the  word 
<ra/3/3a7-a,  '  a  week,'  and  in  retaining  the  cardi- 
nal number  /ua  <raj3»jarwv,  '  one  of  the  week,' 
or  the  first  day  of  the  week,  to  express  the  day 
of  the  resurrection,  Matt,  xxviii.  1  ;  Mark  xvi. 
2  ;  Luke  xxiv.  1  ;  and  John  xx.  1.  See  also 
Mark  xvi.  9,  and  Luke  xviii.  12,  Njjeravw  die  Tit 
<ra/3/3arof.  '  I  fast  twice  in  the  week.'  Three 
of  the  evangelists  also  use  <ra/3/3ara,  to  denote  the 
Sabbath. 

The  Jews  had  also  weeks  of  years  :  a  Sabba- 
tical year,  which  released  all  debtors,  something 
in  the  manner  of  our  statute  of  limitations  ;  and 
a  week  of  seven  times  seven,  or  forty-nine  years, 
which  brought  about  their  jubilee,  or  general 
year  of  return  to  the  original  inheritance  of  their 
ancestors,  Lev.  xxv.  8.  Seventy  of  these  weeks 
of  years  we  know  were  assigned  by  the  angel  of 
God  to  Daniel  as  determined  to  transpire  from 
the  event  of  the  decree  of  Artaxerxes,  Ezra  vii. 
2,  to  the  appearance  of  the  Messiah.  Christians 
are  well  aware  of  the  importance  of  this  pro- 
phecy (see  onward)  ;  but  we  lately  heard  a  re- 
spectable scholar  of  the  Jewish  persuasion  con- 
tend that  these  were  not  weeks  of  years,  but 
weeks  of  jubilees,  or  of  fifty  years  ;  equivalent 
therefore  to  3500  years,  which  reckoned,  as  he 
stated,  from  the  birth  of  Edom,  the  great  enemy 
of  the  Jews,  would  bring  about  a  period  ending, 
according  to  their  chronology,  about  twenty- 
three  years  from  the  present  time  (1826)  a  date 
at  which  many  of  them  confidently  look  for- 
ward to  the  appearance  of  the  Messiah. 


CHRONOLOGY 


SECT.  III. — OF  MONTHS. 

The  next  division  of  time  is  that  of  months, 
lliis  appears  to  have  been,  if  not  coeval  with  the 
creation,  at  least  in  use  before  the  flood.  As  this 
division  is  naturally  pointed  out  by  the  revolution 
of  the  moon,  the  months  of  all  nations  were  ori- 
ginally lunar ;  a  fact  confirmed  by  ihesterms  .TV 
iarah,  signifying  both  the  month  and  the  full  moon 
in  Hebrew ;  firiv,  the  month,  and  firjvr],  the 
moon,  Greek ;  whence,  according  to  the  best 
lexicographers,  mensis,  Lat.  monat,  Ang.-Sax., 
and  our  English,  month. 

The  division  of  the  year  into  twelve  months, 
as  being  founded  on  the  number  of  full  revolu- 
tions of  the  moon  in  that  time,  has  also  been  very 
general.  Sir  John  Chardin,  however,  informs 
us  that  the  Persians  divided  the  year  into  twenty- 
four  months;  and  the  Mexicans  into  eighteen 
months  of  twenty  days  each.  The  months  gene- 
rally contained  thirty  days,  or  twenty-nine  and 
thirty  days  alternately;  though  this  rule  was 
far  from  being  without  exception.  The  months 
of  the  Latins  consisted  of  sixteen,  eighteen, 
twenty-two,  or  thirty-six  days;  and  Romulus 
gave  his  people  a  year  of  ten  months,  or  304 
days. 

Biblical  months  are  clearly  of  three  kinds;  1. 
In  the  time  of  the  flood  they  seem  to  have  con- 
sisted of  thirty  days  each,  for  Moses  reckons  150 
days  from  the  seventh  day  of  the  second  month, 
to  the  seventh  day  of  the  seventh  month,  which 
forms  an  interval  of  exactly  five  months,  of 
thirty  days  each  The  Egyptians  and  Greeks,  it 
is  well  known,  also  used  this  month.  2.  The 
moon  takes  29  days,.  12  hours,  and  44  minutes 
in  passing  from  a  point  in  which  she  is  in  a 
straight  line  with  the  sun,  and  returning  to  it 
again,  or  to  her  square  or  conjunction,  as  it  is 
called.  This  odd  time  produced  the  alternate 
reckoning  of  twenty-nine  or  thirty  days  to  the 
month  above  alluded  to,  or  the  mensis  cava  and 
the  mensis  plini.  And  thus  Hesiod  and  Thales 
call  the  last  day  of  the  month  rpujiea^a,  the  thir- 
tieth ;  and  the  year  is  represented  by  an  ancient 
riddle  of  the  Greeks :  '  The  father  is  one,  the 
sons  twelve ;  to  each  belong  thirty  daughters ; 
half  of  them  white,  the  other  black  ;  and,  though 
immortal,  they  all  perish.'  3.  The  first  appear- 
ance of  that  luminary  in  the  same  quarter  from 
month  to  month,  was  another  mode  of  account- 
ing for  the  duration  of  this  period  of  time  :  and 
critics  are  divided  as  to  which  of  the  last  two 
methods  of  reckoning  regulated  the  Jewish  fes- 
tivals. The  one  last-mentioned  must  clearly 
depend  upon  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  in 
part,  and  be  therefore  very  uncertain. 

Ancient  nations  adopted  various  names  for  the 
•nonths,  and  arranged  them  very  differently. 
From  this  last  circumstance  arises  the  variety  in 
the  dates  of  the  months ;  for  as  the  year  has  been 
reckoned  from  different  signs  in  the  ecliptic,  nei- 
ther the  number  nor  the  quantity  of  months  have 
been  the  same,  and  their  situation  has  likewise 
been  altered  by  necessary  intercalations,  which 
formed  embolismal  months,  natural  or  civil. 
By  the  former  the  solar  and  lunar  years  are 


adjusted  to  one  another ;  and  the  latter  arise  from 
the  defect  of  the  civil  year  itself.  The  adar  ot 
the  Jews,  which  always  consists  of  thirty  days,  i* 
an  example  of  the  natural  embolismal  month. 

The  Romans  divided  their  months  into  kalends, 
riones,  and  ides ;  which  they  had  a  singular 
method  of  reckoning  backwards.  See  KALENDS. 
The  2d,  3d,  4th,  5th,  6th,  and  7th  of  March, 
May,  July,  and  October,  were  the  nones  of  these 
months ;  but  in  the  other  months  were  the  2d, 
3d,  4th,  and  5th  days  only.  Thus  tne  5th  of 
January  was  its  nones ;  the  4th  was  pridie  no- 
narum ;  the  3d  tertio  nonarum ;  and  the  2d  quarto. 
The  ides  contained  eight  days  in  every  month, 
and  were  nine  days  distant  from  the  nones. 
Thus  the  15th  day  of  these  four  months  was  the 
ides,  but  in  the  others  the  13th  ;  the  12th  was 
pridie  iduum,  and  the  llth  tertio  iduum.  The 
ides  were  succeeded  by  the  kalends;  our  14th  of 
January,  for  instance,  being  the  19th  of,  or  be- 
fore the  kalends  of  February;  the  15th  was  the 
18th  of  the  kalends,  and  so  on  till  the  31st  of 
January,  which  was  pridie  kalendarum;  and 
February  1st  was  the  kalends. 

In  Europe  the  month  is  either  astronomical  or 
civil,  i.  e.  measured  by  the  motion  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  ;  or  specified  by  civil  institutions.  The 
astronomical  months,  being  for  the  most  part 
regulated  by  the  motions  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
are  thus  divided  into  solar  and  lunar,  of  which 
the  former  is  sometimes  also  called  civil.  The 
astronomical  solar  months  is  the  time  which  the 
sun  takes  up  in  passing  through  a  sign  of  the 
ecliptic. 

The  lunar  month  is  periodical,  synodical, 
sidereal,  and  civil.  The  synodical  lunar  month 
is  the  time  that  passes  between  any  conjunction  ot' 
the  moon  with  the  sun  and  the  conjunction  follow- 
ing. It  includes  the  motion  of  the  sun  eastward 
during  that  time  ;  so  that  a  mean  lunation  consists 
of  29  d.  12  h.  44  m.  2s.,  8921.  The  sidereal  lunar 
month  is  the  time  of  the  mean  revolution  of  the 
moon  with  regard  to  the  fixed  stars.  As  the 
equinoctial  points  go  backwards  about  4  s.  in 
the  space  of  a  lunar  month,  the  moon  must,  in 
consequence  of  this  retrocession,  arrive  at  the 
equinox  sooner  than  at  any  fixed  star,  and  con- 
sequently the  mean  sidereal  revolution  must  be 
longer  than  the  mean  periodical  one.  The  latter 
consists  of  27  d.  7  h.  43  m.  4  s.,  6840.  The  civil 
lunar  month  is  computed  from  the  moon,  to 
answer  the  ordinary  purposes  of  life  ;  and  as  it 
would  have  been  inconvenient,  in  the  computa- 
tion of  lunar  months,  to  have  reckoned  odd 
parts  of  days,  they  have  been  composed  of  thirty 
days,  or  of  twenty-nine  and  thirty  alternately,  as 
the  nearest  round  numbers. 

Twelve  lunar  months,  being  eleven  days  less 
than  a  solar  year,  Julius  Caesar  ordained  that 
the  month  should  be  reckoned  from  the  course 
of  the  sun,  and  not  of  the  moon  ;  and  that  they 
should  consist  of  thirty  and  thirty-one  days  al- 
ternately, February  only  excepted,  which  was 
to  consist  of  twenty-eight  days  commonly,  and 
of  twenty-nine  in  leap  years.  We  are  indebted 
to  Dr.  Hales  for  the  following  Table  of  the 
Months  of  all  the  celebrated  Ancient  Nations 


67C 


CHRONOLOGY. 


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CHRONOLOGY. 


671 


SECT.  IV. — OF  YEARS. 

The  highest  natural  division  of  time  is  into 
years.  At  first,  however,  it  is  probable  that  the 
course  of  the  sun  through  the  ecliptic  would  not 
be  observed,  but  that  all  nations  would  measure 
their  time  by  the  revolutions  of  the  moon.  We 
are  certain,  at  least,  that  the  Egyptian  year  con- 
sisted originally  of  a  single  lunation ;  though  at 
length  it  included  two  or  three  months,  and  was 
determined  by  the  stated  returns  of  the  seasons. 
As  the  eastern  nations  however,  particularly  the 
Egyptians,  Chaldeans,  and  Indians,  applied 
themselves  very  early  to  astronomy,  they  found, 
by  comparing  the  motions  of  the  sun  and  moon 
together,  that  one  revolution  of  the  former  in- 
cluded above  twelve  of  the  latter.  Hence  a  year 
of  twelve  lunations  was  formed,  in  every  one  of 
which  were  reckoned  thirty  days  ;  and  hence  also 
the  division  of  the  ecliptic  into  360  degrees. 

The  luni-solar  year,  consisting  of  360  days, 
was  in  use  long  before  any  regular  intercalations 
were  made;  and  historians  inform  us  that  the 
year  of  all  ancient  nations  was  luni-solar.  Hero- 
dotus relates  that  the  Egyptians  first  divided  the 
year  into  twelve  parts  by  the  assistance  of  the 
stars,  and  that  every  part  consisted  of  thirty  days. 
The  Thebans  corrected  this  year  by  adding  five 
intercalary  days  to  it.  The  old  Chaldean  year 
was  reformed  by  the  Medes  and  Persians  ;  and 
some  of  the  Chinese  missionaries  have  informed 
us  that  the  luni-solar  year  was  also  corrected  in 
China ;  that  the  solar  year  was  ascertained  in 
that  country  to  very  considerable  exactness. 
The  Latin  year,  before  Numa's  correction  of  it, 
consisted  of  360  days,  of  which  304  were  di- 
vided into  ten  months ;  to  which  were  added  two 
private  months  not  mentioned  in  the  kalendar. 
Dr.  Hales  observes,  more  in  detail,  'The  primi- 
tive sacred  year  originally  consisted  of  twelve 
months  of  thirty  days  each,  or  360  days.  This 
was  in  use  before  the  deluge,  as  appears  from 
Noah's  reckoning  five  months,  or  150  days,  from 
the  seventeenth  of  the  second  month,  to  the 
seventeenth  day  of  the  seventh  month ;  as  ex- 
pressing the  time  of  the  rising  of  the  waters ; 
and  seven  months  and  ten  days  more,  till  the 
waters  were  dried  up,  and  Noah  and  his  family 
left  the  ark,  after  a  residence  therein  of  370  days, 
or  a  year  and  ten  days,  till  the  seven-and-twen- 
tieth  day  of  the  second  month  of  the  ensuing 
year.  Gen.  vii.  and  viii. 

This  was  also  the  original  Chaldean  year;  for 
Berosus,  in  his  History  of  the  Antediluvian 
Kings  of  Babylonia,  counted  their  reigns  by 
sari,  or  decads  of  years ;  and  a  sarus,  as  Alex- 
ander Polyhistor  related  (apud  Syncell,  p.  32), 
was  3600  days,  or  ten  years,  consisting  each  of 
360  days. 

'After  the  deluge  this  primitive  form  was 
handed  down  by  Noah  and  his  descendants  to 
the  Chaldeans,  Egyptians,  Phoenicians,  Persians, 
Greeks,  Romans,  Indians,  and  Chinese;  as  is 
evident  from  the  testimonies  of  the  best  and  most 
ancient  writers  and  historians. 

'  Diodorus  Siculus  relates,  that,  at  the  sepul- 
chre of  Osiris,  the  Egyptian  priests  appointed  to 
bewail  his  death,  filled  360  milk-bowls  every 
day,  to  denote  the  number  of  days  in  the  primi- 
tive Egyptian  year,  used  in  his  reign.  And  he 


represents  an  ancient  custom  at  Acanthe,  neat 
Memphis,  'on  the  Libyan  side  of  the  Nile,  for 
360  priests  to  fetch  water  every  day  from  the 
Nile,  and  pour  it  into  a  vessel  full  of  holes,  to 
represent  the  360  days  in  continual  flux  or  suc- 
cession. Diod.  Lib.  1.  p.  26, 109. 

'The  Egyptians  attributed  the  invention  of 
their  year  to  the  Phoenician  Taaut,  Thoth,  or 
Hermes,  the  son  of  Misraim,  who  went  with  the 
first  colony  into  Egypt,  in  the  reign  of  Uranus, 
who  lived  in  Phoenicia  soon  after  the  dispersion, 
and  was  a  great  astronomer,  or  a  diligent 
observer  of  the  risings  and  settings  of  the  stars ; 
who  discovered  the  year  from  the  motion  of  the 
sun,  and  the  months  from  the  course  of  the 
moon,  and  was  deified'  after  his  death.  Diod. 
Lib.  3. 

'  Diodorus  Siculus,  Plutarch,  and  Q.  Curtius, 
relate  that  the  Persian  kings  had  360  concu- 
bines, one  for  each  day  of  the  year;  who  went 
each  in  their  turns  to  the  king  in  the  evening, 
and  returned  in  the  morning  into  the  house  of 
the  women;  as  we  learn  from  Herod.  Lib.  3, 
69;  and  from  Scripture.  Esth.  ii.  12,  15. 

'Harpocration,  Suidas,  and  Julius  Pollux 
relate,  that,  in  the  original  constitution  of  Athens, 
the  people  were  divided  into  four  tribes,  repre- 
senting the  four  seasons  of  the  year;  and  these 
tribes  into  twelve  wards,  corresponding  to  the 
twelve  months;  and  each  ward  consisted  of 
thirty  families,  answering  to  the  thirty  days  of 
each  month;  in  all  360,  as  many  as  the  days  of 
the  year.  Suidas,  voce  rtvvi)Tadi  et  Ttw^ra*. 
This  year,  therefore,  was  introduced  into  Greece 
many  ages  before  the  arrival  of  Cecrops  in  Atti- 
ca, from  Sais  in  Egypt;  probably  by  the  first 
settlers,  the  Javanians,  or  descendants  of  Ja- 
pheth;  or  by  the  old  Pelasgi  from  Phoenicia. 

The  first  Latin  and  Roman  year  consisted  of 
360  days,  as  we  learn  from  Plutarch,  who  says 
in  his  life  of  Numa,  that,  'in  the  reign  of  Romu- 
lus, the  months  were  very  irregular,  some  not 
being  reckoned  twenty  days,  others  had  thirty- 
five  days,  and  others  more :  the  Latins  not  then 
understanding  the  difference  between  the  solar 
and  lunar  year;  but  only  providing  for  this  one 
point,  that  the  year  should  contain  360  days.' 

'  The  Chinese  year  originally  consisted  of  360 
days;  as  did  also  the  Mexican,  which  they 
divided  into  eighteen  months  of  twenty  days 
each.  Scaliger  de  Emend.  Temp.  p.  225. 

'  From  this  detail  it  is  evident  that  the  primi- 
tive year  everywhere  throughout  the  ancient 
world,  consisted  only  of  360  days,  for  many 
ages  after  the  deluge.' 

The  imperfection  of  this  method  of  computing 
time  is  now  very  evident.  The  luni-solar  year 
was  about  five  days  and  a  quarter  shorter  than 
the  true  solar  year,  and  as  much  longer  than  the 
lunar.  Hence  the  months  could  not  long  corres- 
pond with  the  seasons ;  and  even  in  so  short  a 
time  as  thirty-four  years,  the  winter  months  would 
have  changed  places  with  those  of  summer. 
From  this  rapid  variation,  Playfair  takes  notice 
that  a  passage  in  Herodotus,  by  which  the 
learned  have  been  exceedingiy  puzzled,  may  re- 
ceive a  satisfactory  solution,  .viz.  that  '  in  the 
time  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  kings,  the  sun  had 
twice  arisen  in  the  place  where  it  had  formerly 


672 


CHRONOLOGY. 


sot,  and  twice  set  where  it  had  arisen.'  By  this 
he  supposes  it  is  meant,  '  that  the  beginning  of 
the  year  had  twice  gone  through  all  the  signs  of 
the  ecliptic ;  and  that  the  sun  had  arisen  and  set 
twice  in  every  day  and  month  of  the  year.'  This, 
which  some  have  taken  for  a  proof  of  most  ex- 
travagant antiquity,  he  further  observes,  might 
liave  happened  in  138  years  only;  as  in  that 
period  there  would  be  a  difference  of  nearly  two 
years  between  the  solar  and  lunar  year. 

Such  evident  imperfections  could  not  but 
produce  a  reformation  every  where  ;  and  accord- 
ingly we  find  that  there  was  no  nation  which 
did  not  add  a  few  intercalary  days  at  certain  in- 
tervals. We  are  ignorant,  however,  of  the  per- 
son who  was  the  first  inventor  of  this  method. 
The  Theban  priests  attributed  the  invention  to 
Mercury  or  Thoth ;  and  it  is  certain  that  they 
were  acquainted  with  the  year  of  365  days  at  a 
very  early  period.  The  length  of  the  solar  year 
was  represented  by  the  celebrated  golden  circle 
of  Osymandyas,  of  365  cubits  circumference ; 
and  on  every  cubit  of  which  was  inscribed  a  day 
of  the  year,  together  with  the  heliacal  risings 
and  settings  of  the  stars.  This  monarch  is  sup- 
posed to  have  reigned  in  the  eleventh  or  thirteenth 
century  before  the  Christian  era. 

The  Egyptian  solar  year  being  nearly  six 
hours  shorter  than  the  true  one,  this  inaccuracy, 
in  time,  produced  another  revolution ;  some  cir- 
cumstances attending  which  serve  to  fix  the  date 
of  the  discovery  of  the  length  of  the  year,  and 
which,  from  the  above  description  of  the  golden 
circle,  we  may  suppose  to  have  been  made  during 
the  reign  of  Osymandyas.  The  inundation  of 
the  Nile  was  annually  announced  by  the  heliacal 
rising  of  Sirius,  to  which  the  reformers  of  the 
calendar  adjusted  the  beginning  of  the  year,  sup- 
posing that  it  would  remain  immoveable.  In  a 
number  of  years,  however,  it  appeared  that  their 
suppositions  in  this  were  ill-founded.  By  reason 
of  the  inequality  above  mentioned,  the  heliacal 
rising  of  Sirius  gradually  advanced  nearly  at  the 
rate  of  one  day  in  four  years  ;  so  that  in  1461 
years  it  completed  a  revolution,  by  arising  on 
every  succeeding  day  of  the  year,  and  returning 
to  the  ooint  originally  fixed  for  the  beginning  of 
the  yeai. 

This  period,  equal  to  1460  Julian  years,  was 
termed  the  great  Egyptian  year,  or  canicular 
cycle.  From  the  accounts  we  have  of  the  time 
that  the  canicular  cycle  was  renewed,  the  time  of 
its  original  commencement  may  be  gathered 
with  tolerable  certainty.  This  happened,  ac- 
cording to  Censorinus,  A.  D.  138.  Reckoning 
backward,  therefore,  from  this  time  for  1460 
years,  we  come  to  A.  A.  C.  1322,  when  the  sun 
was  in  Cancer,  about  fourteen  or  fifteen  days 
after  the  summer  solstice,  which  happened  on 
July  5.  The  Egyptians  used  no  intercalation 
till  the  time  of  Augustus,  when  the  corrected 
Julian  year  was  received  at  Alexandria  by  his 
order;  but  even  this  order  was  obeyed  only  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  who  resided  in  that  city ; 
the  superstitious  natives  refusing  to  make  any 
addition  to  the  length  pf  the  year,  which  had  been 
sc  long  established  among  them. 

At  what,  precise  period  the  true  year  was  ob- 
served to  consist  of  nearly  six  hours  more  than 


365  days,  is  quite  uncertain.  Though  the  piiestf 
of  Thebes  claim  the  merit  of  the  discovery,  He- 
rodotus makes  no  mention  of  it;  neither  did 
Thales,  who  introduced  the  year  of  365  days  into 
Greece,  ever  use  any  intercalation.  Plato  and 
Eudoxus  are  said  to  have  obtained  it  as  a  secret 
from  the  Egyptians  about  eighty  years  after 
Herodotus,  and  to  have  carried  it  into  Greece ; 
which  showed  that  the  knowledge  of  this  form 
of  the  year  was  at  that  time  recent,  and  confined 
to  a  few  learned  men. 

The  ancient  Jewish  year  was  luni-solar  ;  and 
we  are  informed  by  tradition,  that  Abraham  pre- 
served in  his  family,  and  transmitted  to  his  pos- 
terity, the  Chaldean  form  of  the  year,  consisting 
of  360  days  ;  which  remained  the  same  without 
any  correction  until  the  date  of  the  era  of  Nabo- 
nassar.  The  solar  year  was  adopted  among  them 
after  their  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity  ; 
but  when  subjected  to  the  successors  of  Alexander 
in  Syria,  they  were  obliged  to  admit  the  lunar  year 
into  the  calendar.  To  adjust  this  year  to  the 
course  of  the  sun,  they  added  at  certain  periods 
a  month  to  Adar,  and  called  it  Ve-Adar.  They 
composed  also  a  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  in  se- 
ven of  which  they  inserted  the  intercalary  month. 
This  correction  was  intended  to  regulate  the 
months  in  such  a  manner,  as  to  bring  the  15th 
of  Nisan  to  the  equinoctial  point;  and  likewise 
the  courses  of  the  seasons  and  feasts  in  such  a 
manner,  that  the  corn  might  be  ripe  at  the  pass- 
over,  as  the  law  required. 

The  Roman  year,  instituted  by  Romulus,  was 
evidently  very  imperfect  when  Numa  undertook 
to  reform  it.  To  make  a  complete  lunar  year, 
he  added  fifty  days  to  the  304  of  Romulus  ;  and 
from  every  one  of  his  months,  which  consisted 
of  thirty-one  and  thirty  days,  he  borrowed  one 
day.  Of  these  additional  sixty  days  he  com- 
posed two  months  ;  calling  the  one  January,  and 
the  other  February. 

Various  other  corrections  were  made ;  but, 
when  Julius  Caesar  obtained  the  sovereignty  of 
Rome,  he  found  that  the  months  had  considera- 
bly receded  from  the  seasons  to  which  Numa 
had  adjusted  them.  To  bring  them  forward  to 
their  places,  he  formed  a  year  of  fifteen  months. 
or  445  days ;  which,  on  account  of  its  length, 
and  the  design  with  which  it  was  formed,  has 
been  called  the  year  of  confusion.  It  terminated 
on  the  first  of  January,  A.  A.  C.  45,  and  from 
this  period  the  civil  year  and  months  were  regu- 
lated by  the  course  of  the  sun.  The  year  of  Numa 
being  ten  days  shorter  than  the  solar  year,  two 
days  were  added  by  Julius  to  every  one  of  the 
months  of  January,  August,  and  December; 
and  one  to  April,  June,  September,  and  Novem- 
ber. He  ordained  likewise,  that  an  intercalary 
day  should  be  added  every  fourth  year  to  the 
month  of  February,  by  reckoning  the  twenty- 
fourth  day,  or  sixth  of  the  calends  of  March, 
twice  over.  Hence  this  year  was  styled  bissex- 
tile, or  twice  sextile,  and  also  leap  year,  from  its 
leaping  a  day  more  than  a  common  year. 

The  Julian  year  has  been  used  by  modern 
chronologers,  as  being  a  measure  of  time  ex- 
tremely simple  and  sufficiently  accurate.  It  is 
still,  however,  somewhat  imperfect ;  for  as  the 
true  solar  year  consists  of  365d.  5h.  48m.  45£s., 


CHRONOLOGY. 


it  appears  that  in  131  years  after  the  Julian  cor- 
rection,  the  sun  must  have  arrived  one  day  too 
soon  at  the  equinoctial  point.  During  Caesar's 
reign  the  vernal  equinox  had  been  observed  by 
Sosigenes  on  the  25th  of  March  ;  but  by  the  time 
of  the  Nicene  council  it  had  gone  backward 
to  the  21st.  The  cause  of  the  error  was  not 
then  known;  but  in  1582,  when  the  equinox 
happened  on  the  llth  of  March,  it  was  thought 
proper  to  give  the  calendar  its  last  correction. 

Pope  Gregory  XIII.  having  invited  to  Rome 
a  considerable  number  of  mathematicians  and  astro- 
logers, employed  ten  years  in  the  examination  of 
their  several  formulae,  and  at  last  gave  the  prefer- 
ence to  that  of  Aloisius  and  Antoninus  Lelius, 
who  were  brothers.  Ten  days  were  now  cut  off 
in  the  month  of  October,  and  the  fifth  of  that 
month  was  reckoned  the  fifteenth.  To  prevent 
the  seasons  from  receding  in  time  to  come,  he 
ordained  that  one  day  should  be  added  every 
fourth  or  bsisextile  year  as  before;  and  that  the 
1600th  year  of  the  Christian  era,  and  every  fourth 
century  thereafter,  should  be  a  bissextile  or  leap 
year.  One  day  therefore  is  to  be  intercalated  in 
the  years  2000,  2400,  2800,  &c.  but  in  the  other 
centuries,  as  1700,  1800,  1900,  2100,  &c.  it  is 
to  be  suppressed,  and  these  are  to  be  reckoned 
as  common  years.  Even  this  correction,  however, 
is  not  absolutely  exact ;  but  the  error  must  be, 
very  inconsiderable,  and  scarce  amounting  to  a 
day  and  a  half  in  5000  years. 

The  commencement  of  the  year  has  been  deter- 
mined by  the  date  of  some  memorable  event, 
such  as  the  creation  of  the  world,  the  universal 
deluge,  a  conjunction  of  the  planets,  the  incarna- 
tion of  our  Saviour,  &c.  and  of  course  has  been 
referred  to  different  points  in  the  ecliptic.  The 
Chaldean  and  the  Egyptian  years  were  dated 
from  the  autumnal  equinox.  The  ecclesiastical 
year  of  the  Jews  began  in  the  spring ;  but,  in 
civil  affairs,  they  retained  the  epoch  of  the  Egyp- 
tian year.  The  ancient  Chinese  reckoned  from 
the  new  moon  nearest  to  the  middle  of  Aquarius, 
but,  according  to  some  accounts,  the  beginning 
of  their  year  was  transferred  (A.A.C,  1740)  to 
the  new  moon  nearest  to  the  winter  solstice. 
This  likewise  is  the  date  of  the  Japanese  year. 
DIemschied,  or  Gemschid,  king  of  Persia,  ob- 
served, on  the  day  of  his  public  entry  into  Per- 
sepolis,  that  the  sun  entered  into  Aries.  In  com- 
memoration of  this  event,  he  ordained  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  to  be  removed  from  the  autum- 
nal to  the  vernal  equinox.  This  epoch  was 
denominated  Neurez,  viz.  new  day ;  and  is  still 
celebrated  with  great  pomp  and  festivity.  See 
EPOCHS. 

The  ancient  Swedish  year  commenced  at  the 
winter  solstice,  or  rather  at  the  time  of  the  sun's 
appearance  on  the  horizon,  after  an  absence  of 
about  forty  days.  The  feast  of  this  epoch  was 
solemnised  on  the  twentieth  day  after  the  solstice. 
Some  of  the  Grecian  states  computed  from  the 
vernal,  some  from  the  autumnal  equinox,  and 
others  from  the  summer  tropic.  The  year  of 
Romulus  commenced  in  March,  whence  the  four 
»ast  months  September,  October,  November,  and 
December,  were  really  what  their  names  import, 
the  seventh,  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  months.  TVuma 
without  altering  these  names,  began  the  year  in 
VOL.  V. 


January,  which  Caesar  continued.  The  Turks 
and  Arabs  date  the  year  from  the  16th  July  ;  and 
the  American  Indians  reckon  from  the  first  ap- 
pearance of  the  new  moon  of  the  vernal  equinox. 
The  church  of  Rome  has  fixed  new-year's-day 
on  the  Sunday  that  corresponds  with  the  full 
moon  of  the  same  season.  The  Venetians,  Flo- 
rentines, and  Pisans  in  Italy,  and  inhabitants  of 
Treves  in  Germany,  begin  the  year  at  the  vernal 
equinox.  The  ancient  clergy  reckoned  from  the 
25th  of  March ;  and  this  method  was  observed 
in  Biitain,  until  the  introduction  of  the  new  style 
(A.  D.  1752);  after  which  our  year  commenced 
on  the  1st  day  of  January. 

EPACTS,  or  »}ju£pai  tTraicrai,  are  'additional 
days',  requisite  to  find  out  the  moon's  age. 
Since  the  lunar  year  of  354  days  is  deficient 
from  the  solar  of  365  days,  by  eleven  days,  this 
deficiency  will  run  through  every  year  of  the 
lunar  cycle.  Thus  the  epact  of  the  first  year  of 
the  cycle  is  11,  because  eleven  days  are  to  be 
added  to  the  lunar,  in  order  to  complete  the 
solar  year  ;  the  epact  of  the  second  is  22  ;  the 
epact  of  the  third  33 — 30~3,  because  the  moon's 
age  cannot  exceed  30  days ;  the  epact  of  the 
fourth,  14;  and  so  on  till  the  last  year  of  thf 
cycle,  whose  epact  is  29;  and  the  epact  of  the 
first  year  of  the  next  cycle,  11,  as  before.  Dr. 
Hales  gives  the  following  rules  to  show  the  use  of 
epacts. 

I.  To  find  the  year   of  the   lunar    cycle,  or 
the  golden   number,   in   any  given  year  of  our 
Lord.     Add  one  to  the  given  year,  then  divide 
the  sum  by  nineteen,  the  remainder,  if  any,  is 
the  golden  number;  if  there  be  no  remainder, 
then  nineteen  is  the  golden  number. 

II.  To  find  the  epact  in  any  given  year. — If  the 
year  precede  the  alteration  of  the  style,  A.  D.  1752, 
first  find  the  golden  number  of  that  year  ;  mul- 
tiply it  by  eleven ;  if  the   product  be  less  than 
thirty,  it  will  be  epact ;  but  if  greater,  divide  it 
by  thirty,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  epact. 
But  if  the    year  follow   A.  D.   1752,   because 
eleven  days  were  then  struck  out  of  the  calendar, 
the  epact  so  found  will  require  correction.     If 
it  be  greater  than  eleven,  subtract  eleven  from  it ; 
if  less,  add  to  it  thirty,  and  subtract  eleven  from 
the  sum  :  the  remainder,  in  either  case,  will  give 
the  epact. 

III.  To  find  the  moon's  age  on  ant/  given  day  in 
the  year. — Add  together  the  epact  of  the  given 
year,  the  number  of  months  from  March   inclu- 
sive, and  the  proposed  day  of  the  month  ;  if  the 
sum  be  less  than  thirty,  it  will  be  the  moon's  age, 
but  if  greater,  its  remainder,  when  divided  by 
thirty,  will  be  the  moon's  age. 

SECTION  V.  OF  CYCLES  AND  OTHER  PERIODI- 
CAL REVOLUTIONS  OF  YEARS. 

Besides  these  natural  divisions  of  time,  arising 
immediately  from  the  revolutions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  there  are  others  formed  from  some  of  the 
less  obvious  consequences  of  these  revolutions, 
which  are  called  cycles,  from  the  Greek  KVK\OC, 
a  circle.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  are  the 
following  : — 

1.  The  cycle  of  the  s-tn  is  a  revolution  of  twen- 
ty-eight years,  in  wh  ch  time  the  days  of  the 
months  return  again  to  the  same  days  of  the  week ; 
the  sun's  place  to  the  same  signs  and  degrees  of 

2  X 


674 


CHRONOLOGY. 


the  ecliptic  on  the  same  months  and  days,  so  as 
not  to  differ  one  degree  in  100  years ;  and  the 
leap  years  begin  the  same  course  over  again  with 
respect  to  the  days  of  the  week  on  which  the 
days  of  the  months  fall. 

The  cycle  of  the  moon,  or  the  golden  number, 
is  a  revolution  of  nineteen  years ;  in  which  time 
the  conjunctions,  oppositions,  and  other  aspects 
of  the  moon,  are  within  an  hour  and  a  half  of 
being  the  same  as  they  were  on  the  same  days  of 
the  months  nineteen  years  before. 

The  indiction  is  a  revolution  of  fifteen  years, 
used  only  by  the  Romans  for  indicating  the  times 
of  certain  payments  made  by  the  subjects  to  the 
republic;  it  was  established  by  Constantine, 
A.  D.  312. 

There  is  a  remarkable  prophecy,  says  an  ex- 
cellent modern  Treatise  on  Astronomy,  deliver- 
ed to  us  in  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  book  of 
Daniel,  which,  from  a  certain  epoch,  fixes  the 
time  of  restoring  the  state  of  the  Jews,  and  of 
building  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  the  coming  of 
the  Messiah,  his  death,  and  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  But  some  parts  of  this  prophecy 
(ver.  25)  are  so  injudiciously  pointed  in  our  En- 
glish translation  of  the  bible,  that,  if  they  be  read 
according  to  those  stops  of  pointing,  they  are 
quite  unintelligible.  But  the  learned  Dr.  Pri- 
deaux,  by  altering  these  stops,  makes  the  sense 
very  plain :  and,  as  he  seems  to  me  to  have  ex- 
plained the  whole  of  it  better  than  any  other  au- 
thor I  have  read  on  the  subject,  I  shall  set  down 
the  whole  of  the  prophecy  according  as  he  has 
pointed  it,  to  show  in  what  manner  he  has  di^ 
vided  it  into  four  different  parts. 

Ver.  24.  'Seventy  weeks  are  determined  upon 
thy  people,  and  upon  thy  holy  city,  to  finish  the 
transgression,  and  to  make  an  end  of  sins,  and 
to  make  reconciliation  for  iniquity,  and  to  bring 
in  everlasting  righteousness,  and  to  seal  up  the 
vision  and  the  prophecy,  and  to  anoint  the  most 
roly.  Ver.  25.  Know  therefore  and  understand, 
that  froati  the  going  forth  of  the  commandment 
to  restore  and  build  Jerusalem  unto  the  Messiah, 
the  prince,  shall  be  seven  weeks  and  threescore 
and  two  weeks,  the  street  shall  be  built  again, 
and  the  wall  even  in  troublous  times.  Ver.  26. 
And  after  threescore  and  two  weeks  shall  Mes- 
siah be  cut  off,  but  not  for  himself,  and  the  peo- 
ple of  the  prince  that  shall  come,  shall  destroy 
the  citj  and  sanctuary,  and  the  end  thereof  shall 
be  with  a  flood,  and  unto  the  end  of  the  war  de- 
solations are  determined.  Ver.  27.  And  he  shall 
confirm  the  covenant  with  many  for  one  week, 
and  in  the  midst  of  the  week  he  shall  cause  the 
sacrifice  and  the  oblation  to'  cease,  and  for  the 
overspreading  of  abominations  he  shall  make  it 
desolate  even  until  the  consummation,  and  that 
determined  shall  be  poured  upon  the  desolate.' 

This  commandment  was  given  to  Ezra  by  Ar- 
taxerxes  Longimanus,  in  the  seventh  year  of  that 
king's  reign  (Ezra,  ch.  vii.,  ver.  11 — 26.)  Ezra 
began  the  work  which  was  afterwards  accom- 
plished by  Nehemiah ;  in  which  they  met  with 
great  opposition  and  trouble  from  the  Samaritans 
and  others,  during  the  first  seven  weeks,  or  forty- 
nine  years. 

From  this  accomplishment,  till  the  time  when 
Christ's  messenger,  John  the  Baptist,  began  to 


preach  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  sixty-two 
weeks,  or  434  years. 

From  thence,  to  the  beginning  of  Christ's  pub- 
lic ministry,  half  a  week,  or  three  years  and  a 
half. 

And  from  thence  to  the  death  of  Christ,  half 
a  week,  or  three  years  and  a  half;  in  which  half 
week  he  preached  and  confirmed  the  covenant  of 
the  gospel  with  many. 

In  all,  from  the  going  forth  of  the  command- 
ment till  the  death  of  Christ,  seventy  weeks,  or 
490  years. 

And,  lastly,  in  a  very  striking  manner,  the  pro- 
phecy foretels  what  should  come  to  pass  after  the 
expiration  of  the  seventy  weeks;  namely,  the 
destruction  of  the  city  and  sanctuary  by  the  peo- 
ple of  the  prince  that  was  to  come;  which  were 
the  Roman  armies  under  the  command  of  Titus 
their  prince,  who  came  upon  Jerusalem  as  a  tor- 
rent, with  their  idolatrous  images,  which  were  an 
abomination  to  the  Jews,  and  under  which  they 
marched  against  them,  invaded  their  land,  and 
besieged  their  holy  city,  and,  by  a  calamitous  war 
brought  such  utter  destruction  upon  both,  that 
the  Jews  have  never  been  able  to  recover  them- 
selves, even  to  this  day. 

Now,  both  by  the  undoubted  canon  of  Ptole- 
my, and  the  famous  era  of  Nabonassar,  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventh  year  of  the  reign  of  Ar- 
taxerxes  Longimanus,  king  of  Persia  (who  is 
called  Ahasuerus  in  the  book  of  Esther),  is  pin- 
ned down  to  the  4256th  year  of  the  Julian  period, 
in  which  year  he  gave  Ezra  the  above-mentioned 
ample  commission :  from  which  count  490  years 
to  the  death  of  Christ,  and  it  will  carry  the  same 
to  the  4746th  year  of  the  Julian  period. 

Our  Saturday  is  the  Jewish  Sabbath :  and  it  is 
plain,  from  St.  Mark,  ch.  xv.  ver.  42,  and  St. 
Luke,  ch.  xxiii.  ver.  54,  that  Christ  was  crucifi- 
ed on  a  Friday,  seeing  the  crucifixion  was  on  the 
day  next  before  the  Jewish  Sabbath.  And,  ac- 
cording to  St.  John,  ch.  xviii.  ver.  28,  on  the 
day  that  the  passover  was  to  be  eaten,  at  least  by 
many  of  the  Jews. 

The  Jews  reckoned  their  months  by  the  Moon, 
and  their  years  by  the  apparent  revolution  of  the 
Sun :  and  they  eat  the  passover  on  the  fourteenth 
day  of  the  month  of  Nisan,  which  was  the  first 
month  of  their  year,  reckoning  from  the  first  ap- 
pearance of  the  new  moon,  which  at  that  time  of 
the  year  might  be  on  the  evening  of  the  day  next 
after  the  change,  if  the  sky  was  clear.  So  that 
their  fourteenth  day  of  the  month  answers  to  our 
fifteenth  day  of  the  moon,  on  which  she  is  full. 
Consequently,  the  passover  was  always  kept  on 
the  day  of  full  moon. 

And  the  full  moon  at  which  it  was  kept,  was 
that  one  which  happened  next  after  the  vernal 
equinox.  For  Josephus  expressly  says  (Antiq. 
B.  iii.  ch.  10).  '  The  passover  was  kept  on  the 
fourteenth  day  of  the  month  of  Nisan,  according 
to  the  Moon,  when  the  Sun  was  in  Aries.'  And 
the  Sun  always  enters  Aries  at  the  instant  of  the 
vernal  equinox;  which,  in  our  Saviour's  time; 
fell  on  the  22nd  day  of  March. 

The  dispute  among  chronologers  about  the 
year  of  Christ's  death,  is  limited  to  four  or  five 
years  at  most.  But,  as  we  have  shown  that  he 
was  crucified  on  the  day  of  a  pascal  full  moon, 


CHRONOLOGY. 


675 


and  on  a  Friday,  all  that  we  have  to  do,  in  order 
to  ascertain  the  year  of  his  death,  is  only  to 
compute  in  which  of  those  years  there  was  a  pas- 
sover full  moon  on  a  Friday.  For  the  full  moons 
anticipate  eleven  days  every  year,  (twelve  lunar 
months  being  so  much  short  of  a  solar  year),  and 
therefore,  once  in  every  three  years  at  least,  the 
Jews  were  obliged  to  set  their  passover  a  whole 
month  forwarder  than  it  fell  by  the  course  of  the 
moon,  on  the  year  next  before,  in  order  to  keep 
it  at  the  full  moon  next  after  the  equinox ;  there- 
fore, there  could  not  be  two  passovers  on  the 
same  nominal  day  of  the  week,  within  the  com- 
pass of  a  few  neighboring  years.  And  I  find  by 
calculation,  the  only  passover  full  moon  that  fell 
on  a  Friday,  for  several  years  before  and  after  the 
disputed  year  of  the  crucifixion,  was  on  the  3rd 
day  of  April,  in  the  4746th  ye,ar  of 'the  Julian 
period,  which  was  the  490th  year  after  Ezra  re- 
ceived the  above-mentioned  commission  from 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  according  to  Ptolemy's 
canon,  and  the  year  in  which  the  Messiah  was  to 
be  cut  off,  according  to  the  prophecy,  reckoning 
from  the  going  forth  of  that  commission  or  com- 
mandment :  and  this  490th  year  was  the  thirty- 
third  year  of  our  Saviour's  age,  reckoning  from 
the  vulgar  era  of  his  birth ;  but  the  thirty-seventh 
reckoning  from  the  true  era  thereof. 

And,  when  we  reflect  on  what  the  Jews  told 
him  sometime  before  his  death,  (John  viii.  57), 
'  Thou  art  not  yet  fifty  years  old,'  we  must  con- 
fess, that  it  should  seem  much  likelier  to  have 
been  said  to  a  person  near  forty  than  to  one  but 
just  turned  thirty.  And  we  may  easily  suppose, 
that  St.  Luke  expressed  himself  only  in  round 
numbers,  when  he  said  that  Christ  was  baptised 
about  the  thirtieth  year  of  his  age,  when  he  be- 
gan his  public  ministry ;  as  our  Saviour  himself 
did,  when  he  said  he  should  lie  three  days  and 
three  nights  in  the  grave. 

Now  the  4746th  year  of  the  Julian  period,  con- 
tinues the  above  able  author,  which  we  have  as- 
tronomically proved  to  be  the  year  of  the  cruci- 
fixion, was  the  fourth  year  of  the  202nd  Olym- 
piad ;  in  which  year,  Phlegon,  a  heathen  writer, 
tells  us,  there  was  the  most  extraordinary  eclipse 
of  the  Sun  that  ever  was  seen.  But  I  find  by 
calculation,  that  there  could  be  no  total  eclipse  of 
the  Sun  at  Jerusalem,  in  a  natural  way  in  that 
year.  So  that  what  Phlegon  here  calls  an  eclipse 
of  the  Sun,  seems  to  have  been  the  great  dark- 
ness for  three  hours  at  the  time  of  our  Saviour's 
crucifixion,  as  mentioned  by  the  evangelists :  a 
darkness  altogether  supernatural,  as  the  Moon 
was  then  in  the  side  of  the  heavens  opposite  to 
the  Sun  ;  and  therefore  could  not  possibly  dark- 
en the  Sun  to  any  part  of  the  Earth. 

The  year  of  our  Saviour's  birth,  according  to 
the  vulgar  era,  was  the  ninth  year  of  the  solar 
cycle,  the  first  year  of  the  lunar  cycle ;  and  the 
312th  year  after  his  birth  was  the  first  year  of  the 
Roman  indiction.  Therefore,  to  find  the  year  of 
the  solar  cycle,  add  9  to  any  given  year  of 
Christ,  and  divide  the  sum  by  28,  the  quotient 
is  the  number  of  cycles  elapsed  since  his  birth, 
and  the  remainder  is  the  cycle  for  the  given 
year  :  if  nothing  remains,  the  cycle  is  28.  To 
find  the  lunar  cycle,  add  one  to  the  given  year 
of  Christ,  and  divide  the  sum  by  19;  the  quo- 


tient is  the  number  cf  cycles  elapsed  in  the  inter- 
val, and  the  remainder  is  the  cycle  for  the  given 
year:  if  nothing  remains,  the  cycle  is  19.  Lastly, 
subtract  312  from  the  given  year  of  Christ,  and 
divide  the  remainder  by  15  ;  and  what  remains 
after  this  division  is  the  indiction  for  the  given 
year  :  if  nothing  remains,  the  indiction  is  15. 

Although  the  deficiency  in  the  lunar  cycle  of 
an  hour  and  a  half  every  nineteen  years  be  but 
small,  yet  in  time  it  becomes  so  sensible  as  to 
make  a  whole  natural  day  in  310  years.  So  that, 
although  this  cycle  be  of  use,  when  the  golden 
numbers  are  rightly  placed  against  the  days  of 
the  months  in  the  calendar,  as  in  the  common 
prayer  books,  for  finding  the  days  of  the  mean 
conjunctions  or  oppositions  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
and  consequently  the  time  of  Easter ;  it  will  only 
serve  for  310  years,  old  style.  For  as  the  new 
and  full  moons  anticipate  a  day  in  that  time,  the 
golden  numbers  ought  to  be  placed  one  day  ear- 
lier in  the  calendar  for  the  next  310  years  to 
come.  These  numbers  were  rightly  placed 
against  the  days  of  new  moon  in  the  calendar, 
by  the  council  of  Nice,  A.  D.  325  ;  but  the  anti- 
cipation which  has  been  neglected  ever  since,  is 
now  grown  almost  into  five  days  ;  and  therefore 
all  the  golden  numbers  ought  now  to  be  placed 
five  days  higher  in  the  Calendar  for  the  old 
style  than  they  were  at  the  time  of  the  said  coun- 
cil ;  or  six  days  lower  for  the  new  style,  because 
at  present  it  differs  eleven  days  from  the  old. 

In  the  following  table,  the  golden  numbers 
under  the  months  stand  against  the  days  of  new 
moon  in  the  left  hand  column,  for  the  new  style ; 
adapted  chiefly  to  the  second  year  after  leap-  • 
year,  which  is  the  nearest  mean  for  all  the  four ; 
and  will  serve  till  the  year  1900.  Therefore,  to 
find  the  day  of  new  moon  in  any  month  of  a 
given  year  till  that  time,  look  lor  the  golden 
number  of  that  year  (which  will  be  found  by 
Table  II.  under  the  desired  month),  and  against 
it  you  have  the  day  of  new  moon  in  the  left 
hand  column.  Thus,  suppose  it  were  required  to 
find  the  day  of  new  moon  in  September,  1798  ; 
the  golden  number  for  that  year  is  thirteen,  which 
I  look  for  under  December,  and  right  against  it 
in  the  left  hand  column  you  will  find  seven., 
which  is  the  day  of  new  moon  in  that  month. 
N.  B.  If  all  the  golden  numbers,  except  seventeen 
and  six,  were  set  one  day  lower  in  the  table,  it 
would  serve  from  the  beginning  of  the  year  1900 
till  the  end  of  the  year  2199. 

TABLE  I. 


c 
> 
H 

V 

w 

5 

K 
> 

•n 

> 
t 
^ 

2 

<* 
d 

3! 

d 

r 

a 

c 

uo 
w 
•a 

i-j 

Q 

o 

H 

•s. 

0 

- 

H 

n 

c/> 

B 

r 

t-> 

1 

9 

9 

17 

17 

6 

11 

19 

2 

17 

6 

14 

14 

3 

11 

9 

3 

17 

6 

17 

6 

3 

1 

19 

8 

8 

4 

6 

6 

14 

14 

3 

19 

8 

16 

5 

14 

3 

11 

11 

10 

8 

1C 

6 

14 

3 

14 

3 

19 

1(3 

5 

5 

7 

3 

3 

11 

11 

10 

8 

16) 

13 

R 

11 

10 

8 

8 

1G 

5 

5 

113 

9 

11 

19 

11 

19 

13 

"2 

10 

19 

8 

8 

16 

16 

5 

13 

210 

2X2 


676 


CHRONOLOGY. 


[DAYS. 

> 

X 

9a 

W 

MARCH. 

APRIL.  | 

K 

<• 
^ 

JUNE. 

JULY.  | 

> 
p 

OB 
W 
•fl 
H 

o 
H 

s 

< 

o 
w 
o 

11 

19 

8 

5 

13 

2 

2 

10 

12 

8 

1C 

8 

16 

1C 

5 

10 

18 

13 

5 

13 

13 

2 

10 

18 

7 

14 

10 

5 

16 

5 

2 

10 

18 

18 

7 

15 

5 

5 

13 

13 

2 

7 

15 

16 

13 

2 

10 

19 

18 

7 

15 

17 

13 

2 

13 

2 

18 

7 

15 

4 

4 

18 

2 

2 

10 

10 

18 

15 

12 

19 

10 

18 

7 

7 

15 

4 

4 

12 

20 

10 

18 

10 

18 

15 

12 

1 

1 

21 

18 

18 

7 

7 

15 

4 

12 

9 

2 

7 

15 

4 

4 

12 

1 

1 

g 

•23 

7 

15 

T 

1,5 

12 

9 

17 

17 

24 

15 

4 

4 

12 

1 

9 

6 

25 

15 

4 

12 

1 

9 

17 

17 

6 

2G 

4 

4 

12 

1 

6 

15 

27 

12 

1 

1 

9 

5 

17 

6 

14 

28 

12 

1 

12 

9 

17 

6 

14 

14 

j 

3 

29 

i 

1 

5 

17 

f 

11 

30 

17 

6 

6 

14 

3 

11 

31 

9 

9 

14 

3 

11 

19 

The  second  table  shows  the  golden  number  for 
4000  years  after  the  birth  of  Christ,  by  looking 
for  the  even  hundreds  of  any  given  year  at  the 
left  hand,  and  for  the  rest  to  make  up  that  yeat 
at  the  head  of  the  table  ;  and  where  the  columns 
meet,  you  have  the  golden  number  for  the  gives, 
year.  Thus,  suppose  the  golden  number  was 
wanted  for  the  year  1798,  look  for  1700  at  the 
left  hand  of  the  table,  and  for  98  at  the  top  of  it ; 
then,  guiding  your  eye  downward  from  98  to  the 
angle  over  against  1700,  you  will  find  13,  which 
is  the  golden  number  for  that  year.  But  as  the 
lunar  cycle  of  nineteen  years  sometimes  includes 
five  leap  years,  and  at  other  times  only  four,  this 
table  will  sometimes  vary  a  day  from  the  trutli 
in  leap  years  after  February.  And  it  is  impos- 
sible to  have  one  more  correct,  unless  we  extend 
it  to  four  times  nineteen  or  seventy-six  years ;  in 
which  there  are  nineteen  leap  years  without  a 
remainder.  But  even  then  to  have  it  of  per- 
petual use,  it  must  be  adapted  to  the  old  style  ; 
because,  in  every  centurial  year  not  divisible 
by  four,  the  regular  course  of  leap  years  is  in- 
terrupted in  the  new ;  as  was  the  case  in  the  year 
1800. 


TABLE  II. 

TABLE,  SHOWING  THE  GOLDEN  NUMBER  (WHICH  is  THE  SAME  BOTH  IN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW 
STYLE\  FROM  THE  CHRISTIAN  ERA,  TO  A.  D.  4000. 


Years  less  than  an  hundred. 

0 
9 

1 

20 

2 

21 

3 

22 

4 

23 

5 

24 

6 

25 

7 

26 

8 
27 

9 

28 

10 

29 

11 

30 

12 
31 

13 
32 

14 
33 

15 
34 

16 
35 

17 

36 

18 
37 

Hundreds 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

of 

57 

58 

59 

30 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

J7 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

Years. 

"6 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

82 

83 

84 

85 

86 

87 

88 

89 

90 

91 

92 

93 

94 

05 

96 

97 

98 

99 

50 

1900 

3800 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13,14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

100 

2000 

3900 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

200 

2100 

4000 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

300 

2200 

&C. 

10 

17 

18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

400 

2300 

2 

1 

4 

5 

G 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

1 

500 

2400 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

600 

2500 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

700 

2600 

17 

18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

800 

2700 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

1 

2 

900 

2800 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

1000 

2900 

13 

14 

15 

1G 

17 

18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

l'> 

1100 

3000 

18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

1200 

3100 

4 

5 

6 

7 

H 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

1300 

3200 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

1400 

3300 

14 

15 

1G 

17 

18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

11500 
1600 

340Q 
3500 

H 

I 

1 
6 

7 

8 

4 

9 

i 

10 

6 

11 

7 

12 

8 
13 

9 

14 

10 
15 

11 
16 

12 

17 

13 
18 

14 

19 

15 
1 

16 
2 

17 
3 

18 
4 

1700 

3600 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

H' 

19 

1 

2 

a 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1800 

3700 

\~ 

1G 

17  18 

19 

1 

2 

3 

4 

i 

6 

7 

a 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

CHRONOLOGY. 


677 


The  cycle  of  Easter,  or  the  Dionysian  period, 
is  a  revolution  of  532  years,  found  by  mul- 
tiplying the  solar  cycle  28,  by  the  lunar  cycle 
19.  If  the  new  moons  did  not  anticipate  upon 
this  cycle,  Easter  day  would  always  be  the  Sunday 
next  after  the  first  full  moon  which  follows  the 
21st  of  March.  But  on  account  of  the  above 
anticipation,  to  which  no  proper  regard  was 
paid  before  the  alteration  of  the  style,  the  ec- 
clesiastical Easter  has  several  times  been  a  week 
different  from  the  true  Easter  within  this  last 
century :  which  inconvenience  is  now  remedied 
by  making  the  table,  which  used  to  find  Easter 
for  ever,  in  the  common  Prayer  Book,  of  no 
longer  use  than  the  lunar  difference  from  the  new 
style  will  admit  of.  The  earliest  Easter  possible 
is  the  22nd  of  March,  the  latest  the  25th  of 
April.  Within  these  limits  are  thirty-five  days, 
and  the  number  belonging  to  each  of  them  is 
called  the  number  of  direction  ;  because  thereby 
the  time  of  Easter  is  found  for  any  given  year. 

The  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  com- 
monly placed  in  the  annual  almanacks,  to  show 
on  what  days  of  the  week  the  days  of  the  months 
fall  throughout  the  year.  As  one  of  those  letters 
stands  against  Sunday,  as  it  is  printed  in  a 
capital  form,  and  called  the  dominical  letter  ;  the 
other  six  being  inserted  in  small  characters,  to 
denote  the  other  six  days  of  the  week.  As  a 
common  Julian  year  contains  365  days,  if  this 
number  be  divided  by  seven  there  will  remain 
one  day  :  whence  the  year  begins  and  ends  on  the 
same  day  of  the  week  ;  arid  therefore  the  next 
year  will  begin  on  the  day  following.  Hence, 
when  January  begins  on  Sunday,  A  is  the  domi- 
cal letter  for  that  year :  then,  because  the  next 
year  begins  on  Monday,  the  Sunday  will  fall  on 
the  seventh  day,  to  which  is  annexed  the  seventh 
letter  G,  which  therefore  will  be  the  dominical  letter 
for  all  that  year ;  and,  as  the  third  year  will  begin 
on  Tuesday,  the  Sunday  will  fall  on  the  sixth  day  ; 
therefore  F  will  be  the  dominical  letter  for  that 
year.  Whence  it  is  evident,  that  the  dominical 
letters  will  go  annually  in  a  retrograde  order 
thus,  G,  F,  E,  D,C,  B,  A.  And  in  the  course 
of  seven  years,  if  they  were  all  common  ones, 
the  same  days  of  the  week,  and  dominical  letters 
would  return  to  (he  same  days  of  the  months. 
But  because  there  are  366  days  in  a  leap  year,  if 
this  number  be  divided  by  seven,  there  will  re- 
main two  days  over  and  above  the  fifty-two  weeks, 
of  which  the  year  consists.  And  therefore,  if  the 
leap  year  begins  on  Sunday,  it  will  end  on 
Monday ;  and  the  next  year  will  begin  on 
Tuesday,  the  first  Sunday  whereof  must  fall  on 
the  6th  of  January,  to  which  is  annexed  the 
letter  F,  and  not  G,  as  in  common  years.  From 
the  leap  year,  thus  returning  every  fourth  year, 
the  order  of  the  dominical  letters  is  interrupted  ; 
and  the  series  cannot  return  to  its  first  state  till 
after  four  times  seven  or  twenty-eight  years  ;  and 
then  the  same  days  of  the  months  return  in  order 
to  the  same  days  of  the  week  as  before. 

The  great  Julian  period  arises  from  the  multi- 
plication of  the  solar  cycle  of  twenty-eight  years 
into  the  lunar  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  and  the 
Roman  indiction  of  fifteen  years.  It  consists  of 
7980  years,  and  had  its  beginning  764  years 
before  Strauchius's  supposed  year  of  the  crea- 


tion (for  no  later  could  all  the  three  cycles  begin 
together),  and  is  not  yet  completed.  It  there- 
fore includes  all  others,  cycles,  periods,  and  eras. 
There  is  but  one  year  in  the  whole  period  that 
has  the  same  numbers  for  the  three  cycles  of 
which  it  is  made  up;  and  therefore,  if  histo- 
rians had  remarked  in  their  writings  the  cycles 
of  each  year,  there  had  been  no  dispute  about 
the  time  of  any  action  recorded  by  them. 

The  Dionysian,  or  vulgar  era  of  Christ's  birth, 
was  about  the  end  of  the  year  of  the  Julian  pe- 
riod 4713;  and  consequently  the  first  year  of  his 
age,  according  to  that  account,  was  the  4714th 
year  of  the  said  period.  Therefore,  if  to  the 
current  year  of  Christ  we  add  4713,  the  sum  will 
be  the  year  of  the  Julian  period.  So  the  year 
1798  will  be  found  to  be  the  6511th  year  of  that 
period.  Or,  to  find  the  year  of  the  Julian  period 
answering  to  any  given  year  before  the  first  year 
of  Christ,  subtract  the  number  of  that  given  year 
from  4714,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  year  of 
the  Julian  period.  Thus,  the  year  585  before 
the  first  year  of  Christ  (which  was  the  584th 
before  his  birth)  was  the  4129th  year  of  the  said 
period.  To  find  the  cycles  of  the  sun,  moon,  an 
indiction  for  any  given  year  of  this  period,  divide 
the  given  year  by  twenty-eight,  nineteen,  and 
fifteen;  the  three  remainders  will  be  the  cycles 
sought,  and  the  quotients  the  number  of  cycles 
run  since  the  beginning  of  the  period.  So  in  the 
above  4714th  year  of  the  Julian  period,  the  cycle 
of  the  sun  was  ten,  the  cycle  of  the  moon 
two,  and  the  cycle  of  indiction  four;  the  solar 
cycle  having  run  through  168  courses,  the  lunar 
248,  and  the  indiction  314. 

The  Chinese  cycle  of  sixty  years,  employed 
certainly  from  an  early  period,  is  entirely  of  a 
civil  nature,  like  the  indiction  of  the  Romans; 
and  has  no  relation  to  their  former  astronomi- 
cal calculations. 

\ 

PART  II. 
HISTORICAL  CHRONOLOGY. 

SECT.  I. — OF  ASTRONOMICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

The  first  great  foundation  of  historical  chro- 
nology is  astronomical  observations.  The  eclipses 
of  the  sun  and  moon  especially,  and  the  aspects 
of  the  other  planets,  have  been  justly  called 
public  and  celestial  characters  of  the  times,  as 
their  calculations  afford  chronologers  infallible 
proofs  of  the  precise  epochs  in  which  a  great 
number  of  the  most  signal  events  in  history  have 
occurred.  So  that  in  chForiological  matters  we 
cannot  make  any  great  progress  if  we  are  igno- 
rant of  the  use  of  astronomical  tables,  and  the 
calculation  of  eclipses.  The  ancients  regarded 
the  latter  as  prognostics  of  the  fall  of  empires, 
of  the  loss  of  battles,  the  death  of  monarchs,  &c. 
To  this  superstition,  tin's  wretched  ignorance,  we 
happily  owe  the  vast  labors  that  historians  have 
taken  to  record  so  great  a  number  of  them.  The 
most  able  chronologers  have  collected  them  with 
still  greater  labor.  Calvisius,  for  example,  founds 
his  chronology  on  144  eclipses  of  the  sun,  and 
1 27  of  the  moon,  which  he  says  he  had  calcu- 
lated. 


678 


CHRONOLOGY. 


Modem  chronologers  have  not  been  remiss  in 
furnishing  us  with  this  kind  of  date  to  the 
greatest  extent  possible.  Dr.  Playfair  and  Mr. 


Ferguson  both  supply  valuable  tables  of  eclipses ;     portant. 


those  of  the  former  going  bacx  to  B.  C.  753* 
and  extending  to  A.  D.  1900.  Dr.  Hales  selects 
from  the  whole  the  following  as  the  most  ini- 


ANCIENT  ECLIPSES  AS  CONNECTED  WITH  CERTAIN  LEADING  FACTS  or  HISTORY. 


B.  C. 
753. 

721. 
720. 

715. 
621. 
607. 
603. 
601. 
597. 
585. 

547. 

523. 
502. 
491. 
481. 

480. 
478. 
463. 
431. 
424. 
413. 

406. 
404. 
394. 

331. 
200. 


190. 
188. 

168. 

63. 
48. 
45. 
31. 
4. 

A.  D. 

14. 

29. 
31. 
33. 
45. 
46. 
59. 
€9. 


S. 

s. 

M. 

S. 
M. 

S. 
M. 

S. 

S. 

s. 
s. 
s. 

s. 

M. 
M. 
M. 

S. 

S. 

s. 
s. 
s. 
s. 

M. 

M. 

S. 

s'. 

M. 

M. 


S. 
S. 


M. 

M. 

M. 

S. 

M. 


April  21. 
July  5. 
March  19. 

Ptolemy. 
February  22.  Morn.  10;  dig.  8£ 


Old  calculation;  the  day  of  the  foundation  of  Rome.     Plutarch. 

Aft.  4,  30;  dig.  4. 

Aft.  10,  34,  total  1  ;  first  year  of  Mardok  Empad,  king  of  Babylon. 


Aft.  11,  56;  dig. 
Aft.  5,  12;  dig.  9J; 
Morn.  6,  22  ;   dig. 


China. 

;  second  of  Mardok  Empad.     Ptolemy, 
death  of  Romulus.     Livy. 
%  ;   fifth  of  Nabopolassar.     Ptolemy. 

Aft.  1,  55  ;  dig.  8  ;  supposed  eclipse  of  Thales,  according  to  Calvisius. 
Morn.  9^,  total ;  same,  Costard,  Montucla,  Kennedy. 
Morn.  10,  57;   dig.  9;  same,  Usher. 

Aft.  3 ;   dig.  10,  33' ;   same,  Petsevius,  Marsham,  Bouhier,  Larcher. 
Aft.  3  ;   dig.  11,  20';  same,  Pliny,  Scaliger,  Newton,  Ferguson,  Vig- 

noles,  Jackson. 
October  22.   Aft.  0,  35,  total;  when  Cyrus  took  Larissa  in  Media.     Xenophon. 

Anab. 

Morn.  0,  12;  dig.  7£;  seventh  of  Cambyses.     Ptolemy. 
Morn.  8,  21 ;   dig.  2 ;   twentieth  of  Darius  Hystaspes. 
Morn.  0,12;   dig.  If;  thirty-fourth  of  Darius  Hystaspes. 
Aft.  2,  27 ;  dig.  7 ;  when   Xerxes  left  Susa  to  invade   Greece.     He- 
rodotus. 
Aft.  2. ;  dig.  8  ;   soon  after  the  battle  of  Salamis.     Herodotus. 

year  after  the  Persian  war. 

Aft.  3  ;  dig.  11 ;  Egyptians  revolt  from  the  Persians. 
Aft.  5, 53 ;  total ;  first  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.     Thucydides. 
Mom.  6,  34;  dig.  9;  eighth  year  of  the  war.     Thucydides. 


March  8. 
May  26. 
April  21. 
July  30. 
May  18. 
Sept.  19. 
July  9. 
May  28. 


July  17. 
Nov.  19. 
Aprii  25. 
April  19. 

October  2 

February  13.  Aft.  2  ;  dig.  Hi 

April  30. 

August  3. 

March  22. 


April  15. 
Sept.  2. 
August  14. 

Sept.  20. 
March  19. 
Sept.  11. 


August  27.    Aft.  10, 15 ;  total ;  nineteenth  year  of  the  war;  defeat  of  Nicias  and  the 
Athenians  at  Syracuse.     Thucydides. 

Aft.  8,  50 ;  total ;  twenty-sixth  year  of  the  war. 

Morn.  9,  16  ;  last  year  of  the  war.     Xenophon. 

Morn.  9,  17 ;  dig.  11 ;  Conon  defeats  the  Lacedaemonians  in  a  sea-fight 
at  Cnidus.     Xenophon. 

Aft.  6,  35 ;  total ;  eleven  days  before  the  battle  of  Arbela.     Plutarch. 

Morn.  2,  48  ;  total.    )  Ptolemv 

Morn.  2,  15;  total.    ^ 
First  year  of  the  Macedonian  war. 
March  14.     Morn.  6 ;  dig.  1 1  ;  first  year  of  the  Syrian  war. 
July  17.       Morn.  8,  38 ;  dig.  lOf ;  three   days'   supplication  decreed    at    Rome. 

Livy,  34,  36. 

June  21.       Aft.  8,  2  ;  total ;  night  before  the  battle  of  Pydna,  and  end  of  the  Ma- 
cedonian war.     Livy. 

October  27.  Aft.  6,  22  ;  total ;  Jerusalem  taken  by  Pompey  this  year. 
January  18.  Aft.  10;  total;   battle  of  Pharsalia;  death  of  Pompey  this  year. 
November  7.  Morn.  2 ;  total ;  first  Julian  year. 
August  20.    Sun-set,  great  eclipse ;  battle  of  Actium,  Sept.  3. 
March  13.    Morn.  2,  45  ;  dig.  6 ;  before  Herod  the  Great's  death.     Josephus. 


M.  Sept.  27.  Morn.  5  ;  total ;  mutiny  of  the  Pannonian  legions,  quelled  thereby,  after 
the  death  of  Augustus.  Tacitus,  Anal.  1. 

S.      Nov.  24.        Morn.  9J  ;  total;  death  of  John  Baptist  this  year. 

M.     April  25.       Aft.  9;  dig.  4  ;  a  month  after  the  crucifixion. 

S.       Sept.  12.       Morn.  10£  ;  annular. 

S.      August  1.      Morn.  10 ;  dig.  5  ;  birth  day  of  the  emperor  Claudius. 

M.     Dec.  31.       Aft.  9£;  total. 

S.       April  30.      Aft.  1  ;  central ;  Nero  murdered  his  mother  Agrippina  this  year. 

M.  October  18.  Aft.  10  ;  dig.  11  ;  night  of  the  battle  of  Cremona  between  the  armies  of 
Vespasian  and  Vitellius.  Dio.  lib.  65.  Tacit.  Hist.  3, 23.  The 
year  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  A.  D.  70,  here- 
by ascertained. 


CHRONOLOGY. 


679 


Again,  the  grand  conjunction  of  the  two  su- 
perior planets,  Saturn  and  Jupiter,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Kepler,  occurs  once  in  800  years,  in 
the  same  point  of  the  zodiac,  and  which  has  hap- 
pened only  eight  times  since  the  creation  (the 
last  time  in  the  month  of  December,  1603,)  may 
also  furnish  chronology  with  incontestible  proofs. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  transit  of  Venus 
over  the  sun,  which  has  been  observed  in  our 
days,  and  all  the  other  uncommon  positions 
of  the  planets. 

But  among  these  celestial  and  natural  charac- 
ters of  times,  there  are  also  some  that  are  named 
civil  or  artificial,  and  which,  nevertheless,  de- 
pend on  astronomic  calculation.  Such  are  the 
solar  and  lunar  cycles,  the  Roman  indiction,  the 
feast  of  Easter,  the  bissextile  year,  the  jubilees, 
the  sabbatic  years,  the  Olympic  games  of  the 
Greeks,  and  the  hegira  of  the  Mahommedans, 
&c.  Astronomical  chronology  also  teaches  us 
to  calculate  the  precise  year  of  the  Julian  pe- 
riod, in  which  any  remarkable  epoch  happened. 
And  to  these  may  be  added  the  periods,  eras, 
epochs,  and  years  of  different  nations,  ancient 
and  modern.  Thus  the  period  or  era  of  the 
Jews  commences  with  the  creation  of  the  world; 
that  of  the  ancient  Romans  with  the  foundation 
of  the  city  of  Rome ;  that  of  the  Greeks  at  the 
establishment  of  the  Olympic  games ;  that  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  with  the  advancement  of  the 
first  king  of  Babylon  to  the  throne ;  the  Yezde- 
gerdic  years,  with  the  last  king  of  the  Persians 
of  that  name;  the  hegira  of  the  Turks  with  the 
flight  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  to  Medina,  &c. 
The  year  of  the  birth  of  Christ  was  the  4713th 
year  of  the  Julian  period,  according  to  the  com-, 
mon  method  of  reckoning. 

SECT.  II. — OF  THE  TESTIMONIES  OF  AUTHORS. 

The  second  principal  foundation  of  historic 
chronology  is  the  testimony  of  authors.  Though 
historians  have  not  been  clothed  with  infallibi- 
lity, it  would  be  making  a  very  unjust  judg- 
ment of  mankind  to  treat  them  generally  either 
as  dupes  or  imposters :  there  are  authors,  uni- 
versally esteemed,  who  relate  facts  that  in  them- 
selves are  worthy  of  belief,  and  whose  veracity 
and  credibility  it  would  be  irrational  to  doubt. 
The  unanimous  concurrence  of  the  most  respect- 
able historians  supplies  testimony  to  many  leading 
facts  of  history  that  is  invaluable.  To  avoid, 
however,  the  danger  of  adopting  error  for  truth, 
and  to  be  satisfied  of  a  fact  that  appears  doubtful 
in  history,  we  may  use  the  four  following  rules, 
as  founded  in  reason. 

1.  A  particular  regard  is  due  to  the  testimo- 
nies of  those  who  wrote  at  the  time  the  events 
happened,  and  that  have  not  been  contradicted 
by  any  contemporary  author  of  known  authority. 
Who  can  doubt,  for  example,  of  the  truth  of 
the  facts  related  by  Anson,  in  his  history  of 
his  voyage  round  the  world,  although  he  is  now 
known  not  to  have  written  the  published  nar- 
rative of  them.  The  admiral  saw  all  the  facts 
mentioned  with  his  own  eyes,  and  the  work  was 
published  when  two  hundred  companions  of  his 
voyage  were  still  living  in  London,  and  could 
have  immediately  contradicted  any  false  or  exag- 
gerated relations.  2.  After  the  contemporary 


authors,  we  should  give  the  next  greatest  credit 
to  those  who  lived  near  the  time  the  events  hap- 
pened. 3.  Those  doubtful  narratives,  which  are 
given  by  authors  that  are  but  little  known,  can 
have  no  weight  if  at  variance  with  reason,  or  es- 
tablished facts.  4.  We  must  distrust  the  truth 
of  a  narrative  furnished  by  modern  authors  when 
they  do  not  agree  among  themselves  nor  with 
ancient  historians,  who  are  to  be  regarded  as 
original  sources.  We  should  especially  doubt 
the  truth  of  those  brilliant  portraits  that  are 
drawn  at  pleasure  by  such  as  never  knew  the 
persons  they  are  intended  for,  and  even  made 
several  centuries  after  their  decease. 

The  most  pure  and  most  fruitful  source  of  an- 
cient history  is  doubtless  to  be  found  in  the  Bible. 
Let  us  here  for  a  moment  cease  to  regard  it  as 
divine,  and  presume  to  treat  it  only  as  a  common 
history.  Now  when  we  consider  the  writers  o 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  sometimes  as 
authors,  sometimes  as  ocular  witnesses,  and 
sometimes  as  respectable  historians — whether  we 
reflect  on  the  simplicity  of  the  narration,  and  the 
air  of  truth  that  is  there  constantly  visible,  or 
whether  we  consider  the  care  that  the  people,  the 
governments,  and  the  learned  men  of  all  ages, 
have  taken  to  preserve  the  text,  or  have  regard 
to  the  happy  conformity  of  the  chronology  of  the 
holy  Scriptures  with  that  of  profane  history,  as 
well  as  with  that  of  Josephus  and  other  Jewish 
writers ;  and  lastly,  when  we  consider  that  the 
books  of  the  holy  Scripture  alone  furnish  us  with 
an  accurate  history  of  the  world,  from  the  crea- 
tion, through  the  line  of  patriarchs,  judges,  kings, 
and  princes  of  the  Hebrews ;  and  that  we  may, 
by  its  aid,  form  an  almost  entire  series  of  events 
down  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  or  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus, which  comprehends  a  space  of  about 
4000  years,  some  small  interruptions  excepted, 
and  which  are  easily  supplied  by  profane  his- 
tory :  when  all  these  reflections  are  justly  made, 
we  must  allow  that  the  Scriptures  form  a  series 
of  books  which  merit  the  first  rank  among  all 
the  sources  of  ancient  history. 

It  has  been  objected  that  these  booKs  con- 
tain contradictions ;  but  the  most  able  interpre- 
ters have  reconciled  these  seeming  contradic- 
tions. It  has  been  said  that  the  chronology  of 
the  Hebrew  text  and  the  Vulgate  do  not  agree 
with  the  chronology  of  the  version  of  the  Septua- 
gint,  but  the  soundest  critics  have  shown  that 
they  may  be  made  to  agree.  It  has  been  also 
objected  that  the  Scriptures  abound  with  miracles 
and  prodigies;  but  all  nature  may  be  said  to 
abound  with  prodigies.  There  are  limits  in  every 
science,  beyond  which  human  knowledge  cannot 
go,  and  beyond  which  all  is  miraculous.  But 
what  wise  philosopher  will  presume  to  say  that 
anything  is  impossible  for  infinite  power;  or 
that  the  Almighty,  by  giving  certain  laws  to  what 
we  call  nature,  has  thereby  limited  and  circum- 
scribed his  own  omnipotence  to  all  eternity,  in 
such  a  manner,  that  he  can  in  no  instance  de- 
viate from  or  alter  them,  however  much  particu- 
lar circumstances  in  his  own  moral  government 
of  the  universe  may  require  such  a  deviation. 
See  our  articles,  MIRACLE  and  REVELATION 

It  may  be  further  observed,  that  we  have  a 
new  motive  in  modern  times  to  the  investigation 


680 


CHRONOLOGY. 


of  this  most  usefiil  science.  Voltaire,  Bailey, 
and  other  inferior  witlings  of  infidelity,  have 
thought  proper  to  assail  the  Bible  chronologists 
as  'misregulators  of  time  ;'  if  it  is  demonstrable 
that  a  rectified  system  of  chronology,  which  must 
include  all  the  great  events  of  Scripture,  can 
form  the  only  correct  basis  of  general  history, 
infidelity  must  have  double  cause  to  blush ;  and 
from  the  attention  we  have  been  able  to  pay  to  Dr. 
Hales's  labors  in  this  department  of  science,  we 
have  no  hesitation  in  avowing  our  belief  of  the 
fact. 

SECT.  III. — OF  ./ERAS  OR  EPOCHS. 

As  there  are  certain  fixed  points  in  the  hea- 
vens, from  which  astronomers  begin  their  com- 
putations, so  there  are  certain  points  of  time 
from  which  historians  begin  to  reckon ;  and  these 
points  or  loots  of  time  are  called  aeras  or  epochs. 
These  form  the  third  principal  foundation  of 
chronology.  They  are  those  fixed  points  in  his- 
tory that  have  never  been  contested,  and  of  which 
there  can,  in  fact,  be  no  doubt.  Chronologers 
fix  on  the  events  that  are  to  serve  as  epochs,  in 
a  manner  quite  arbitrary;  but  this  is  of  little 
consequence,  provided  the  dates  of  these  epochs 
agree,  and  that  there  is  no  contradiction  in  the 
facts  themselves. 

The  most  remarkable  aeras  are,  those  of  the 
Creation,  the  Flood,  the  Greek  Olympiads,  the 
building  of  Rome,  the  aera  of  Nabonassar,  the 
death  of  Alexander,  the  birth  of  Christ,  the  Ara- 
bian Hegira,  and  the  Persian  Yesdegird:  all 
which,  together  with  several  others  of  less  note, 
have  their  beginnings  fixed  by  chronologers  to 
the  years  of  the  Julian  period,  to  the  age  of  the 
world  at  those  times,  and  to  the  years  before  and 
after  the  birth  of  our  Savior. 

The  vulgar  aera  of  Christ's  birth  was  never 
settled  till  the  year  527,  when  Dionysius  Exi- 
guus,  a  Roman  abbot,  fixed  it  to  the  end  of  the 
4713th  year  of  the  Julian  period,  which  was  four 
years  too  late ;  for  our  Savior  was  born  before 
the  death  of  Herod.  And,  according  to  the  tes- 
timony of  Josephus  (book  xvii.  c.  8),  there  was  an 
eclipse  of  the  moon  in  the  time  of  Herod's  last 
illness ;  which  eclipse  appears  by  our  astrono- 
mical tables  to  have  been  in  the  year  of  the  Ju- 
lian period  4710,  March  13th,  at  three  hours 
past  mid-night,  at  Jerusalem.  Now,  as  our  Sa- 
vior must  have  been  born  some  months  before 
Herod's  death,  since  in  the  interval  he  was  carried 
into  Egypt,  the  latest  time  in  which  we  can  fix 
the  true  aera  of  his  birth  is  about  the  end  of  the 
4709th  year  of  the  Julian  period. 

But  we  may  here  notice  the-  light  that  lias 
been  thrown  on  some  of  the  most  important 
epochs  by  the  New  Analysis  of  Dr.  Hales,  un- 
questionably the  most  elaborate,  and  one  of  the 
most  ingenious  of  modern  works  on  this  science. 

1.  Though  rejecting  that  of  the  vulgar  Chris- 
tian era,  which  commences  with  the  Julian  year, 
January  1,U.C.754,  according  to  the  Varronian 
computation,  as  incorrect,  he  argues  for  its  being 
retained  in  a  chronological  system,  '  as  a  long 
establishpd  era,'  commencing  from  a  known  fixed 
epoch,  both  backwards  and  forwards,  and  fur- 
nishing the  most  convenient  standard  of  compari- 
son for  all  others. 


2.  Respecting  the  epoch  of  the  deluge,  he 
contends  that  Usher's  date,  attached  to  our  Eng- 
lish bibles,  has  been  properly  relinquished  by  the 
ablest  chronologers  of  the  present  time,  from  its 
irreconcileableness  with  the  rise  of  the  primitive 
empires,  the  Assyrian,  Egyptian,  Indian,  and 
Cninese  ;  all  suggesting  earlier  dates  of  the  de- 
luge. Hence,  the  authors  of  that  great  and 
elaborate  work,  the  Ancient  Universal  History, 
adopted  in  preference  thereto,  the  date  of  the 
deluge  furnished  by  the  Samaritan  Hebrew  text ; 
and  their  example  has  been  followed  by  captain 
Wilford,  in  his  Remarks  on  the  Hindu  Chrono- 
logy, published  in  the  Asiatic  Researches. 

He  fixes  it  B.C.  3155  ;  and  after  a  variety  of 
further  valuable  observations  of  the  era  of  the 
nativity,  and  a  table  of  the  chronology  of  our 
Lord's  ministry,  for  which  we  regret  we  have  not 
room  ;  he  supplies,  after  a  most  careful  review 
of  the  several  systems,  ancient  and  modern,  of 
chronology,  the  following 

TABLE  OF  REMARKABLE  ERAS. 

B.  c. 

Creation  of  the  world          .         .         .         5411 
Julian  period  (January  1)  .         .4714 

Deluge 3155 

Cali  yuga,  Indian  era  of  the  deluge  .  3102 
Dispersion  of  mankind  .  .  .  2614 
Nimrod  reigns  in  Assyria  .  .  .  2554 
Menes  reigns  in  Egypt  .  .  .2412 
Tcheou,  or  division  of  the  Chinese  em- 
pire into  twelve  provinces  .  .  2277 
Abraham  born  .  .  .  .  .2153 
Settlement  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  .  1863 
Exode  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  .  1 648 
Cecrops  reigns  at  Athens  .  .  .  1558 
Sesostris  reigns  in  Egypt  .  .  .  1308 
Destruction  of  Troy  .  .  .  .1183 
Foundation  of  Solomon's  temple  .  1027 
Era  of  Iphitus(July  1).  .  .  .884 
Era  of  the  Olympiads  (July  19). 
Foundation  of  Rome  (April  21).  .  753 
Era  of  Nabonassar  (February  26).  .  747 
Era  of  Seleucidae,  or  Alexander's  succes- 
sors (October  1) 312 

Era  C&esaria,  at  Antioch  (September  1).         49 
Era  Juliana  (January  1).        ...         46 
Era  Hispanica  (January  1). 
Viet.  Actiaca  (August  29).      ...         30 

A.  D. 

Vulgar  Christian  era.    (January  1 ).  1 
Cycle  of  the  sun     .        .        .10 

moon          .         .     2 

indication  .         .     4 

Dominical  letter     .         .         .    B 

First  year  after  Bissextile. 

Era  of  Diocletian,  or  of  Martyrs.  (Sept.  17).  284 

Era  of  Yezdegird  (June  16).  .         .         .  632 

Hegira,  or  flight  of  Mahomet  (July  16),  .  622 

Era  Gelalaea  (March  14).         .         .         .  1074 

Era  of  the  Reformation. 

England  (Wicklifle)       .         .         .  1360 

Bohemia  (Huss)   ....  140.. 

Germany  ^Luther)         .         .         .  1517 

Switzerland  (Zuinglius)         .         .  1519 

Denmark      ....  1521 

France  (Calvin)    .  1529 


CHRONOLOGY. 


G81 


Protestants  first  so  called. 
— -  Sweden  (Petri)     ....     1530 

Ireland  (Brown)    ....     1535 

England  completed  (Cranmer,  Bucer, 

Fagius,  &c.        .    '     .         .         .1547 

Scotland  (Knox)   .         .         .         .1560 

Netherlands  ....     1566 

SECT.  IV. — OF  ANCIENT    MEDALS,    COINS, 

MONUMENTS,  &c. 

Medals,  monuments,  and  inscriptions,  form 
the  fourth  and  last  principal  foundation,  or  as- 
sistant of  chronology.  It  is  scarcely  more  than 
150  years  since  close  application  has  been  made 
to  the  study  of  these ;  and  we  owe  to  the  cele- 
brated Spanheim  the  greatest  obligations,  for  the 
progress  that  is  made  in  this  method :  his  excel- 
lent work,  De  Praestantia  et  usu  Numismatum 
Antiquorum,  has  shown  the  great  advantages  of 
it ;  and  it  is  evident  that  these  monuments  are 
amongst  the  most  authentic  witnesses  that  can  be 
produced. 

The  celebrated  Mr.  Addison,  too,  wrote  an 
express  treatise  on  this  important  use  of  ancient 
medals.  By  the  aid  of  medals  M.  Vaillant  has 
composed  his  judicious  history  of  the  kings  of 
Syria,  from  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  to 
that  of  Pompey  :  they  have  been,  moreover,  of 
the  greatest  service  in  elucidating  all  ancient  his- 
tory, especially  that  of  the  Romans ;  and  even 
sometimes  that  of  the  middle  age.  Their  use  is 
more  fully  treated  under  the  article  MEDALS. 
What  we  here  say  of  medals,  is  to  be  understood 
equally,  in  its  full  force,  of  ancient  inscriptions, 
and  of  other  similar  authentic  monuments  of 
antiquity. 

SECT  V.     OF  THE  UNCERTAINTY  OF  ANCIENT 
CHRONOLOGY. 

We  have  adverted  to  this  subject  already,  and 
while  every  reader  of  discernment  will  allow 
that  these  four  foundations  of  chronology  afford 
clear  lights,  and  are  excellent  guides  to  conduct 
us  through  the  thick  darkness  of  antiquity,  he 
will  soon  find  that  they  are  not  infallible  guides, 
nor  the  proofs  that  they  afford  mathematical 
demonstrations.  In  fact,  with  regard  to  history 
in  general,  and  ancient  history  in  particular, 
something  must  be  always  left  to  conjecture  and 
historic  faith.  We  must  not  therefore  pass  over 
in  silence  those  objections,  which  authors  of  the 
greatest  reputation  have  made  against  the  cer- 
tainty of  chronology. 

1.  The   prodigious    difference    there    is  be- 
tween the  Septuagint  Bible  and  the  Vulgate,  in 
point  of  chronology,  occasions  an  embarrassment, 
which  is  the  more  difficult  to  avoid,  as  we  cannot 
positively  say  on  which  side  the  error  lies.     The 
Greek  Bible  counts,  for  example,  from  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world  to  the  birth  of  Abraham,  1 500 
years  more  than  the  Hebrew  and  Latin  Bible,  &c. 

2.  It  is  extremely  difficult   to  ascertain  the 
years  of  the  Judges  of  the  Jewish  nation,  in  the 
Bible,  or  the  succession  of  the  kings  of  Judah  and 
Israel.     The  Scripture  never  marks  if  the  years 
are  current  or  complete.     We  cannot  suppose 
that  a  patriarch,  judge,  or  king,  lived  exactly 
sixty,  ninety,  100,  or  969  years,  without  any  odd 
months  or  days. 


3.  The  different  names  that   the  Assyrians, 
Egyptians,   Persians,  and  Greeks,  have   given 
to  the  same  prince,  have  also  contributed  not  a 
little  to  embarrass  all  ancient  chronology.     Three 
or  four  princes  of  Persia  have  borne  the  name  of 
Assuerus,  or  Ahasuerus,  though  they  had  also 
other  names.    If  we  did  not  know  that  Nabuchod- 
nosor,  Nabucodrosor,  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  Na- 
bucolassar,  were  names  of  the  same  man,  we 
should  scarcely  believe  it.  Sargon  is  Sennacherib ; 
Ozias  is  Azarais ;  Sedeciasis  Mattanias;  Joachas 
is  also  called  Sellum ;  Asaraddc-n,  Esarhaddon 
or  Asarhaddon,  is  called  Asenaphar  by  the  Cu- 
thaeans ;  and  by  an  oddity,  of  which  we  do  not 
know  the  origin,  Sardanapalus  is  called  by  the 
Greeks  Tenos  Concoleros. 

4.  There  remain  to  us  but  few  monuments 
of  the  first  mouarchs  of  the  world.     Number- 
less books  have  been  lost,  and  many  of  those 
which  have  come  down  to  us  are  mutilated  or 
altered  by  transcribers.     The  Greeks  began  to 
write  very  late.     Herodotus,  their  first  historian, 
was  of  a  credulous  disposition,  and  believed  all 
the  fables  that  were  related  by  the   Egyptian 
priests.      The   Greeks    were    in   general   vain, 
partial,  and  held  no  nation  in  esteem  but  their 
own.     The  Romans  were  still  more  infatuated 
with  notions  of  their  own  merit  and  grandeur ; 
and  their  historians  were  as  unjust  as  their  senate 
towards  other  nations,  many  of  whom  were  far 
more  respectable. 

5.  The  eras,  the  jears,  the  periods  and  epochs, 
were  not  the  same  in  each  nation  ;  and  they, 
moreover,   began   at   different    seasons    of  the 
year.     All  this  has  thrown  so  much  obscurity 
over  chronology,  that  it  appears  to  be  beyond 
human  power  totally  to  disperse  it.     Christianity 
itself  had  subsisted  near  1200  years,  before  they 
knew  precisely  how  many  years  had  passed  since 
the  birth  of  our  Saviour.     They  saw  clearly  that 
the  vulgar  era  was  defective,  but  it  was  a  long 
time  before  they  could  comprehend,  that  it  re- 
quired four  whole  years  to  make  up   the  true 
period. 

Dionysius  the  Little,  who,  in  532,  was  the  first 
among  the  Christians  to  form  the  era  of  that 
grand  epoch,  and  to  count  the  years  from  that 
time,  to  make  their  chronology  altogether  Chris- 
tian, erred  in  his  calculation,  and  led  all  Europe 
into  his  error.  Chronologers  enumerate  1 32  con- 
trary opinions  of  authors  concerning  the  year  in 
which  the  Messiah  appeared.  M.  Vallemont 
names  sixty-four,  all  celebrated  writers.  Among 
all  these,  however,  there  are  none  who  reckon 
more  than  7000,  or  less  than  3700  years  from  the 
creation.  But  even  this  difference  is  enormous. 
The  most  moderate  fix  the  birth  of  Christ  in  the 
4000th  year  of  the  world.  The  reasons,  how- 
ever, on  which  they  found  their  opinions  are 
various  and  arbitrary. 

Notwithstanding  these  uncertainties,  Provi- 
dence has  so  disposed  all  things,  that  there  re- 
main sufficient  lights  to  enable  us  nearly  to  con- 
nect the  series  of  events :  for  in  the  first  300O 
years  of  the  world,  where  profane  history  is 
defective,  we  have  the  chronology  of  the  Bible 
to  diiect  us;  and  after  that  period,  where  we 
find  more  obscurity  in  the  chronology  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  we  have  on  the  other  hand, 


682 


CHRONOLOGY. 


greater  lights  from  profane  authors.  It  is  this 
period  that  begins  the  time  which  Varro  calls 
historic :  as,  since  the  time  of  the  Olympiads,  the 
truth  of  such  events  as  have  happened  shines 
clear  in  history.  Chronology,  therefore,  draws 
its  principal  lights  from  history  ;  and,  in  return, 
serves  it  as  a  guide. 

In  final  confirmation  of  the  elementary  state 
of  this  science,  we  subjoin  Dr.  Hales'  curious 
tables  of  the  many  discordant  authorities  as  to 
the  epoch  of  the  creation.  It  may  be  unjust  how- 
ever to  what  has  been  accomplished  for  this 
science  in  modern  times,  and  particularly  by  our 
learned  author,  not  to  add  that :  . 

1.  He  seems  to  have  proved  with  the  force  of 
demonstration,  that  there  was  originally  no  dif- 
ference between  the  Hebrew  genealogies  and 
those  of  the  Greek  version  ;  2.  That  the  compu- 
tation of  Josephus  was  conformable  to  both  in 
his  time ;  and  consequently,  3.  That  either  the 
Hebrew  copies,  or  the  Greek  copies,  both  of  the 
Septuagint  and  of  Josephus,  have  been  adulte- 
rated since  his  time ;  4.  That  the  adulteration 
took  place  in  the  Hebrew  copies,  rather  than  in 
the  Greek. 

On  this  last  point  he  observes, '  the  Hebrew 
copies  afforded  greater  facilities  and  opportuni- 
ties of  adulteration  than  the  Greek  ;  for  in  the 
course  of  the  Jewish  war,  until  the  final  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from 
Judea,  in  the  reign  of  Adrian,  vast  numbers  of 
the  Hebrew  copies  mnst  have  been  lost  or  de- 
stroyed, besides  those  that  were  taken  away  by 
the  conquerors  among  other  spoils;  and  the  few 
that  were  left  were  confined,  in  great  measure,  to 
the  Jews  themselves,  as  the  Hebrew  language 
was  not  in  general  use,  like  the  Greek.  Where- 
as, of  the  Greek  copies,  even  if  all  that  were  pos- 
sessed by  the  Hellenistic  Jews,  not  only  in 
Palestine,  but  throughout  the  world,  had  been 
destroyed,  which  was  far  from  being  the  case, 
yet  the  copies  of  the  Septuagint,  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Christians  everywhere,  rendered  any 
material  adulteration  of  the  Greek  text,  at  least 
in  so  important  a  case  as  that  of  the  genealogies, 
well  nigh  impossible.'  Again,  '  The  temptation 
to  adulteration  was  also  greater  in  the  Hebrew 
than  in  the  Greek.'  Ephrem  Syrus,  who  died  A.D. 
378,  at  once  explains  the  nature,  and  states  the  fact. 

'  The  Jews,'  says  he,  *  have  subtracted  600 
years  from  the  generations  of  Adam,  Seth,  &c. 
in  order  that  their  own  books  might  not  con- 
vict them  concerning  the  coming  of  Christ :  he 
having  been  predicted  to  appear  for  the  deliver- 
ance of  mankind  after  5500  years ;  or  in  the  sixth 
millenary  age. 

The  origin  of  this  notion  of  the  six  millenary 
ages  of  the  world,  is  explained  by  the  learned 
Gregory,  of  Oxford : 

'  In  the  first  verse  of  the  first  chapter  of  Gene- 
sis, the  Hebrew  letter  K,  Aleph,  which  in  the 
Jewish  arithmetic  stands  for  1000,  is  six  times 
found.  From  hence,  the  ancient  Cabbalists 
concluded  that  the  world  would  last  6000  years. 
Because  also  God  was  six  days  about  the  cre- 
ation, and  a  thousand  years  with  him  are  but  as 
one  day  (Ps.  xc.  4;  2' Pet.  hi.  8);  therefore 
after  six  days,  that  is  6000  years  duration  of  the 
world,  there  shall  be  a  seventh  day,  or  mille  • 
nary  sabbath  of  rest.' 


This  early  tradition  of  the  Jews  was  found  also 
in  the  Sibylline  Oracles,  and  in  Hesiod,  as  we 
have  seen  ;  in  the  writings  of  Darius  Hystaspes, 
the  old  king  of  the  Medes,  derived  probably  from 
the  Magi';  and  in  Hermes  Trismegistus,  among 
the  Egyptians ;  and  was  adopted  by  the  early 
Christian  Fathers,  Clemens,  Timotheus,  and 
Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch,  who  observed, 
that  '  upon  the  sixth  day  God  made  man,  and 
man  fell  by  sin ;  so  upon  the  sixth  day  of  the 
Chiliad  (or  sixth  millenary  of  the  world),  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  came  into  the  world,  and 
saved  man  by  his  cross  and  resurrection.'  '  To 
weaken  or  defend  the  tradition  itself/  says  Gre- 
gory, '  I  have  no  engagement  upon  me.  It 
yieldeth  me  this  observation,  that,  in  the  opinion 
of  those  who  held  it,  our  Saviour  was  to  come  in 
the  flesh  in  the  sixth  millenary  of  the  world.' 
'  The  prevalence,  therefore,  of  this  tradition 
throughout  the  Pagan,  Jewish,  and  Christian 
world,  whether  well  founded,  or  otherwise,'  says 
Dr.  Hales,  was  a  sufficient  reason  for  the  Jews 
to  endeavour  to  invalidate  it,  by  shortening  their 
chronology.' 

To  archbishop  Usher,  bishop  Lloyd,  and  our 
other  able  Bible  chronologists,  these  facts  could 
not  be  unknown ;  but,  as  this  learned  author  well 
remarks, 'the  superstitious  veneration  for  what 
was  called  the  Hebrew  Verity,  or  supposed  im- 
maculate purity  of  the  Masorite  editions  of  the 
Hebrew  text,  which  generally  prevailed  among 
the  most  eminent  divines  and  Hebrew  scholars 
of  the  last  age,  precluded  all  discussions  of  this 
nature.'  But  the  inspection  of  various  editions 
since,  and  the  copious  collations  of  the  Hebrew 
text  with  a  great  number  of  MSS.  collected  from 
all  parts  of  the  world,  by  the  laudable  industry 
and  extensive  researches  of  Kennicot,  De  Rossi, 
and  other  learned  men,  have  proved  that  the 
sacred  classics  are  no  more  exempt  from  various 
readings  than  the  profane.' 

By  the  means,  chiefly,  of  some  genuine  dates 
and  numbers  which  still  happily  subsist  in  the 
work  of  Josephus,  Dr.  Hales  has  been  enabled, 
he  conceives,  to  restore  the  Scripture  chronology 
to  its  original  state ;  and  this  he  has  done  by 
strictly  following  the  analytical  method  of  inves- 
tigation, which,  he  asserts,  is  at  least  as  applica- 
ble to  chronology  as  to  natural  philosophy. 

The  leading  elementary  date,  by  reference  to 
which  he  has  adjusted  the  whole  range  of  sacred 
and  profane  chronology,  'is  (we  quote  his  own 
words)  the  birth  of  Cyrus,  B.C.  599,  which  led 
to  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  Persia,  B.  C.  559 ; 
of  Media,  B.  C.  551 ;  and  of  Babylonia,  B.  C. 
536 ;  for  from  these  several  dates,  carefully  and 
critically  ascertained  and  verified,  the  several 
respective  chronologies  of  these  kingdoms  branch- 
ed off;  and  from  the  last  especially,  the  destruc- 
tion of  Solomon's  temple  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
B.  C.  596,  its  correcter  date,  which  led  to  its 
foundation,  B.C.  1027;  thence  to  the  Exode, 
B.C.  1648;  thence  to  Abraham's  birth,  B.C. 
2153;  thence  to  the  reign  of  Nimrod,  2554; 
thence  to  the  deluge,  B.C.  3155  ;  and  thence  to 
the  creation,  B.  C.  5411.  And  this  date  of  the 
creation  is  verified  by  the  rectification  of  the 
systems  of  Josephus,  and  Theophilus,  who  was 
bishop  of  Antiodi  A.  D.  169  and  the  first  Chris 


CHRONOLOGY.  683 

tian  chronologist.  '      By  the   same    close   and     and,  though  his  system  is  doubtless  not  free  from 

patient  investigation  Dr.  Hales  has  ascertained  errors,  it  seems  to  approach  so  near  to  perfec- 
the  genealogies  of  the  antediluvian  patriarchs  to  Mon,  that  we  cannot  but  warmly  recommend  a 
have  been  very  different  from  what  they  are  re-  mil  investigation  of  it  by  every  critical  reader 
presented  to  have  been  in  the  present  Hebrew ;  of  his  Bible. 

EPOCHS  OF  THE  CREATION. 

B.C. 

Alphonsus,  king  of  Castile,  A.  D.  1252                                                        .  \  Duller  6984 

i  Strauchms  6484 

Onuphrius  Panvinius      .........  6310 

'  i  Arabian  records  6174 

Babylonian  chronology                ......     Bailly  6158 

Chinese  chronology         .             .             .             .             .             .             .     Bailly  6157 

Diogenes  Laertius,  B.  C.  222      ...                                       .     Playfair  6138 

Egyptian  chronology       .......     Bailly  6128 

Diodorus  Siculus,  B.  C.  80          .             .             .             .                          .     Playfair  6081 

Suidas,  A.  D.  1090         .......     Playfair  6000 

Sulpitius  Severus,  A.  D.  420       ......     Playfair  5469 

Manetho,  B.  C.  304         .             .             .             .             .             .•             .     Playfair  5877 

Pezron    .........     Playfair  5872 

Lactantius.  A.  D.  306                  ......     Univer.  History  5801 

Cary        ...                            .....     Playfair  5708 

Nicephorus,  A.  D.  758                ......     Univer.  History  5700 

Riccioli                ........     Playfair  5634 

Clemens  Alexandrinus,  A.  D.  194            .....     Univer.  History  .  5624 

Fasti  Siculi         ........     Univer.  History  5608 

Vossius               ........     Univer.  History  5598 

Septuagint  computation               ......     Abulfaragi  5586 

Septuagint  Alexandrine,  used  by  Constantinople,  Abyssinian,  and  Rus-  {  s    r  e-n« 

sian  cnurches \  &( 

Persian  chronology          .......     Bailly  5507 

r,   i                                                                                                                    t  Chevreau  5506 

Cednmus,  A.  D.  1060                                                                                .  >  Strauchius  5493 

Maximus  Martyr,  A.  D.  196       ........  5501 


Julius  Africanus,  A.  D.  218} 
Syncellus,  A.  D.  792 
Eutychius,  A.  D.  937  3 


Univer.  History      5500 


Chronicle  of  Axum  in  Abyssinia              .....     Bruce  5500 

Q.  Julius  Hilarion          .......     Playfair  5497 

T>   n   r,r.rv                                                                                     f  Hales  5487 

Demetrms,  B.  C.  220                 .             .                          .                            ?  Jackson  5444 

Eupolemus,  B.  C.  174                 ....                          .     Jackson  5443 

Jackson                    ........                           .  5426 

f  Playfair  5555 

)  Jackson  5481 

Josephus,  A.  D.  94         .                         ..                       .                          ^  Hales  54Q2 

(.Univer.  History  4698 

r  Gregory  5626 

rru       u-i      r>     c  \    i-    i     A  ™   1                                                                   7  Petavins  5515 

TheophausB.  of  Antioch,  A  D.  168        .                                                  VRttmicott  5507 

(.Abulfaragi  5409 

Hales .  5411 

Indian  computation         ....                                       .     Megasthenes  5369 

Augustin,  A.  D.  354                    ...                                       .     Genebrard  5351 

Talmudists          ........     Petrus  Alliaceus.     5344 

Isidore,  A.  D.  412          .......     Univer.  History  5336 

Albumazer,  A.  D.  540                                                                      .                  Univer.  History  5328 

Rabanus  Maurus,  A.  D.  778                   .....     Univer.  History  5296 

Septuagint  Vatican         .                                       .....  5270 

Isidorus  Hispalensis,  A.  D.  304               .....     Strauchius  5210 

Paulus  de  Fossembrona               .                                       ...     Univer.  History  5201 

Eusebius,  A.  D.  315       .                                                                              .     Univer.  History  $  52QO 

Martyrologium  Rotnanum          ......     Playfair  c 

Bede,  A.  D.  673             .             .             .             .             .             .             .     Strauchius  5199 

Orosius,  A.  D.  430                                                .                                       .     Univer.  History  5198 

Philo  Judaeus,  A  D  40  ?                                                                             _     pl     fair  51% 
Sigibertus,  A.  D.  1100    > 


684 


CHRONOLOGY 


Epiphduius,  A.  D.  368  .  . 

Justin  Martyr,  A.  D.  140  > 

Metrodorus,  B.  C.  170      5 

Ado,  B.  of  Vienne,  A.  D.  860  '--„  .          -* 

Origen,  A.  D.  230 

Fresnoy  .... 

Aurelius  Cassiodorius,  A.  D.  463  .  .  »' 

Samaritan  computation 

Seder  Olam  Sutha 

Odeaton  Astrologus        ...... 

Samaritan  Text  ...... 

Hebrew  Text      .  .  .  .  . 

Jewish  computation  » 

Marianus  Scotus,  A.  D.  1080  .  - .   ,     •-   <*-•  . 

Jewish  computation         .  .  . 

Laurentius  Codomannus  .  .  ...  . 

Nicholas  Vignier  .  .  .  .  .  . 

Thomas  Lidyat  .  .  .  .    "        . 

Ribera     .  .  .  .  »  . 

Genebrard  .  .  .  .  „   '        . 

Arnold  de  Pontac  .  .         '    .'    x        .  . 

Chinese  Jews      .  .  .  ... 

Michael  Moestlinus  .  .  ... 

Ricciolus  .  .  •  '. 

Maimonides  i 

Blancanus     5     " 

Salianus  ....... 

Labbaeus  .  .  .  .         '    .  . 

Spondanus  > 
Torniellus  5 

Langius  .  .  .  .  .  . 

Pererius  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 

Rheinhold  .  .  .  .         '•.  "' 

Playfair  ....... 

Walker  ....... 

Kennedy,  Bedford,  Ferguson       ..... 

Capellus  ....... 

Usher,  Lloyd,  Simpson,  Spanheim,  Calrnet,  Le  Chais,  Blair,  &c. 
English  Bible       ...... 

Ilevelius      i 
Marsham     5 
Kepler  ....... 

Petavius  .  .  . 

Bibliander  ....... 

Krentzeim  ....... 

Bucholtzer,  Matthias  .  .  . 

Cluverius,  Boxhornius,  Jansenius  . 

Bullinger  .  .  .  ... 

Bunting,  Bardius  ...... 

Longomontanus  .  .  .  . 

Melancthon         .  .  .  . 

Reynoldus          ....... 

Luther  ....... 

Lightfoot  .  .  .  .  ' 

Salmeron,  Picus  Mirandula        .  3-»        ' . 

Lamberg  ...  ... 

Ilerwart  ....... 

Cornelius  a  Lapide        ...... 

Scaliger,  J.  S.  .  .  .  .  -         . 

Strauchius  .  .  .  .  . 

Johannes  Micrelius         .  .  .... 

Helvicus  ....  . 

John  Carrion       .  .  '  .  .  .  .  . 

Jerome,  A.  D.  392          :  .  .  •  . 

Gerard  Mercator,  Beroaldus       .  .        .= •-•  '•••        •  '• 

James  Gordon  ..... 


B.  C. 

Univer.  History 

5049 

.     Playfair 

5000 

.     Playfair. 

4832 

•             •             • 

4830 

.     Univer.  History 

4700 

.     Playfair 

4697 

.     Scaliger 

4427 

.     Ganz 

4359 

.     Playfair 

4320 

.     Univer.  History 

4305 

... 

4161 

.     Abulfaragi 

4220 

.     Univer.  History 

4192 

.     Riccioli 

4184 

C  Univer.  History 

4141 

"  c  Chevreau 

4140 

.             . 

4128 

4103 

.     Univer.  History 

4095 

.     Univer.  History 

4090 

.     Univer.  History 

4088 

.     Brotier 
.     Univer.  History 

?4079 

.     Univer.  History 

4062 

.    Univer.  History 

4058 

.     Strauchius 

4053 

.     Chevreau 

4052 

. 

4051 

c  Strauchius 

4041 

*  £  Chevreau 

4040 

.     Playfair 

4021 

. 

4020 

< 

•    4008 

, 

4007 

... 

4005 

and  ) 

4004 

. 

4000 

.     Playfair 

3993 

... 

3984 

.     Univer.  History 

3980 

.     Univer.  History 

3971 

.     Strauchius 
.     Chevreau 

^3970 

3969 

.     Playfair 

3967 

.     Univer.  History 

3966 

.     Playfair 

3964 

.     Univer.  History 

3962 

. 

3961 

... 

3960 

.     Chevreau 

3959 

.     Strauchius 

3958 

.     Univer.  History 

3955 

.     Univer.  History 

3951 

3950 

... 

3949 

.     Univer.  History 

3948 

... 

3947 

.     Playfair 

3944 

.     Univer.  History 

3941 

.     Playfair 

3928 

.     Playfair 

3880 

C  11  R  O   N  O  M  E  T  E  R  S. 


685 


Arias  Montanus  ...... 

Ilelvigius  ..... 

Some  Talmudists  ...... 

David  Ganz  ...... 

Vulgar  Jewish  computation         ..... 

Rabbi  Gersora  ...... 

Seder  Olam  Rabba,  or  '  Great  Chronicle  of  the  World,'  A.  D.  130 
Rabbi  Habsom  ....... 

Rabbi  Nosen  ...-.,„ 

Rabbi  Hillel,  A.  D.  358 

Rabbi  Zacuth     ....... 

Rabbi  Lipman  ...... 


Univer.  History 
Univer.  History 
Univer.  History 

Strauchius 

Playfair 

Ganz 

Univer.  History 

Univer.  History 

Univer.  History 
Univer.  History 


B.  C. 

3849 
3836 
3784 
3761 
3760 
3754 
3751 
3740 
3734 
3700 
3671 
3616 


CHRONO'METER,n.  s.  From  xpovoC  and 
pfrpov.  An  instrument  for  the  exact  mensura- 
tion of  time. 

According  to  observation  made  with  a  pendulum 
chronometer,  a  bullet,  at  its  first  discharge,  flies  five 
hundred  and  ten  yards  in  five  half  seconds. 

Derham. 

CHRONOMETERS  are,  strictly  speaking,  only 
a  more  accurate  species  of  watches :  but  they 
are  generally  much  larger,  and,  being  designed 
to  measure  time  with  great  accuracy,  are  sup- 
plied with  varioas  correctives  in  respect  to  the 
balances,  escapements,  &c.  They  are  usually, 
for  nautical  purposes,  hung  in  gimbols  placed 
in  boxes  of  six  or  eight  inches  square.  The 
invention  and  improvement  of  chronometers 
have  had  various  claimants ;  but  the  ingenuity 
and  researches  of  the  French  artists,  there  can 
he  no  question,  have  given  them  their  modern 
importance  and  accuracy.  Peter  Leroy  first  con- 
structed fluid  thermometers  on  the  balance,  and 
afterwards  invented  the  present  expansion  ba- 
lance of  brass  and  steel,  for  correcting  the  effects 
of  heat  and  cold,  to  which,  with  the  isochronism 
of  the  vibrations  of  the  balance  produced  by  the 
proper  adjustment  of  the  pendulum  spring, 
chronometers  principally  owe  their  present  per- 
fection. Men  of  war  generally  have  one  al- 
lowed them  by  government.-  The  rate  of  a  chro- 
nometer is  that  number  of  seconds  which  its  hands 
indicate  more  or  less  than  twenty-four  hours  in 
a  mean  day,  and  is  called  plus  when  more  is  in- 
dicated than  twenty-four  hours  in  a  day,  and  minus 
when  less.  Suppose,  for  example,  the  chro- 
nometer when  set  to  the  time  at  Greenwich, 
instead  of  going  at  mean  time,  had  been  ascer- 
tained to  have  a  gaining  rate  of  +7*,  5  a  day, 
and  that  it  was  forty  days  on  its  passage  to 
Petersburgh  ;  it  is  evident  that,  on  its  arrival, 
it  would  have  been  forty  times  seven  seconds 
and  a  half,  or  five  minutes,  too  fast  at  Greenwich, 
and  must,  therefore,  have  five  minutes  deducted 
from  the  time  it  indicated  to  give  that  at  Green- 
wich; and  so  much  added  if  the  rate  had  been 
losing.  Public  observatories  having  a  good  re- 
gulator furnish  the  best  means  of  finding  the 
rate  of  a  chronometer  on  a  voyage ;  but  it  may 
be  sufficiently  found  for  practical  purposes  by 
ascertaining  the  error  on  its  arrival  at  any  port,  and 
again  on  departure  ;  the  encreased  error,  divided 
by  tne  number  of  days  that  have  elapsed  between 
the  two  observations,  giving  the  daily  error  or 
rate.  The  connexion  between  time  and  longi- 
tude is  obvious,  and  that  the  true  instant  of  noon 


must  be  earlier  at  each  place,  at  which  we  should 
arrive,  travelling  eastward,  until  those  differences 
of  time  had  amounted  to  a  whole  day,  in  the 
entire  rotation  of  the  earth.  Allowing,  therefore, 
proportionally  for  every  smaller  part,  we  may 
determine  what  is  the  difference  of  longitude 
between  them.  Suppose  therefore,  for  example, 
a  chronometer,  set  to  the  time  at  Greenwich, 
were  to  be  carried  to  Petersburgh,  it  would  indi- 
cate time  two  hours  later  than  Petersburgh 
clocks,  that  is  to  say,  it  would  show  when  it  was 
noon  at  Greenwich,  instead  of  when  it  was  noon 
at  Petersburgh.  The  obvious  conclusion  is,  that 
the  sun  arrives  at  the  meridian  of  Petersburgh 
earlier,  and,  consequently,  that  this  town  lies 
more  easterly  than  Greenwich  ;  and,  as  two  hours 
are  in  proportion  to  twenty-four,  so  is  360°,  the 
earth's  circumference,  to  30°,  the  longitude  of 
Petersburgh,  reckoned  from  Greenwich.  This  is 
supposing  the  chronometer  to  have  gone  at  mean 
time,  or,  in  other  words,  that  its  hands  have 
passed  ovet  twenty-four  hours  on  the  dial  plate 
from  mean  noon  on  one  day  to  mean  noon  on  the 
next.  It  is  then  said  to  go  at  mean  time,  or  to 
have  no  rate.  But  this  is  not  necessary  to  its 
use;  for,  provided  its  rate  or  daily  error  be 
known,  the  time  at  Greenwich,  or  the  first  me- 
ridian, may  always  be  found  by  applying  that 
rate  to  the  time  indicated.  See  WATCHES. 

CHRONOMETER,  LAMP,  an  ingenious  contri- 
vance to  show  the  hour  during  the  night.  It 
consists  of  a  chamber  lamp  A,  which  is  a  cylin- 
drical vessel  about  three  inches  high,  and  one 
inch  diameter,  placed  in  the  stand  B.  The  in- 
side must  be  everywhere  exactly  of  the  same 
diameter.  To  the  stand,  B,  is  fixed  the  handle, 
C,  which  supports  the  frame  D  E  F  G,  about 
twelve  inches  high,  and  four  wide.  This  frame 
is  covered  with  oiled  paper,  and  divided  into 
twelve  equal  parts  by  horizontal  lines ;  at  the  end 
of  which  are  written  the  numbers  for  the  hours, 
from  one  to  twelve,  and  between  the  horizontal 
lines  are  diagonals  that  are  divided  into  halves, 
quarters,  &c.  On  the  handle  C,  and  close  to 
the  glass,  is  fixed  the  style  or  gnomon  II.  Now, 
as  the  distance  of  the  style  from  the  flame  of  the 
lamp  is  only  half  an  inch,  if  the  distance  of  the 
frame  from  the  style  is  only  six  inches,  then, 
while  the  float  that  contains  the  light  descends, 
by  the  decrease  of  the  oil,  one  inch,  the  shadow 
of  the  style  on  the  frame  will  ascend  twelve 
inches,  that  is,  its  whole  length,  and  show  by  its 
progression  the  regular  increase  of  the  hours, 
with  their  several  divisions.  It  is  absolutely 


686 


CHRYSALIS. 


necessary,  that  the  oil  used  in  this  lamp  be 
always  of  the  same  sort  and  quite  pure,  and  that 
the  wick  also  be  constantly  of  the  same  size  and 
substance,  as  it  is  on  these  circumstances,  and 
the  uniform  figure  of  the  vessel,  that  the  regular 
progress  of  the  shadow  depends.  See  the  an- 
nexed diagram. 


CHROSTASIMA,  in  natural  history,  a  genus 
of  pellucid  gems,  comprehending  all  those  which 
appear  of  one  simple  and  permanent  color  in  all 
lights  ;  such  are  the  diamond,  carbuncle,  ruby, 
garnet,  amethyst,  sapphire,  beryl,  emerald,  and 
the  topaz.  See  DIAMOND,  CARBUNCLE,  &c. 

CHRUDIM,  a  town  and  circle  of  Bohemia, 
which  takes  its  name  from  the  town  of  Chrudim, 
between  Moravia  and  the  circles  of  Konigingratz, 
Biczow,  apd  Czaslau.  It  is  woody  and  moun- 
tainous eastward,  but  open  and  fertile  in  the  west. 
Its  chief  productions  are  corn,  flax,  and  a  fine 
breed  of  horses.  In  the  towns  and  villages  are 
some  manufactures  in  a  thriving  state.  Popula- 
tion 245,060. 

CHRUDIM,  the  town,  stands  on  the  river  Chru- 
dimka,  and  contains  700  houses.  It  is  fifty 
miles  east  of  Prague. 

CHRYSA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of 
Mysia,  on  the  Sinus  Adramyttenus  ;  extinct  in 
Pliny's  time.  It  contained  a  celebrated  temple 
of  Apollo  Smintheus,  and  was  the  country  of  the 
fair  Briseis,  who  was  the  cause  of  the  quarrel 
between  Agamemnon  and  Achilles. 

CHRY'SALIS,  n.  s.  From  %pw«roc  gold,  be- 
cause of  the  golden  color  in  the  nymphaeofsome 
insects.  A  term  used  by  some  naturalists  for 
aurelia,  or  the  first  apparent  change  of  the  mag- 
got of  any  species  of  insects. 

Another  contrivance,  equally  mechanical,  and 
equally  clear,  is  the  awl,  or  borer,  fixed  at  the  tails  of 
various  species  of  flies  ;  and  with  which  they  pierce . 
in  some  cases,  plants  ;  in  others,  wood  ;  in  others,  the 
skin  and  flesh  of  animals  ;  in  others,  the  coat  of  the 
chrysalis  of  insects  of  a  different  species  from  their  own  ; 
and  in  others,  even  lime,  mortar,  and  stone. 

Paley.  Natural  Theology. 

CHRYSALIS,  or  AURELIA,  in  natural  history, 
is  that  state  of  rest  and  seeming  insensibility, 
which  butterflies,  moths,  and  several  other  kinds 
of  insects,  must  pass  through  before  they  arrive 
at  their  winged  or  most  -perfect  state.  In  this 
state,  no  creatures  afford  so  beautiful  a  variety 
as  the  butterfly  kinds,  all  of  whom  pass  through 
tiiis  middle  state.  The  figure  of  the  aurelia  or 


chrysalis  generally  approaches  to  that  of  a  cone, 
at  least  the  hinder  part  of  it  is  in  this  shape  ;  and 
the  creature,  while  in  this  state,  has  neither  legs 
nor  wings,  nor  any  power  of  walking.  It  seems 
indeed  to  have  hardly  life.  It  takes  no  nou- 
rishment, nor  has  it  organs  for  taking  any ;  in- 
deed its  posterior  part  is  all  that  seems  animated, 
this  having  a  power  of  giving  itself  some  motion. 
The  external  covering  of  the  chrysalis  is  cartila- 
ginous, and  large,  it  is  usually  smooth  and 
glossy  :  but  some  of  them  have  a  few  hairs ; 
some  are  also  as  hairy  as  the  caterpillars  from 
which  they  are  produced  ;  and  others  are  rough, 
and,  as  it  were,  shagreened  all  over.  In  all  these 
there  may  be  distinguished  two  sides ;  the  one 
the  back,  the  other  the  belly  of  the  animal.  On 
the  anterior  part  of  the  latter,  there  may  be  dis- 
tinguished little  elevations  running  in  ridges,  re- 
sembling the  fillets  wound  about  mummies  : 
the  part  whence  these  have  their  origin,  is  es- 
teemed the  head  of  the  animal.  The  other  side, 
or  back,  is  smooth,  and  of  a  rounded  figure  in 
most ;  but  some  have  ridges  on  the  anterior  part, 
and  sides  of  this  part ;  and  these  usually  termi- 
nate in  a  point,  and  make  an  angular  appearance 
on  the  chrysalis.  From  this  difference  is  drawn 
the  first  general  distinction  of  these  bodies  into 
two  classes  ;  the  round  and  the  angular  kinds. 
The  first  are,  by  the  French  naturalists,  called 
feves ;  from  the  common  custom  of  calling  the 
chrysalis  of  the  silk  worm,  which  is  round,  by 
this  name.  The  division  is  continued  from 
the  fly-state:  the  rounded  chrysalises  being  almost 
all  produced  by  the  phalenae  or  moths ;  and  the 
angular  ones  by  the  papilios,orday  flies.  There 
are  several  subordinate  distinctions ;  but,  in 
general,  they  are  less  different  from  one  another 
than  the  caterpillars  from  whence  they  are  pro- 
duced. The  head  of  angular  chrysalises  usually 
terminates  by  two  angular  parts,  which  stand  se- 
parate, and  resemble  a  pair  of  horns.  On  the 
back,  eminences  and  marks  are  discovered,  which 
imagination  may  form  into  eyes,  nose,  chin,  and 
other  parts  of  the  human  face.  There  is  great 
variety  and  beauty  in  the  figures  and  ar- 
rangement of  the  eminences  and  spots  on  the 
other  parts  of  the  body  of  the  chrysalises  of  dif- 
ferent kinds.  It  is  a  general  observation,  that 
those  chrysalises  which  are  terminated  by  a  single 
horn,  afford  day  butterflies  of  the  kind  of  those 
which  have  buttoned  antennae,  and  whose  wings, 
in  a  state  of  rest,  cover  the  under  part  of  their 
body,  and  which  use  all  their  six  legs  in  walking, 
those  of  many  other  kinds  using  only  four  of 
them.  Those  chrysalises  which  are  terminated 
by  two  angular  bodies,  and  which  are  covered 
with  a  great  number  of  spines,  and  have  the 
figure  of  a  human  face  on  their  back  in  the 
greatest  perfection,  afford  butterflies  of  the  day 
kind ;  and  of  that  class  the  characters  of  which 
are,  their  walking  on  four  legs,  and  using  the 
other  two,  that  is,  the  anterior  part,  in  the  man- 
ner of  arms  or  hands.  The  chrysalis  which  has 
two  angular  bodies  on  the  head,  but  shorter  than 
those  of  the  preceding,  whose  back  shows  but  a 
f.iint  sketch  of  the  human  face,  and  which  has 
fewer  spines,  and  those  less  sharp,'  always  turns 
to  that  sort  of  butterfly  the  upper  wings  of  which 
are  divided  into  segments,  one  of  which  is  so 


CHRYSALIS. 


687 


!ong  as  to  represent  a  tail,  and  whose  under  wings 
are  folded  over  the  upper  part  of  the  back.  A 
careful  observation  will  establish  many  more 
rules  of  this  kind,  which  are  not  so  perfect  as  to 
be  free  from  exceptions ;  yet  are  of  great  use,  as 
they  teach  us  in  general  what  sort  of  fly  we  are 
to  expect  from  the  chrysalis,  of  which  we  know 
not  the  caterpillar,  and  therefore  can  only  judge 
from  appearance.  Among  the  angular  chrysalises 
there  are  some  whose  color  seems  as  worthy 
our  observation  as  the  shapes  of  the  others. 
Many  of  them  appear  superbly  clothed  in  gold. 
These  elegant  species  first  obtained  the  name 
of  chrysalis  and  aurelia,  derived  from  Greek 
and  Latin  words,  signifying  gold ;  and  from 
these  all  other  bodies  of  the  same  kind  came  to 
be  called  by  the  same  name.  As  some  kinds 
are  thus  gilded  all  over,  so  others  are  more 
sparingly  ornamented  with  this  gay  appearance, 
having  only  a  few  spots  of  it  in  different  places 
on  their  back  and  belly.  These  obvious  marks, 
however,  are  not  to  be  depended  upon  as  certain 
characters  of  distinction  :  for  accidents  in  the 
formation  of  the  chrysalis  may  alter  them  ;  and 
those  which  naturally  would  have  been  gilded 
all  over,  may  be  sometimes  only  so  in  part ;  and 
either  these  or  the  others  may,  by  accident,  be  so 
formed,  as  to  show  nothing  of  this  kind  at  all, 
but  be  only  of  a  dusky  brown.  Those,  however, 
which  have  neither  silver  nor  gold  to  recommend 
them  to  the  eye,  do  not  want  other  colors,  and 
those  beautifully  variegated.  Some  of  them  are 
all  over  of  an  elegant  green,  as  is  the  chrysalis 
of  the  fennel  caterpillar ;  others  of  an  elegant 
yellow ;  and  some  of  a  bright  greenish  tinge, 
variegated  with  spots  of  a  shining  black.  We 
have  a  very  beautiful  instance  of  this  last  kind 
in  the  chrysalis  of  the  elegant  cabbage  cater- 
pillar. The  general  color  of  the  chrysalis  of  the 
common  butterflies,  however,  is  brown.  Some 
are  also  of  a  fine  deep  black  ;  and  of  these  many 
are  so  smooth  and  glossy,  that  they  are  equal  to 
the  finest  Indian  japan.  The  common  cater- 
pillar of  the  fig-tree  gives  an  instance  of  one  of 
these  most  beautiful  glossy  ones ;  the  caterpillar 
of  the  vine  affords  another  of  these  fine  black 
chrysalises.  The  round  chrysalises  have  also 
their  marks  as  regular  as  the  angular.  The 
greater  number  of  them  have  the  hinder  part  of 
their  bodies  conical ;  but  the  upper  end,  which 
ought  to  be  its  circular  plane  base,  is  usually 
bent  and  rounded  into  a  sort  of  knee :  this  is 
called  the  head  of  the  chrysalis ;  but  there  are 
also  some  of  this  kind  the  head  of  which  is 
terminated  by  a  nearly  plane  surface :  some  of 
the  creeping  ten-legged  caterpillars  give  chrysa- 
lises of  this  kind,  having  each  two  eminences 
that  seem  to  bring  them  towards  the  angular 
kind.  The  rounded  chrysalises  do  not  afford 
any  thing  of  that  variety  of  coloring  so  re- 
markable in  the  angular  ones  ;  they  are  usually 
of  a  dusky  yellow,  in  different  shades,  and  are 
often  variously  spotted  with  black  ;  but  these  as 
well  as  all  other  chrysalises,  before  they  arrive 
at  their  fixed  color,  pass  through  several  other 
temporary  ones.  The  green  rough  caterpillar  of 
the  cabbage  has  a  chrysalis  which  is  green  at 
first;  and  from  that  gradually  goes  through  all 
tr.e  shades  of  green  to  a  faint  yellow,  which  is 


its  lasting  color;  and  one  of  the  oak  caterpillars 
yields  a  chrysalis  beautifully  spotted  with  red  at 
its  first  appearance ;  but  these  spots  change  to 
brown  for  their  fixed  color :  the  third  day  from 
their  formation  usually  fixes  their  lasting  colors ; 
and  if  they  are  observed  to  turn  black  in  any 
part  after  this  time,  it  is  a  sign  they  are  dead  or 
dying. 

The  several  species  of  insects,  as  flies,  spiders, 
and  ants,  do  not  differ  more  evidently  from  one 
another  in  regard  to  appearance,  than  do  a  cater- 
pillar, its  chrysalis,  and  a  butterfly  produced 
from  it ;  yet  it  is  certain,  that  these  are  all  the 
product  of  the  same  individual  egg ;  and  nothing 
is  more  certain,  than  that  the  creature  which  was 
for  a  while  a  caterpillar,  is,  after  a  certain  time, 
a  chrysalis,  and  then  a  butterfly.  These  great 
changes  produced  in  so  sudden  a  manner,  seem 
like  the  metamorphoses  recorded  in  the  fables  of 
the  ancients ;  and  indeed  it  is  not  improbable 
that  those  fables  first  took  their  origin  from  such 
changes.  The  parts  being  distinguishable  in  the 
chrysalis,  we  easily  find  the  difference  of  the 
species  of  the  fly  that  is  to  proceed  from  it.  The 
naked  eye  shows  whether  it  be  one  of  those  that 
have,  or  of  those  that  have  not,  a  trunk  ;  and  the 
assistance  of  a  microscope  shows  the  antennae  so 
distinctly,  that  we  are  able  to  discern  whether  it 
belong  to  the  day  or  night  class  ;  and  often  what 
genus,  if  not  the  very  species  :  nay,  in  the  plu- 
mose horned  kinds,  we  may  see,  by  the  antennas, 
whether  a  male  or  female  phalaena  is  to  be  pro- 
duced from  the  chrysalis ;  the  horns  of  the 
female  being  in  this  state  evidently  narrower,  and 
appearing  less  elevated  about  the  common  sur- 
face of  the  body,  than  those  of  the  male.  All 
these  parts,  however,  though  seen  very  distinctly, 
are  laid  close  to  one  another,  and  seem  to  form 
only  one  mass ;  each  is  covered  with  its  own 
peculiar  membrane  in  this  state,  and  all  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  common  one ;  and  it  is  only  through 
these  that  we  see  them  :  or  rather  we  see  on 
these  the  figures  of  all  the  parts  moulded  within, 
and  therefore  it  requires  attention  to  distinguish 
them.  The  chrysalis  is  soft  when  first  produced, 
and  is  wetted  on  the  front  with  a  viscous  liquor  ; 
its  skin,  though  very  tender  at  the  first,  dries  and 
hardens  by  degrees :  but  this  viscous  liquor, 
which  surrounds  the  wings,  legs,  &c.  hardens 
almost  immediately ;  and  in  consequence  fastens 
all  those  limbs,  8cc.  into  a  mass,  which  were 
before  loose  from  one  another :  this  liquor,  as  it 
hardens,  loses  its  transparence,  and  becomes 
brown ;  so  that  it  is  only  while  it  is  yet  moist 
that  these  points  are  to  be  seen  distinctly.  It  is 
evident  from  the  whole,  that  the  chrysalis  is  no 
other  than  a  butterfly,  the  parts  of  which  are  hid 
under  certain  membranes  which  fasten  them 
together ;  and  when  the  limbs  are  arrived  at 
their  due  strength,  they  become  able  to  break 
through  these  membranes,  and  then  expand 
and  arrange  themselves  in  their  proper  order. 
The  first  metamorphosis,  therefore,  differs  no- 
thing from  the  second,  except  that  the  butterfly 
comes  from  the  body  of  the  caterpillar  in  a 
weak  state,  with  limbs  unable  to  perform 
their  offices,  whereas  it  comes  from  the  chrysalis 
perfect.  M.  Reaumur  has  given  us  many  curious 
observations  on  the  structure  and  uses  of  the 


688 


CHRYSALIS. 


several  coverings  that  attend  the  caterpillar  kind 
in  tins  state.  The  creatures  in  general  remain 
wholly  immoveable,  and  seem  to  have  no  business 
in  it  but  a  patient  attendance  on  the  time  when 
they  are  to  become  butterflies ;  and  this  is  a 
change  that  can  happen  to  them,  only  as  their 
parts,  before  extremely  soft  and  weak,  are  capable 
of  hardening  and  becoming  firm  by  degrees,  by 
the  transpiration  of  that  abundant  humidity 
which  before  kept  them  soft :  and  this  is  proved 
byan  experiment  of  M.  Reaumur,  who,  enclosing 
some  chrysalises  in  a  glass  tube,  found,  after 
some  time,  a  small  quantity  of  water  at  the 
bottom  of  it ;  which  could  have  come  there  no 
other  way,  but  from  the  body  of  the  enclosed 
animal.  This  transpiration  depends  greatly 
on  the  temperature  of  the  air ;  it  is  increased 
by  heat,  and  diminished  by  cold  ;  but  it  has 
also  its  peculiarities  in  regard  to  the  several 
species  of  butterfly  to  which  the  chrysalis  be- 
longs. According  to  these  observations,  the 
time  of  the  duration  of  the  animal  in  the  chry- 
salis state  must  be,  in  different  species,  very  dif- 
ferent ;  and  there  is  indeed  this  wide  difference 
in  the  extremes,  that  some  species  remain  only 
eight  days  in  this  state,  and  others  eight  months. 
We  know  that  the  caterpillar  changes  its  skin 
four  or  five  times  during  its  living  in  that  state  ; 
and  that  all  these  skins  are  at  first  produced  with 
it  from  the  egg,  lying  closely  over  one  another. 
It  parts  with,  or  throws  off,  all  these  one  by  one, 
as  the  butterfly,  which  is  the  real  animal,  all  this 
time  within,  grows  more  and  more  perfect  in  the 
several  first  changes.  When  it  throws  off  one,  it 
appears  in  another  skin  exactly  of  the  same  form; 
but  at  its  final  change  from  this  appearance,  that 
is,  when  it  throws  off  the  last  skin,  as  the  creature 
within  is  now  arrived  at  such  a  degree  of  perfec- 
tion as  to  need  no  farther  taking  of  nourishment, 
there  is  no  farther  need  of  teeth,  or  any  of  the 
other  parts  of  a  caterpillar.  The  creature,  in  this 
last  change,  proceeds  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
all  the  former,  the  skins  opening  at  the  back, 
and  the  animal  making  its  way  out  in  this  shape. 
If  the  caterpillar,  when  about  to  throw  off  this 
last  skin,  be  thrown  into  spirits  of  wine,  and 
left  there  for  a  few  days,  the  membranes  within 
will  harden,  and  the  creature  may  be  afterwards 
carefully  opened,  and  the  chrysalis  taken  out,  in 
which  the  form  of  the  tender  butterfly  may  be 
traced  in  all  its  lineaments,  and  its  eyes,  legs,  &c. 
evidently  seen.  If  one  of  these  animals  be 
thrown  into  spirits  of  wine,  or  into  vinegar,  even 
some  days  before  that  time,  and  left  for  the  flesh 
to  harden,  it  may  afterwards  be  dissected,  and 
all  the  lineaments  of  the  butterfly  traced  out  in 
it ;  the  wings,  legs,  antennae,  &c.  being  as  evident 
as  in  the  chrysalis.  It  is  plain  from  this,  that 
the  change  of  the  caterpillar  into  chrysalis  is  not 
the  work  of  a  moment ;  but  is  carrying  on  for  a  long 
time  before,  even  from  the  very  hatching  of  the 
creature  from  the  egg.  The  parts  of  the  butterfly, 
however,  are  not  disposed  exactly  in  the  same 
manner  while  in  the  body  of  the  caterpillar,  as 
wheh  left  naked  in  the  form  of  the  chrysalis  : 
for  the  wings  are  proportionally  longer  and  nar- 
rower, being  wound  up  into  the  form  of  a  cord  ; 
and  the  antennae  are  rolled  up  on  the  head  ;  the 
trunk  is  also  twisted  up  and  laid  upon  the  head, 
but  this  in  a  very  different  manner  from  what  it  is 


in  the  perfect  animal,  and  very  different  from 
that  ia  which  it  lies  within  the  chrysalis ;  so  that 
the  first  formation  of  the  butterfly  in  the  caterpil- 
lar, by  time  arrives  at  a  proper  change  of  the  dis- 
position of  its  parts,  in  order  to  its  being  a  chry- 
salis.    The  very  eggs,  hereafter  to  be  deposited 
by  the  butterfly,  are  also  to  be  found  not  only  in 
the  chrysalis,  but  in  the  caterpillar  itself,  arranged 
in  their  natural  regular  order.     They  are  in  this 
state  very  small  and  transparent ;  but  after  the 
change  into  the  chrysalis,  they  have  their  proper 
color.     As  soon  as  the  several  parts  of  the  but- 
terfly, therefore,  are  arrived  at  a  state  proper  for 
being  exposed  to  the  air,  they  are  thrown   out 
from  the  body  of  the  caterpillar  surrounded  only 
with  their  membranes  ;  and,  as  soon  as  they  ar- 
rive at  a  proper  degree  of  strength  and  solidity, 
they  labor  to  break  through  these  thinner  co- 
verings, and  to  appear  in  their  proper  and  natu- 
ral form.     The  time  of  their  duration   in  this 
state  of  chrysalis  is  very  uncertain,  some  remain- 
ing in  it  only  a  few  days,  others  several  months, 
and  some  almost  a  year  in  appearance.  But  there 
is  a  fallacy  in  this  that  many  are  not  aware  of. 
It  is  natural  to  think,  that  as  soon  as  the  creature 
has  enclosed  itself  in   its  shell,  be  that  of  what 
matter  it  will,  it  undergoes  its  change  into  the 
chrysalis  state.     And  this  is  the  case  with  the 
generality  :  yet  there  are  some  which  are  eight  or 
nine  months   in  the   shell  before  they  become 
chrysalises ;  so  that  their  duration  in  the  real 
chrysalis  state  is  much  shorter  than  it  naturally 
appears  to  be.     M.  Reaumur  carefully  watched 
the  articulated  caterpillar  of  the  oak  in  its  several 
changes,  and  particularly  from  its  chrysalis,  which 
is  of  this  last  kind,  into  the  fly  ;  and  has  given  an 
account  of  the  method  of  this  as  an  instance  of 
the  general  course  of  nature  in  these  operations. 
The  membranes  which  envelope  the  creature  in 
this  chrysalis  state  are  at  first  tough  and  firm,  and 
immediately  touch   the  several  parts  of  the  en- 
closed animal ;  but  by  degrees,  as   these  parts 
harden  they  become  covered,  some  with  hairs 
and  others  with  scales.     These,  as  they  continue 
to  grow,  by  degrees  fall  off  the  several  particular 
membranes  which  cover  the  parts  on  which  they 
are  placed  to  a  greater  distance,  and  gradually 
loosen  then  from  the  limbs.     This  is  one  reason 
of  those  membranes  drying  and  becoming  brittle. 
The  middle  of  the  upper  part  of  the  corselet  is 
usually  marked  with  a  line  running  in  a  longitu- 
dinal direction  ,  and   this  part  is  always  more 
elevated  than  the  rest,  even  in  the  conic  kinds,, 
which  are  no  otherwise  angular.     This  line  is  in 
some  very  bold  and  plain  ;  in  others,  it  is  so 
faint  as  not  to  be  distinguishable  without  glasses ; 
but  it  is  always  in  the  midst  of  that  line,  that  the 
shell  begins  to  open.     The  motion  of  the  head  of 
the  butterfly  backwards  first  occasions  this  crack; 
and  a  few  repetitions  of  the  same  motion  open  it 
the  whole  length.     The  clearing  itself,  however, 
entirely,  is  a  work  of  more  time  in  this  case,  than 
is  the  passing  of  the  chrysalis  out  of  the  body  of 
the  caterpillar.     In  that  case  there  is  a  crack 
sufficiently  large  in  the  skin  of  the  back,  and  the 
whole  chrysalis  being  loose  comes  out  at  once. 
But  in  this  case  every  particular  limb,  and  part  of 
the  body,  has  its  separate  case ;  and  these  are  al- 
most inconceivably  thin  and  tender,  yet  it  is  ne- 
cessary that  every  part  be  drawn  out  of  them 


CHR 


689 


CHR 


before  it  appear  naked  to  the  open  air.  As  soon 
as  all  this  is  effected,  and  the  animal  is  at  liberty, 
it  either  continues  some  time  upon  the  remains 
of  its  covering,  or  creeps  a  little  way  from  it,  and 
there  rests.  The  wings  are  principally  admired 
in  this  creature.  These  are  at  this  time  so  closely 
folded  up,  and  placed  in  so  narrow  a  compass, 
that  the  creature  seems  to  have  none  :  but  they 
by  degrees  expand  and  unfold  themselves ;  and 
finally,  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  or  half  an  hour 
at  the  utmost,  they  appear  of  their  fuirsize,  and 
in  all  their  beauty.  The  manner  of  this  sudden 
unfolding  of  the  wings  is  th.is :  the  small  figure 
they  make  when  the  creature  first  comes  out  of 
its  membranes,  does  not  prevent  the  observing 
that  they  are  at  that  time  considerably  thick. 
This  is  owing  to  its  being  a  large  wing  folded  up 
in  the  nicest  manner,  and  with  folds  so  arranged 
as  to  be  by  no  means  sensible  to  the  eye,  for  the 
wing  is  never  seen  to  unfold ;  but,  when  ob- 
served in  the  most  accurate  manner,  seems  to 
grow  under  the  eye  to  this  extent.  When  the 
creature  is  first  produced  from  the  shell,  it  is 
everywhere  moist  and  tender ;  even  its  wings 
have  no  -strength  or  stiffness  till  they  expand 
themselves;  but  they  then  dry  by  degrees,  and, 
•with  the  other  parts,  become  rigid  and  firm.  But 
if  any  accident  prevents  the  wings  from  expand- 
ing at  their  proper  time,  that  is,  as  soon  as  the 
creature  is  out  of  the  shell,  they  never  afterwards 
are  able  to  extend  themselves ;  but  the  creature 
continues  to  wear  them  in  their  contracted  and 
wholly  useless  state  ;  and  very  often,  when  the 
wings  are  in  part  extended  before  such  an  acci- 
dent happens,  it  stops  thenvin  a  partial  extension, 
and  the  creature  must  be  contented  to  pass  its 
whole  life  with  them  in  that  manner.  M.  Reau- 
mur has  proved  that  heat  and  cold  make  great 
differences  in  the  time  of  hatching  the  butterfly 
from  its  chrysalis  state  :  and  this  he  particularly 
tried  with  great  accuracy  and  attention,  by  put- 
ting them  in  vessels  in  warm  rooms,  and  in  ice 
houses  :  and  it  seemed  wholly  owing  to  the  has- 
tening or  retarding  the  evaporation  of  the  abun- 
dant humidity  of  the  animal  in  the  chrysalis 
state,  that  it  sooner  or  later  appeared  in  the  but- 
terfly form.  He  varnished  over  some  chrysalises, 
to  try  what  would  be  the  effect  of  thus  wholly 
preventing  their  transpiration ;  and  the  conse- 
quence was,  that  the  butterflies  came  forth  from 
these  two  months  later  than  their  natural  time. 
Thus  was  the  duration  of  the  animal  in  this 
state  lengthened  ;  that  is,  its  existence  was 
lengthened ;  but  without  any  advantage  to  the 
creature,  since  it  was  in  the  time  of  its  state  of 
inaction,  and  probably  of  insensibility.  M. 
Reaumur  deduces  a  hint  from  this,  respecting 
the  preservation  of  eggs,  that  seems  to  be  of  some 
use.  See  EGGS.  The  third  state  of  these  insects, 
that  in  which  they  are  winged,  is  always  very 
short,  and  seems  destined  for  no  other  action 
but  the  propagation  of  the  species.  See  PA- 

PILIO. 

CHRYSANTHEMUM,  corn  marigold;  in 
botany,  a  genus  of  the  polygamia  superflua 
order,  and  syngenesia  class  of  plants  ;  natural 
order  forty-ninth,  composite.  Receptacle  naked  ; 
pappxis  marginated,  or  consisting  only  of  a  border; 
CAL.  hemispherical  and  imbricated,  with  the 
VOL.  V. 


marginal  scales  membranaceous.  There  are  twen- 
ty-six species,  of  which  the  following  are  the  most 
remarkable  : — 1.  C.  coronarium,  long  cultivated 
in  the  gardens  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  its 
flowers.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  three  feet, 
with  a  single  upright  stalk  divided  into  numerous 
branches,  garnished  with  pinnated  leaves,  and 
crowned  with  elegant  compound  flowers  of  dif- 
ferent colors  and  properties.  The  varieties  are, 
single  and  double  flowers  of  a  cream  color  ; 
yellow;  yellow  and  white;  brimstone-colored; 
fistular,  or  quilled  ;  or  those  with  finely  jagged 
leaves,  and  flowers  of  all  the  above  colors  and 
properties.  All  the  varieties  begin  flowering  in 
July  ;  the  flowers  are  exceedingly  numerous,  and 
exhibit  a  constant  succession  of  full  bloom  till 
November ;  aud  both  single  and  double  are  suc- 
ceeded by  abundance  of  seed.  This  species  may 
be  raised  in  abundance  from  seed,  either  in  a  hot- 
bed, or  warm  border,  in  the  spring,  for  trans- 
planting ;  also  by  cuttings  and  slips  of  their 
branches  in  autumn.  2.  C.  frutescens,  a  native 
of  the  Canary  Islands.  It  rises  with  a  shrubby 
stalk  near  two  feet,  dividing  into  many  branches, 
which  are  garnished  with  pretty  thick  succulent 
leaves  of  a  grayish  color,  cut  into  many  seg- 
ments. The  flowers  come  out  from  the  wings 
of  the  leaves,  growing  upon  naked  foot-stalks 
singly,  which  greatly  resemble  those  of  chamo- 
mile.  There  is  a  succession  of  flowers  on  the 
same  plant  for  the  greatest  part  of  the  year,  for 
which  it  is  chiefly  esteemed.  This  plant  will 
perfect  seeds  in  Britain,  when  the  seasons  are  fa- 
vorable. 3.  C.  serotinum  is  a  native  of  North 
America.  The  roots  of  this  plant  creep  far  un- 
der the  surface,  and  send  up  strong  stalks  mote 
than  four  feet  high,  garnished  with  long  sawed 
leaves  ending  in  points.  These  stalks  divide 
upward  into  many  smaller ;  each  being  termi- 
nated by  a  large,  white,  radiated  flower,  which 
appears  in  the  end  of  August  or  September. 
This  species  multiplies  fast  by  its  creeping  roots, 
and  will  thrive  in  any  soil  or  situation. 

CHRYSANTHEMUM,  BASTARD.    See  SILPHIUM. 

CHRYSANTHEMUM,  HARD-SEEDED.  See  OSTE- 
OSPERMUM. 

CHRYSES,  in  fabulous  history,  the  priest  of 
Apollo,  and  father  of  Astynome,  hence  called 
Chryseis.  When  Lyrnessus  was  taken,  and  the 
spoils  divided  among  the  conquerors,  Chryses 
fell  to  the  share  of  Agamemnon.  Chryses  upon 
this  went  to  the  Grecian  camp  to  solicit  his 
daughter's  restoration ;  and  when  his  prayers 
were  fruitless,  he  implored  the  aid  of  Apollo, 
who  visited  the  Greeks  with  a  plague,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  restore  Chryseis. 

CHRYSIPPUS,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  born  at 
Solis,  in  Siciiia,  was  a  disciple  of  Cleanthus, 
Zeno's  successor.  He  wrote  many  works,  seve- 
ral of  which  related  to  logic.  None  of  the  phi- 
losophers spoke  in  stronger  terms  of  the  fatal  ne- 
cessity of  everything,  nor  more  pompously  of 
the  liberty  of  man,  than  this  Stoic.  So  consi- 
derable was  he  among  them  that  it  became  a 
proverb,  that  if  it  had  not  been  for  Chrysippus, 
the  porch  had  never  been  :  yet  the  Stoics  com- 
plained, as  Cicero  relates,  that  he  had  collected 
so  many  arguments  in  favor  of  the  sceptical  hy- 
pothesis, that  he  could  not  answer  them  himself; 

2Y 


CHR 


690 


CHR 


and  thus  had  furnished  Carneades,  their  antago- 
nist, with  weapons  against  them.  There  is  an 
apophthegm  of  this  philosopher  preserved,  which 
does  him  honor.  Being  told  that  some  persons 
spoke  ill  of  him,  '  It  is  no  matter,'  said  he,  '  I 
will  live  so  that  they  shall  not  be  believed.' 

CHRYSIS,  the  golden-fly,  in  natural  his- 
tory ;  a  genus  of  insects  belonging  to  the  order 
of  hymenoptera.  The  mouth  is  armed  with 
jaws,  but  has  no  proboscis ;  the  antennae  are 
filiform,  bent,  and  consist  of  twelve  articulations ; 
the  abdomen  is  arched,  with  a  scale  on  each 
side ;  the  anus  is  dentated,  and  armed  with  a 
sting  ;  the  wings  lie  plain ;  and  the  body  appears 
as  if  gilt.  There  are  above  thirty  species,  of 
which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  C.  ignita,  or 
flaming  chrysis,  beautified  with  the  most  resplen- 
dent colors.  The  fore  part  of  its  head  is  green 
and  gold,  and  the  hinder  of  a  beautiful  azure. 
The  thorax  is  likewise  azured  over,  with  a  mix- 
ture of  green,  and  terminated  at  its  extremity 
with  sharp  points  "on  both  sides.  The  abdomen 
is  green  and  gold  before,  and  of  a  coppery  red 
behind,  imitating  molten  copper  highly  polished. 
The  whole  insect  is  dotted  on  its  upper  part, 
which  gives  it  a  great  resplendency  of  color. 
The  antennae  are  black,  and  legs  green,  inter- 
mixed with  gold.  This  species  dwells  in  holes 
of  walls  between  the  stones,  and  in  the  mortar 
that  cements  them.  It  is  often  seen  issuing 
from  such  holes,  where  it  nestles  and  performs 
its  work.  The  larvae,  which  resemble  those  of 
the  wasp,  likewise  inhabit  the  holes  of  decayed 
walls. 

CHRYSITRIX,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
dicecia  order,  and  polygamia  class  of  plants : 
HERM.  glume  two-valved  :  COR.  from  chaff  nu- 
merous and  bristly  ;  many  stamina,  one  within 
each  chaff:  PISTIL,  one.  Male  no  pistillura. 
Species  one,  native  of  the  Cape. 

CHRYSOBALANUS,  cocoa  plum  in  bo- 
tany, a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and  ico- 
sandria  class  of  plants :  natural  order  thirty-sixth, 
pomaceae :  CAL.  quinquefid,  petals  five;  plum 
kernel  five-furrowed  and  five-valved.  There  is  only 
one  species,  viz.  the  C.  icaco,  which  is  a  native 
of  the  Bahama  Islands  and  many  other  parts  of 
America,  but  commonly  grows  near  the  sea.  It 
rises  with  a  shrubby  stalk  eight  or  nine  feet 
high,  sending  out  several  side  branches,  which 
are  covered  with  a  dark  brown  bark.  The 
flowers  are  white,  and  are  succeeded  by  plums 
like  damsons ;  some  blue,  some  red,  and  others 
yellow.  The  stone  is  shaped  like  a  pear,  and 
has  five  longitudinal  furrows.  The  plums  have 
a  sweet  luscious  taste,  and  are  brought  to  the 
tables  of  the  inhabitants,  by  whom  they  are 
much  esteemed. 

CHRYSOCOMA,  goldy-locks,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  polygamia  aequalis  order,  and  synge- 
nesia  class  of  plants ;  natural  order  forty-ninth, 
composite.  Receptacle  naked ;  pappus  simple: 
CAL. hemispherical  andimbricated  ;  STYLE  hardly 
longer  than  the  florets.  There  are  fifteen  species, 
the  most  remarkable  of  which  are,  the  linosyris, 
the  coma  aurea,  and  the  cornua.  These  are 
herbaceous  flowering  perennials,  growing  from 
one  to  two  feet  high,  ornamented  with  narrow 
leaves,  and  compound  floscular  flowers  of  a 


yellow  color.  They  are  easily  propagated  by 
dividing  the  roots  or  by  cuttings;  but  the  last 
two  require  to  be  sheltered  in  the  green-house  in 
winter. 

CHRYSOGONUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
polygamia  necessaria  order,  and  syngenesia  class 
of  plants;  natural  order  forty-ninth,  compositae. 
Receptacle  paleaceous  ;  pappus  monophyllous, 
and  tridented  :  CAL.  pentaphyllous ;  the  seeds 
wrapped  up  each  in  a  tetrephyllous  calycuius. 
Species  one,  a  native  of  Virginia. 

CHRY'SOLITE,  n.  s.  Xpiwroc  gold,  and 
Xt0oc  a  stone.  A  precious  stone  of  a  dusky  green, 
with  a  cast  of  yellow. 

Such  another  world, 
Of  one  intire  and  perfect  chrysolite, 
I'd  not  have  sold  her  for.  Shakspearc. 

If  metal,  part  seemed  silver,  part  silver  clear, 
If  stone,  carbuncle  most,  or  chrysolite. 

Milton's  Paradise  Lott. 

CHRYSOLITES,  or  yellowish-green  topazes, 
aie  found  in  the  East  Indies,  Brasil,  Bohemia, 
Saxony,  Spain,  in  the  departments  of  Cantal, 
Puy-de-dome  and  Allier,  in  France,  and  in 
Derbyshire  in  England.  Some  are  also  found 
with  volcanic  lavas,  as  in  the  Vivarais,  where 
some  large  lumps  have  been  seen  of  twenty  or 
thirty  pounds  weight ;  but  it  is  remarkable,  that 
some  of  these  chrysolites  are  partly  decomposed 
into  an  argillaceous  substance.  All  chrysolites, 
however,  are  far  from  being  of  the  same  kind. 
The  oriental  is  the  same  with  the  peredot,  and 
differs  only  by  its  green  hue  from  the  sapphires, 
topazes,  and  rubies  of  the  same  denomination. 
This  becomes  electric  by  being  rubbed ;  has  a 
prismatic  form  of  six,  or  sometimes  of  five 
striated  faces ;  and  does  not  lose  its  color  or 
transparency  in  the  fire,  which  the  common 
chrysolite  often  does ;  becoming  either  opaque, 
or  melting  entirely  in  a  strong  heat.  The 
instant  it  melts,  it  emits  a  phosphoric  light  like 
the  basis  of  alum  and  gypseous  spar :  with 
borax  it  produces  a  thin  colorless  glass.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  between  3-600  and  3-700;  ac- 
cording to  Brisson  it  is  2-7821,  or  2-6923;  and 
that  of  the  Spanish  chrysolite  3-0989.  The 
substance  of  this  precious  stone  is  lamellated  in  the 
direction  of  the  axis  of  its  primitive  form :  but 
the  chrysolite  from  Saxony  is  foliated  in  a  per- 
pendicular direction  to  the  same  axis.  The 
chrysolite  of  the  ancients  was  the  same  gem 
which  is  now  called  topaz,  and  the  name  of 
itself  indicates  that  it  ought  to  be  so. 

CHRYSOLITES,  PASTE,  are  a  kind  of  glass  made 
in  imitation  of  chrysolites,  by  mixing  two  ounces 
of  prepared  crystal  with  ten  ounces  of  red-lead, 
adding  twelve  grains  of  crocus  martis  made  with 
vinegar;  and  then  baking  the  whole  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  or  longer,  in  a  well  luted  cucurbit. 

CHRYSOMELA,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  insects 
belonging  to  the  order  of  coleoptera.  The 
antennae  are  shaped  like  bracelets,  and  thicker 
on  the  outside,  feelers  six,  thorax  marginate, 
the  elytra  immarginate.  There  are  no  less  than 
340  species,  principally  distinguished  by  differ- 
ences in  their  color.  They  are  to  be  found 
almost  everywhere,  in  woods,  gardens,  &c. 
Their  progressive  motion  is  slow ;  and  some 
when  caught,  emit  au  oily  liquor  of  a  disagree- 


691 


CHR 


able  smell.  The  glittering  colors  with  which 
several  species  of  chrysomelae  are  adorned,  and 
which  seem  to  exhibit  the  brilliancy  of  gold  and 
copper,  have  occasioned  their  bearing  that  pom- 
pous name.  The  larvae  of  these  insects  have  in 
general  an  oval  body, .  rather  oblong  and  soft ; 
on  the  fore  part  of  which  are  situated  six  feet, 
which  are  scaly,  as  is  also  the  head.  They  prey 
upon  the  substance  of  leaves,  rejecting  the  fibrous 
part.  Those  of  the  leaping  chrysomelae  infest 
ihe  cotyledons  and  tender  leaves  of  plants.  Of 
/bis  genus  is  that  very  pernicious  insect  called 
by  the  country  people  the  turnip  fly,  which 
infests  turnips  and  many  crops  in  the  garden, 
destroying  often  whole  fields  while  in  their 
seedling  leaves.  In  very  hot  summers  they 
abound  to  an  amazing  degree,  and,  in  a  field  or 
garden,  make  a  pattering  like  rain,  by  jumping 
on  the  leaves  of  the  turnips  or  cabbages. 

CIIRYSOPAGION,  in  natural  history,  a 
name  by  which  some  of  the  middle  age  writers 
have  called  the  gem  described  by  Pliny  under 
the  name  of  the  chrysolampis.  Salmasius  is  of 
opinion  that  it  was  only  a  foul  kind  of  the 
chrysoprasius,  of  which  Pliny  says,  that  some 
of  them  were  full  of  specks,  and  of  a  variable 
color. 

CHRYSOPHYLLUM,  Hie  bully  tree,  in 
botany,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and 
pentmdria  class  of  plants ;  natural  order  forty- 
third,  dumosse  :  COR.  campanulated,  decemfid, 
with  the  segments  alternately  a  little  patent ; 
fruit  a  ten-seeded  berry.  There  are  seven  species, 
all  natives  of  the  West  Indies.  The  chief  are, 
1.  C.  cainito,  a  Jamaica  tree,  rising  thirty  or 
forty  feet  high,  with  a  large  trunk  covered  with 
a  brown  bark,  and  dividing  into  many  flexible 
slender  branches,  which  generally  hang  down- 
ward, garnished  with  spear-shaped  leaves,  whose 
under  sides  are  of  a  bright  russet  color.  The 
flowers  come  out  at  the  extremities  of  the 
branches,  disposed  in  oblong  bunches,  which  are 
succeeded  by  fruit  of  i'ie  size  of  a  golden  pippin, 
that  are  very  rough  to  the  palate,  and  astringent; 
but  when  kept  some  time  they  mellow,  and  have 
an  agreeable  flavor.  2.  C.  glabrum  never  rises 
to  the  height  of  the  cainito,  nor  do  the  trunks 
grow  to  half  the  size ;  but  the  branches  are 
slender  and  garnished  with  leaves  like  those  of 
the  other.  The  flowers  come  out  in  clusters 
from  the  sides  of  the  branches,  which  are  suc- 
ceeded by  oval  smooth  fruit,  about  the  size  of  a 
bergamot  pear.  It  contains  a  white  clammy 
juice  when  fresh ;  but,  after  being  kept  a  few 
days,  it  becomes  sweet,  soft,  and  delicious.  En- 
closed are  four  or  five  black  seeds  of  the  size  of 
a  pumpion.  Both  species  are  oiten  preserved 
in  large  stoves,  and  are  propagated  by  seeds ; 
but  they  never  bear  the  open  air  in  this  country. 

CHRYSOPILON,  in  natural  history,  a  name 
given  by  some  of  the  ancients  to  a  species  of 
the  beryl,  which  had  a  yellowish  tinge. 

CHRYSOPSIS,  the  golden-eye,  in  natural 
history,  the  name  of  a  species  of  fly,  so  called 
from  the  beautiful  gold  color  of  its  eyes.  It  is 
a  long  bodied  fly,  with  extremely  thin  and  trans- 
parent wings  of  a  silvery  color,  with  green  ribs 
cr  nerves ;  the  body  is  green,  and  the  antennae 
very  slender  and  blackish.  It  is  a  very  slow 


flyer,  and  is  common  in  gardens;  it  is  fre- 
quently found  on  the  elder;  and  has  a  very 
strong  smell. 

CHRYSO'PRASUS,  n.  s.     Xpy<roc  gold,  and 
prasinm  green.     A  precious  stone  of  a  yello 
color,  approaching  to  green. 

The  ninth  a  topaz,  the  tenth  a  chrysoprasus.   Rev. 

CURYSOPRASUS,  the  tenth  of  the  precious 
stones  mentioned  in  the  Revelation,  as  forming 
the  foundation  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem.  The 
chrysoprasus  is  by  mineralogists  reckoned  to 
be  a  variety  of  the  chrysolite,  by  Cronstadt  called 
the  yellowish-green  and  cloudy  topaz.  He  sup- 
poses it  to  be  the  substance  which  serves  as  a 
matrix  to  the  chrysolite ;  as  those  that  he  had 
seen  were  like  the  clear  veined  quartz,  called  in 
Sweden  milk  crystal,  which  is  the  first  degree  of 
crystallisation.  According  to  Magellan,  it  is  of 
a  green  color,  deeper  than  the  chrysolite,  but 
with  a  yellowish  tinge  inclining  to  blue,  like 
the  green  leek.  Achard  says  that  it  is  nevei 
found  crystallised,  and  that  it  is  semi-trans- 
parent. By  others  it  is  reckoned  among  the 
quartz,  and  its  color  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to 
the  mixture  of  cobalt,  as  it  gives  a  fine  blue 
glass  when  melted  with  borax,  or  with  fixed 
alkali.  Achard,  however,  found  the  glass  of  a 
deep  yellow  when  the  fusion  was  made  with 
borax,  and  that  it  really  contains  some  calx  of 
copper  instead  of  cobalt.  Uutens  says,  that 
some  gold  has  been  found  in  this  kind  of  stone  : 
but  this  last  belongs  in  all  probability,  says 
Magellan,  to  another  class  of  substances,  viz. 
the  vitreous  spars  :  to  which  also  belongs  most 
probably  the  aventurine.  See  SPAR.  The 
chrysoprasus  only  differs  from  the  chrysolite  in 
its  bluish  hue. 

CHRYSOSPLENIUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  digynia  order  and  decandria  class  of  plants  ; 
natural  order  twelfth,  succulents  :  CAL.  quadrifid 
or  quinquefid,  and  colored :  COR.  none :  CAP. 
birostrated,  unilocular  and  polyspermous.  Its 
English  name  is  golden  saxifrage. 

CHRYSOSTOM  (St.  John),  a  celebrated  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  and  one  of  the  most 
admired  fathers  of  the  church,  was  born  of  a 
noble  family  at  Antioch,  about  A.  D.  347.  He 
studied  rhetoric  under  Libavius,  and  philosophy 
under  Andragathus  :  after  which  he  spent  some 
time  in  solitude  in  the  mountains  near  Antioch ; 
but,  th?  austerities  he  endured  having  impaired 
his  health,  he  returned  to  Antioch,  where  he 
was  ordained  deacon  by  Meletius.  Flavian, 
Meletius's  successor,  raised  him  to  the  office  of 
presbyter  five  years  after  ;  when  he  distinguished 
himself  so  greatly  by  his  eloquence,  that  he 
obtained  the  surname  of  Chrysostom,  or  golden 
mouth.  Nectarius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
dying  in  399,  St.  Chrysostom,  whose  fame  was 
spread  throughout  the  whole  empire,  was  unani- 
mously elected  by  both  clergy  and  people.  The 
emperor  Arcadius  confirmed  his  election,  and 
caused  him  to  leave  Antioch  privately,  where  the 
people  were  very  unwilling  to  part  with  him. 
He  was  ordained  bishop  on  the  26th  of  February 
398;  when  he  obtained  an  order  from  the 
emperor  against  the  Eunomians  and  Montanists; 
reformed  the  abuses  which  subsisted  among  his 

2  Y  ? 


CHU 


692 


CHU 


clergy  ;  retrenched  a  great  part  of  the  expenses 
in  which  his  predecessor  had  lived,  in  order  to 
feed  the  poor  and  build  hospitals ;  and  preached 
with  the  utmost  zeal  against  the  pride,  luxury, 
and  avarice  of  the  great.  But  his  pious  liberty 
of  speech  procured  him  many  powerful  enemies. 
He  differed  with  Theophilus  of  Alexandrk,  who 
prpcured  his  deposition  and  banishment,  but  he 
was  soon  recalled.  After  this,  declaiming 
against  the  dedication  of  a  statue  erected  to  the 
empress,  she  banished  him  to  Cucusus  in 
Armenia,  a  most  barren  and  inhospitable  place ; 
and  afterwards,  as  they  were  removing  him  from 
Petyus,  the  soldiers  treated  him  so  roughly,  that 
he  died  in  the  way,  A.  D.  407.  The  best 
edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  at  Paris 
in  1718,  by  Montfaucon.  They  were  well  edited 
in  1612,  by  Savile,  at  Eton,  in  nine  volumes 
folio,  on  which  he  is  said  to  have  expended 
£8000;  and  also  by  Montfaucon  at  Paris,  in 
1718.  Erasmus  and  Fronton  le  Due,  also  pub- 
lished Latin  versions.  The  work  of  Erasmus 
is  only  a  collection  of  the  existing  versions ; 
that  of  Fronton  le  Due  is  a  new  translation,  and 
was  subsequently  adopted  by  Montfaucon. 

CHRYSTAL.     See  CRYSTAL. 

CHTHONIA,  in  antiquity,  a  festival  kept  in 
honor  of  Ceres. 

CHU,  emperor  of  China.     See  CHINA. 

CHUB,  n.  s.  From  cop,  a  great  head.  A 
river  fish.  The  cheven. 

The  chub  is  in  prime  from  Midmay  to  Candlemas, 
but  best  in  winter.  He  is  full  of  small  bones  :  he  eats 
waterish  -,  not  firm,  but  limp  and  tasteless  :  neverthe- 
less he  may  be  so  dressed  as  to  make  him  very  good 
meat.  Walton's  Angler. 

CHUB,  or  CHUBB,  in  ichthyology.  See  CY- 
PRINUS. 

CHUBB  (Thomas),  a  noted  polemical  writer, 
born  at  East  Harnham,  near  Salisbury,  in  1679. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  a  glover  at  Salisbury, 
and  afterwards  entered  into  partnership  with  a 
tallow-chandler.  Being  a  man  of  strong  natural 
parts,  he  employed  all  his  leisure  in  reading; 
and,  though  a  stranger  to  the  learned  languages, 
became  tolerably  versed  in  geography,  mathe- 
matics, and  other  branches  of  science.  His 
favorite  study  was  divinity ;  and  he  formed  a 
little  society  for  the  purpose  of  debating  on 
religious  subjects,  about  the  time  that  the  trini- 
tarian  controversy  was  so  warmly  agitated  be- 
tween Clarke  and  Waterland.  This  subject, 
therefore,  falling  under  the  cognizance  of  Chubb's 
assembly,  he  drew  up  his  sentiments  on  it,  in  a 
dissertation,  which  was  afterwards  published, 
under  the  title  of  the  Supremacy  of  the  Father 
asserted.  In  this  piece  Mr.  Chubb  showed 
great  talents  in  reasoning ;  and  acquired  so 
much  reputation,  that  the  late  Sir  Joseph  Jekyl, 
took  him  into  his  family ;  he  did  not,  however, 
continue  with  him  many  years;  but  chose  to 
return  to  his  friends  at  Salisbury.  He  published 
afterwards  a  quarto  volume  of  tracts,  which  Pope 
informs  his  friend  Gay,  he  '  read  through  with 
admiration  of  the  writer,  though  not  always  with 
approbation  of  his  doctrine.'  He  died  un- 
married in  the  sixty-eighth  year  of  his  age,  and 
left  behind  him  two  volumes  of  posthumous 


tracts,  in  which  he  appears  to  have  nad  littia 
belief  in  revelation. 

CHUB'BED,  adj.  From  chub.  Bigheaded 
like  a  chub. 

CHUCK,  v.  n.,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.     ^       If  derived 
CHU'CK-FARTHING,  >from  jacto,  it 

OHU'CKLE,  v.  n.  &  v  a.  j  signifies      to 

throw;  to  strike  gently.  If  from  Ital.  chioccia  ; 
or  Scot,  chuckie ;  it  is  descriptive  of  a  peculiar 
kind  of  natural  sounds  ;  namely,  to  the  noise  cf 
a  hen  when  calling  her  young ;  to  the  tones  of 
endearment  and  fondling.  Chuckle  is  applied 
also  to  vehement  convulsive  laughter,  and  to  a 
half-suppressed  self-satisfied  laugh  of  exultation 
over  the  misfortunes  or  sufferings  of  others ;  or  at 
the  idea  of  our  own  schemes  and  plans  succeed- 
ing. 

He  flew  down  fro  thebeme, 
For  it  was  day  ;  and,  eke,  his  hennes  all  ; 
And  with  a  chuk,  he  gan  hem  for  to  calle, 
For  he  had  found  a  corn  lay  in  the  yerd. 

Chaucer's  Cant.  Tale:. 
On  his  toos  he  rometh  up  and  doun  ; 
Him  deigned  not  to  set  his  foot  to  ground  ; 
He  chttkketh  when  he  hath  a  corn  yfound  ; 
And  to  him  rennen,  than  his  wives  alle. 
Thus  real,  as  a  prince  is  in  his  halle, 
Leave  I  this  cbauntecleree  in  his  pasture, 
And  after  wol  I  tell  his  aventure.  la. 

Come,  your  promise. What  promise,  chuck  ? 

Shakspeare. 

\  am  not  far  from  the  women's  apartment,  1  am 
sure  ;  and  if  these  birds  are  within  distance,  here"., 
that  will  chuclde  'em  together.  Dryden . 

What  tale  shall  I  to  my  old  father  tell  ? 
'Twill  make  him  chuckle  thou'rt  bestowed  so  well. 

Id. 
Then  crowing,  clapped   his  wings,  the'   appointed 

call, 

To  chuck  his  wives  together  in  the  hall.        Id.  Fable*. 
Your  confessor,  that  parcel  of  holy  guts  and  gar- 
bidge  ;  he  must  chuckle  you,  and  moan  you. 

Id.  Spanish  Friar. 

She  to  intrigues  was  e'en  hard-hearted  ; 
She  chuckled  when  a  bawd  was  carted.  Prior. 

Come,  chuck  the  infant  under  the  chin,  force  a 
smile,  and  cry,  Ah,  the  boy  takes  after  his  mother's 
relations.  Congreve. 

He  made  the  chuck  four  or  five  times,  that  people 
use  to  make  to  chickens  when  they  call  them. 

Temple. 

He  lost  his  money  at  chuck-farthing,  shuffle-cap,  and 
all-fours.  Arbuthnot's  History  of  John  Brill. 

CHUCUITO,  a  town  and  province  of  Peru, 
South  America,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  lake 
of  this  name,  north  by  that  of  Puno,  and  south- 
east by  that  of  Pacages,  and  the  great  chain  of 
the  Cordillera.  It  is  seventy-five  miles  in  length 
from  north  to  south,  and  about  fifty  in  breadth  ; 
too  cold  generally  for  grain  and  fruits  ;  in  some 
of  the  glens  only  it  produces  barley  and  pulse  : 
but  it  abounds  in  cattle  and  shee^}  i.nd  the  lama, 
the  vicunna,  and  the  deer,  thrive  in  the  moun- 
tains. The  fleece  of  the  vicunna  forms  a  beau- 
tiful wool,  and  is  woven  into  various  kinds  of 
apparel.  Carpets  and  quilts  are  also  made  from 
it.  Silver  ores  are  obtained  in  considerable 
quantities  in  this  province,  from  a  soft  porphy- 
ritic  ridge,  extending  about  eighteen  miles,  and 
yielding  about  five  pounds  of  silver  per  hundred 
weight.  There  are  said  to  be  likewise  some  un- 


CHU 

worked  veins  of  gold.    The  lakes  abound  with 
fish.     Population  about  30.000. 

CHUCUITO,  TITIACA,  or  TITICACA,  a  lake 
above  alluded  to,  is  situated  in  the  Cordilleras 
of  Peru,  principally  in  the  north-western  part  of 
the  province  of  Los  Charcos ;  and  is  one  of  the 
largest  inland  waters  of  South  America,  being 
150  miles  in  length  from  north-west  to  south- 
east, about  seventy-five  in  average  breadth,  and 
240  miles  in  circumference ;  of  an  irregular 
oval  figure.  It  is  navigated  by  the  largest  ships, 
and  in  many  of  its  bays  there  are  from  four  to 
six  fathoms  of  water;  further  from  the  shores, 
there  is  frequently  a  depth  of  from  forty,  fifty, 
and  even  seventy  fathoms.  It  is  subject  to 
tremendous  storms  and  gusts  of  wind.  Several' 
large  rivers,  and  a  number  of  smaller  streams, 
flow  into  it,  and  the  water  has  a  remarkably 
disagreeable  taste,  but  it  abounds  in  excellent 
fish,  and  water  fowl ;  and  its  banks  are  very 
picturesque,  fertile,  and  populous.  Some  con- 
siderable islands  diversify  its  surface.  A  cele- 
brated temple  of  the  sun  'brmerly  adorued  one 
of  them. 

CHUDLEIGH,  a  town  in  Devonshire,  seated 
on  the  Teign,  nine  miles  south  of  Exeter,  and 
1 82  west  by  south  of  London.  It  carries  on  a 
woollen  manufacture,  and  has  a  market  on 
Saturday.  Here  formerly  was  a  Benedictine 
monastery,  and  a  palace  of  the  bishop  of  Exeter. 
It  gives  the  title  of  baron  to  the  Clifford  family. 
CHU'ET,  n  s.  Probably  from  to  chew.  An 
old  word,  as  it  seems,  for  forced  meat. 

As  for  chuets,  which  are  likewise  minced  meat,  in- 
stead of  butter  and  fat,  it  were  good  to  moisten  them 
partly  with  cream,  or  almond  or  pistachio  milk. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

CHUFF,  n.  s.       -\       A  word   of  uncertain 

CHU'FFINESS,  n.  s.  ^  derivation  ;    perhaps  cor- 

CHU'FFILY,  adv.    (  rupted  from  chub,  or  de- 

CHU'FFY,  adj.        J  rived  from  Welsh,  kwf,  a 

stock;  Germ,  kuuf;   Scot,  cw/e,  signifies  a  mean 

fellow ;  a  churl ;  a  fat-headed,  clownish,   surly 

boor. 

Hang  ye,  gorbellied  knaves,  are  you  undone  ? 
No,  ye  fat  chuffs,  I  would  your  store  were  here. 

Shaltspeare. 

A  less  generous  chuff  than  this  in  the  fable,  would 

have  hugged  his  bags  to  the  last.  L'Estratige. 

John  answered  chtiffily.  Clarissa. 

CHUM,  n.  s.  Armor,  chom,  to  live  together. 
A  chamber  fellow ;  a  term  used  in  the  universi- 
ties. 

CHUMP,  n.  s.  A  thick  heavy  piece  of  wood, 
less  than  a  block. 

When  one  is  battered,  they  can  quickly,  of  a  chump 
of  wood,  accommodate  themselves  with  another. 

Moxon. 

CHUNAR,  a  district  of  Allahabad,  Hindostan, 
situated  about  the  twenty-fifth  degree  of  north 
latitude.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Ganges;  on  the  south  by  the  Soane;  on  the 
past  by  the  Caramnassa;  and  on  the  west  by 
Tarrar  and  Bogalecund.  The  northern  part  is 
fertile,  but  southward  all  is  jungle  and  barren 
hills.  The  chief  towns  are  Mirzapoor  and 
Chunarghur  and  Bidjeeghur,  now  in  ruins. 
The  Boker  River  divides  Chundail  from  this 


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district.  Pasturage  is  here  frequently  common 
to  a  whole  village,  and  the  land  consequently  is 
often  overstocked.  In  the  dry  season  the  grass- 
cutters,  who  procure  food  for  the  horses  of  go- 
vernment or  European  settlers,  will  bring  pro- 
vender from  a  field  when  verdure  scarcely 
appears.  A  sharp  instrument  cuts  the  grass 
below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  the  roots, 
when  cleared  by  washing,  afford  the  only  green 
food  which  is  to  be  found.  In  the  cold  season 
turnips,  cabbages,  carrots,  and  other  European 
greens,  are  raised  in  the  gardens ;  but  the  influ- 
ence of  the  hot  winds  uniformly  kills  them.  Chu- 
nar  was  formerly  part  of  the  zemindary  of 
Benares. 

CH.UNARGHUR,  a  town  and  fortress  in  the 
district  of  Chunar,  province  of  Allahabad,  Hin- 
dostan, lat.  25°  N.  long,  nearly  83°  E.  It  lies 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  river  Ganges,  the  navi- 
gation of  which  is  completely  commanded  by 
its  batteries,  so  that  no  boat  can  pass  without 
inspection.  The  fort  is  very  strong,  and  its  for- 
tifications, according  to  the  Indian  method,  con- 
sist of  walls  and  towers  one  behind  another ;  it 
stands  on  a  free-stone  rock,  several  hundred  feet 
high,  advancing  far  into  the  river.  A  few 
scattered  huts  and  European  bungalows  com- 
pose the  town,  which  at  some  seasons  is  very 
hot  and  unhealthy.  On  the  north  a  chain  of 
low  hills  runs  parallel  to  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  which  is  covered  with  plantations,  through 
which  the  place  is  approached  on  that  side.  In 
1530  it  was  the  residence  of  the  Afghan  Shere 
Khan,  who  expelled  the  emperor  Humayoon 
from  Hindostan;  in  1575  it  was  taken  by  the 
Moguls,  and  in  1 763  it  was  delivered  up  to  the 
British,  and  has  been  in  the  Company's  posses- 
sion ever  since.  It  was  formerly  a  place  of 
importance,  but  the  military  depot  has  been 
transferred  to  Allahabad.  It  is  469  miles  distant 
from  Calcutta  by  the  nearest  route. 

CHUPMESSAHITES,  Turkish,  i.  e.  pro- 
tector of  Christians,  a  sect  among  the  Mahom- 
medans,  who  believe  that  Jesus  Christ  is  God, 
and  the  true  Messiah,  the  redeemer  of  the  world  ; 
but  without  rendering  him  any  public  worship. 
Ricaut  says,  there  are  many  Chupmessahites 
among  the  people  of  fashion  in  Turkey,  and 
some  even  in  the  seraglio. 

CHUPRAH,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the 
Candeish  country,  fifty  miles  west  of  Burham- 
pour,  and  112  S.S.W.  of  Indore. 

CHUPRAH,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the 
country  of  Bahar,  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
Ganges ;  twenty-five  miles  north-west  of  Patna. 

CHUQUISACA,  or  LAPLATA,  a  rity  of  Los 
Charcas,  South  America,  an  archbishop's  see 
and  capital  of  that  province,  was  founded  by 
Anzures,  one  of  Pizarro's  captains,  in  1538.  It 
stands  in  a  plain,  surrounded  by  hills.  The  air 
in  summer  is  mild,  but  the  winter,  which  begins 
in  September  and  continues  till  March,  is  at- 
tended with  thunder-storms  and  rains  of  long 
continuance.  The  houses,  except  in  the  great 
squares,  are  of  one  story  only ;  they  are  tiled, 
roomy,  and  convenient.  Water  is  scarce,  though 
public  fountains  are  seen  in  different  parts,  and 
gardens  adorn  many  of  the  houses.  The  spacious 
cathedral  here  is  of  respectable  architecture,  and 


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694 


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profusely  ornamented  with  gilding  and  painting: 
all  the  ecclesiastical  edifices,  which  include  two 
churches,  five  convents,  two  nunneries,  and*  a 
conventual  hospital,  are  respectable  buildings : 
but  Laplata  is  principally  distinguished  by  its 
university,  dedicated  to  St.  Francis  Xavier,  and 
at  one  period  a  most  nourishing  institution.  The 
professional  chairs  may  be  filled  either  by  the 
clergy  or  laity.  Some  of  the  most  ancient  fami- 
lies of  Peru  reside  in  the  beautiful  villas  of  this 
neighbourhood.  The  river  Cachimay  approaches 
the  city  within  two,  and  the  Pilcomayo  within 
about  six  leagues. 

CHURCH,  n.  s.  Sax.  cirtce,  rvpiasq.  The 
collective  body  of  Christians,  usually  termed  the 
Catholic  Church. 

The  church,  being  a  supernatural  society,  doth  dif- 
fer from  natural  societies  in  this,  that  the  persons 
unto  whom  we  associate  ourselves  in  the  one,  are  men, 
simply  considered  as  men  ;  but  they  to  whom  we  be 
joined  in  the  other,  are  God,  angels,  and  holy  men. 

Hooker. 

Catholic,  in  Greek,  signifies  universal,  and  the 
Christian  Church  was  so  called,  as  consisting  of  all 
nations  to  whom  the  gospel  was  to  be  preached,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  Jewish  church,  which  con- 
sisted for  the  most  part  of  Jews  only. 

Milton's  True  Religion,  &c. 

Any  body  of  Christians  adhering  to  the  insti- 
tutes of  Christian  worship  and  voluntarily  asso- 
ciated. 

The  visible  Church  of  Christ  is  a  congregation  of 
faithful  men,  in  the  which  the  pure  word  of  God  is 
preached,  and  the  Sacraments  he  duly  ministered  ac- 
cording to  Christ's  ordinance ;  in  all  those  things, 
that  of  necessity  are  requisite  to  the  same. 

Articles  of  Religion. 

The  place  which  Christians  consecrate  to  the 
worship  of  God. 

The  thridde  circumstance  is  the  place  ther  thou 
hast  don  sinne  ;  whether  in  other  mennes  houses,  or 
in  thin  owen ;  in  feld,  in  chirche,  or  in  chirchehaice, 

Chaucer.    The  Persons  Tale. 
Some  hir  churches  nevir  ne  sie, 
Ne  ner  o  penie  tliider  sende  ; 
Though  that  the  pore  for  hunger  die, 
O  penie  on  them  will  thei  not  spendr. 

Id.  The  Plowman't  Tale. 
He  in  his  furie  all  shall  over-ronne  ; 
And  holy  church  with  faithless  hands  deface, 
That  thy  sad  people,  utterly  fordonne, 
Shall  to  the  utmost  mountains  fly  apace. 

Spenser. 

Though  you  untie  the  winds,  and  let  them  fight 
Against  the  churches.  Shakspeare. 

It  is  used  frequently  in  conjunction  with  other 
words,  as  church-member,  the  members  of  a 
•:hurch ;  church  power,  spiritual  or  ecclesiastical 
authority ;  church  militant,  the  church  in  its  state 
of  warfare. 

For  he  was  of  that  stubborn  crew 
Of  errant  Saints  whom  all  men  gram, 
To  be  the  true  ck-urch  militant.  Hudibrus. 

To  CHURCH,  v.  a.  From  the  noun.  To  per- 
form with  any  one  the  office  of  returning  thanks 
in  the  church  after  any  signal  deliverance,  as 
from  the  danger  of  childbirth. 

CHURCH,  GREEK,  or  EASTERN,  comprehends 
the  churches  of  all  the  countries  anciently  sub- 
ject to  the  Greek,  or  eastern  empire,  and  througn 


which  tneir  language  was  carried :  that  is,  all  the 
space  extending  from  Greece  to  Mesopotamia 
and  Persia,  and  thence  into  Egypt.  This 
church  has  been  divided  from  the  Roman  ever 
since  the  time  of  the  emperor  Phocas,  Its 
principal  member  at  this  time  is  RUSSIA,  which 
see. 

CHURCH,  LATIN,  or  WESTERN,  comprehends 
all  the  churches  of  Italy,  Portugal,  Spain,  Afri- 
ca, the  north,  and  all  other  countries  whither  the 
Romans  carried  their  language.  Great  Britain, 
part  of  the  Netherlands,  of  Germany,  and  of  the 
North  of  Europe,  have  been  separated  from  the 
great  Roman  Catholic  body  of  this  church,  ever 
since  the  Reformation. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND,  the  episcopal  church 
established  by  law  in  this  kingdom,  which  has 
existed  ever  since  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  (who, 
after  being  defender  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith, 
became  its  opposer) ;  with  the  exception  of  his 
daughter  Mary's  reign.  Its  doctrines  are  chiefly 
Lutheran,  and  its  form  of  government  hierarchi- 
cal. The  particulars  of  its  internal  government 
and  polity  belong,  strictly,  to  the  law  of  Eng- 
land, of  which  they  form  a  part.  See  ENGLAND. 

CHURCH  OF  ROME,  or  the  ROMAN  CATHOLIC 
CHURCH,  claims  the  title  of  being  the  mother 
church,  and  is  undoubtedly  the  most  ancient  of 
all  the  established  churches  in  Christendom.  See 
ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND,  the  presbyterian  church, 
established  by  law  in  that  kingdom,  which  has 
existed  (with  some  interruptions  during  the 
reigns  of  the  Stuarts),  ever  since  the  time  of 
John  Knox,  when  the  voice  of  the  people  pre- 
vailed in  its  establishment  over  the  influence  of 
the  crown.  Its  doctrines  are  Calvinistic,  and  its 
form  of  government  republican. 

CHURCH,  REFORMED,  comprehends  the  whole 
Protestant  churches  in  Europe  and  America, 
whether  Lutheran,  Calvinistic,  Independent, 
Quaker,  Baptist,  or  of  any  other  denomination, 
who  dissent  from  the  church  of  Rome. 

CHURCH,  in  architecture,  is  defined  by  Davi- 
ler,  a  large  oblong  edifice,  in  form  of  a  ship,  with 
NAVE,  CHOIR,  AISLES,  BELFRY,  &c.  See  these 
articles.  The  form  of  the  ancient  Greek  churches, 
when  complete,  was  as  follows : — first  was  a 
porch  or  portico,  called  irpovaoc,  the  vaunt-nave, 
this  was  adorned  with  columns  on  the  outside, 
and  on  the  inside  surrounded  with  a  wall ;  in  the 
middle  whereof  was  a  door,  through  which  they 
passed  into  a  second  portico.  The  first  of  these 
porticoes  was  destined  for  the  energumeni, 
and  penitents  in  the  first  stage  of  their  repent- 
ance ;  the  second  was  much  longer,  destined  for 
penitents  of  the  second  class,  and  the  catechu- 
mens, and  hence  called  vap0;jc»  ferula,  because 
those  placed  in  it  began  be  subject  to  the  discip- 
line of  the  church.  These  two  porticoes  took  up 
about  one-third  of  the  space  of  the  church. 
From  the  second  portico,  they  passed  into  vaof, 
the  nave,  which  took  up  nearly  another  third  of 
the  church.  In  the  middle,  or  at  one  side  of  the 
nave,  was  the  ambo,  where  the  deacons  and 
priests  read  the  gospel,  and  preached.  The  nave 
was  destined  for  the  reception  of  the  people,  who 
here  assisted  at  prayers.  Near  the  entrance  of 
»nis  was  the  baptistery  or  font.  Beyond  the 


CHL 


695 


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nave  was  the  choir,  x°P°C>  set  witn  seats,  and 
round :  the  first  seat  on  the  right,  next  the  sanc- 
tuary, being  for  the  choragus,  or  chanter. 
From  the  choir  they  ascended  by  steps  to  the 
sanctuary,  which  was  entered  at  three  doors.  The 
sanctuary  had  three  apsides  in  its  length  ;  a  great 
one  in  the  middle,  under  which  was  the  altar, 
crowned  with  a  baldachin,  supported  by  four  co- 
lumns. Under  each  of  the  small  apsides,  was  a 
table  or  cupboard,  in  manner  of  a  buffet.  Of 
the  Greek  churches  now  remaining,  few  have  all 
the  parts  above  described,  most  of  them  having 
been  reduced  to  ruins  or  converted  into  mosques. 
Churches  are  variously  distinguished  by  buil- 
ders. Church  in  a  Greek  cross,  that  where  the 
length  of  the  traverse  part  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
nave ;  so  called  because  most  of  the  Greek 
churches  are  built  in  this  form.  Church  in  a 
Latin  cross,  that  wliose  nave  is  longer  than  the 
cross  part,  as  is  most  of  the  Gothic  churches. 
Church  in  rotundo,  that  whose  plan  is  a  perfect 
circle,  in  imitation  of  the  pantheon. 

CHURCH-ALE,  n.  s.  From  church  and  ale. 
A  wake,  or  feast,  commemoratory  of  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  church. 

For  the  church-a.\e,  two  young  men  of  the  parish  are 
yearly  chosen  to  be  wardens,  who  make  collection 
among  the  parishioners  of  what  provision  it  pleaseth 
them  to  bestow,  Carew. 

CHURCH-ATTIRE,  n.  s.  .  The  habit  in  which 
men  officiate  at  divine  service.  • 

These  and  such  like  were  their  discourses,  touching 
that  church-attire,  which  with  us,  for  the  most  part,  is 
used  in  publick  prayer.  Hooker. 

CHURCH-AUTHORITY,  n.  s.  Ecclesiastical 
power;  spiritual  jurisdiction. 

In  this  point  of  church-authority,  I  have  sifted  all 
the  little  scraps  alleged.  Atterbury. 

CHURCH-BURIAL,  n.  s.  Burial  according  to 
the  rites  of  the  church. 

The  bishop  has  the  care  of  seeing  that  all  Chris- 
tians, after  their  deaths,  be  not  denied  church-burial, 
according  to  the  usage  and  custom  of  the  place. 

Aylijfe's  Par  ergon. 

CHURCH-FOUNDER,  n.  s.  He  that  builds  or 
endows  churches. 

Whether  emperors  or  bishops  in  those  days  were 
church-founders,  the  solemn  dedication  of  churches 
they  thought  not  to  be  a  work  in  itself  either  vain  or 
superstitious.  Hooker, 

CHURCHILL  (Charles),  a  celebrated  satirist, 
the  son  of  Mr.  Charles  Churchill,  curate  and 
lecturer  of  St.  John's,  Westminster,  was  educated 
at  Westminster-school.  His  capacity  was  greater 
than  his  application,  so  that  he  acquired  the  cha- 
racter of  a  boy  that  could  do  good  if  he  would. 
For  want  of  common  attainment  in  the  languages, 
he  was  rejected  from  Oxford,  whither  his  father 
had  sent  him ;  and  probably  this  occasioned  the 
frequent  invectives  we  find  in  his  works  against 
that  university.  Upon  his  return,  he  applied  to 
his  studies  in  Westminster-school,  where,  at 
seventeen  years  of  age,  he  contracted  an  intimacy 
with  a  lady,  whom  he  married.  Mr.  Churchill 
afterwards  obtained  a  small  curacy  of  £30  a  year, 
in  Wales,  but  endeavouring  to  better  his  circum- 
stances, by  keening  a  cyder  cellar,  it  involved 
him  in  difficulties,  which  obliged  him  to  leave 


Wales  and  come  to  London.  His  father  dying 
soon  after,  he  succeeded  him  ;  and,  to  improve 
his  income,  which  scarcely  produced  £100  a  year, 
he  became  teacher  at  a  ladies'  school.  His  mode 
of  living,  however,  bearing  no  proportion  to  his 
income,  he  contracted  many  debts,  and  a  jail 
threatened  to  complete  his  misfortunes  :  when  he 
was  relieved  by  the  benevolence  of  Mr.  Lloyd, 
father  to  the  poet  of  that  name.  This  gentleman 
induced  Mr.  Churchill  to  write  the  Rosciad.  It 
firs;  came  out  without  the  author's  name  :  but  the 
justness  of  the  remarks,  and  the  severity  of  the 
satire,  soon  excited  curiosity.  The  public  as- 
cribed it  to  a  number  of  wits,  and  soon  induced 
Churchill  to  throw  off  the  mask,  and  issue  the 
second  edition  with  his  name  at  full  length.  His 
next  performance  was  his  Apology  to  the  Critical 
Reviewers.  He  now  quitted  his  wife,  commenced 
a  complete  man  of  the  town ;  and,  giddy  with 
false  praise,  thought  his  talents  a  sufficient  atone- 
ment for  all  his  follies.  He  undertook  at  this 
time  a  poem  called  Night,  written  upon  the  prin- 
ciple, that  whatever  our  follies  are,  we  should 
never  attempt  to  conceal  them.  This,  and  his 
other  poems,  being  spoken  of  contemptuously  by 
Dr.  Johnson,  the  author  retorted  upon  him  in  his 
next  poem,  of  the  Ghost,  in  which  he  has  ex- 
hibited the  doctor  in  the  character  of  Pomposo, 
with  some  ingenuity.  The  poem  of  Night  and 
the  Ghost  had  not  the  rapid  sale  the  author  ex- 
pected ;  but  his  Prophecy  of  Famine,  in  which 
he  exerted  his  virulent  pen  against  the  whole 
Scotch  nation,  soon  made  ample  amends  for  the 
late  paroxysm  in  his  fame.  His  Gotham,  Inde- 
pendence, and  The  Times,  were  said  by  his 
enemies  to  be  written  by  a  man  who  desired  to 
avail  himself  of  the  avidity  of  the  public  cu- 
riosity in  his  favor,  and  rather  to  have  been  aimed 
at  the  pockets  than  the  minds  of  his  readers ;  but 
this  assertion  sprung  from  prejudice,  as  those 
poems  contain  some  of  his  most  animated  pas- 
sages. Mr.  Churchill  died  in  1764,  of  a  miliary 
fever,  with  which  he  was  seized  at  Boulogne", 
in  France,  whither  he  had  gone  on  a  visit  to 
Mr.  Wilkes.  After  his  death  his  poems  were 
collected,  and  printed  together,  in  two  volumes, 
8vo. 

CHURCHILL  (John),  duke  of  Marlborough.  See 
MARLBOROUGH,  DUKE  OF. 

CHURCHMAN,  n.  s.  Church  and  man.  An 
ecclesiastic ;  a  clergyman ;  one  that  ministers  in 
sacred  things, 

If  any  thing  be  offered  to  you,  touching  the  churcl 
and  churchmen,  or  church  government,  rely  not  only 
upon  yourself.  Bacoti. 

A  very  difficult  work  to  do,  to  reform  and  reduce  a 
church  into  order,  that  had  been  so  long  neglected, 
and  that  was  so  ill  filled  by  many  weak  and  more 
wilful' churchmen.  Clarendon. 

Patience  in  want,  and  poverty  of  mind, 
These  marks  of  church  and  churchmen  he  designed, 
And  living  taught,  and  dying  left  behind. 

Dryden's  Pallet. 

I  met  a  reverend  fat  old  gouty  friar. 
With  a  paunch  swollen  so  high,  his  double  chin 
Might  rest  upon  't,  a  true  son  of  the  church ! 
Fresh  coloured,  and  well-thriving  on  his  trade. 

Id.  Spanish  Friar. 


CHU 


696 


CHU 


CHURCH-SCOT,  or  CHURCHESSET,apayment 
or  contribution,  by  the  Latin  writers  frequently 
called  primitiae  feminum;  being,  at  fust,  a  certain 
measure  of  wheat,  paid  to  the  priest  on  St.  Mar- 
tin's day,  as  the  first-fruits  of  harvest.  This  was 
enjoined  by  the  laws  of  king  Malcolm  IV.  and 
Canute,  c.  10.  But  after  this,  it  came  to  signify 
a  reserve  of  corn-rent  paid  to  the  secular  priests, 
or  to  the  religious ;  and  sometimes  was  taken  in 
so  general  a  sense  as  to  include  poultry,  or  any 
other  provision  that  was  paid  in  kind  to  the  re- 
ligious. See  TITHE. 

CHURCHWARDENS,  n  s.  See  WARDEN.  Of- 
ficers yearly  chosen,  by  the  consent  of  the  minis- 
ter and  parishioners,  according  to  the  custom  of 
each  place,  to  look  to  the  church,  church-yard, 
and  such  things  as  belong  to  both ;  and  to  ob- 
serve the  behaviour  of  the  parishioners,  for  such 
faults  as  appertain  to  the  jurisdiction  or  censure 
of  the  ecclesiastical  court.  They  are  a  kind  of 
corporation,  enabled  by  law  to  sue  for  any  thing 
belonging  to  their  church,  or  poor  of  their  pa- 
rish. 

There  should  likewise,  church-wardens  of  the  gravest 
men  in  the  parish,  be  appointed,  as  they  be  here  in 
England.  Spenser. 

Our  church-wardens 

Feast  on  the  silver,  and  give  us  the  farthings.  Gay. 

CHURCHWARDENS,  or  REEVES,  in  the  English 
ecclesiastical  polity,  are  the  guardians  of  the 
church,  and  representatives  of  the  parish.  They 
are  sometimes  appointed  by  the  minister,  some- 
times by  the  parish,  sometimes  by  both.  They 
are  taken,  in  favor  of  the  church,  to  be,  for  some 
purposes,  a  kind  of  corporation  at  the  common 
law;  that  is,  they  are  enabled,  by  that  name,  to 
have  a  property  in  goods  and  chattels,  and  to 
bring  actions  for  them,  for  the  use  and  profit  of 
the  parish.  Yet  they  may  not  waste  the  church 
goods,  and  may  be  removed  by  the  parish,  and 
then  called  to  account  by  actions  at  common 
law :  but  there  is  no  method  of  calling  them  to 
account  but  by  first  removing  them  ;  for  none 
can  legally  do  it  but  those  who  are  put  in  their 
place.  As  to  lands  or  other  real  property,  as  the 
church,  churchyard,  &c.  they  have  no  sort  of  in- 
terest therein ;  but  if  any  damage  is  done  thereto, 
the  parson  only,  or  vicar,  shall  have  the  action. 
Their  office  is  also  to  repair  the  church,  and 
make  rates  and  levies  for  that  purpose ;  but  these 
are  recoverable  only  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts. 
They  are  to  levy  a  shilling  forfeiture  on  all  such 
as  do  not  go  to  church  on  Sundays  and  holidays ; 
and  are  empowered  to  keep  all  persons  orderly 
while  there ;  to  which  end  it  has  been  held  that  a 
churchwarden  may  justify  the  pulling  off  a  man's 
hat,  without  being  guilty  of  either  an  assault  or 
trespass.  There  are  also  a  multitude  of  other 
petty  parochial  powers  committed  to  their  charge 
by  divers  acts  of  parliament.  No  person  can  be 
compelled  to  serve  the  office  that  is  not  residing 
in  the  parish,  nor  peers,  clergymen,  dissenting 
ministers,  counsellors,  attorneys,  clerks  in  court, 
physicians,  surgeons,  or  apothecaries. 

CHURCH-YARD,  n.  s.  ,  The  ground  adjoining 
the  church,  in  which  the  dead  are  buried  ;  a  ce- 
metery. 

I  am  almost  afraid  to  stand  alone 

Here  in  the  church-yard,  yet  I  will  adventure. 

Shahipeare.- 


In  church-yards  where  they  bury  much,  the  earth 
will  consume  the  corpse  in  far  shorter  time  than  other 
earth  will.  Bacon. 

No  place  so  sacred  from  such  fops  is  barred  ; 
Nor  is  Paul's  church   more  safe  than  Paul's  church- 
yard. Pope. 

With  wicker  rods  we  fenced  her  tomb  around, 
To  ward  from  man  and  beast  the  hallowed  ground, 
Lest  her  new  grave  the  parson's  cattle  raze, 
For  both   his  horse  and  cow  the  church-yard  graze. 

Gay. 

CHURCHYARDS  are  consecrated  with  great  so- 
lemnity. In  the  church  of  Rome,  if  a  church- 
yard, which  has  been  thus  consecrated,  shall 
afterwards  be  polluted,  by  any  indecent  action, 
or  profaned  by  the  burial  of  an  infidel,  a  heretic, 
an  excommunicated  or  unbaptised  person,  it  must 
be  reconciled;  and  the  ceremony  of  the  recon- 
ciliation is  performed  with  the  same  solemnity  as 
that  of  the  consecration. 

CHURCHYARD  (Thomas),  a  poet  who  flou- 
rished in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII ,  Edward  VI., 
queen  Mary,  and  queen  Elizabeth,  was  born  at 
Shrewsbury ;  and  inherited  a  fortune,  which  he 
soon  exhausted  in  a  fruitless  attendance  on  the 
court,  where  he  only  gained  the  favor  of  being 
retained  a  domestic  in  the  family  of  lord  Surrey. 
By  his  lordship's  encouragement,  however,  he 
commenced  poet.  Upon  his  patron's  death,  he 
applied  to  arms,  and  was  twice  made  prisoner. 
He  published  twelve  pieces,  which  he  afterwards 
printed  together  in  one  volume,  under  the  title 
of  Churchyard's  Chips ;  also  the  tragedy  of 
Thomas  Mowbray,  Duke  of  Norfolk.  He  died 
in  1570. 

CHURL,  n.s.  -j      Goth,  karl;    Swed. 

CHU'RLISH,  adj.  tkarl ;  Teut.  kerl ;  Sax. 

CHU'RLISHLY,  adv.      £ceorl,  eorl  and  ceorl, 

CHU'RLISHNESS,  n.  s.  J  noble  and  plebeian; 
high  and  low.  Tims  it  is  applied  to  a  rustic 
man;  a  surly  fellow ;  a  niggard.  Churlish  de- 
scribes his  qualities  Churlishly,  and  churlish- 
ness, his  behaviour  and  disposition.  The  noun 
sometimes  simply  means  a  rustic ;  a  strong-bo- 
died laborer.  Churlish  is  also  applied  to  things 
that  are  rugged,  harsh,  unyielding,  and  unmal- 
leable. 

Lo,  brother,  quod  the  fend,  what  told  I  thee  ? 
Here  may  ye  seen,  min  owen  dere  brother, 
The  cherl  spake  o  thing,  but  he  thought  another. 

Chaucer.    The  Freret  Tale. 
Quoth  Pandarus,  thou  hast  a  ful  grete  care, 

Lest  that  the  chorl  may  fal  out  of  the  mone. 

Id.    Troilus  and  Creseide. 
He  seeing  with  that  chorle  so  faire  a  wight, 

Decked  with  many  a  costly  ornament, 

Much  merveiled  thereat,  as  well  he  might, 

And  thought  that  match  a  fowle  disparagement. 

Spenser. 

He  holdeth  himself  a  gentleman,  and  scorneth  to 
work  or  use  any  hard  labour,  which  lie  saith  is  the 
life  of  a  peasant  or  churl.  Id.  State  of  Ireland. 

A  churl's  courtesy  rarely  comes,  but  either  for  gain 
or  falsehood.  Sidney. 

Poison,  I  see,  hath  been  his  timeless  end  ! 
O  churl,  drink  all,  and  leave  no  friendly  drop 
To  help  me  after !  Shahspeare. 

Will  you  again  unknit 

This  churlith  knot  of  all  abhorred  war?  7<f. 

A  sea  of  melting  pearl,  which  some  call  tears, 
Those  at  her  father's  chvrlieh  feet  she  tendered.      Id. 


CHU 


697 


CHU 


The  interruption  of  their  churlish  arums 

Cuts  off  mere  circumstance  ;  they  are  at  band 

To  parly  or  to  fighi.  Id. 

Spain  found  the  war  so  churlish  and  longsome,  as 
they  found  they  should  consume  themselves  in  an 
endless  war.  Bacon. 

If  there  be  emission  of  spirit,  the  body  of  the  metal 
will  be  hard  and  churlish.  Id.  Natural  History, 

The  Cornish  were  become,  like  metal  often  fired  and 
quenched,  churlish  and  that  would  sooner  break  than 
bow.  Id.  Henry  VII. 

A  lion  in  love  with  a  lass,  desired  her  father's  con- 
sent. The  answer  was  churlish  enough  :  He'd  never 
marry  his  daughter  to  a  brute.  L'Estrange. 

In  the  churlishness  of  fortune,  a  poor  honest  man 
suffers  in  this  world.  Id. 

To  the  oak,  now  regnant,  the  olive  did  churlishly  put 
over  the  son  for  a  reward  of  the  service  of  his  sire. 

Howel. 

From  this  light  cause  the  infernal  maid  prepares 
The  country  churls  to  mischief,  hate,  and  wars. 

Dryden. 
This  sullen  churlish  thief 

Had  all  his  mind  placed  upon  Mully's  beef.    King. 

In  the  hundreds  of  Essex  they  have  a  very  churlish 
blue  clay.  Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

CHURLE,  CEORLE,  or  CARL,  in  the  Saxon 
times,  signified  a  tenant  at  will,  who  held  of  the 
Thanes  on  condition  of  rent  and  service.  They 
were  of  two  sorts  :  one  rented  the  estate  like  our 
farmers :  the  other  tilled  and  manured  the  de- 
mesnes, and  were  called  ploughmen. 

CHURME,  n.  s.  More  properly  chirm,  from 
the  Sax.  cyjvne,  a  clamour  or  noise ;  as  to  chirre 
is  to  coo  as  a  turtle.  A  confused  sound  ;  a  noise. 

He  was  conveyed  to  the  tower,  with  the  churme  of 
a  thousand  taunts  and  reproaches.  Bacon. 

CHURN,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  Properly  chern,  from 
Dut.  kern  ;  Sax.  cenene.  The  vessel  in  which 
the  butter  is,  by  long  and  violent  agitation,  coa- 
gulated and  separated  from  the  serous  parts  of 
the  milk.  To  agitate  or  shake  anything  by  a 
violent  motion. 

Perchance  he  spoke  not ;  but 
Like  a  full-acorned  boar,  a  churning  on, 
Cried  oh  !  Shakspeare. 

You  may  try  the  force  of  imagination,  upon  staying 
the  coming  of  butter  after  the  churning. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

Churned  in  his  teeth  the  foamy  venom  rose. 

Addison. 

The  cleanly  cheese-press  she  could  never  turn, 
Her  awkward  fist  did  ne'er  employ  the  churn.        Gay. 

CHURN,  COMMON,  is  a  deep  wooden  vessel, 
of  3  conical  shape ;  resting  on  its  base,  and 
having  closely  fitted  into  its  upper  part  a  cover  of 
wood,  with  a  hole  in  its  centre  to  admit  the  handle 
of  the  churn-staff.  This  staff  consists  of  a  long 
upright  pole,  to  the  bottom  of  which  is  fixed  a 
broad  kind  of  foot,  perforated  at  different  parts, 
and  calculated  to  occasion  a  more  universal  agi- 
tation of  the  milk  in  churning.  Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  improve  this  useful  implement; 
but  none  have  been  accepted  in  our  dairies,  ex- 
cept the  barrel  churn,  a  kind  of  rolling  barrel, 
with  such  dashers  within  as  are  calculated  to 
quicken  the  process  of  making  butter.  Mr. 


Harland  has,  in  his  improved  barrel  churn,  in  a 
great  measure  obviated  the  awkward  notatory 
motion  of  the  barrel  churn ;  which  is  supplied 
by  a  very  easy  muscular  exertion,  resembling  in 
its  nature  that  of  a  common  pump-handle ;  and 
by  affixing  a  fly-wheel,  A,  the  agitation  is  per- 
formed in  a  more  equable  manner,  and  on  that 
account  the  butter  is  more  perfectly  separated 
from  the  whey. 


B  is  the  barrel  containing  tne  whey,  and  fur- 
nished with  dashers ;  C  the  shutter  by  which  the 
whey  is  put  in  and  the  butter  taken  out ;  D  the 
handle  which  lifts  up  and  down  the  little  cog- 
wheel E,  and  thus  communicates  to  the  fly-wheel 
and  barrel  a  rotatory  motion. 

'  In  the  process  of  churning,'  says  Mr.  Loudon, 
'  great  nicety  is  required ;  a  regular  stroke  in 
plunge  or  pump  churns,  and  a  regular  motion  in 
those  of  the  barrel  or  turning  kind,  must,  if  pos- 
sible, never  be  deviated  from.     A  few  hasty  ir- 
regular strokes  or  turns  has  been  known  to  spoil 
what  would  otherwise  have  been  excellent  butter. 
Twamley,  in  his  Essays  on  the  Dairy,  recom- 
mends the  selection   of   a   churner  of   a   cool 
phlegmatic  temper,  of  a  sedate  disposition  and 
character;  and  advises  never  to  allow  any  indi- 
viduals, especially  the  young,  to  touch  the  churn 
without  the  greatest  caution  and  circumspection. 
To  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  see  cream 
churned  without  being  properly  prepared,  churn- 
ing may,  perhaps,  appear  to  be  severe  labor  for 
one  person  in  a  large  dairy  :  but  nothing  is  more 
easy  than  the  process  of  making  butter,  where 
the  cream  has  been  duly  prepared.    During  sum- 
mer the  best  time  for  making  butter  is  early  in 
the  morning, before  the  sun  acquires  much  power : 
and,  if  a  pump  churn  be  used,  it  may  be  plunged 
a  foot  deep  into  a  tub  of  cold  water,  where  it 
should  remain  during  the  whole  time  of  churning ; 
which  will  very  much  harden  the  butter.   During 
winter,  from  the  equality  of  temperature,  which, 
if  it  be  properly  managed,  will  generally  prevail 
in  a  dairy,  it  will  very  rarely,  if  ever,  be  necessary 
to  churn  near  the  fire.     Should  any  circumstance, 
however,   require    this,   care   should    be    taken 
not  to  churn  so  near  the  fire  as  to  heat  the  wood; 
as  it  would  impart  a  strong  rancid  taste  to  the 
butter.' 

CHU'RRWORM,  n.s.  From  Sax.  cyripan. 
An  insect  that  turns  about  nimbly  ;  called  also  a 
fancricket. 

CHUSE.    See  To  CHOOSE. 
CHUWAL,  a  district  of  the  province  ot  Gu- 
zerat,  Hindostan,  situated  between  the  twenty- 


CHY 


698 


CIB 


third  and  twenty-fourth  degrees  of  north  latitude, 
and  about  the  seventy-second  degree  of  east  lon- 
gitude. It  is  bounded  by  the  Banass  River  on 
the  north-west,  and  is,  particularly  in  this  di- 
rection, a  swampy  and  flat  country,  held  by  se- 
veral independent  chiefs.  Janagur  is  the  only 
town  of  consequence. 

CHYLE,  n.  s.  ~\       From    Lat.    chylus, 

CHYLA'CEOUS,  ad),     I  and  facio,    to    make. 

CHYLIFA'CTION,  n.  s.  IXvXoc  and  irotiw.    The 

CHYLIFA'CTIVE,  adj.  f  white  juice  formed  in 

CHYLOPOE'TICK,  adj.  l  the  stomach  by  diges- 

CIIY'LOUS,  adj.          '  tion  of  the  aliment,  and 

afterwards  changed  -into  blood.     Belonging  to 

chyle ;  the  act  or  process  of  making  chyle  in  the 

body ;   having  the  power  or  office  of  making 

chyle;  consisting  of  chyle. 

Choler  is  hot  and  dry,  bitter,  begotten  of  the  hotter 
parts  of  the  chylus,  and  gathered  to  the  gall  :  it  helps 
the  natural  heat  and  senses.  Burton.  Anat.  Mel. 

When  the  spirits  of  the  chyle  have  half  fermented 
the  chylaceoas  mass,  it  has  the  state  of  drink  not 
ripened  by  fermentation.  Flayer  on  the  Humours. 

The  chyle  cannot  pass  through  the  smallest  vessels. 

Arbuthnot. 

According  to  the  force  of  the  chylopoetick  organs, 
more  or  less  chyle  may  be  extracted  from  the  same 
food.  Id. 

Milk  is  the  chylotts  part  of  an  animal,  already  pre- 
pared. Id. 

Drinking  excessively  during  the  time  of  chylifac- 
tion,  stops  perspiration.  Id.  on  Aliments. 

The  chyle  enters  the  blood  in  an  odd  place,  but 
perhaps  the  most  commodious  place  possible,  viz.  at 
a  large  vein  in  the  neck,  so  situated  with  respect  to 
the  circulation,  as  speedily  to  bring  the  mixture  to 
the  heart.  Paley's  Natural  Theology. 

CHYLE,  in  anatomy,  the  milk-like  liquor  con- 
tained in  the  lacteals,  from  which  the  bjood  is 
formed,  and  is^eparated  from  the  chyme  in  the 
process  of  digestion,  by  means  of  the  gastric  juice. 
By  its  acescent  qualities  it  restrains  the  putrid 
tendency  of  the  blood ;  hence  the  dreadful  state 
of  the  humors  in  this  respect  after  starving.  By 
its  very  copious  aqueous  latex,  it  prevents  the 
thickening  of  the  fluids,  and  thus  renders  them 
fit  for  the  various  secretions.  The  chyle  secreted 
in  the  breasts  of  puerperal  women  forms  the  nu- 
tritious milk.  The  chyle,  as  found  in  the  thoracic 
duct  has  no  smell,  but  a  slightly  acido-saccharine 
taste ;  yet  it  blues  reddened  litmus  paper,  by  its 
unsaturated  alkali.  Soon  after  it  is  drawn  from 
the  duct,  it  separates  by  coagulation  into  a 
thicker  and  thinner  matter.  1.  The  former,  or 
curd,  seems  intermediate  between  albumen  and 
fibrin.  Potash  and  soda  dissolve  it,  with  a  slight 
exhalation  of  ammonia.  Water  of  ammonia 
forms  with  it  a  reddish  solution.  Dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  dissolves  the  coagulum ;  and  very 
weak  nitric  acid  changes  it  into  adipocire.  By 
heat,  it  is  converted  into  a  charcoal  of  difficult 
incineration,  which  contains  common  salt  and 
phosphate  of  lime,  with  minute  traces  of  iron. 
2.  From  the  serous  portion,  heat,  alcohol,  and 
acids,  precipitate  a  copious  coagulum  of  albumen. 
If  the  alcohol  be  hot,  a  little  matter  analogous 
to  the  substance  of  brain,  is  subsequently  de- 
posited. By  evaporation  and  cooling,  Mr.  Brande 


obtained  crystals  analagous  to  the  sugar  of  milk 
Dr.  Marcet  found  the  chyle  of  graminivorous 
animals  thinner  and  darker,  and  less  charged  with 
albumen,  than  that  of  carnivorous.  In  the  former, 
the  weight  of  the  fluid  part  to  that  of  the  coagulum 
was  nearly  two  to  one. 

CHYLEMATIS,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
large  river  of  Africa,  in  Algiers,  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy,  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  the  Mina 
or  Cena. 

CHYME,  or  CHYMUS.  By  the  digestive  pro- 
cess in  the  stomach  of  animals,  the  food  is  con- 
verted into  a  milky  fluid,  called  chyme,  which, 
passing  into  the  intestines,  is  mixed  with  pan- 
creatic juice  and  bile,  and  thereafter  resolved  into 
chyle  and  feculent  matter. 

CHY'MIST,  n.  s.     -\     Derived  by  some  trom 

CHY'MISTRY,  n.  s.     i  %v/joc  juice,  or  KVU  to 

CHY'MICALLY,  adv.  >melt;    by   others   from 

CHY'MIC,  adj.  i  an  oriental  word,  kema 

CHY'MICAL,  adj.  J  black.  According  to  the 
supposed  etymology,  it  is  written  with  y  or  e. 
The  art  of  separating  the  different  substances  in 
mixed  bodies  by  fire,  or  otherwise ;  as  a  science, 
it  is  now  generally  spelt  CHEMISTRY,  which  see  : 
but,  thinking  this  mode  of  orthography  most 
consistent  with  the  etymology,  we  retain  it  here. 

Should  the  time  ever  arrive,  which  is  not  perhaps 
to  be  despaired  of,  when  we  can  compound  ingre- 
dients, so  as  to  form  a'  solvent  which  will  act  in  a 
manner  in  which  the  gastric  juice  acts,  we  may  be 
able  to  ascertain  the  chymical  principles  upon  which 
its  efficacy  depends,  as  well  as  from  what  part,  and 
by  what  concoction,  in  the  human  body,  these  prin- 
ciples are  generated  and  derived. 

Paley's  Natural  Theology. 

CHYTLA,  in  antiquity,  a  liquor  made  of  wine 
and  oil,  and  sometimes  used  in  divination. 

CHYTRI,  in  antiquity,  a  festival  in  honor  of 
Bacchus  and  Mercury,  kept  by  the  Athenians  on 
the  thirteenth  of  the  month  Anthestenon. 

CHYTRIUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a  place 
in  Ionia,  in  which  formerly  stood  Clazomene; 
the  Clazomenians,  through  fear  of  the  Persians, 
removing  from  the  continent  to  an  adjacent  island. 
Alexander  reduced  the  island,  by  a  mole  or  cause- 
way, to  a  peninsula. 

CIBAL.&,  or  CIBALIS,  in  ancient  geography, 
a  town  of  Pannonia  Inferior,  seated  on  an  emi- 
nence, near  the  lake  Hiulka,  north-west  of  Sir- 
mium.  The  emperor  Gratian  was  born  in  it, 
and  was  brought  up  to  rope-making  :  and  it  was 
also  rendered  famous  by  the  surprisal  and  defeat 
of  Licinius  by  Constantine. 

CIBA'RIOUS,  adj.  Lat.  cibarius,  from  cibut 
food.  Relating  to  food ;  useful  for  food ;  edible. 

GIBBER  (Colley),  a  celebrated  comedian, 
dramatic  writer,  and  poet-laureat,  born  in  London 
in  1671.  lie  derived  his  Christian  name  from 
his  mother's  family,  and  was  intended  for  the 
church,  but  betook  himself  to  the  stage,  for  which 
he  conceived  an  early  inclination ;  though  it  was 
some  time  before  he  acquired  any  degree  of 
notice,  or  even  a  competent  salary.  His  first 
essay  was  in  the  comedy  of  Love's  Last  Shift, 
acted  in  1695,  which  met  with  success;  as  did 
his  own  performance  of  the  character  of  the  fop 
in  it.  From  that  time,  as  he  says  himself,  '  My 
muse  and  my  spouse  were  so  equally  prolific, 


CIB 


699 


CIC 


that  the  one  was  seldom  the  mother  of  a  child, 
but  in  the  same  year  the  other  made  me  the  father 
of  a  play.  I  think  we  had  a  dozen  of  each  sort 
between  us ;  of  both  which  kinds  some  died  in 
their  infancy,  and  near  an  equal  number  of  each 
were  alive  when  we  quitted  the  theatre.'  The 
Careless  Husband,  acted  in  1704,  met  with  great 
applause,  and  is  reckoned  his  best  play ;  but 
none  was  of  more  importance  to  him  than  the 
Non-Juror,  acted  in  1717,  and  levelled  against 
the  Jacobites.  This  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
misunderstanding  between  him  and  Pope,  raised 
him  to  be  the  hero  of  the  Dunciad,  and  made 
him  poet  laureat  in  1730,  on  which  he  quitted  the 
stage.  Gibber  neither  succeeded  in  acting  nor  in 
writing  tragedy  ;  and  his  odes  were  not  thought 
to  partake  either  of  the  genius  or  spirit  he  showed 
in  his  comedies.  He  died  in  1757. 

GIBBER  (Theo.),  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1703,  and  educated  at  Winchester.  He  was 
taken  early  to  the  theatrical  profession,  and  fol- 
lowed in  his  father's  line  of  character.  Through- 
out his  life  he  was  chiefly  distinguished  by  ex- 
travagance and  profligacy,  and  was  drowned  in 
1757,  in  his  passage  to  Ireland.  He  altered  for 
the  stage  some  of  Shakspeare's  plays,  and  wrote 
Pattie  and  Peggy,  a  ballad  opera.  His  name 
also  appeared  to  Lives  of  the  Poets,  5  vols. 
12mo.  His  wife,  the  sister  of  Dr.  Arne,  became 
a  tragic  performer  of  the  first  eminence  at  Drury- 
lane.  She  translated  St.  Foix's  Oracle,  and  died 
in  1766. 

CIBDELOPLACIA,  in  natural  history;  a 
genus  of  spars  debased  by  a  very  large  admixture 
of  earth.  They  are  opaque,  formed  of  thin  crusts, 
covering  vegetables  and  other  bodies,  by  way  of 
incrustations. 

CtBDELOSTRACIA,  in  natural  history, 
terrene  spars,  destitute  of  all  brightness  and 
transparence,  formed  into  thin  plates,  and 
usually  found  coating  over  the  sides  of  fissures, 
and  other  cavities  of  stones,  with  congeries  of 
them  of  great  extent,  and  of  plain  or  botroyide 
surfaces. 

CI'BOL,  n.  s.  Fr.  ciboule.  A  small  sort  of 
onion  used  in  sallads.  This  word  is  common  in 
the  Scotch  dialect ;  but  the  /  is  not  pronounced. 

Ciboules,  or  scallions,  are  a  kind  of  degenerate 
onions.  Mortimer. 

CIBORIA,  CIBORIT;M,  Egypt,  i.  e.  a  cup,  in 
antiquity,  the  large  husk  of  Egyptian  beans, 
which  are  said  to  have  been  so  large  as  to  serve 
for  drinking  cups  ;  whence  the  name. 

CIBORIUM,  in  ecclesiastical  writers,  the  co- 
vering for  the  altar.  This  covering  is  supported 
by  four  high  columns,  and  forms  a  kind  of  tent 
for  the  eucharist,  in  the  Romish  churches.  Some 
authors  call  it  turris  gestoria  and  others  pyxis  ; 
but  the  pyxis  is  properly  the  box  in  which  the 
eucharist  is  preserved. 

CIBUS  FERIALIS,  in  antiquity,  an  entertain- 
ment peculiar  to  a  funeral ;  for  which  purpose 
beans,  parsley,  lettuce,  bread,  eggs,  lentils,  and 
salt  were  in  use. 

CICACOLE,  the  largestofthe  Northern  Circars, 
or  districts  of  Hindostan,  reaching  from  17°  to 
20°  north  latitude,  sub-divided  into  two  por- 
tions, one  bounded  by  the  river  Setteveram  on 
the  south,  and  the  Poondv  on  the  north,  extend- 


ing about  170  miles  along  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
including  an  area  of  4400  square  miles;  the 
other,  of  a  triangular  form,  extending  eighty  miles 
from  Moland  to  Poondy  near  the  frontier  of 
Cuttack,  and  fifty  miles  to  the  north-west,  con- 
taining about  1000  square  miles.  The  capital  is 
Cicacole,  an  ancient  town,  118  miles  from  Ganjam. 
There  is  a  mosque  of  great  sanctity  here,  built 
in  the  year  of  the  Hegira  105,  by  Mahommed 
Khan.  See  CIRCARS. 

CICADA,  the  grasshopper,  in  zoology,  a  ge- 
nus of  insects  belonging  to  the  order  of  hemip- 
tera.  The  beak  is  inflected ;  the  antenna;  are 
setaceous;  the  four  wings  are  membranaceous 
and  deflected ;  and  the  feet,  in  most  of  the  spe- 
cies, are  of  the  jumping  kind.  The  larvae  of  sev- 
eral of  this  genus  evacuate  great  quantities  of  a 
frothy  matter  upon  the  branches  and  leaves  of 
plants,  in  the  midst  of  which  they  constantly 
reside,  probably  for  shelter  against  the  search  of 
other  animals,  to  which  they  would  become  a 
prey.  Nature  has  afforded  this  kind  of  defence 
to  insects  whose  naked  and  soft  bodies  might 
otherwise  very  easily  be  injured ;  perhaps  also 
the  moisture  of  this  foam  may  serve  to  screen 
them  from  the  sultry  beams  of  the  sun.  On  re- 
moving the  foam  the  larva  appears,  but  it  soon 
emits  fresh  foam,  that  hides  it  again  from  the 
eye.  In  the  midst  of  this  foamy  substance  the 
larva  goes  through  its  metamorphosis  into  a  chry- 
salis and  perfect  insect.  Other  larvae,  whose  bo- 
dies are  not  so  soft,  run  over  plants  without  any 
manner  of  defence,  and  escape  from  insects  that 
might  hurt  them,  by  nimbly  running  or  leaping. 
The  chrysalids,  and  all  the  larvae  that  produce 
them,  differ  little  from  each  other,  only  that  the 
former  have  the  rudiments  of  wings,  a  kind  of 
knob  at  the  place  were  the  wings  will  afterwards 
be  in  the  perfect  insect.  The  chrysalids  walk, 
leap,  and  run  over  plants  and  trees  ;  as  do  the 
larvae  which  they  produce.  At  length  they  throw 
off  their  teguments  of  chrysalids,  slip  their  last 
slough,  and  then  the  insect  appears  in  its  utmost 
perfection.  The  male  alone  is  then  endowed 
with  the  faculty  of  singing,  which  it  exercises 
not  with  its  throat,  but  with  an  organ  situated 
under  the  abdomen.  Behind  the  legs  of  the  male 
are  observed  two  valvulas,  which,  raised  up,  dis- 
cover several  cavities  separated  by  various  mem- 
branes. The  middle  contains  a  scaly  triangle 
Two  vigorous  muscles  give  motion  to  another 
membrane,  which  alternately  becomes  concave 
and  convex.  The  air,  agitated  by  this  membrane, 
is  modified  within  the  other  cavities;  and,  by 
the  help  of  this  sonorous  instrument,  he  amo- 
rously solicits  his  female.  This  insect  begins 
its  song  early  in  the  morning,  and  continues  it 
during  the  heat  of  the  noon-tide  sun.  Its  lively 
and  animated  music  is,  to  the  country  people, 
a  presage  of  a  fine  summer,  a  plentiful  harvest, 
and  a  sure  return  of  spring.  The  cicadae  have  a 
head  almost  triangular,  an  oblong  body,  their 
wings  fastigiated  or  in  form  of  a  roof,  and  six 
legs  with  which  they  walk  and  leap  pretty  brisk- 
ly. In  the  females,  at  the  extremity  of  the  ab- 
domen are  two  large  lamins,  between  which  is 
enclosed,  as  in  a  sheath,  a  spine  somewhat  ser- 
rated, which  serves  them  to  deposit  their  eggs, 
and  probably  to  sink  them  into  the  substance  of 


700 


CICERO 


tnose  plants,  which  the  young  larvae  are  to  feed 
upon. 

CICASICA,  a  town  and  district  of  Peru, 
bounded  north  and  north-east  by  the  mountains 
of  the  Andes,  and  by  the  province  of  Larecaxa, 
east  by  the  province  of  Cochabamba,  south-east 
by  that  of  Paria  and  Oruro,  south-west  by  that 
of  Pacages,  and  north-west  by  that  of  Omasuyos. 
It  is  eighty  leagues  in  length  from  east  to  west, 
and  contains  50,000  inhabitants.  Vast  quantities 
of  cattle  are  reared  in  the  mountainous  districts. 
Near  the  Andes  the  climate  is  very  warm  and 
humid,  but  fertile  in  fruits,  sugar-cane,  and 
cacao.  The  vine  is  also  cultivated  with  success 
in  these  regions,  and  Jesuits'  bark.  Gold  and 
silver  mines  were  formerly  worked,  but  they  are 
at  present  closed. 

CI'CATRICE,  n.  s.  -\      Lat.   cicatrix.     The 
CICATRI'SANT,  n.  s.    i  scar  remaining  after  a 
CICATRI'SIVE,  adj.      V wound;  an  application 
CICATRIZA'TION,  n.  s.  i  that    induces    a   cica- 
CI'CATKIZE,  v,  a.         /  trice.  Having  the  qua- 
lities proper  to  induce  a  cicatrice.     The  art  of 
healing  the  wound.     The  state  of  being  healed, 
or  skinned  over.     To  apply  such  medicines  to 
wounds  or  ulcers,  as  heal  and  skin  them  over ; 
to  heal  and  induce  the  skin  over  a  sore. 

A  vein  bursted,  or  corroded,  in  the  lungs,  is  looked 
upon  to  be  for  the  most  part  incurable,  because  of  the 
motion  and  coughing  of  the  lungs  tearing  the  gap 
•wider,  and  hindering  the  conglutination  and  cicatrisa- 
tion of  the  vein.  Harrey. 
We  incarned,  and  in  a  few  days  cicatrized  it  with 
a  smooth  cicatrix.  Wiseman  on  Tumours. 
The  first  stage  of  healing,  or  the  discharge  of  mat- 
ter, is  called  digestion  ;  the  second,  or  the  filling  up 
with  flesh,  incarnation ;  and  the  last,  or  skinning 
over,  cicatrization.  Sharp's  Surgery. 

CICATRICULA,  in  natural  history,  a  small 
whitish  speck  in  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  which  is  the 
first  rudiments  of  the  future  chick.  Whatever 
way  the  egg  is  turned,  that  part  of  the  yolk, 
which  contains  the  cicatricula,  is  always  upper- 
most, as  is  seen  upon  breaking  an  egg. 

CICATRIX,  in  surgery,  a  little  seam  or  eleva- 
tion of  callous  flesh  on  the  skin,  after  the  heal- 
ing of  a  wound  or  ulcer. 

CICCA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  tetrandria 
order,  and  moncecia  class  of  plants.  MalecAL. 
tetraphyllous ;  COR. none;  female CAL.triphyllous; 
COR.  none ;  styles  four ;  CAP.  quadricoccous ;  SEED 
solitary.  Species,  one  only,  a  Chinese  tree, 
usually  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  in  height. 

CI'CELY,  n.  s.  myrrhus.     A  sort  ot  herb. 

CICER,  the  chick  pea,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
thedecandriaorder,and  diadelphia  class  of  plants; 
natural  order  thirty-second,  papilionaceae :  CAL. 
quinquepartite,  as  long  as  the  corolla,  with  its 
four  uppermost  segments  incumbent  on  the  vex- 
illurn  :  the  legumen  is  rhomboidal,  turbid,  and 
dispermous.  There  are  buttwo  species,  which  pro- 
duce peas  shaped  like  the  common  ones,  but  much 
smaller.  They  are  much  cultivated  in  Spain, 
where  they  are  natives,  being  one  of  the  ingre- 
dients in  their  olios ;  as  also  in  France  ;  but  are 
rarely  known  in  Britain. 

CICERO  (Marcus  Tullius),  the  celebrated 
Roman  orator,  was  born  A.  U.  C.  647,  and  A.  A. 
C.  107.  His  father  Marcus  Tullius,  who  was 


of  the  equestrian  order,  took  great  care  of  his 
education,  which  was  directed  to  the  bar.  Young 
Tully,  at  his  first  appearance  in  public,  declaimed 
with  such  vehemence  against  Sylla's  party,  that 
it  became  necessary  for  him  to  retire  into  Greece ; 
where  he  heard  the  Athenian  orators  and  philo- 
sophers, and  greatly  improved  both  in  eloquence 
and  knowledge.  Here  he  met  with  Titus  Pom- 
ponius,  who  had  been  his  school-fellow :  and  who, 
from  his  love  to  Athens,  obtained  the  surname 
of  Atticus ;  and  here  they  revived  and  confirmed 
that  friendship  which  subsisted  between  them 
through  life.  From  Athens  he  passed  into  Asia; 
and  after  an  excursion  of  two  years  returned  to 
Rome  ;  where  next  year  he  was  made  quaestor. 
The  quaestors  were  sent  annually  into  the  pro- 
vinces distributed  to  them  by  lot.  Lilybaeum,  in 
Sicily,  happening  to  fall  to  Cicero's  share,  he 
acquitted  himself  so  well,  that  he  gained  the  love 
and  admiration  of  all  the  Sicilians.  In  a  tour 
he  made  of  the  island  before  he  left  Sicily,  he 
discovered  at  Syracuse  the  tomb  of- Archimedes. 
His  marriage  with  Terentia  is  supposed  to  have 
been  celebrated  immediately  after  his  return, 
when  he  was  about  thirty  years  of  age.  By  his 
questorship  he  gained  ati  admission  into  the 
senate  for  life ;  and  he  employed  himself  con- 
stantly in  defending  the  persons  and  properties 
of  his  fellow  citizens.  In  his  thirty-seventh 
year  he  was  elected  jEdile,  by  the  unanimous 
suffrages  of  all  the  tribes.  After  his  election, 
but  before  his  entrance  upon  the  office,  he  -un- 
dertook the  famed  prosecution  of  C.  Verres,  the 
late  praetor  of  Sicily,  who  was  charged  with  many 
flagrant  acts  of  injustice,  rapine,  and  cruelty, 
during  his  triennial  government  of  that  island. 
This  was  one  of  the  most  memorable  transactions 
of  his  life,  for  which  he  was  justly  celebrated  by 
antiquity,  and  will,  in  all  ages,  be  esteemed  by 
the  friends  of  mankind.  The  result  was,  that  he 
so  confounded  Hortensius,  then  the  reigning 
orator  at  the  bar,  and  usually  styled  the  king  of 
the  forum,  that  he  had  nothing  to  say  for  his 
client.  Verres,  despairing  of  all  defence,  went 
into  voluntary  exile ;  he  is  said  to  have  been  re- 
lieved in  this  miserable  situation  by  the  genero- 
sity of  Cicero;  yet  was  after  all  proscribed  and 
murdered  by  Marc  Antony,  for  the  sake  of  those 
fine  statues  and  Corinthian  vessels,  of  which  he 
had  plundered  the  Sicilians.  After  the  usual  in- 
terval Cicero  offered  himself  a  candidate  for  the 
praetorship  ;  and,  in  three  different  assemblies 
convened  for  the  choice,  he  was  unanimously 
elected  the  first  praetor.  He  was  now  in  the  ca- 
reer of  his  fortunes,  and  in  sight,  as  it  were,  of 
the  consulship;  and  therefore,  when  his  praetor- 
ship  was  at  an  end,  he  would  not  accept  of  any 
foreign  province.  His  ambition  was  to  shine  in 
the  city,  as  the  guardian  of  its  laws ;  and  to  teach 
the  magistrates  how  to  execute,  the  citizens  how 
to  obey  them.  Being  in  his  forty-third  year,  he 
declared  himself  a  candidate  for  the  consulship 
along  with  six  competitors,  of  whom  four  were 
patricians,  or  nobles;  the  last  two  the  sons  o. 
fathers  who  had  first  imparted  public  honors  to 
their  families.  Cicero  was  the  only  new  mau 
among  them.  In  this  competition  the  practice 
of  bribing  was  shamefully  carried  on  by  Anton'us 
and  Catiline.  However,  as  the  election  ap- 


CICERO. 


701 


proached,  Cicero's  interest  appeared  superior  to 
that  of  all  the  other  candidates  :  for  the  nobles 
themselves,  though  desirous  to  depress  him,  yet 
from  the  dangers  which  threatened  the  city,  be- 
gan to  think  him  the  only  man  qualified  to  pre- 
serve the  republic.  The  people,  not  content  with 
silently  voting  for  him,  loudly  and  universally 
proclaimed  Cicero  the  first  consul ;  so  that,  as 
he  himself  says,  '  he  was  not  chosen  by  the  votes 
of  particular  citizens,  but  by  the  common  suf- 
frage of  the  city ;  nor  declared  by  the  voice  of 
the  crier,  buf  of  the  whole  Roman  people.'  He 
had  no  sooner  entered  upon  his  office  than  he  had 
occasion  to  exert  himself  against  P.  Servilius 
Rullus,  one  of  the  new  tribunes,  who  had  been 
alarming  the  senate  with  the  promulgation  of  an 
Agrarian  law ;  the  purpose  of  which  was  to  create 
a  decen^virate,  or  ten  commissioners,  with  abso- 
lute power  for  five  years  over  all  the  revenues  of 
the  republic,  to  distribute  them  at  pleasure  to  the 
citizens,  &c.  These  laws  used  to  be  greedily  re- 
ceived by  the  populace,  but  Cicero,  in  an  artful 
and  elegant  speech  from  the  rostra,  gave  such  a 
turn  to  the  inclination  of  the  people,  that  they 
rejected  this  law  with  as  much  eagerness  as  they 
had  ever  received  one.  But  the  grand  affair 
which  constituted  the  glory  of  his  consulship, 
and  has  transmitted  his  name  with  lustre  to  pos- 
terity, was  the  unwearied  pains  he  took  in  sup- 
pressing that  horrid  conspiracy  which  was  formed 
by  Catiline  for  the  subversion  of  the  common- 
wealth. For  this  great  service  he  was  honored 
with  the  glorious  title-of  pater  patriae,  the  father 
of  his  country.  Cicero  had  no  sooner  quitted 
his  office,  than  he  began  to  feel  the  weight  of  that 
envy  which  is  the  certain  fruit  of  illustrious 
merit.  He  was  now,  therefore,  the  common 
mark,  not  only  of  all  the  factions  against  whom 
he  had  declared  perpetual  war,  but  of  an  envious, 
and  not  less  dangerous  party,  who  determined  to 
drive  him  out  of  the  city.  Cicero  sent  a  parti- 
cular account  of  his  whole  administration  to 
Pompey,  who  was  finishing  the  Mithridatic  war 
in  Asia,  in  hopes  to  prevent  any  wrong  impres- 
sions there  from  the  calumnies  of  his  enemies, 
and  to  draw  from  him  some  public  declaration 
in  his  favor.  But  Pompey,  being  informed  by 
Metellus  and  Caesar  of  the  opposition  that  was 
rising  against  Cicero  in  Rome,  answered  him 
with  great  coldness.  About  this  time  Cicero 
bought  a  house  of  M.  Crassus  on  the  Palatine 
hill,  adjoining  to  that  in  which  he  had  always 
lived  with  his  father,  and  which  he  is  now  sup- 
posed to  have  given  up  to  his  brother  Quintus. 
The  house  cost  him  nearly  £30,000,  and  seems  to 
have  been  one  of  the  noblest  in  Rome.  It  ex- 
cited many  reflections  on  his  vanity,  especially 
as  it  was  purchased  with  borrowed  money.  The 
most  remarkable  event  that  happened  in  this,  the 
forty-fifth  year  of  Cicero's  life,  was  the  pollution 
of  the  mysteries  of  the  Bona  Dea  by  P.  Clodius ; 
which,  by  its  consequences,  involved  Cicero  in  no 
small  calamity.  Clodius  had  an  intrigue  with  Cae- 
sar's wife  Pompeia,  who  was  celebrating  in  her 
house  those  sacrifices  of  the  goddess  to  which  no 
male  person  was  ever  admitted.  Clodius,  wishing 
to  gain  access  to  her  in  the  midst  of  her  ministry  ; 
dressed  himself  in  a  woman's  habit ;  but,  by  some 
mistake  between  him  and  his  guide,  wheii  he 


came  inside  the  house,  he  lost  his  way,  and  was 
detected  among  the  female  servants.  The  de- 
fence which  Clodius  made,  when,  by  order  of  the 
senate,  he  was  brought  to  trial,  was  to  prove 
himself  absent  at  the  time  of  the  fact ;  for  which 
purpose  he  produced  two  men  to  swear  that  he 
was  then  at  Interamna,  about  two  or  three  days' 
journey  from  the  city.  But  Cicero  being  called 
upon  to  give  his  testimony,  deposed  that  Clodius 
had  been  with  him  that  very  morning  at  his  house 
in  Rome  :  a  species  of  honesty  to  the  public 
which  Clodius  never  forgave.  The  first  trium- 
virate was  now  formed ;  Pompey's  chief  effort 
was  to  obtain  a  confirmation  of  his  acts  by  Caesai 
in  his  consulship,  which  was  now  coming  on  ; 
Caesar,  by  giving  way  to  Pompey's  glory,  to  ad- 
vance his  own ;  and  Crassus,  to  gain  that  ascen- 
dancy by  the  authority  of  Pompey  and  Caesar, 
which  he  could  not  sustain  alone.  Cicero  migh: 
have  made  what  terms  he  pleased  with  the  trium- 
virate, but  he  would  not  enter  into  any  engage- 
ments with  men  whose  union  the  friends  of  the 
republic  abhorred.  Clodius  in  the  mean  time- 
being  chosen  tribune,  began  to  threaten  Cicerc* 
with  the  terrors  of  his  office,  and  both  Caesar  and 
Pompey  secretly  favored  the  scheme.  Caesar 
wanted  to  distress  him  so  far  as  to  force  him  to> 
a  dependence  on  himself;  for  which  end,  while 
he  was  privately  encouraging  Clodius  to  pursue 
his  plans,  he  proposed  expedients  to  Cicero  for 
his  security;  while  Pompey  gave  him  the 
strongest  assurances  that  there  was  no  danger,, 
and  that  he  would  sooner  be  sacrificed  hinself 
than  suffer  him  to  be  injured.  Clodius,  in  the 
mean  time,  was  pressing  on  the  people  several 
new  laws,  that  he  might  introduce  with  better 
grace  the  banishment  of  Cicero;  and  having 
caused  a  decree  to  be  enacted,  that  any  one  who  had 
condemned  a  Roman  citizen  unheard  should  him- 
self be  banished,  he  soon  after  impeached  Cicero 
upon  that  ground  ;  and  this  great  orator  was  now 
in  consequence  banished  by  the  votes  of  the  people 
400  miles  from  Italy ;  his  houses  ordered  to  be 
demolished,  and  his  goods  setup  to  sale.  Within 
three  months,  however,  his  return  was  moved 
for,  and  carried  in  so  triumphant  a  manner,  that 
he  had  reason,  he  says,  to  fear,  lest  it  should  be 
imagined  that  he  had  contrived  his  late  flight  for 
the  sake  of  so  glorious  a  restoration.  He  was  at 
this  time  in  his  fiftieth  year.  But  he  had,  about 
this  time,  domestic  grievances,  which  touched 
him  very  nearly  ;  they  arose  chiefly  from  the  pe- 
tulant humor  of  his  wife,  which  began  to  give 
him  frequent  occasions  of  chagrin;  and,  by  a 
series  of  repeated  provocations,  confirmed  in  him 
that  settled  disgust,  which  at  last  ended  in  a  di- 
vorce. In  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  he  was 
made  proconsul  of  Cilicia ;  where  his  adminis- 
tration gained  him  great  honor.  About  this  time 
the  expectation  of  a  breach  between  Caesar  and 
Pompey  engaged  the  general  attention.  Cicero 
clearly  foresaw,  that,  which  side  soever  got  the 
better,  the  war  must  necessarily  end  in  tyranny. 
The  only  difference,  he  said,  was,  that  if  their 
enemies  conquered,  they  should  be  proscribed ; 
if  their  friends  they  would  be  slaves.  He  no 
sooner  arrived  at  the  city,  than  he  found  the  war 
in  effect  proclaimed  :  for  the  senate  had  just 
voted  a  decree,  that  Caesar  should  disband  las 


702 


CICERO. 


army  by  a  certain  day,  or  be  declared  an  enemy; 
and  Caesar's  sudden  march  towards  Rome  con- 
firmed it.  In  the  midst  of  this  confusion,  Caesar 
•was  extremely  solicitous  to  conciliate  Cicero,  or 
at  least  to  prevail  with  him  to  stand  neuter ;  but 
our  orator  embarked  to  follow  Pompey,  who  had 
been  obliged  to  quit  Italy  some  time  before,  and 
was  then  at  Dyrrhachium.  After  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia  Cicero  returned  into  Italy,  and  was 
received  into  great  favor  by  Caesar,  who  was  now 
declared  dictator  the  second  time.  It  appears 
from  his  letters,  that  Cicero  was  not  a  little  dis- 
•composed  at  the  thoughts  of  an  interview  with  a 
•conqueror,  against  whom  he  had  been  in  arms  ; 
for  though  he  might  expect  a  kind  reception,  yet 
he  hardly  thought  his  life,  he  says,  worth  begging ; 
since  what  was  given  by  a  master  might  always 
l>e  taken  away  at  pleasure.  Cicero  was  now  in 
liis  sixty-first  year,  and  the  want  of  ease  and 
>quiet  at  home  was  no  longer  tolerable.  In  ad- 
dition to  his  divorce  h':  was  visited  soon  after  by 
a  new  calamity  in  the  death  of  his  beloved 
daughter  Tullia,  who  died  in  child-bed  soon  after 
her  divorce  from  her  third  husband.  His  affliction 
for  her  death  was  so  great,  that  he  removed  to  Atti- 
<cus's  house,  to  shun  company,  and  lived  for  some 
time  chiefly  in  his  library.  Finding,  however, 
his  residence  here  too  public,  he  retired  to  Asturia, 
•near  Antium  ;  a  little  island  on  the  Latin  shore, 
covered  with  woods  and  groves.  In  this  retreat 
he  drew  up  the  gravest  of  those  philosophical 
pieces  which  are  still  extant  in  his  works. 

Upon  the  death  of  Caesar,  Octavius  his  heir 
came  to  Cicero,  with  the  strongest  professions  of 
being  governed  entirely  by  his  direction.  The 
orator  was  still  prosecuting  his  studies  with  his 
usual  application;  and,  besides  some  philosophi- 
cal pieces,  now  finished  his  book  De  Officiis, 
on  the  duties  of  man,  for  the  use  of  his  son  ;  a 
work  admired  by  all  succeeding  ages  as  the  most 
perfect  system  of  heathen  morality.  Cicero  un- 
willingly renewed  his  attention  to  public  affairs; 
and  all  the  vigor  of  the  last  measures  of  the  re- 
public was  entirely  owing  to  his  counsels.  This 
appears  from  the  memorable  philippics  which 
from  time  to  time  he  published  against  Antony. 
But  all  was  in  vain;  for,  though  Antony's  army 
•was  entirely  defeated  at  the  siege  of  Modena,  yet 
thedeath  of  the  consuls  Pansa  and  Hirtius  in  that 
action,  gave  the  fatal  blow  to  Cicero's  plans,  and 
was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  rum  of  the  com- 
monwealth. Octavius,  having  brought  over  the 
senate,  marched  towards  Gaul  to  meet  Antony 
and  Lepidus,  who  had  already  passed  the  Alps, 
in  order  to  have  a  personal  interview  with  him. 
They  met  in  a  small  island  formed  by  the  Rhine, 
about  two  miles  from  Bononia,  and  spent  three 
days  in  adjusting  their  plans,  and  the  proscrip- 
tion of  their  enemies.  Cicero  was  at  his  Tusculan 
villa,  when  he  first  received  the  news  of  himself 
being  included  in  the  proscription,  upon  which 
he  set  forward  to  the  sea  side  and  embarked  ; 
but,  the  wind  being  adverse,  he  was  obliged  to 
land  after  he  had  sailed  about  two  leagues,  and 
spent  a  night  on  shore.  Importuned  by  his  ser- 
vants, he  went  on  board  a  second  time,  but  was 
aga.m  obliged  to  land,  and  went  imprudently  to 
a  country  seat  of  his,  a  mile  from  the  coast.  They 
ftacl  s»»r«ely  departed  from  this  place  in  the 


morning,  when  the  assassins,  sent  by  Antony, 
arrived ;  and,  perceiving  him  to  be  fled,  pursued 
and  overtook  him  in  a  wood  near  the  shore. 
Their  leader  was  one  Popilius  Lenas,  a  villain, 
whose  life  Cicero  had  formerly  defended  and 
saved.  As  soon  as  the  soldiers  appeared,  the 
servants  prepared  to  defend  their  master's  life  at 
the  hazard  of  their  own ;  but  Cicero  commanded 
them  to  set  him  down  from  his  litter  and  make 
no  resistance.  His  head  and  hands  were  now 
barbarously  cut  off  and  carried  to  their  cruel  em- 
ployer, Antony,  who  is  said  to  have  received 
them  with  joy,  to  have  rewarded  the  murderer 
with  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  ordered  the  head 
to  be  fixed  upon  the  rostra  between  the  two  hands. 
Cicero's  death  happened  on  Dec.  the  7th,  in  the 
sixty-fourth  year  of  his  age,  about  ten  days  from 
the  settlement  of  the  first  triumvirate  ;  and  with 
him  expired  the  short  empire  of  eloquence  among 
the  Romans.  He  is  thus  characterised  by  Dr.  Blair; 
'  In  all  his  orations  his  art  is  conspicuous.  He 
begins  commonly  with  a  regular  exordium  ;  and 
with  much  address  prepossesses  the  hearers,  and 
studies  to  gain  their  affections.  His  method  is 
clear,  and  his  arguments  are  arranged  with  exact 
propriety.  In  a  superior  clearness  of  method,  he 
has  an  advantage  over  Demosthenes.  Everything 
appears  in  its  proper  place.  He  never  tries  to 
move  till  he  has  attempted  to  convince  ;  and  in 
moving,  particularly  the  softer  passions,  he  is 
highly  successful.  No  one  ever  knew  the  force 
of  words  belter  than  Cicero.  He  rolls  them  along 
with  the  greatest  beauty  and  magnificence  ;  and 
in  the  structure  of  his  sentences  is  eminently  cu- 
rious and  exact.  He  is  always  full  and  flowing, 
never  abrupt.  He  amplifies  every  thing ;  yet, 
though  his  manner  is  generally  diffuse,  it  is  often 
happily  varied  and  accommodated  to  the  subject. 
When  an  important  public  object  roused  his 
mind,  and  demanded  indignation  and  force,  he 
departs  considerably  from  that  loose  and  decla- 
matory manner  to  which  he  at  other  times  is  ad- 
dicted, and  becomes  very  forcible  and  vehement. 
This  great  orator,  however,  is  not  without  his 
defects.  In  most  of  his  orations  there  is  too 
much  art,  even  carried  to  a  degree  of  ostentation. 
He  seems  often  desirous  of  obtaining  admiration 
rather  than  of  operating  conviction.  He  is  some- 
times, therefore,  showy  rather  than  solid,  and 
diffuse  where  he  ought  to  have  been  urgent.  His 
sentences  are  always  round  and  sonorous.  They 
cannot  be  accused  of  monotony,  since  they  pos- 
sess variety  of  cadence ;  but  from  too  great  a 
fondness  for  magnificence,  he  is  on  some  occa- 
sions deficient  in  strength.  Though  the  services 
which  he  had  performed  to  his  country  were  very 
considerable,  yet  he  is  too  much  his  own  panegy- 
rist. Ancient  manners,  which  imposed  fewer 
restraints  on  the  side  of  decorum,  may  in  some 
degree  excuse,  but  cannot  entirely  justify,  his  vani- 
ty.' The  most  celebrated  editions  of  Cicero's  works 
are  that  of  Minutianus,  1498,  Milan,  4  vols.  fol. ; 
P.Manutius,  1541,  Venice,  lOvols.Svo. ;  R.Ste- 
phens, Paris,  8  vols.  8vo.  1543  ;  Elzevir,  Leyden, 
1642, 10  vols.  8vo. ;  Gronovius,  11  vols.  12mo.; 
and  4  vols.  4to ;  Verburgius,  Amsterdam,  1724, 
2  vols.  folio ;  Ernest,  Leipsic,  8  vols.  8vo.,  1774; 
Olivet,  Paris,  1740,  9  vols.  4to ;  and  Oxford, 
10  vols.  4to;  Foulis,  Glasgow,  1749.  20  vols. 


CIC 


703 


CIC 


12mo  •  Lallemande,  Paris,  1768, 12  vols.  12mo.  tween  these  arise  the  stalks,  which  have  very  few 
CICHORIUM,  Succory,  a  genus  of  the  po-  leaves,  and  those  are  small  and  entire ;  the  stalks 
Ivgamia  sequalis  order,  and  syngenesia  class  of  are  divided  in  forks  upward,  and  from  between 
plants  ;  natural  order,  forty-ninth  composite.  Re-  them  come  out  the  flowers,  which  are  of  a  pale 
ceptacle  a  little  paleaceous:  C^L.  calculated ;  blue  color  and  are  succeeded  by  seeds  shaped 
pappus  almost  quinquedentated,  and  indistinctly  like  those  of  the  common  sorts.  The  ends  of  the 
hairy  There  are  five  species,  the  most  noted  smaller  branches  are  terminated  by  star-like 
-•  •  •  !-L  spines  which  are  very  sharp. 

CICHORA'CEOUS,  adj.  from  Lat.  cichorium. 
Having  the  qualities  of  succory. 

Diureticks  evacuate  the  salt  serum  ;  as  all  acid 
diureticks,  and  the  testaceous  and  bitter  cichora<ieoui 
plants.  Floyer. 


There  are  five  species,  the  most  noted 
are,  1.  C.  endivia,  or  annual  succory,  with 
broad  crenated  leaves.  This  species  may  be 
considered  both  as  an  annual  and  biennial  plant. 
If  sown  early  in  the  spring,  or  even  any  time  be- 
fore the  beginning  of  June,  the  plants  very  com- 
monly fly  up  to  seed  the  same  summer,  and 
perish  in  autumn.  If  sown  in  June  and  July, 
they  acquire  perfection  in  autumn,  continue  till 


CICH'-PEASE,  n.  s.  cicer.     A  plant. 

CICINDELA,  the  sparkler,  in  zoology,  a 

the  next  spring,  then  shoot  up  stalks  for  flowers  genus  of  insects  belonging  to  the  order  of  cole- 

and  seed,  and  soon  after  perish.  The  inner  leaves  Optera.  The  antennae  are  setaceous;  the  jaws 

are  the  useful  parts.  These  when  blanched  are  prominent,  and  furnished  with  teeth  :  the  eyes 

white  to  render  them  crisp  and  tender,  and  re-  are  a  little  prominent ;  and  the  breast  is  roundish 

duce  them  from  their  natural  strong  taste  to  an  an(j  marginated.  There  are  sixty  species.  They 

agreeably  bitter  one,  are  then  fit  for  use.  They  are  in  general  very  beautiful,  and  merit  the  atten- 

are  valued  chiefly  as  ingredients  in  autumn  and  tion  of  the  curious  in  their  microscopic  obser- 

winter  sal  lads,  and  for  some  culinary  uses.  In  vations  ;  some  are  minute,  though  not  inferior  in 

November  or  December,  when  hard  weather  is  ap-  splendor,  therefore  best  suited  for  the  amuse- 

proaching,  let  a  piece  of  light  ground,  that  lies  njent.  The  larvae  of  all  this  genus  live  under 

warm,  be  trenched  up  in  one  or  more  sharp  ridges  ground  ;  and  are,  as  well  as  the  perfect  insects, 

two  or  three  feet  wide  at  bottom,  and  nearly  as  fierce  in  their  nature,  attacking  and  destroying 

much  in  height,  sideways  to  the  sun,  making  the  an  they  can  overcome.  C.  campestris,  the  field 

sides  as  steep  as  possible,  that  the  wet  may  rim  sparkler,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the 

quickly  off;  then,in  a  dry  day  ,take  up  a  quantity  of  genus.  The  upper  part  of  its  body  is  of  a  fine 

the  full-grown  plants,  with  the  roots  entire,  and  di-  green  colour,  rough,  and  rather  bluish.  The 

vesting  them  of  damaged  leaves,  gather  each  plant  under  side,  the  legs  and  antennae,  are  of  a  sho 


close  in  your  hand,  placing  them  horizontally  in 
the  sunny  side  of  the  ridge  of  earth  almost  to  their 


color,   gold  and  red,  of  a  copperish  cast.     The 
eyes  are  very  prominent,  and  give  the  head  a 


tops,  and  about  six  or  eight  inches  each  way  distant,  broad  appearance.  The  thorax  is  angular,  and 
In  severe  frost  it  will  be  proper  to  bestow  some  narrower  than  the  head :  which  constitutes  the 
covering  on  the  plants.  The  qualities  of  the  en-  character  of  the  cicindelae.^  It  is  rough,  and  of  a 
dive  are  nearly  of  the  same  kind  with  those  of  green  color  tinged  with  gold,  as  well  as  the  head, 
the  wild  succory.  The  seeds  are  ranked  among  The  elytra  are  delicately  and  irregularly  dotted, 
the  four  lesser  cold  ones.  2.  C.  intybus,  wild  Each  of  them  has  six  white  spots,  viz.  one  on  the 
succory,  grows  naturally  by  the  sides  of  roads,  top  of  the  elytrum,  at  its  outward  angle  ;  three 
and  in  shady  lanes,  in  many  places  of  Britain,  more  along  the  outward  edge,  of  which  the  mid- 
It  sends  out  long  leaves  from  the  roots,  from  be- 
tween which  the  stalks  arise,  growing  to  the 
height  of  three  or  four  feet,  and  branching  out 
into  smaller  dnes.  The  flowers  come  out  from 
the  sides  of  the  stalks,  and  are  of  a  fine  blue  co- 
lor. They  are  succeeded  by  oblong  seeds  covered, 
enclosed  in  a  down.  The  roots  and  leaves  are 
articles  of  the  Materia  Medica.  The  former  have 

a  moderately  bitter  taste  ;  with   some  degree  of    niinent  and  sharp.     This  insect  runs  with  great 
roughness  ;  the  leaves  are  somewhat  less  bitter;     swiftness,  and  flies  easily.     It  is  found  in  dry 
and  the  darker  colored  and  more  deeply  jagged 
they  are,  the  bitterer  is  their  taste.      Wild  suc- 


dlemost  forms  a  kind  of  lunula ;  a  fifth  on  the 
middle  of  the  elytra,  opposite  the  lunula ;  and 
that  one  is  broader,  and  tolerably  round ;  and  a 
sixth  at  the  extremity  of  the  elytra.  There  is 
also  sometimes  seen  a  black  spot  on  the  middle 
of  each  elytrum,  opposite  to  the  second  white 
spot.  The  upper  lip  is  also  white,  as  is  the 
upper  side  of  the  jaws,  which  are  very  pro- 


cory  is  an  useful  detergent,  aperient,  and  atte- 
nuating medicine,  acting  without  much  irritation, 
tending  rather  to  cool  than  to  heat  the  body ;  and, 
at  the  same  time,  corroborating  the  tone  of  the 
intestines.  All  the  parts  of  the  plant,  when 


sandy  places,  especially  in  the  beginning  of 
spring.  In  the  same  place  its  larva  is  met  with, 
which  resembles  a  long,  soft,  whitish  worm, 
armed  with  six  legs,  and  a  brown  scaly  head. 
It  makes  a  perpendicular  round  hole  in  the 
ground,  and  keeps  its  head  at  the  entrance  of 
the  hole  to  catch  the  insects  that  fall  into  it ;  a 


wounded,  yield  a  milky  saponaceous  juice.    This    spot  of  ground  is  sometimes  entirely  perforated 


when  taken  in  large  quantities,  so  as  to  keep  up 
a  gentle  diarrhaea,  and  continued  for  some  weeks, 


in  this  manner. 

CICISBEO,  an  Italian  term,  which  signifies 


been   found  to  produce  excellent  effects  in     a  whisperer;  and  has  been  bestowed  in  Italy  on 


scorbutic  and  other  chronical  disorders.  3.  C. 
spinosum,  with  a  prickly  forked  stalk,  grows  na- 
turally on  the  sea-coasts  in  Sicily,  and  the  islands 
of  the  Archipelago.  It  sends  out  from  the  root 
many  long  leaves  which  are  indented  on  their 


lovers  in  general,  but  chiefly  on  those  who  at- 
tend on  married  ladies.  This  custom,  originally 
Italian,  is  by  no  means  confined  to  Italy,  having 
gained  ground  not  only  in  the  effeminate  conn- 
tries  of  Europe,  but  among  the  hardy  Austrian*, 


edges,  and  spread  flat  on  the  ground  ;    from  be-    and  even  among  the  Spaniards. 


CID 


704 


CIL 


CICONES,  an  ancient  people  of  Thrace  near 
the  Hebrus.  Ulysses  at  his  return  from  Troy 
conquered  them,  and  plundered  their  chief  city 
Ismarus.  They  tore  to  pieces  Orpheus  for  his 
obscene  indulgencies. 

CI'CURATE,  v.  a.  )      Lat.  cicuro.    To  tame, 

CICURA'TION,  n.  s,  \  to  reclaim  from  wildness ; 
the  act  of  taming  and  rendering  tractable  the 
wild  and  the  ferocious. 

Poisons  may  yet  retain  some  portion  of  their  na- 
tures ;  yet  are  so  refracted,  cicurated,  and  subdued,  as 
not  to  make  good  their  destructive  malignities. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

This  holds  not  only  in  domestick  and  mansuete 
birds,  for  then  it  might  be  the  effect  of  cicuration  or 
institution  ;  but  in  the  wild.  Ray  on  the  Creation. 

CICUTA,  in  antiquity,  properly  signifies  an 
hollow  intercepted  between  two  knots,  of  the 
stalks  or  reeds  of  which  the  ancient  shepherds 
used  to  make  their  pipes.  Cicuta  is  also  used, 
chiefly  among  the  ancients,  for  the  juice  ex- 
pressed from  the  water  hemlock,  the  common 
poison  wherewith  the  state  criminals  at  Athens 
were  put  to  death.  Some  say,  that  this  poison- 
ous draught  was  an  inspissated  juice  compounded 
of  the  juice  of  cicuta  and  some  other  corrosive 
herbs.  Socrates  drank  the  cicuta.  Plato,  in  his 
dialogue  on  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  observes, 
that  *  the  executioner  advised  Socrates  not  to 
talk,  for  fear  of  causing  the  cicuta  to  operate 
too  slowly.'  M.  Petit,  in  his  Observationes 
Miscellaneae,  remarks,  that  this  warning  was  not 
given  by  the  executioner  out  of  humanity,  but 
to  save  the  cicuta :  for  he  was  only  allowed  so 
much  poison  per  annum,  which,  if  he  exceeded, 
he  was  to  furnish  at  his  own  expense.  This  con- 
struction is  confirmed  by  a  passage  in  Plutarch ; 
the  executioner  who  administered  the  cicuta  to 
Phocion,  not  having  enough,  Phocion  gave  him 
money  to  buy  more;  observing  by  the  way, 
'  that  it  was  odd  enough,  that  at  Athens  a  man 
must  pay  for  everything,  even  for  his  own 
death.' 

CICUTA,  in  botany,  water  hemlock,  a  genus  of 
the  order  digynia,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants; 
natural  order  forty-fifth,  umbellate.  Fruit  sub- 
ovate  grooved,  florets  uniform.  There  are  three 
species;  viz.  1.  C.  bulbifera. '  2.  C.  maculata: 
and  3.  C.  virosa.  This  last  species  is  the  only 
one  remarkable,  and  that  from  the  poisonous 
qualities  of  its  roots,  which  have  been  often 
known  to  destroy  children  who  ate  them  for 
parsnips. 

CID  (Roderigo  Dias  le),  a  Castilian  officer 
who  was  very  successful  against  the  Moors,  under 
Ferdinand  II.  king  of  Castile ;  but  whose  name 
would  hardly  have  been  remembered,  if  Corneille 
had  not  made  his  passion  for  Chimene  the  sub- 
ject of  an  admired  tragedy,  founded  on  a  sim- 
ple but  affecting  incident.  Le  Cid  is  desperately 
in  love  with  Chimene,  daughter  of  the  Count  de 
Gomes  ;  but  he  is  at  variance  with  the  count ; 
and  being  challenged  by  him  kills  him  in  a  duel. 
The  conflict  between  love  and  honor  in  the  breast 
of  Chimene,  who  at  length  pardons  and  marries 
the  Cid,  forms  the  beauty  of  the  piece.  He  died 
ir.  1089. 

CIDARIS,  in  antiquity,  the  mitre  used  by  the 
Jewish  high  priests.  The  Rabbins  say,  that  the 


bonnet  used  by  the  priests  in  general  was  madft 
of  a  piece  of  linen  cloth,  sixteen  yards  long, 
which  covered  their  heads  like  a  helmet  or  tur- 
ban :  and  they  allow  no  other  difference  between 
the  high  priest's  bonnet  and  that  of  other  priests, 
than  that  the  one  is  flatter,  and'  more  in  the  form 
of  a  turban  ;  whereas  that  worn  by  ordinary 
priests  rose  something  more  in  a  point. 

CI'DER,  n.  s.     •)      Fr.   cidre ;    Ital.   sidro , 

CI'DERIST,  n.  s.    >  Lat.  sicera ;    erwclpa,   ~\3iff. 

CI'DERKIN,  n.  s.  j  The  Latin  sicera  was  a  ge- 
neral name  for  liquor  made  of  grain,  or  any  fruit 
except  the  grape ;  but  this  sense  of  the  word 
cyder  is  now  wholly  obsolete.  It  designates 
liquor  made  of  the  juice  of  fruits  pressed.  The 
precise  sense  is  the  juice  of  apples  expressed 
and  fermented.  Ciderist  is  a  maker  of  cider ; 
and  ciderkin,  a  gross  and  inferior  liquor  made  of 
the  apples  after  the  cider  is  pressed  out. 

We  had  also  drink,  wholesome  and  good  wine  of 
the  grape,  a  kind  of  cider  made  of  a  fruit  of  that  coun- 
try ;  a  wonderful  pleasing  and  refreshing  drink. 

Bacon. 
To  the  utmost  bounds  of  this 

Wide  universe,  Silurian  cider  born, 

Shall  please  all  tastes,  and  triumph  o  er  the  vine. 

Philips. 

A  low  word  used  for  the  liquor  made  of  the  murk 

or  gross  matter  of  apples,  after  the  cider  is  pressed 

out,  and  a  convenient  quantity  of  boiled  water  added 

to  it ;  the  whole  infusing  for  about  forty-eight  hours. 

Id.  World  of  Words. 

Ciderkin  is  made  for  common  drinking,  and  sup- 
plies the  place  of  small  beer.  Mortimer. 

When   the  ciderists  have   taken  care  for  the  best 

fruit,  and  ordered  them  after  the  best  manner  they 

could,  yet  hath   their  cider  generally   proved  pale, 

sharp,  and  ill-tasted.  Id. 

Come,  let  us  hie,  and  quaff  a  cheery  bowl, 

Let  cyder  new  wash  sorrow  from  thy  soul.         Gay. 

CIDER.     See  CYDER. 

CIEL'ING,  n.  s.     See  CEILING. 

CIENFUEGA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants, 
class  monadelphia,  order  dodecandria :  CAL. 
double  ;  the  outer  of  twelve  setaceous  leaves  ; 
petals  five  ;  style  filiform  ;  stigma  clavate  :  CAP. 
three-celled,  three-seeded.  One  species  only; 
a  native  of  Senegal. 

CIERGE,  n.  s.  Fr.  A  candle  carried  in  pro- 
cessions. 

CIEUX,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Upper  Vienne,  and  chief  place  of  a  canton, 
in  the  district  of  Bellac,  containing  about  2000 
inhabitants.  It  is  thirteen  miles  north-west  of 
Limoges. 

CIGNANI  (Charles),  an  Italian  painter,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1628 ;  and  the  disciple  of  Albani. 
He  was  much  esteemed  by  pope  Clement  XI, 
who  nominated  him  prince  of  the  Academy  of 
Bologna,  and  loaded  him  with  favors.  He  died 
at  Forli  in  1719.  The  cupola  of  Madona  del 
Focca  at  Forli,  in  which  he  represented  Paradise, 
is  his  principal  work.  His  finest  pictures  are  at 
Rome,  Bologna,  and  Forli. 

CI'LIARY,  adj.  Lat.  cilium.  Belonging  to 
the  eyelids. 

The  ciliary  processes,  or  rather  the  ligaments,  ob- 
served in  the  inside  of  the  sclerotick  tunicles  of  the 
eye,  do  serve  instead  of  a  muscle,  by  the  contraction, 
to  alter  the  figure  of  the  eye.  Ray  on  the  Creation. 


CIL 


705 


CIM 


CILIATED  LEAF,  among  botanical  writers, 
one  surrounded  with  parallel  filaments,  some- 
what like  the  hairs  of  the  eye-lids. 

CILICIA,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Asia,  lying 
between  36°  and  40°  N.  lat.,  bounded  on  the 
east  by  Mount  Amanus,  which  separates  it  from 
Syria;  on  the  west  by  Pamphylia;  on  the  north 
by  Isauria,  Cappadocia,  and  Armenia  Minor ; 
and  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  south.  It 
was  so  surrounded  by  steep  and  craggy  moun- 
tains, particularly  the  Taurus  and  Amanus,  as 
to  be  easily  defended  by  a  handful  of  resolute 
men  against  a  numerous  army.  The  three  nar- 
row passes  leading  into  it,  were  called  Pylse 
Ciliciae,  or  the  gates  of  Cilicia,  viz.  the  Pass  of 
Mount  Taurus  on  the  side  of  Cappadocia ;  the 
Pass  of  Mount  Amanus;  and  the  Pass  of  Syria. 
Its  principal  rivers  were  the  Cydnus  and  the 
Pyramus.  According  to  Josephus,  Cilicia  was 
first  peopled  by  Tarshish  the  son  of  Javan,  and 
his  descendants,  whence  the  whole  country  was 
named  Tarsus.  The  ancient  inhabitants  were  in 
process  of  time  driven  out  by  a  colony  of  Phoe- 
nicians, who,  under  Cilix,  first  settled  in  the 
island  of  Cyprus,  and  from  thence  passed  into 
the  country  which,  from  their  leader,  they  called 
Cilicia.  Afterwards,  several  other  colonies  from 
different  nations  settled  in  this  kingdom,  particu- 
larly from  Syria  and  Greece ;  whence  the  Cilicians 
in  some  places  used  the  Greek  tongue,  in  others 
the  Syriac ;  but  the  former  greatly  corrupted  by 
the  Persian,  the  predominant  language  of  the 
country  being  a  dialect  of  that  tongue.  We  find 
no  mention  of  the  kings  of  Cilicia  after  their  set- 
tlement in  that  country,  till  the  time  of  Cyrus, 
to  whom  they  voluntarily  submitted,  continuing 
subject  to  the  Persians  till  the  overthrow  of  that 
empire ;  but  governed  to  the  time  of  Arlaxerxes 
Memnon  by  kings  of  their  own  nation.  After 
the  downfal  of  the  Persian  empire,  Cilicia  be- 
came a  province  of  Macedon  ;  and,  on  the  death 
of  Alexander,  fell  to  the  share  of  Seleucus,  and 
continued  under  his  descendants  till  it  was  re- 
duced to  a  Roman  province  by  Pompey.  As  a 
proconsular  province,  it  was  first  governed  by 
Appius  Claudius  Pulcher;  and  after  him  by 
Cicero,  who  reduced  several  strong  holds  on 
Mount  Amanus,  in  which  some  Cilicians  had 
fortified  themselves,  and  held  out  against  his  pre- 
decessor. On  this  occasion  Cilicia  was  divided 
into  Trachsea  and  Campestris. 

CILICIA  CAMPESTRIS,  according  to  Ammianus 
Marcellinus,  was  one  of  the  most  fruitful  coun- 
tries of  Asia :  but  the  western  part  was  very  bar- 
ren, though  famous  for  an  excellent  breed  of 
horses.  The  air  in  the  inland  parts  is  reckoned 
wholesome  ;  but  that  on  the  sea-coast  is  danger- 
ous, especially  to  strangers.  This  part  of  Cilicia  was 
made  a  Roman  province,  and  called  Cilicia  prima. 
CILICIA  TRACH.EA,  was  governed  by  kings 
appointed  by  the  Romans,  till  the  reign  of  Ves- 
pasian, when,  the  family  of  Tracondementus 
being  extinct,  it  was  made  a  province  of  the  em- 
pire, and  was  divided  into  Cilicia  Secunda,  com- 
prehending the  coast  of  Cilicia  Trachsea,  and 
Isauria,  containing  the  inland  parts.  It  is  now 
a  province  of  Asiatic  Turkey ;  and  is  called  Cara- 
mania,  having  been  the  last  province  of  the  Cara- 
naanian  kingdom  which  held  out  against  the 
VOL.  V. 


Ottoman  race.  It  was  called  Tpax«»?,  aspera 
or  stony,  from  its  abounding  with  stones;  and 
the  whole  province  is  still  called  by  the  Turks, 
Tas  Wileieth,  or  The  Stony  Province. 

CILICIA  TERRA,  in  ancient  natural  history, 
a  bituminous  substance,  improperly  called  an 
earth,  which,  by  boiling,  became  tough  like  bird- 
lime, and  was  used  instead  of  that  substance,  to 
cover  the  stock  of  the  vines  for  preserving  them 
from  worms.  It  probably  served  in  this  office  in 
a  sort  of  double  capacity,  driving  away  these  ani- 
mals by  its  nauseous  smell,  and  entangling  them 
if  they  chanced  to  get  amongst  it. 

CILI'CIOUS,  adj.  from  Lat.  cilicium,  hair- 
cloth. Made  of  hair. 

A  garment  of  camel's  hair,  that  is,  made  of  some 
texture  of  that  hair  ;  a  coarse  garment,  a  cilicious  or 
sackcloth  habit,  suitable  to  the  austerity  of  his  life. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errovrs. 

CILICIUM,  in  Hebrew  antiquity,  a  sort  of 
habit  made  of  coarse  stuff,  formerly  in  use  among 
the  Jews  in  times  of  mourning  and  distress.  It  is 
the  same  with  what  the  Septuagint  and  Hebrew 
versions  call  sackcloth. 

CILLEY,  or  ZILLI,  an  old  town  and  district 
of  Germany,  in  the  circle  of  Lower  Sliria,  on  the 
river  Saan  ;  the  district  extends  as  far  as  Petaw, 
containing  1430  square  miles,  and  175,000  in- 
habitants. It  was  once  an  independent  princi- 
pality, and  governed  by  counts  of  its  own.  The 
town  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Romans, 
but  was  destroyed ;  it  was  afterwards  rebuilt  by 
the  duke  of  Moravia.  It  has  some  trade,  but  does 
not  contain  above  1000  inhabitants.  The  Saan  be- 
comes navigable  here.  Cilley  lies  fifty-eight 
miles  south  by  west  of  Gratz,  and  130  S.  S.W. 
of  Vienna. 

CIMABUE  (Giovanni),  a  renowned  painter, 
born  at  Florence  in  1240,  and  the  first  who  re- 
vived the  art  in  Italy.  He  painted,  according  to 
the  custom  of  those  times,  in  fresco  and  in  dis- 
temper; oil  colors  not  being  then  discovered. 
He  excelled  in  architecture  as  well  as  in  painting ; 
and  was  concerned  in  the  building  of  Sancta 
Maria  del  Fior  at  Florence :  during  which  em- 
ployment he  died  at  the  age  of  sixty. 

CIMAR.     See  SIMAR. 

CIMBRI,  or  CIMBRIANS,  an  ancient  Celtic 
nation,  who  inhabited  the  northern  parts  of  Ger- 
many. They  are  said  to  have  been  descended 
from  the  Asiatic  Cimmerians,  and  to  have  taken 
the  name  of  Cimbri  when  they  changed  their  old 
habitations.  When  they  first  became  known, 
they  inhabited  chiefly  the  peninsula,  now  called 
Jutland,  and  by  the  ancients  Cimbrica  Chersone- 
sus.  About  113  years  before  Christ,  they  left  their 
peninsula  with  their  wives  and  children ;  and 
joining  the  Teutones,  a  neighbouring  nation,  took 
their  journey  southward  in  quest  of  a  better 
country.  They  first  fell  upon  the  Boii,  a  Gaulish 
nation,  situated  near  the  Hercyuian  forest.  Here 
they  were  repulsed,  and  obliged  to  move  nearer 
the  Roman  provinces.  The  republic  being  then 
alarmed  at  the  approach  of  such  multitudes  of 
barbarians,  sent  an  army  against  them  under  the 
consul  Papirius  Carbo.  On  the  approach  of  the 
Roman  army,  the  Cimbri  made  proposals  of 
peace.  The  consul  pretended  to  accept  these ;  but 
having  thrown  them  into  a  disadvantageous  situ. 

2  Z 


CIM 


706 


CIM 


tion,  he  treacherously  attacked  their  camp.  His 
perfidy  was  rewarded  as  it  deserved ;  the  Cimbri 
ran  to  arms,  and  not  only  repulsed  the  Romans, 
but,  attacking  them  in  their  turn,  utterly  defeated 
them,  and  obliged  the  shattered  remains  of  their 
forces  to  conceal  themselves  in  the  neighbouring 
forests.  After  this  victory  the  Cimbri  entered 
Transalpine  Gaul,  which  they  quickly  filled  with 
slaughter  and  desolation.  Here  they  continued 
five  or  six  years,  when  another  Roman  army, 
under  the  consul  Silanus,  marched  against  them. 
This  general  met  with  no  better  success  than  his 
predecessor.  His  army  was  routed  at  the  first 
onset;  in  consequence  of  which,  all  Narbonne 
Gaul  was  exposed  at  once  to  the  ravages  of  these 
barbarians. 

About  A  A.  C.  105,  the  Cimbri  began  to  threa- 
ten the  Roman  empire  itself  with  destruction. 
The  Gauls  marched  from  all  parts  with  a  design 
to  join  them  and  invade  Italy.  The  Roman  army 
was  commanded  by  the  proconsul  Csepio,  and 
the  consul  Mallius :  but  as  these  two  commanders 
were  at  variance,  they  separated  and  divided  their 
forces.  This  proved  the  ruin  of  the  whole  army. 
The  Cimbri  immediately  fell  upon  a  strong  de- 
tachment of  the  consular  army  commanded  by 
M.  Aurelius  Scaurus,  which  they  cut  off  to  a  man, 
and  made  Scaurus  himself  prisoner.  Mallius 
being  greatly  intimidated  by  this  defeat,  desired 
a  reconciliation  with  Csepio,  but  was  haughtily 
refused.  He  moved  nearer  the  consul,  however, 
with  his  army,  that  the  enemy  might  not  be  de- 
feated without  his  having  a  share  in  the  action. 
The  Cimbri  by  this  movement,  imagining  the 
commanders  had  made  up  their  quarrel,  sent  am- 
bassadors to  Mallius  with  proposals  of  peace. 
As  they  were  obliged  to  pass  through  Caepio's 
camp,  he  ordered  them  to  be  brought  before  him ; 
but,  finding  they  were  empowered  to  treat  only 
with  Mallius,  he  could  scarcely  be  restrained  from 
putting  them  to  death.  His  troops,  however, 
forced  him  to  confer  with  Mallius  about  the  pro- 
posals sent.  The  deputies  on  their  return  ac- 
quainting their  countrymen  that  the  misunder- 
standing between  the  Roman  commanders  still 
subsisted,  the  Cimbri  attacked  the  camp  of  Caepio, 
and  the  Gauls  that  of  Mallius.  Both  were  forced, 
and  the  Romans  slaughtered  without  mercy. 
Eighty  thousand  citizens  and  allies  of  Rome, 
with  40,000  servants  and  sutlers,  perished  on 
that  fatal  day ;  in  short,  of  the  two  Roman  armies 
only  ten  men,  with  the  two  generals,  escaped  to 
carry  the  news  of  so  dreadful  a  defeat.  The  con- 
querors destroyed  all  the  spoil,  pursuant  to  a  vow 
they  had  made.  The  gold  and  silver  they  threw 
into  the  Rhone,  drowned  the  horses  they  had 
taken,  and  put  to  death  all  the  prisoners.  The 
Romans  were  thrown  into  the  utmost  consterna- 
tion on  the  news  of  so  terrible  an  overthrow. 
They  saw  themselves  threatened  with  a  deluge 
of  Cimbri  and  Gauls,  numerous  enough  to  over- 
run the  whole  country.  They  did  not,  however, 
despair.  A  new  army  was  raised  with  incredible 
expedition ;  no  citizen  whatever  who  was  fit  to 
bear  arms  being  exempted.  On  this  occasion 
also,  fencing  masters  were  first  introduced  into 
the  Roman  camp ;  by  which  means  the  soldiers 
were  soon  rendered  in  a  manner  invincible. 
Marius,  who  was  at  that  time  in  high  reputation 


on  account  of  his  victories  in  Africa,  was  chosen 
commander,  and  waited  for  the  Cimbri  in  Tran- 
salpine Gaul ;  but  they  had  resolved  to  enter 
Italy  by  two  different  ways ;  the  Cimbri  over  the 
eastern,  and  the  Teutones  and  other  allies  over 
the  western  Alps.  The  Roman  general  therefore 
marched  to  oppose  the  latter,  and  defeated  the 
Ambrones  and  the  Teutones  with  great  slaughter. 
The  Cimbri,  in  the  mean  time,  entered  Italy, 
and  struck  the  whole  country  with  terror.  Catu- 
lus  and  Sylla  attempted  to  oppose  them ;  but 
their  soldiers  were  so  intimidated  by  the  terrible 
appearance  of  these  barbarians,  that  nothing 
could  prevent  their  flying  before  them.  The  city 
of  Rome  was  now  totally  defenceless  ;  and,  had 
the  Cimbri  only  marched  forwards,  they  had  un- 
doubtedly become  masters  of  it ;  but  they  waited 
in  expectation  of  being  joined  by  their  allies,  not 
having  heard  of  their  defeat  by  Marius,  till  the 
senate  had  time  to  recal  him  to  their  defence. 
By  their  order  he  joined  his  army  to  that  of  Ca- 
tulus  and  Sylla.  The  Roman  army  now  con- 
sisted cf  52,300  men.  The  cavalry  of  the  Cimbri 
were  not  more  than  15,000,  but  their  foot  seemed 
innumerable  ;  for,  being  drawn  up  in  a  square, 
they  are  said  to  have  covered  thirty  furlongs. 
The  Cimbri  attacked  the  Romans  with  the  ut- 
most fury ;  but,  being  unaccustomed  to  bear  the 
heats  of  Italy,  they  began  to  lose  their  strength, 
and  were  easily  overcome.  But  they  had  put  it 
out  of  their  power  to  fly;  for,  that  they  might 
keep  their  ranks,  they  are  said,  like  true  bar- 
barians, to  have  tied  themselves  together  with 
cords.  The  battle  was  therefore  only  a  most  ter- 
rible butchery;  120,000  were  killed  on  the  field 
of  battle,  and  60,000  taken  prisoners.  The  vic- 
torious Romans  now  marched  on  the  enemy's 
camp;  where  they  had  a  new  battle  to  fight  with 
the  women,  whom  they  found  more  fierce  than 
even  their  husbands  had  been :  but  the  greater 
part  hanged  themselves  on  the  neighbouring 
trees.  The  country  of  the  Cimhri,  which,  after 
this  terrible  catastrophe,  was  left  a  mere  desert, 
was  again  peopled  by  the  Scythians. 

CIMBRICA  CHERSONESUS.  SeeCnERSONE- 
sus. 

CIMBRISHAM,  a  decayed  sea-port  of  Swe- 
den, on  the  Baltic,  in  the  province  of  Schonen, 
Gothland.  From  this  place,  and  the  adjacent 
country,  the  ancient  Cimbri  emigrated.  It  is 
twenty-four  miles  south  of  Christianstadt. 

CIME'LIARCH,  n.  t.  from  jcu/u/Wpxnc. 
The  chief  keeper  of  plate,  vestments,  and  things 
of  value,  belonging  to  a  church;  a  church- 
warden. 

CI'METER,  n.  $.  Span,  and  Port,  cimitarra, 
from  Turk,  chimeteir.  A  sort  of  sword  used  by 
the  Turks,  short,  heavy,  and  recurvated,  or  bent 
backward.  This  word  is  sometimes  erroneously 
spelt  scimitar,  and  scymiter ;  as  in  the  following 
examples. 

By  this  scimitar, 

That  slew  the  sophy  and  a  Persian  prince, 
•  That  won  three  fields  of  sultan  Solyman. 

Shakspeare  , 

Our  armours  now  may  rust,  our  idle  scimiten 
Hang  by  our  sides  for  ornament,  not  use.    Dryden. 
CIM  EX,  the  bug,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  in- 
sects belonging  to  the  order  of  hemiptera.     The 


CIM 


707 


CIM 


rostrum  is  inflected.  The  antenna  are  longer 
than  the  thorax.  The  wings  are  folded  together 
crosswise ;  the  upper  ones  are  coriaceous  from 
their  base  towards  their  middle.  The  back  is 
flat ;  the  thoiax  marginated.  The  feet  are  formed 
for  running.  This  genus  is  divided  into  dif- 
ferent sub-divisions,  as  follows :  i.  Those 
without  wings.  2.  Those  in  which  the  esr- 
cutcheon  is  extended  so  far  as  to  cover  the  ab- 
domen and  the  wings.  3.  The  coleoptrati, 
whose  elytra  are  wholly  coriaceous.  4.  Those 
whose  elytra  are  membranaceous ;  these  are  very 
much  depressed,  like  a  leaf.  5.  In  which  the 
thorax  is  armed  on  each  side  with  a  spine. 
6.  Those  which  are  of  an  oval  form,  without 
spines  on  the  thorax.  7.  In  which  the  antennas 
become  setaceous  towards  their  point.  8.  Those 
of  an  oblong  form.  9.  Those  whose  antennae 
are  setaceous,  and  as  long  as  the  body.  10. 
Those  which  have  their  thighs  armed  with 
spines.  11.  Those  whose  bodies  are  long  and 
narrow.  Linnams  enumerates  no  fewer  than 
121  species,  to  which  several  have  been  added 
by  other  naturalists.  The  larvae  of  bugs  only 
differ  from  the  perfect  insect  by  the  want  of 
wings;  they  run  over  plants;  grow  and  change 
to  chrysalids,  without  appearing  to  undergo  any 
material  difference.  They  have  only  rudiments 
of  wings,  which  the  last  transformation  unfolds, 
and  the  insect  is  then  perfect.  In  the  first  two 
stages  they  are  unable  to  propagate  their  species. 
In  their  perfect  state,  the  female,  fecundated, 
lays  a  great  number  of  eggs,  which  are  often 
found  upon  plants,  placed  one  by  the  side  of 
another;  many  of  which,  viewed  through  a 
glass,  present  singular  varieties  of  configuration. 
Some  arc  crowned  with  a  row  of  small  hairs, 
others  have  a  circular  fillet ;  and  most  have  a 
piece  which  forms  a  cap ;  this  piece  the  larva? 
pushes  off  when  it  forces  open  the  egg.  Re- 
leased from  their  prison,  they  overspread  the 
plant  on  which  they  feed,  extracting  by  the  help 
of  the  rostrum  the  juices  appropriated  for  their 
nourishment ;  even  in  this  state  the  larvae  are 
voracious  in  an  eminent  degree,  and  spare  nei- 
ther sex  nor  species  they  can  conquer.  In  their 
perfect  state  they  glut  themselves  with  the  blood 
of  animals :  they  destroy  caterpillars  and  flies ; 
and  even  the  coleopterous  tribe,  whose  hardness 
of  elytra  one  would  imagine  was  proof  against 
their  attacks,  have  fallen  an  easy  prey  to  the 
sharp  piercing  nature  of  the  rostrum  of  the  bug, 
and  the  uncautious  naturalist  may  experience  a 
feeling  proof  of  the  severity  of  its  nature. 

1 .  C.  lectularius,  the  house  bug,  is  particularly 
acceptable  to  the  palate  of  spiders  in  general,  and 
is  even  sought  after  by  wood  bugs ;  which  is  not 
indeed  surprising,  when  the  general  voracity  of 
this  genus  is  considered.     The  methods  of  ex- 
pelling house  bugs  are  various.     See  BUG,  and 
CIMICIFUGA. 

2.  C.  paradoxus  is  a  very  peculiar  species,  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  Sparrman  at  the  Cape.     He  ob- 
served it  as  he  sought  for  shelter  at  noon  among 
the  branches  of  a  shrub.     '  Though  the  air,'  he 
says,  '  was  extremely  still  and  calm,  so  as  hardly 
to  have  shaken  an  aspen  leaf,  yet  I  thought  I 
saw  a  little  withered,  pale,  crumpled  leaf,  eaten 
as  it  were  with  caterpillars,  fluttering  from  the 


tree.  This  appeared  to  me  so  very  extraordinary, 
that  I  thought  it  worth  my  while  suddenly  to 
quit  my  verdant  bower  in  order  to  contemplate 
it ;  and  I  could  scarcely  believe  my  eyes,  when 
I  saw  a  live  insect,  in  shape  and  color  resemb- 
ling the  fragment  of  a  withered  leaf,  with  the 
edges  turned  up  and  eaten  away,  as  it  were  by 
caterpillars,  and  at  the  same  time  all  over  beset 
with  prickles.  Nature  by  this  peculiar  form  has 
certainly  extremely  well  defended  and  concealed, 
as  it  were  in  a  mask,  this  insect  from  birds  and 
its  other  diminutive  foes;  in  all  probability, 
with  a  view  to  preserve  it,  and  employ  it  for 
some  important  office  in  the  system  of  her  eco- 
nomy ;  a  system  with  which  we  are  too  little 
acquainted,  in  general  too  little  investigate,  and, 
in  every  part  of  it,  can  never  sufficiently  admire, 
with  that  respect  and  veneration  which  we  owe 
to  the  great  author  of  nature  and  ruler  of  the 
universe.' 

CIMICIFUGA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
polyandria  order,  and  dioecia  class  of  plants. 
Male  CAL.  almost  pentaphyllous :  COR.  none : 
stamina,  twenty  in  number.  Female  CAL.  al- 
most pentaphyllous :  COR.  none :  the  stamina 
twenty  and  barren :  CAP.  from  four  to  seven, 
polyspermous :  species,  one  only.  Viz.  C. 
fcetida,  bearing  a  thyrsis  of  yellow  male 
flowers  with  a  red  villous  seed,  the  seed  vessel 
in  form  of  a  horn.  This  whole  plant  so  re- 
sembles the  actea  racemosa,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
distinguish  them  when  not  in  flower;  but  in  the 
fructification  it  greatly  differs  from  it,  the  cimi- 
cifuga  having  four  pistils,  the  actea  but  one. 
Jacquin  says,  that  it  is  a  native  of  the  Carpathian 
mountains.  It  has  obtained  the  name  of  cimi- 
cifuga,  or  bugbane,  both  in  Siberia  and  Tartary, 
from  its  property  of  driving  away  those  insects; 
and  the  botanists  of  those  parts  of  Europe, 
which  are  infested  by  them,  have  long  desired 
to  naturalise  it  in  their  several  countries.  Gme- 
lin  mentions,  that  in  Siberia  the  natives  also  use 
it  as  an  evacuant  in  dropsy ;  and  that  its  effects 
are  violently  emetic  and  drastic. 

CIM  MERIT,  an  ancient  people  near  the  Pa- 
lus  Maeotis.  'They  invaded  Asia  Minor,  1284 
years  before  Christ,  and  seized  on  the  kingdom 
of  Cyaxares.  After  they  had  been  masters  of 
the  country  for  twenty-eight  years,  they  were 
driven  back  by  Alyattes  king  of  Lydia. 

CIMMERII,  another  ancient  nation,  on  the 
western  coast  of  Italy.  The  country  which  they 
inhabited  was  supposed  to  be  so  gloomy,  that, 
to  express  a  great  obscurity,  the  expression  of 
Cimmerian  darkness  has  proverbially  been  used  ; 
and  Homer,  according  to  Plutarch,  drew  his 
images  of  hell  and  Pluto  from  the  gloomy  and 
dismal  country  where  they  dwelt.  See  CIMME- 
UIUM. 

CIMMERIUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Palus  Masotis ;  from 
which  the  Bosphorus  Cimmerius  is  named ;  that 
strait  which  joins  the  Euxine  and  the  Palus 
Mreotis.  And  here  stood  the  Promontorium 
Cimmerium ;  and  hence  probably  the  modern 
appellation  Crim. 

Also  a  place  near  Baia%  in  Campania,  where 
formerly  stood  the  cave  of  the  sibyl.  The  people 
lived  in  subterraneous  habitations,  from  which 

2  Z  2 


CIM 


708 


CIN 


tliey  issued  in  the  night  to  commit  robberies  and 
other  acts  of  violence,  and  thus  never  saw  the 
light  of  the  sun.  To  give  a  natural  account  of 
this  fable,  Festus  says,  there  was  a  valley  sur- 
rounded by  a  pretty  high-ridge,  which  precluded 
the  morning  and  evening  sun. 

CIMOLA,  or  CIMOLIA  TERRA,  in  natural 
history,  Fullers'  earth.  See  CLAY  and  FULLERS' 
EARTH. 

CIMOLIA  ALBA,  the  officinal  name  of  the 
earth  of  which  we  now  make  tobacco-pipes.  Its 
distinguishing  characters  are,  that  it  is  a  dense, 
compact,  heavy  earth,  of  a  dull  white  color,  and 
very  close  texture ;  it  will  not  easily  break  be- 
tween the  fingers,  and  slightly  stains  the  skin  in 
handling.  It  adheres  firmly  to  the  tongue ; 
melts  very  slowly  in  the  mouth,  and  is  not  rea- 
dily diffusible  in  water.  It  is  found  in  many 
places.  That  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  is  much  es- 
teemed for  its  color.  Great  plenty  of  it  is  found 
near  Poole  in  Dorsetshire,  and  near  Wednes- 
bury  in  Staffordshire. 

CIMOLIA  NIGRA,  is  of  a  dark  lead  color, 
hard,  dry,  and  heavy;  of  a  smooth  compact 
texture,  and  not  viscid :  it  does  not  color  the 
hands ;  crumbles  when  dry ;  adheres  to  the 
tongue ;  diffuses  slowly  in  water ;  and  is  not 
acted  upon  by  acids.  It  burns  perfectly  white, 
and  acquires  a  considerable  hardness.  The 
chief  pits  for  this  clay  are  near  Northampton, 
where  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  tobacco- 
pipes.  It  is  also  mixed  with  the  critche  clay  of 
Derbyshire,  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  to 
three,  in  the  manufacture  of  the  hard  reddish 
brown  ware. 

CIMOLIA  TERRA,  in  natural  history,  a  name 
by  which  the  ancients  expressed  a  very  valuable 
medicinal  earth  ;  but  which  latter  ages  have 
confounded  with  tobacco-pipe  clay  and  Fullers' 
earth.  The  cimolia  terra  of  the  ancients  was 
found  in  several  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipe- 
lago :  particularly  in  the  islands  of  Cimolus 
whence  it  has  its  name.  It  was  used  with 
great  success  in  the  erysipelas,  inflammations, 
and  the  like,  being  applied  by  way  of  cataplasm 
to  the  part.  They  also  used  it,  as  we  do  Fullers' 
earth,  for  the  cleansing  of  clothes.  This  earth 
of  the  ancients,  though  so  long  disregarded,  and 
by  many  supposed  to  be  lost,  is  yet  very  plenti- 
ful in  Argentiere,  Siphanto,  and  many  of  those 
islands.  It  is  a  marl  of  a  lax  and  crumbly  tex- 
ture, and  a  pure  bright  white  color,  very  soft  to 
the  touch.  It  adheres  firmly  to  the  tongue ; 
and,  if  thrown  into  water,  raises  a  little  hissing 
and  ebullition,  and  moulders  to  a  fine  powder. 
It  makes  a  considerable  effervescence  with  acids; 
and  suffers  no  change  of  color  in  the  fire.  These 
are  the  characters  of  what  the  ancients  called 
simply  terra  cimolia:  but  besides  this,  they  had, 
from  the  same  place,  another  earth  which  they 
called  by  the  same  general  name,  but  distin- 
guished as  follows : 

CIMOLIA  TERRA  PURPURESCENS,  the  purple 
cimolia.  This  they  describe  to  be  fattish,  cold 
to  the  touch,  of  a  mixed  purple  color,  and  nearly 
as  hard  as  a  stone.  And  this  was  evidently  the 
substance  we  call  steatites,  or  the  soap  rock  ; 
common  in  Cornwall,  and  also  in  the  island  of 
Argentiere. 


CIMOLUS,  in  ancient  geography,  one  of  the 
Cyclades,  now  called  Argentiere.  See  ARGES- 
TIERE. 

CIMON,  a  celebrated  Athenian  general,  the 
son  of  Miltiades  and  Hegesipyle.  He  was  fa- 
mous for  his  debaucheries  in  his  youth,  and  the 
reformation  of  his  morals  when  arrived  to  years 
of  discretion.  He  behaved  with  great  courage 
at  the  battle  of  Salamis,  and  rendered  himself 
popular  by  his  munificence  and  valor.  He  de- 
feated the  Persian  fleet,  took  200  ships,  and  to- 
tally routed  their  land  army,  the  very  same  day, 
A.  U.  C.  284.  In  his  public  character  he  had  be- 
haved with  unimpeached  honesty,  and  as  a 
private  citizen  he  dedicated  his  wealth  to  the 
most  excellent  purposes.  He  demolished  the 
enclosures  about  his  grounds  and  gardens,  per- 
mitting every  one  to  enter  and  take  what  fruits 
they  pleased ;  he  kept  an  open  table,  where 
both  rich  and  poor  were  plentifully  entertained. 
He  did  not,  however,  concur  with  every  mea- 
sure of  the  commonality ;  and  therefore  the 
popular  party  determined  to  put  him  to  death. 
The  crime  laid  to  his  charge  was,  that  by  pre- 
sents from  the  Macedonians  he  was  prevailed 
upon  to  let  slip  a  manifest  opportunity  of  en- 
larging his  conquests,  after  taking  from  the  Per- 
sians the  gold  mines  of  Thrace  :  but  Pericles, 
though  appointed  to  accuse  him,  spoke  in  such 
a  manner,  that  it  plainly  appeared  that  he  did 
not  think  him  guilty ;  in  consequence  of  which 
Cimon  was  only  banished  by  the  ostracism.  He 
was  afterwards  recalled  from  his  exile  ;  and  at  his 
return  he  adjusted  the  dispute  between  Lacede- 
mon  and  his  countrymen;  after  which  he  totally 
ruined  the  Persian  fleet,  A.  U.  C.  304.  He 
died  as  he  was  besieging  the  town  of  Citium  in 
Cyprus,.  He  may  be  called  the  last  of  the 
Greeks  whose  spirit  and  boldness  defeated  the 
armies  of  the  barbarians.  He  was  such  an  in- 
veterate epemy  to  the  Persian  power,  that  he 
formed  a  plan  of  totally  destroying  it ;  and  in 
his  wars  he  had  so  reduced  the  Persians,  that 
they  promised  in  a  treaty,  not  to  pass  the  Cheli- 
donian  islands  with  their  fleet,  or  to  approach 
within  a  day's  journey  of  the  Grecian  seas.  See 
ATTICA. 

CINALOA,  or  CINOLLO,  a  province  of  Mex- 
ico, in  the  southern  part  of  the  intendancy  of  So- 
nora.  It  is  about  300  miles  in  length  from  south- 
east to  north-west,  and  about  120  broad  It  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  lofty  mountains,  on  the 
west  by  the  gulf  of  California,  and  to  the  north  by 
a  desert  native  country.  Humboldt  says  it  con- 
tains five  towns,  ninety-two  villages,  thirty  pa- 
rishes, fourteen  farms,  and  450  cottages.  It  has 
an  extremely  hot  summer,  and  very  cold  De- 
cember and  January  ;  but  it  seldom  rains  here. 

CINCHONA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  class 
of  plants  :  COR.  funnel-shaped,  with  a  woolly  sum- 
mit :  CAP.  inferior :  bilocular,  with  a  parallel 
partition.  Species  twelve,  the  chief  are. 

1 .  C.  corymbifera,  corymb-bearing  cinchona,  oj 
white  Peruvian  bark,  with  oblong  lanceolate 
leaves  and  axillary  corymbs.  This  species  par- 
ticularly abounds  in  the  hilly  parts  of  Quito, 
growing  promiscuously  in  the  forests,  and  is 
.spontaneously  propagated  from  its  seeds. 


CINCINNATI. 


709 


2.  C.  Jamaicensis  is  a  native  of  the  West 
India  islands,  particularly  of  Jamaica.  In 
Jamaica  it  is  called  the  sea-side  beech,  and 
grows  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  high.  The 
white,  furrowed,  thick  outer  bark  is  not  used ; 
the  dark  brown  inner  bark  has  the  common  flavor, 
with  a  mixed  taste,  at  first  the  horse  radish  and 
ginger,  becoming  at  last  bitter  and  astringent. 
It  seems  to  give  out  more  extractive  matter  than 
the  cinchona  officinalis.  Some  of  it  was  im- 
ported from  St.  Lucia,  in  consequence  of  its 
having  been  used  with  'advantage  in  the  army 
and  navy  during  the  last  war ;  and  it  has  lately 
been  treated  of  at  considerable  length  by  Dr. 
Kentish,  under  the  title  of  St.  Lucia's  bark. 
When  fresh  it  is  a  considerable  emetic  and  ca- 
thartic, properties  which  it  is  said  to  lose  by  drying. 

C.  officinalis,  or  colored  Peruvian  bark,  with 
elliptic  leaves,  downy  underneath,  and  the  leaves 
of  the  corolla  woolly.  Both  the  corymbifera 
and  officinalis  are  natives  of  Peru,  where  they 
attain  the  height  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet. 
They  are  both  found  in  the  province  of  Santa  Fe. 
The  bark  has  an  odor,  to.some  people  not  unplea- 
sant, and  very  perceptible  in  the  distilled  water,  in 
which  floating  globules,  like  essential  oil,  have 
been  observed.  Its  taste  is  bitter  and  astrin- 
gent, accompanied  with  a  degree  of  pungency, 
and  leaving  a  considerably  lasting  impression  on 
the  tongue.  According  to  some,  the  Peruvians 
learned  'the  use  of  the  bark  by  observing  certain 
animals  affected  with  intermittents  instinctively 
led  to  it ;  while  others  say,  that  a  Peruvian 
having  an  ague,  was  cured  by  happening  to 
drink  of  a  pool,  which,  from  some  trees  having 
fallen  into  it,  tasted  of  cinchona;  and  its  use 
in  gangrene  is  said  to  have  originated  from  its 
curing  one  in  an  aguish  patient.  About  1640 
the  lady  of  the  Spanish  viceroy,  the  Comitissa 
del  Cinchon,  was  cured  by  the  bark,  which  has 
there  been  called  cortex,  or  pulvis  Comitissae  cin- 
chona. The  medicinal  properties  of  this  drug 
are  very  considerable.  It  cures  intermittent, 
remittent,  nervous,  and  putrid  fevers,  putrid 
sore  throats,  scarlatina,  and  dysentery ;  stops  ex- 
cessive discharges,  and  is  in  general  use  as  a 
tonic  and  stomachic  ;  it  is  also  of  infinite  ser- 
vice in  local  affections,  as  gangrene,  scrofula, 
ill  conditioned  ulcers,  rickets,  scurvy,  &c.  and 
in  most  diseases  where  there  is  no  inflammatory 
diathesis.  The  officinal  preparations  of  this 
bark  are  the  powder,  the  extract,  the  tincture, 
and  the  decoction. 

CINCINNATI,  a  flourishing  post  town  ot  the 
United  States,  in  the  north-western  territory, 
and  the  present  seat,  says  Mr.  Scott,  in  his 
United  States  Gazetteer  for  1795,  of  the  Ame- 
rican government.  It  is  seated  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Ohio,  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  Lick- 
ing river,  and  contained,  at  that  period,  about 
200  houses.  It  has  a  fort,  named  Fort  Washing- 
ton, which  is  the  grand  magazine  of  stores  for 
the  western  army,  and  is  large  enough  to  con- 
tain 300  men.  Cincinnati  is  seventy  miles  north 
of  George-town,  eighty-two  north  by  -east  of 
Frankfort,  and  759  west  by  south  of  Philadel- 
phia: from  which  it  lies  in  Ion.  9.  44.  W.,  lat. 
39.  7.  N. 

CINCINNATI,  a  society  which  was  established 


in  the  United  States  of  North  America,  soon  after 
the  peace  of  1783,  consisting  of  those  generals  and 
officers  of  the  army  and  navy  who  had  fought  and 
triumphed  together  in  the  war  of  independence.  The 
institution  was  intended  to  perpetuate  the  memory 
of  the  revolution,  the  friendship  of  the  officers, 
and  the  union  of  the  States ;  and  also  to  raise  a 
fund  for  the  relief  of  the  widows  and  orphans  of 
those  officers  who  had  fallen  during  the  war.  It 
was  subdivided  into  state  societies,  which  were  to 
meet  on  the  4th  of  July,  and,  with  other  business, 
depute  a  number  of  their  members  to  convene 
annually  in  general  meetings.  Each  member  was 
to  subscribe  one  month's  pay  to  the  general  trea- 
sury, and  the  fund  was  to  be  augmented  by  pri- 
vate donations.  The  interest  only  of  the  money 
thus  raised  was  to  be  expended  in  acts  of  charity. 
The  members  were  to  be  distinguished  by  wear- 
ing a  medal,  emblematical  of  the  design  of  the 
society.  The  device,  a  bald  eagle  of  gold,  was 
suspended  by  a  deep  blue  riband  edged  with 
white,  descriptive  of  the  union  of  America  and 
France.  The  emblems  borne  on  the  breast  of  the 
eagle  were :  the  principal  figure,  Cincinnatus, 
and  three  senators  presenting  him  with  a  sword 
and  other  military  ensigns  :  on  a  field  in  the  back 
ground  his  wife  standing  at  the  door  of  the  cot- 
tage, and  near  it  a  plough  and  other  implements 
of  husbandry  ;  round  the  whole,  '  Omnia  reliquit 
servare  rempublicam.'  On  the  reverse,  the  sun 
rising,  a  city  with  open  gates,  and  vessels  enter- 
ing the  port;  fame  crowning  Cincinnatus  with  a 
wreath,  inscribed  '  virtutis  premium ;'  below, 
hands  joining,  supporting  a  heart,  with  a  motto 
'  esto  perpetua ;'  round  the  whole,  '  Societas 
Cincinnatorum,  instituta,  A.D.  1783.'  The  honors 
and  advantages  of  this  society  were  to  be  heredi- 
tary in  the  line  of  the  eldest  male  heirs,  and  in 
default  of  male  issue,  in  that  of  the  collateral 
male  heirs.  Honorary  members  were  to  be  ad- 
mitted, but  without  the  hereditary  advantages  of 
the  society,  and  provided  their  number  should 
never  exceed  the  ratio  of  one  to  four  of  the  offi- 
cers or  their  descendants. 

General  Washington  subscribed  himself  in 
October  1783  president  of  the  order.  But  con- 
siderable jealousy  was  excited  against  it  among 
the  stricter  republicans  of  the  union.  The  states  of 
Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts,  and  Rhode  Island, 
publicly  expressed  their  disapprobation  of  it ; 
and  the  private  correspondence  of  Dr.  Franklin, 
lately  published,  contains  one  of  his  most  acute 
and  characteristic  letters  on  the  subject.  '  Honor 
worthily  obtained,'  says  he,  '  is  in  its  nature  a 
personal  thing,  and  incommunicable  to  any  but 
those  who  had  some  share  in  obtaining  it.  Thus 
among  the  Chinese,  the  most  ancient,  and  from 
long  experience  the  wisest  of  nations,  honor  does 
not  descend  but  ascends.  If  a  man  from  his 
learning,  his  wisdom,  or  his  valor,  is  promoted 
by  the  emperor  to  the  rank  of  mandarin,  his  pa- 
rents are  immediately  entitled  to  all  the  same 
ceremonies  of  respect  from  the  people,  that  are 
established  as  due  to  the  mandarin  himself;  on 
trie  supposition  that  it  must  have  been  owing  to 
the  education,  instruction,  and  good  example, 
afforded  him  by  his  parents,  that  he  was  rendered 
capable  of  serving  the  public.  This  ascending 
honor  is  therefore  useful  to  the  state,  as  it  encou- 


CIN 


710 


CIN 


rages  parents  to  give  their  children  a  goou  and 
virtuous  education.  But  the  descending  honor, 
to  a  posterity  who  could  have  no  share  in  obtain- 
ing it,  is  not  only  groundless  and  absurd,  but 
often  hurtful  to  that  posterity,  since  it  is  apt  to 
make  them  proud,  disdaining  to  be  employed  in 
useful  arts,  and  thence  falling  into  poverty,  and 
all  the  meannesses,  servility,  and  wretchedness 
attending  it ;  which  is  the  present  case  with  much 
of  what  is  called  the  noblesse  of  Europe. 

*  The  absurdity  of  descending  honors  is  not  a 
mere  matter  of  philosophical  opinion,  it  is  capa- 
ble of  mathematical  demonstration.  A  man's 
son,  for  instance,  is  but  half  of  his  family,  the 
other  half  belonging  to  the  family  of  his  wife. 
His  son,  too,  marrying  into  another  family,  his 
share  in  the  grandson  is  but  a  fourth ;  in  the  great 
grandson,  by  the  same  process,  it  is  but  an  eighth. 
In  the  next  generation  a  sixteenth ;  the  next  a 
thirty-second ;  the  next  a  sixty-fourth ;  the  next 
an  hundred  and  twenty-eighth ;  the  next  a  two 
hundred  and  fifty-sixth  ;  and  the  next  a  five  hun- 
dred and  twelfth  ;  thus  in  nine  generations,  which 
will  not  require  more  than  300  years  (no  very  great 
antiquity  for  a  family),  our  present  chevalier  of 
the  order  of  Cincinnatus's  share  in  the  then  ex- 
isting knight,  will  be  but  a  51 2th  part ;  which, 
allowing  the  present  certain  fidelity  of  American 
wives  to  be  insured  down  through  all  those  nine 
generations,  is  so  small  a  consideration,  that  me- 
thinks  no  reasonable  man  would  hazard  for  the 
sake  of  it,  the  disagreeable  consequences  of  the 
jealousy,  envy,  and  ill-will  of  his  countrymen.' 
He  afterwards  calculated  that  1022  men  and  wo- 
men will  be  contributors  to  the  formation  of  this 
one  future  knight. 

The  Cincinnati,  in  their  first  general  meeting 
convened  at  Philadelphia,  May  3rd,  1784,  new 
modelled  the  institution  in  regard  to  its  here- 
ditary character.  They  annulled  the  descent 
of  its  honors,  disclaimed  all  interference  with 
political  subjects,  and  placed  their  funds  under 
the  immediate  cognizance  of  the  several  legis- 
latures, through  the  medium  of  a  charter.  Indeed 
they  relinquished  without  hesitation  every  thing 
in  their  new  constitution,  except  their  personal 
friendships,  their  general  meetings,  and  their  ri- 
bands; together  with  the  acts  of  benevolence 
which  it  was  their  intention  should  flow  from 
them. 

CINCINNATUS  (Titus  Quinctius),  a  Roman 
hero,  whose  disinterested  patriotism  reflects  eter- 
nal honor  on  his  memory,  as  well  as  on  his 
country,  which  he  was  thrice  the  means  of 
saving.  On  the  first  of  these  occasions,  the  dis- 
putes between  the  senate  and  the  people  of 
Rome  had  run  to  such  a  height  about  the  Agra- 
rian law,  that  they  were  on  the  point  of  coming 
to  an  open  rupture,  when  Cincinnatus,  being 
elected  dictator,  and  taken  from  his  plough,  by 
his  wise  counsels  and  prudent  management, 
healed  their  differences  and  prevented  the  worst 
of  calamities,  a  civil  war.  Some  time  after 
this,  when  the  consul  Minutius,  with  the  whole 
Roman  army,  were  surrounded  and  in  danger 
of  being  cut  off  by  the  combined  armies  of  the 
TEqui  and  Volsci,  he  was  called  forth  a  second 
time  to  be  dictator ;  he  conquered  the  enemies 
of  Rome,  and  refusing  all  rewards,  retired  again  - 


to  his  farm,  after  he  had  been  dictator  only  six- 
teen days.  The  same  circumstance  occurred 
once  more  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age.  He 
died  A.  A.  C.  376.  See  ROME,  HISTORY  OF. 

CI'NCTURE,  7i.  s.  Lat.  cinctura.  Something 
worn  round  the  body.  An  enclosure. 

Now  happy  he,  whose  cloak  and  cincture 
Hold  out  this  tempest  Shakspeare. 

The  court  and  prison  being  within  the  cincture  of 
one  wall.  Bacon's  Henry  VIT. 

Columbus  found  the  American  so  girt 
With  feathered  cincture,  naked  else,  and  wild. 

Milton. 

He  binds  the  sacred  cincture  round  his  breast.    Pope. 

In  architecture,  a  ring  or  list  at  the  top  and 

bottom  of  the  shaft  of  a  column ;  separating  the 

shaft  at  one  end  from  the  base,  at  the  other  from 

the  capital.     It  is  suposed  to  be  in  imitation  of 

the  girths  or  ferrils,  anciently  used  to  strengthen 

and  preserve  the  primitive  wood  columns. 

CrNDER,  n.s.  ^      Lat.  cinis ;  Ital.  ci- 

CI'NDER-WENCH,  n.  s.  >7zere;Fr. cendre, ;Goth. 

CI'NDER-WOMAN,  n.  s.jsinder.    Hot  coal  that 

has  ceased  to  flame ;  a  mass  ignited  and  quenched 

without  being  reduced  to  ashes.     A  trader  in 

cinders,  or  one  who  collects  them  for  others.     A 

cinder-wench  is  a  cinder-raker. 

I  should  make  very  forges  of  my  cheeks, 
That  would  to  cinders  burn  up  modesty. 
Did  I  but  speak  thy  deeds  !  Shakspeare. 

There  is  in  smith's  cinders,  by  some  adhesion  of 
iron,  sometimes  to  be  found  a  magnetical  operation. 

Browne. 

They  fondly  thinking  to  allay 
Their  appetite  with  gust,  instead  of  fruit 
Chewed  bitter  ashes,  which  the  offended  taste 
With  spattering  noise  rejected  :  oft  they  essay eo, 
Hunger  and  thirst  constraining  ;  drugged  as  oft. 
With  hatefullest  disrelish  writhed  their  jaws 
With  soot  and  cinders  filled.  Milton. 

So  snow  on  ^Eina  does  unmelted  lie, 
Whose  rolling  flames  and  scattered  cinders  fly. 

Waller. 

If  from  adown  the  hopeful  chops 
The  fat  upon  a  cinder  drops, 
To  stinking  smoke  it  turns  the  flame.  Swift. 

Tis  under  so  much  nasty  rubbish  laid, 
To  find  it  out's  the  cinder-woman's  trade. 

Essay  on  Satire. 

She  had  above  five  hundred  suits  of  fine  clothes, 
and  yet  went  abroad  like  a  cinder-wench. 

Arbuthnot's  History  of  John  Bull, 
In  the  black  form  of  cinder-wench  she  came, 
When  love,  the  hour,  the  place,  had  banished  shame. 

Gayf 

CINERATION,  n.  s.  from  Lat.  cineres.  The 
reduction  of  anything  by  fire  to  ashes.  A  term 
of  chemistry. 

CINER1TIOUS,  adj.  Lat.  cinericius.  Having 
the  form  or  state  of  ashes. 

The  nerves  arise  from  the  glands  of  the  cineritious 
part  of  the  brain,  and  are  terminated  in  all  parts  of 
the  body.  Cheyne. 

CINE'RULENT,  adj.  from  Lat.  cineres.  Full 
of  ashes. 

CI'NGLE,  n.  s.  from  Lat.  cingulum.  A  girth 
for  a  horse. 

CINNA  (Caias  Helvius),  a  poet  intimate  with 
Caesar.  He  went  to  attend  the  obsequies  of 
Caesar,  and,  being  mistaken  by  the  populace  for 
another  Cinna,  he  was  torn  to  pieces. 


GIN 


711 


CINNA  (Lucius  Cornelius),  a  Roman  who 
oppressed  the  republic  with  his  cruelties.  He 
was  banished  by  Octavius  for  attempting  to  make 
the  fugitive  slaves  free.  He  joined  with  Marius, 
and  with  him  at  the  head  of  the  slaves  he  de- 
feated his  enemies,  and  got  himself  made  consul 
a  fourth  time.  He  massacred  so  many  citizens 
at  Rome,  that  his  name  become  odious  ;  and  one 
of  his  officers  assassinated  him  at  Ancona,  as  he 
tvas  preparing  war  against  Sylla. 

CI'NNABAR,  TI.  s.  Lat.  cinnabaris.  Cinnabar 
is  native  or  factitious :  the  factitious  cinnabar  is 
called  vermilion.  See  CHEMISTRY. 

Cinnabar  is  the  ore  out  of  which  quicksilver  is 
drawn,  and  consists  partly  of  a  mercurial,  and  partly 
of  a  sulphureo-ochreous  matter. 

Woodward's  Met.  Fossils. 

The  particles  of  mercury  uniting  with  the  particles 
of  sulphur,  compose  cinnabar.  Newton's  Optics. 

CINNABAR,  FACTITIOUS,  is  a  mixture  of  mer- 
cury and  sulphur  sublimed,  and  thus  reduced 
into  a  fine  red.  The  best  is  of  a  high  color,  and 
full  of  fibres  like  needles. 

CINNABAR,  NATIVE,  is  an  ore  of  quicksilver, 
moderately  compact,  very  heavy,  and  of  an  ele- 
gant striated  red  color.  The  chief  use  of  cinnabar 
is  for  painting.  Although  this  body  is  composed 
of  sulphur,  which  is  of  a  light  yellow  color,  and 
mercury  which  is  white  as  silver,  it  is  nevertheless 
of  an  exceedingly  strong  red  color.  Lumps  of  it 
are  of  a  deep  brown  red  without  brilliancy  ;  but 
when  the  too  great  intensity  of  its  color  is  dimi- 
nished, by  bruising  and  dividing  it  into  small 
parts,  the  red  of  the  cinnabar  becomes  more  and 
more  exalted,  flame  colored,  and  exceedingly 
vivid  and  brilliant :  in  this  state  it  is  called  ver- 
milion. Cinnabar  is  often  employed  as  an  in- 
ternal medicine.  Hoffman  greatly  recommends 
it  as  a  sedative  and  antispasmodic  :  and  Stahl 
makes  it  an  ingredient  in  his  temperant  powder. 
Other  intelligent  physicians  deny  that  cinnabar 
taken  internally  has  any  medicinal  quality.  Their 
opinion  is  grounded  on  the  insolubility  of  this 
substance  in  any  menstruum.  This  question 
concerning  its  internal  utility  cannot  be  decided 
without  further  experiments ;  but  cinnabar  is 
certainly  used  with  success  to  procure  a  mercurial 
fumigation,  when  that' method  of  cure  is  proper 
in  venereal  diseases.  For  this  purpose  it  is  burnt 
in  an  open  fire  on  red  hot  coals,  by  which  the 
mercury  is  disengaged  and  forms  vapors,  which, 
being  applied  to  the  body  of  the  diseased  person, 
penetrates  through  the  pores  of  the  skin,  and 
produce  effects  similar  to  those  of  mercury  ad- 
ministered by  friction. 

CI'NNABAR  OF  ANTIMONY  is  made  of  mer- 
cury, sulphur,  and  crude  antimony. 

CI'NNAMON,  n.  s.  Lat.  cinnamomum.  The 
fragrant  bark  of  a  low  tree  in  the  island  of  Cey- 
lon. Its  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  olive,  both 
as  to  substance  and  color.  The  fruit  resembles 
an  acorn  or  olive,  and  has  neither  the  smell  nor 
taste  of  the  bark.  When  boiled  in  water,  it 
yields  an  oil,  which,  as  it  cools  and  hardens,  be- 
comes as  firm  and  white  as  tallow ;  the  smell  of 
which  is  agreeable  in  candles.  The  cinnamon  of 
the  ancients  nas  different  from  ours. 


Let  Araby  extol  her  happy  coast, 
Her  cinnamon  and  sweet  amomum  boast. 

Dryden's  Fables. 

CINNAMON  is  the  bark  of  two  species  of  laurus. 
The  true  cinnamon  is  from  the  laurus  cinnamo- 
mum; and  the  base  cinnamon,  which  is  often 
sold  for  the  true,  is  from  the  laurus  cassia.  See 
LAURUS. 

CINNAMON,  CLOVE,  is  the  bark  ot  a  tree  grow- 
ing in  Brasil,  which  is  often  substituted  for  real 
cloves. 

CINNAMON,  WHITE,  or  winter's  bark,  is  the 
bark  of  a  tree  frequent  in  the  isle  of  St.  Domingo, 
Guadaloupe,  &c.  of  a  sharp  biting^  taste  like 
pepper.  Some  use  it  instead  of  nutmeg :  and 
in  medicine  it  is  esteemed  a  stomachic  and  anti- 
scorbutic. See  CANELLA. 

CI'NNAMON  WATER  is  made  by  distilling  the 
bark,  first  infused  in  barley  water,  in  spirit  of 
wine,  or  white  wine. 

CINNAMUS,  a  Greek  historian,  wno  wrote  a 
History  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  during  the  reigns 
of  John  and  Manuel  Comnenus,  from  A.D.  1118 
to  1143.  His  style  is  reckoned  the  best  of  the 
nodern  Greek  authors.  He  died  about  1 183. 

CI'NQUE,  n.  s.  Fr.  A  five.  It  is  used  in 
games  alone ;  but  is  often  compounded  with 
other  words. 

CI'NQUE-FOIL,  n.  s.  Fr.  cinque  feuille.  A  kind 
>f  five-leaved  clover. 

CI'NQUE-PACE,  n.  s.  Fr.  cinque  pas.  A  kind 
of  grave  dance. 

Wooing,  wedding,  and  repenting,  is  a  Scotch  jig,  a 
measure,  and  a  cinque-pace.  The  first  suit  is  hot  and 
hasty,  like  a  Scotch  jig,  and  full  as  fantastical  ;  the 
wedding,  mannerly  and  modest,  as  a  measure  full  or 
state  and  gravity  ;  and  then  comes  repentance,  and, 
with  his  bad  legs,  falls  into  the  cinque-pace  faster  and 
faster,  till  he  sinks  into  his  grave.  Shakspeare. 

CI'NQUE  PORTS,  n.  s.  Fr.  cinque  ports.  Cer- 
tain havens,  or  ports,  on  the  south  coast  of 
England,  for  whose  privileges  see  below. 

They,  that  bear 

The  cloth  of  state  above  her,  are  four  barons 
Of  the  cinque  ports.  Shakspeare. 

CINQUE  PORTS,  five  havens  that  lie  towards 
France,  and  therefore  have  been  thought  by  our 
kings  to  be  such  as  ought  most  vigilantly  to  be 
preserved  against  invasion  Cinque  ports  were 
thus  called  by  way  of  eminence  on  account  of 
their  superior  importance,  as  having  been  thought 
to  merit  a  particular  regard  by  the  kings  of  En- 
gland, for  their  preservation  against  invasion. 
Hence  they  have  a  particular  policy,  and  are 
governed  by  a  keeper  with  the  title  of  Loid 
Warden  of  the  cinque  ports.  Camden  tells  us 
that  William  the  Conqueror  first  appointed  a 
warden  of  the  cinque  ports :  but  king  John  first 
granted  them  their  privileges,  upon  condition 
they  should  proride  eighty  ships  at  their  own 
charges  for  forty  days,  as  often  as  the  king  should 
have  occasion  in  the  wars ;  he  being  then  strait- 
ened for  a  navy  to  recover  Normandy  The  five 
ports  are,  Hastings,  Ilomney,  Hythe,  Dover,  and 
Sandwich.  Thorn  tells,  that  Hastings  provided 
twenty-one  vessels,  and  in  each  vessel  twenty-one 
men.  To  this  port  belong  Seaford,  Pevensey, 
Hedney,  Winchelsey,  Rye,  Hamine,  Wakesboi'rn, 
Creneth,  and  Forthclipe.  Ilomney  provided 


CIN 


712 


CIP 


five  ships,  and  in  each  twenty-four  men.  To  this 
belong  Bromhal,  Lyde,  Oswarstone,  Dangemares, 
and  Romenhai.  Hythe  furnished  five  ships,  and 
in  each  twenty-one  seamen.  To  this  belongs 
Westmeath.  Dover  the  same  number  as  Hastings. 
To  this  belong  Folkstone,  Faversham,  and  Marge- 
Sandwich  furnished  the  same  number  as  Hythe. 
To  this  belong  Fordiwic,  Reculver,  Serre,  and 
Deal.  The  privileges  granted  to  them  in  conse- 
quence of  these  services  were  very  great. 
Amongst  others,  they  were  each  of  them  to  send 
two  barons  to  represent  them  in  parliament;  their 
deputies  were  to  bear  the  canopy  over  the  king's 
head  at  the  time  of  his  coronation,  and  to  dine  at 
the  uppermost  table  in  the  great  hall  on  his  right 
hand  ;  to  be  exempted  from  subsidies  and  other 
aids ;  their  heirs  to  be  free  from  personal  ward- 
ship, notwithstanding  any  tenure;  to  be  impleaded 
in  their  own  towns  only,  and  not  to  be  liable  to 
tolls,  &c. 

CI'NQUE-SPOTTED,  adj.    Having  five  spots. 

On  her  left  breast 

A  mole,  cinque  spotted,  like  the  crimson  drops 
I'  the  bottom  of  a  cowslip.  Shakspeare. 

C1NTRA,  a  small  town  of  Portugal,  in  Estre- 
madura,  situated  between  the  mountains  of  Cintra, 
anciently  called  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  at 
the  foot  of  a  promontory  ou  the  north  side  of  the 
entrance  of  the  Tajo,  commonly  called  the  Rock 
of  Lisbon.  Here  was  a  palace  built  by  the 
Moors,  which  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
in  1 655,  and  rebuilt  by  king  Joseph  in  the  same 
style.  Cintra  contains  four  parish  churches,  and 
1900  inhabitants.  At  this  place  was  concluded, 
22nd  August  1808,  the  celebrated  convention 
between  the  British  forces  under  Sir  H.  Dalrym- 
ple,  and  the  French  army  under  general  Junot, 
whereby  the  latter  evacuated  Portugal  with  all 
their  ill-gotten  spoil,  and  the  British  general, 
and  British  nation  were,  as  but  too  often,  jilted, 
in  conditions  of  peace,  out  of  every  thing  that 
had  been  earned  by  a  well  fought  contest.  Mr. 
Southey  (History  of  the  late  war  in  Spain  and 
Portugal)  says  that  the  public  feeling  (decidedly 
hostile  to  this  convention)  never  was  so  unani- 
mously and  instantaneously  manifested.  Lord 
Byron  (see  our  sketch  of  his  life)  wrote  a  strong 
philippic  upon  it,  in  some  suppressed  stanzas  of 
his  Childe  Harold.  It  is  fifteen  miles  north- 
west of  Lisbon. 

CINUS,  or  CYNUS,  a  celebrated  civilian  of 
Pistoia,  in  the  fourteenth  century.  His  Commen- 
tary on  the  Code  was  finished  in  1315  ;  he  also 
wrote  on  some  parts  of  the  digest.  He  was  no 
less  famous  for  his  Italian  poems,  and  is  ranked 
among  those  who  first  gave  graces  to  the  Tuscan 
lyric  poetry. 

CINYRA,  in  the  Jewish  antiquities,  a  musical 
instrument.  See  CHINNOR. 

C1NYRAS,  in  fabulous  history,- a  king  of  Cy- 
prus, son  of  Paphus.  He  married  Cenchreis,  by 
whom  he  had  a  daughter  called  Myrrha.  Myr- 
rha  fell  in  love  with  her  father,  and  in  the  absence 
of  her  mother  she  introduced  herself  into  his  bed 
by  means  of  her  nurse.  •  Cinyras  had  by  her  a 
son  called  Adonh;  and  when  he  knew  the  incest 
he  had  committed,  he  attempted  to  stab  his 
daughter,  who  escaped  his  pursuit  and  fled  into 
Arabia,  where,  after  she  had  brought  forth, 


she  was  changed  into  a  tree  which  still  bears  her 
name.  Cinyras,  according  to  some,  stabbed 
himself. 

CI'ON,  n.  s.  Fr.  sion,  or  scion.  A  sprout ;  a 
shoot  from  a  plant.  The  shoot  engrafted  or  in- 
serted on  a  stock. 

We  have  reason  to  cool   our  raging  motions,  our 

carnal  stings,  our  unbitted  lusts  j  whereof  I  take  this, 

that  you  call  love,  to  be  a  sect  or  don.       Shakspeare. 

The  don  over-ruleth  the  stock  ;  and  the  stock  is  but 

psssive,  and   giveth  aliment,  but  no  motion,  to  the 

graft.  Bacon. 

The  stately  Caledonian  oak,  newly  settled  in  his 

triumphant  throne,  begirt  with  dons  of  his  own  royal 

stem.  Hovrell. 

CIONS,  or  CYONS,  in  gardening,  are  used  in 
grafting ;  which  is  performed  by  the  application 
of  the  cion  of  one  plant  upon  the  stalk  of  another. 
To  produce  a  stock  of  cions  for  grafting,  planting, 
&c.  the  gardeners  sometimes  cut  off  the  bodies  of 
trees  a  little  above  the  ground,  and  only  leave  a 
stump  or  root  standing ;  the  redundant  sap  will 
not  fail  next  spring  to  put  forth  a  great  number 
of  shoots.  In  dressing  dwarf  trees,  a  great  many 
cions  are  to  be  cut  off. 

CIOTAT,  a  sea-port  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Mouths  of  the  Rhone,  and  ci- 
devant  province  of  Provence ;  famous  for  Mus- 
cadine wine.  It  is  seated  on  the  bay  of  Laquez, 
between  Marseilles  and  Toulon,  twelve  miles 
from  the  former,  and  sixteen  from  the  latter  place; 
and  the  harbour  is  defended  by  a  strong  fort. 
Population  5274. 

CITHER,  n.s.,  v.  n.  &  v.  a.  Ital.  cifra;  Fr. 
chifre,  from  Ar.  sifr ;  Heb.  sepher,  numeration.  The 
figure  0  in  arithmetic;  a  secret  character  for 
writing.  An  arithmetical  mark,  which,  standing 
for  nothing  itself,  increases  the  value  of  the  other 
figures.  An  intertexture  of  letters  engraved 
usually  on  boxes  or  plate.  A  character  in  ge- 
neral. A  secret  or  occult  manner  of  writing,  or 
the  key  to  it.  The  verb  of  course  applies  to  each 
of  the  senses  given  of  the  noun.  To  cipher  is  to 
draw  characters,  occult  or  general,  and  to  prac- 
tise arithmetic. 

His  crest  was  covered  with  a  couchant  hownd, 
And  all  his  armour  seemed  of  antique  mould, 
But  wondrous  massy  and  assured  sownd, 
And  round  about  yfretted  all  with  gold, 
In  which  there  written  was  with  cyphers  old 
Achilles'  arms,  which  Artegall  did  win, 
And  on  his  shield,  enveloped  sevenfold, 
He  bore  a  crowned  little  ent.ilin, 
That  deckle  the  azure  field  with  her  faire  pouldered  skin. 

Spenser. 

In  succeeding  times  this  wisdom  began  to  be  written 
in  ciphers  and  characters,  and  letters  bearing  the  form 
of  creatures.  Raleigh's  History  of  the  World. 

Mine  were  the  very  cipher  of  a  function, 

To  find  the  faults,  whose  fine  stands  in  record, 

And  let  go  by  the  actor.  Sliakspeare. 

If  the  people  be  somewhat  in  the  election,  you  can- 
not make  them  nulls  or  ciphers  in  the  privation  or 
translation.  Bacon. 

This  book,  as  long  lived  as  the  elements, 
In  cipher  writ,  or  new-made  idioms.  Donne. 

He  frequented  sermons,  and  penned  notes  :  his 
notes  he  ciphered  with  Greek  characters.  Haytoard. 

As,  in  accounts,  ciphers  and  figures  pass  for  real 
sums,  so  names  pass  for  things.  Snutk 


Ify.J. 


CIPHERS. 


Fy.2. 


Ifa.-t 


JVC 


k 


ve   ah/     dyumm 


CUtCUMTJERXlTTOlt. 


J.Shnry. Sculp. 


CIP 


713 


CIP 


He  was  pleased  to  command  me  to  stay  at  London, 
to  send  and  receive  all  his  letters ;  and  I  was  fur- 
nished with  nine  several  ciphers,  in  order  to  it. 

Denham. 

Troy  flamed  in  burnished  gold  ;  and  o'er  the  throne, 
Arms  and  the  Man  in  golden  ciphers  shone.        Pope. 
You  have  been  bred  to  business  ;  you  can  cipher  : 
wonder  you  never  used  your  pen  and  ink. 

Arbuthnot. 

Some  mingling  stir  the  melted  tar,  and  some 
Deep  on  the  new-shorn  vagrant's  heaving  side 
To  stamo  the  master's  ciplter  ready  stand. 

Thomson. 

CIPHER,  or  CYPHER.     See  ARITHMETIC. 

CIPHER  is  a  kind  of  enigmatic  character,  com- 
posed of  several  letters  interwoven,  which  are 
generally  the  initial  letters  of  the  person's  names 
for  whom  the  ciphers  are  intended.  These  are 
frequently  used  on  seals,  coaches,  and  other 
moveables.  Anciently  merchants  and  tradesmen 
were  not  allowed  to  bear  arms ;  in  lieu  thereof, 
they  bore  their  ciphers,  or  the  initial  letters  of 
their  names,  artfully  interwoven  about  a  cross ; 
of  which  we  have  various  instances  on  tombs,  &c. 

CIPHERS  are  also  certain  secret  characters  used 
in  writing  confidential,  public,  and  private  letters. 
De  la  Guilletiere,  in  his  Lacedsemon,  ancient, 
and  modern,  endeavours  to  make  the  ancient 
Spartans  the  inventors  of  the  art  of  writing  in 
cipher.  Their  scytala,  according  to  him,  was 
the  first  sketch  of  this  mysterious  art;  these 
scytala  were  two  rollers  of  wood,  of  equal  length 
and  thickness;  one  of  them  kept  by  the  ephori, 
the  other  by  the  general  of  the  army  sent  on  any 
expedition  against  the  enemy.  When  these  ma- 
gistrates would  send  any  secret  orders  to  the  ge- 
neral, they  took  a  slip  of  parchment,  and  rolled 
it  very  exactly  about  the  scytala  which  they  had 
reserved  ;  and  in  this  state  wrote  their  intentions, 
which  appeared  perfect  and  consistent  while  the 
parchment  continued  on  the  roll  :  when  taken 
off,  the  writing  was  maimed,  and  without  con- 
nexion :  but  was  easily  retrieved  by  the  general, 
upon  his  applying  it  to  his  scytala.  Polybius 
says,  that  ./Eneas  Tacticus,  2000  years  ago,  col- 
lected together  twenty  different  manners  of  wri- 
ting, so  as  not  to  be  understood  by  any  but  those 
in  the  secret ;  part  of  which  were  invented  by 
himself,  and  part  used  before  his  time.  Trithe- 
mius,  Bap.  Porta,  Vigenere,  and  P.  Niceron, 
have  written  expressly  on  the  subject  of  ciphers. 
Various  obvious  modes  of  arranging  a  secret  cor- 
respondence of  this  kind,  will  occur  to  every  in- 
genious person.  The  Stuarts,  in  their  correspon- 
dence with  their  adherents  in  this  country,  since 
the  Revolution,  seem  to  have  made  the  last  pub- 
lic use  of  this  mode  of  transmitting  intelligence. 
Charles  I.  it  is  said,  had  a  cipher  consisting  only 
of  a  straight  line  differently  inclined :  and  there 
are  ways  of  ciphering  by  the  mere  punctuation 
of  a  letter,  whilst  the  words  shall  be  non-signifi- 
cants, or  sense  that  leaves  no  room  for  suspicion. 
Those  who  wish  to  see  a  full  explanation  of  ci- 
phering, may  consult  Bacon  in  his  Advancement 
of  Learning,  where  they  will  find  a  cipher  of  his 
own  invention ;  bishop  Wilkins'  Secret  and 
Swift  Messenger;  Falconer's  Cryptomenysis 
Patefacta,  and  Kircher's  Steganography.  \Ve 


select  as  a  specimen  .of  this  once  important  art, 
the  following  modes  : — • 

CIPHER  BY  DIALS.  On  a  piece  of  square 
pasteboard  A  B  C  D,  plate  CIRCUMFERENTOR,  and 
CIPHER,  fig.  1,  2,  draw  the  circle  EFGH,  and 
divide  it  into  twenty-six  equal  parts,  in  each  of 
which  must  be  wrote  one  of  the  letters  of  the  al- 
phabet. On  the  inside  of  this  there  must  be 
another  circle  of  pasteboard,  I L  M  N,  moveable 
round  the  centre  O,  and  the  extremity  of  this 
must  be  divided  into  the  same  number  of  equal 
parts  as  the  other.  On  this  also  must  be  written 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  which,  however,  need 
not  be  disposed  in  the  same  order.  The  person 
with  whom  you  correspond  must  have  a  similar 
dial,  and  at  the  beginning  of  your  letter  you 
must  put  any  two  letters  that  answer  to  each 
other  when  you  have  fixed  the  dial.  Example. 
Suppose  you  would  write  as  follows  : — '  If  you 
will  come  over  to  us,  you  shall  have  a  pension, 
and  you  may  still  make  a  sham  opposition.' 
You  begin  with  the  letters  Ma,  which  show  how 
the  dial  is  fixed  ;  then  for  If  you,  you  write  un 
jut.,  and  so  for  the  rest,  as  in  fig.  3.  The  same 
intention  may  be  answered  by  a  ruler,  the  upper 
part,  of  which  is  fixed  and  the  lower  part  to  slide, 
but  in  this  case  the  upper  part  must  contain  two 
alphabets  in  succession,  that  some  letter  of  that 
part  may  constantly  correspond  to  one  in  the 
lower  part.  The  divisions  standing  directly  over 
each  other  in  a  straight  line,  will  be  much  more 
obvious  than  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle.  Or 
two  straight  pieces  of  pasteboard  regularly  divi- 
ded, the  one  containing  a  single  and  the  other  a 
double  alphabet,  would  answer  exactly  the  same 
purpose.  In  this  case  a  blank  space  may  be  left 
at  each  end  of  the  single  alphabet,  and  one  or 
two  weights  being  placed  on  both  the  pieces  will 
keep  them  steady. 

CIPHER,  MUSICAL.  The  construction  of  this 
cipher  is  similar  to  that  given  above.  The  cir- 
cle EFGH,  fig.  1,  is  to  be  divided  into  equal 
parts  ;  in  each  part  must  be  written  one  of  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet :  and  on  the  anterior  cir- 
cle IX  M  N,  moveable  round  the  centre  O,  there 
is  to  be  the  same  number  of  divisions ;  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  inner  circle  must  be  ruled  in 
the  manner  of  a  music  paper  ;  and  in  each  divi- 
sion there  is  to  be  placed  a  note,  differing  either 
in  figure  or  position.  Lastly,  within  the  musical 
lines  place  the  three  keys,  and  on  the  outer  cir- 
cle, the  figures  that  are  commonly  used  to  denote 
the  time.  Then  provide  a  ruled  paper,  and 
place  one  of  the  keys,  as  suppose  that  of  ge  re 
sol,  against  the  time  two-fourths  at  the  beginning 
of  the  paper,  which  will  inform  your  correspon- 
dent how  to  fix  his  circle.  Then  copy  the  notes 
that  answer  to  the  several  letters  of  the  words 
you  intend  to  write,  in  the  manner  expressed  in 
fig.  4.  A  cipher  of  this  sort  may  be  made  more 
difficult  to  discover  by  frequently  changing  the 
key,  and  that  will  not  in  the  least  embarrass  the 
reader.  You  may  likewise  add  either  of  the 
marks  (fig.  5)  to  the  note  that  begins  a  word, 
which  will  make  it  more  easy  to  read,  and  at  the 
same  time  give  the  music  a  more  natural  aspect. 
This  cipher  is  preferable  to  that  by  dials,  as  it 
may  be  enclosed  in  a  letter  about  common  affairs, 
and  pass  unsuspected. 


714 


C  I  R  C  A  R  S. 


CIPPUS,  in  antiquity,  a  low  column,  with  an 
inscription,  erected  on  the  high  roads,  or  other 
places,  to  show  the  way  to  travellers  ;  to  serve 
as  a  boundary ;  to  mark  the  grave  of  a  deceased 
person,  &c. 

CIPRIANI  (Giovanni  Batista),  a  celebrated 
modem  painter,  was  born  in  Tuscany,  at  Pis- 
toia,  in  1727.  Receiving  the  rudiments  of 
his  art  from  an  Englishman  residing  at  Florence, 
tinder  the  name  of  Gabbiani,  he  went  to  Rome 
for  three  years,  in  1750 ;  and  came  afterwards  to 
England  with  Sir  William  Chambers.  When 
the  duke  of  Richmond  opened  his  gallery  as  a 
school  of  arts,  he  was  appointed  a  visitor.  At 
the  foundation  of  the  Rnyal  Academy,  in  1769, 
he  made  the  design  for  the  diploma,  and  re- 
ceived the  present  of  a  silver  cup.  His  best 
paintings  are  at  Houghton,  but  he  has  left  many 
highly  valued  drawings.  Bartolozzi  engraved 
many  of  his  designs.  He  died  at  Chelsea  in 
1785. 

CIRC./EA,  enchanter's  night  shade;  a  genus 
of  the  monogynia  order,  and.  diandria  class  of 
plants ;  natural  order,  forty-eighth,  aggregate  : 
COR.  dipetalous  :  CAL.  diphyllous,  superior,  with 
one  bilocular  seed.  There  are  two  species,  one 
of  which  is  a  native  of  Britain,  and  the  other  of 
Germany.  They  are  low  herbaceous  plants  with 
white  flowers,  and  possessed  of  no  remarkable 
property. 

CIRCARS,  NORTHERN,  a  province  reaching 
along  the  west  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  from  the 
fifteenth  to  the  twentieth  degree  of  north  latitude, 
bounded  by  the  sea  on  the  west,  by  the  province 
of  Hyderabad  on  the  south-east,  from  which  a 
range  of  small  hills  and  the  river  Godavery  se- 
parate it ;  to  the  north  of  that  river  it  is  divided 
from  Berar  by  a  continued  ridge  of  almost  im- 
passable mountains  to  the  Circars  at  Goomsur ; 
these  then  turn  to  the  eastward,  and  together 
with  the  Chilka  Lake  form  a  boundary  of  nearly 
fifty  miles  on  the  north.  On  the  south  the  small 
river  Oundezama  separates  this  country  from 
Ongole  and  the  Carnatic  on  the  east  of  the 
Ghauts.  It  contains  about  17,000  square  miles, 
one-fifth  arable  land,  two-fifths  pasture,  and  the 
remainder  woods,  water,  towns,  barren  hills,  or 
the  sandy  waste  that  runs  along  the  whole  coast, 
and  is  about  three  miles  broad  on  the  average. 
It  is  divided  into  five  districts,  Guntoor,  Morti- 
zabad,  Condapilly  or  Mustaphabad,  Ellore, 
Rajamundry,  and  Cicacole,  anciently  Calingas. 
It  contains  several  places  of  consequence,  as 
Ganjam,  Calingapatam,  Vizianagram,  Bindipa- 
tam,  Visagapatam,  and  Masulipatam.  Its  popu- 
lation amounts  to  two  millions  and  a  half,  mostly 
Hindoos,  but  in  the  towns  there  are  many 
Mahommedans,  and  a  few  native  Christians. 

This  country  is  well  watered  by  numerous 
rivers,  which  rise  in  the  mountains  on  the  north- 
west anJ  run  through  it  to  the  sea.  Of  these 
the  Godavery  is  the  only  one  of  very  great  extent, 
reaching  across  the  peninsula  from  the  Ghauts,  a 
little  to  the  north  of  Bombay,  and  falling  into 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  almost  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  Circars.  The  soil  is  conse- 
quently very  fruitful,  and  yields  one  plentiful 
crop  in  the  year,  producing  grain  of  all  kinds, 
especially  rice,  tobacco,  sugar,  and  cotton.  It 


abounds  also  in  timber  for  ship-building.  Large 
ships  have  been  built  at  Coringa  and  Narsipore, 
near  the  principal  mouths  of  the  Godavery,  and 
the  coasting  trade,  it  is  said,  employs  not  less 
than  30,000  tons  of  a  smaller  description.  Al- 
though, however,  it  possesses  so  great  an  extent 
of  coast,  it  has  not  a  single  harbour  where  a 
large  vessel  can  anchor,  much  less  ride  secure 
from  the  storms.  Masulipatam  is  the  only  port 
on  the  coast  of  Coromandel  at  which  any  vessels 
can  ride  without  the  inconvenience  of  a  heavy 
surf.  The  chief  lake  is  Chilka,  about  thirty-five 
miles  long  by  eight  broad,  separating  the  northern 
Circars  from  the  province  of  Cuttack.  Few 
fruits  and  vegetables  are  grown  here,  especially  in 
the  southern  parts,  it  being  extremely  difficult 
to  raise  them,  owing  probably  to  the  influence  of 
the  sea  breezes. 

Here,  as  indeed  over  the  greater  part  of  south- 
ern India,  the  village  system  prevails ;  this  is  a 
political  arrangement,  by  which  a  village  in- 
cludes not  only  the  spot  that  is  inhabited,  but 
that  part  of  the  adjacent  country  from  which  its 
subsistence  is  obtained.  The  employments,  ex- 
cept simply  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  are  per- 
formed by  public  servants,  who  are  paid  by 
a  portion  of  land,  and  a  few  small  gratuities  in 
harvest  time.  These  are  the  potail  or  chief,  the 
talia  and  totie,  a  kind  of  police,  the  boundary- 
man,  the  superintendant  of  the  water  courses, 
the  brahmin,  the  schoolmaster,  the  astrologer, 
the  smith  and  carpenter,  the  poet,  the  musician, 
and  the  dancing  girl.  Under  this  form  these 
people  have  for  ages  retained  not  only  their  cus- 
toms but  even  their  name  unaltered.  The  hilly 
part  of  the  country  is  in  the  possession  of  ze- 
mindars, who  let  their  lands  on  condition  of 
military  service,  according  to  the  ancient  feudal 
custom.  These  hold  the  chief  sway  over  the  rest 
of  the  people,  being  able  to  bring  into  the  field 
more  than  40,000  troops.  Their  power  was 
most  formidable,  and  altogether  uncontrolled, 
until  the  year  1794,  when  the  great  zemindar  of 
Vizianagram  was  punished  for  his  oppression 
and  expulsion  of  the  inferior  chieftains ;  and  to 
this  time  the  administration  is  not  properly  fixed 
on  a  regular  plan,  so  as  to  be  truly  advantageous 
to  the  country. 

Owing  to  the  great  influence  of  the  sea  air, 
these  provinces  are  cooler  than  most  other  parts 
of  the  world  in  the  same  latitude.  At  the  ap- 
proach of  summer  the  heat  becomes  excessive, 
especially  in  the  tracts  of  sand  near  the  coast. 
Among  the  hills  and  marshy  jungles  the  pesti- 
lential vapors  that  arise  produce  a  disease  called 
the  hill  fever,  which  is  sometimes  very  preva- 
lent. North  of  the  Godavery  the  rains  set  in 
about  the  middle  of  June,  continuing  gentle  till 
the  middle  of  August,  this  is  called  the  small 
rain  harvest ;  from  this  time  it  is  more  abundant 
till  November,  when  it  is  succeeded  by  storms 
and  the  north-easterly  wind ;  after  this  a 
pleasant  season  ensues,  in  the  middle  of  which, 
or  early  in  January,  the  rice  and  hajary 
harvest  closes.  The  harvest  for  maize  and  the 
different  sorts  of  grain,  finishes  at  the  vernal 
equinox;  then  the  hot  season  commences,  which 
is  however  moderate  in  the  north,  owing  to  the 
vicinity  of  the  sea  and  the  mountains. 


C  I  R  C  A  S  S  I  A. 


715 


Sheep,  and  the  larger  species  of  horned  cattle, 
are  found  in  these  countries,  and  the  adjacent 
sea  and  its  numerous  inlets  furnish  an  abund- 
ance of  fish  of  every  kind  known  in  India. 
Grain,  however,  is  the  chief  production  of  the 
Circars ;  in  former  times  it  was  the  granary  of 
the  Carnatic  during  the  north-east  monsoon,  as 
Tanjore  was  during  the  south-west.  Rice,  paddy, 
wheat  and  other  grains  in  use  among  the  natives, 
are  annually  exported  to  Madras,  and  in  the  first 
four  months  of  1812,  when  these  articles  were  at 
a  high  price  there,  the  quantity  sent  from  this 
country  amounted  to  the  sum  of  more  than  a 
million  of  sicca  rupees.  The  indigo  exported  to 
the  same  place  amounts  to  45,000  rupees,  and 
the  rum  from  the  province  of  Ganjam,  for  the 
use  of  the  navy,  to  87,700  rupees.  These  pro- 
vinces also  send  to  Madras  chillies,  fire-wood, 
coriander  seeds,  cashew  nuts,  and  other  articles 
used  by  the  natives  as  drugs  and  for  their  reli- 
gious ceremonies.  The  imports  from  Madras 
consistof  coiled  cables  and  cordage  for  the  native 
vessels,  and  treasure  sent  for  the  purchase  of 
salt,  and  goods  for  the  British  market.  Besides 
these  they  receive  quantities  of  Madeira,  claret, 
and  port  wines,  ale,  brandy,  oilman's  stores, 
glass,  stationary,  tea,  copper  of  different  sorts, 
steel  and  every  kind  of  hardware,  with  various* 
articles  from  the  eastward,  as  cloves,  benjamin, 
pepper,  tin,  dammer  and  borax. 

Manufactures  to  a  considerable  extent  are  car- 
liecl  on  in  the  Circars.  Round  Nagpore.  plain 
long  cloth  is  fabricated,  of  which  the  best  prints 
in  Europe  are  made  ;  some  of  a  coarser  sort  are 
made  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  river  Goda- 
very.  Cicacole  is  remarkable  for  curious  mus- 
lins, Ellore  for  carpets,  and  Berhampore  for  silk? 
manufactured  from  the  raw  material,  procured 
from  Bengal  and  China.  Madras  is  principally 
supplied  with  piece  goods  from  the  Northern 
Circars ;  the  thread  is  spun  by  the  cultivating 
caste,  and  the  weavers,  owing  to  various  regula- 
tions made  in  their  favor,  are  able  to  live  better 
than  the  laboring  class ;  but  they  are  generally 
more  dissipated,  and  squander  their  wages  in 
gaming  and  cock-fighting.  The  females  in  gen- 
eral prepare  the  thread  and  sell  it  to  the  weavers, 
and  many  who  belong  to  decayed  families  derive 
their  subsistence  from  this  employment  The 
cotton  is  chiefly  raised  in  the  country  ;  the  rest 
is  brought  from  the  states  of  the  Nizam  and  the 
Mahrattas.  That  grown  in  the  country  is  pre- 
ferred, being  cleaner,  but  either  too  much  or  too 
little  rain  will  destroy  the  crop.  Colored  piece 
goods  are  exported  from  Masulipatam,  not  only 
to  Madras,  but  to  Bombay  and  the  Persian 
Gulf. 

The  natives  are  divided  into  two  nations,  the 
Telinga  and  Oria  or  Orissa,  formerly  separated 
by  the  Godavery;  but  now  much  intermixed. 
Their  dialects  are  different,  and  they  have  rites 
and  customs  perfectly  distinguishable ;  both 
have  the  four  castes  or  subdivisions  common  to 
India,  but  the  Orias  are  said  to  deviate  least 
from  the  original  institutions.  The  brahmins 
are  the  chief ;  the  rachwars,  rowwars  and  vel- 
mas,  of  which  the  zemindars  form  a  part,  follow 
the  manners  of  the  rajpoots  and  profess  to 
belong  to  the  khetras  or  warriors  ;  the  husband- 


men, cow-herds,  weavers,  and  artificers,  are  all 
sudras ;  the  shopkeepers  belong  to  the  vaisya 
or  third  caste. 

The  history  of  this  country,  while  under  the 
Hindoo  governments,  is  like  that  of  other  parts 
of  India,  enveloped  in  mystery.  The  Mahom- 
medans  invaded  it  in  the  fifteenth  century,  but  it 
was  not  perfectly  reduced  till  1571,  in  the  reign 
of  Ibrahim  Kootub,  shah  of  Golconda.  It  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Aurengzebe  in  1687,  and 
under  the  Mogul  dynasty  it  formed  a  part  of  the 
government  of  the  Nizam  of  the  Deccan.  In 
the  year  1752-3  it  was  made  over  to  M.  Bussy 
for  the  payment  of  the  French  auxiliary  forces, 
and  from  that  time  continued  in  their  possession 
till  it  was  conquered  by  the  British  in  1759.  A 
formal  grant  was  made  of  it  six  years  after,  from 
shah  Alum  the  great  mogul,  to  lord  Clive ;  but 
the  brother  of  the  nizam  was  allowed  to  retain 
Guntoor,  which  had  been  settled  on  him,  until 
his  death,  which  took  place  in  1788,  since 
which  time  the  East  India  Company  have  had  the 
entire  'possession. 

CIRCASSIA,  a  considerable  country  in  Asia, 
including  a  large  portion  of  territory  between  the 
•Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian.  It  is  bounded,  as  far 
as  its  limits  can  be  defined,  by  the  Black  Sea  on 
the  west,  and  the  Caspian  on  the  eas* ;  on  the  south 
by  the  northern  declivity  of  the  great  range  of 
Caucasus,  and  on  the  north  by  the  rivers  Terek 
and  Cuban.  The  approach  to  it  on  the  north  is 
very  striking,  over  a  vast  steppe,  or  level  plain, 
beyond  which,  in  the  distance,  is  seen,  rising 
abruptly,  the  great  chain  of  the  Caucasian  Moun- 
tains ;  four  distinct  groupes  have  their  summits 
always  covered  with  snow,  and  the  Elboras,  rival- 
ing Mont  Blanc  in  magnitude,  raises  its  lofty 
head  above  them  all.  The  intervening  ridge, 
called  the  Black  Mountains,  hardly  more  than 
half  the  height  of  the  Elboras,  is  so  precipitous  that 
it  has  the  appearance  of  a  wall.  Beneath  these 
ranges  the  country  extends,  including  many 
beautiful  valleys,  feeding  vast  flocks  and  herds, 
and  yielding  a  most  abundant  crop  of  maize  and 
millet,  the  sorts  of  grain  chiefly  cultivated  here. 
It  lies  between  thirty-seven  and  forty-six  degrees 
of  east  longitude,  and  forty-one  and  forty-five  of 
north  latitude,  but  its  exact  boundaries  can 
hardly  be  ascertained,  the  ancient  extent  having 
been  much  contracted  by  the  Russians,  who  have 
erected  the  fortresses  of  Mozuk  and  Georgrewsk 
on  the  line  of  the  Terek  and  Cuban,  to  check  the 
inroads  of  the  semibarbarous  native  tribes. 

The  name  given  to  the  inhabitants  of  this 
country  is  a  corruption  of  the  Russian,  Tcherkess, 
orTcherkessians;  but  these  names  are  not  known 
in  the  region  itself,  which  is  occupied  by  a 
number  of  petty,  independent  tribes,  hostile  to 
each  other,  and  many  of  them  ignorant  of  each 
other's  language.  The  principal  of  these  are  the 
Great  and  Little  Kabardines,  the  Abasses,  the 
Kisti,  and  the  Assetes,  but  as  these,  with  almost 
an  indefinite  number  more,  all  agree  in  their  ge- 
neral character,  and  are  reckoned  by  the  Rus- 
sians under  one  name,  it  is  unnecessary  to 
enter  into  their  minute  distinctions.  They  are 
in  a  very  imperfect  state  of  subjection  to  Russia; 
their  dependence  is  indeed  acknowleged  in  do- 
cuments preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  empire 


716 


C  I  R  C  A  S  S  1  A. 


of  as  early  a  date  as  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century ;  but  they  have  never  regularly  submitted 
to  its  dominion.  They  pay  no  tribute,  and  ren- 
der no  military  service ;  they  are  perpetually 
making  inroads  on  the  Russian  territory,  carry- 
ing off  booty  and  cattle  in  great  quantities.  At 
present,  such  is  the  state  of  the  country,  that 
travellers  cannot  safely  go  a  few  miles  beyond  the 
frontiers. 

Of  course  there  is  no  regular  government 
among  the  Circassians ;  the  power  is  altogether 
vested  in  their  chiefs,  who  have  a  certain  number 
of  vassals  under  each  of  them  ;  and  there  is  no 
country  in  which  the  pride  of  birth  prevails  to  so 
great  a  degree.  The  chiefs,  or  princes,  have  un- 
controlled authority  in  their  own  dominions ; 
the  uzdens,  or  nobles,  attend  the  chiefs  in  war, 
but  are  otherwise  independent ;  these  have  vassals 
in  entire  subjection  to  them,  who  cultivate  the 
ground,  and  are  employed,  as  menials.  Besides 
these  there  is  a  class  of  freedmen,  who  render  mi- 
litary service,  but  are  ranked  in  some  degree  as 
nobles.  The  masters,  of  whatever  class,  have 
the  power  of  life  and  death  over  their  vas- 
sals, and  even  sell  them,  but  this  is  not  counted 
honorable.  In  their  marriages  no  mixture  of 
ranks  is  ever  known ;  every  one  marries  into  his 
own  class. 

This  pride,  with  respect  to  rank  and  birth, 
appears  in  contempt  of  those  domestic  ties  and 
relations  which  are  most  cherished  by  other 
nations.  The  husband  visits  his  wife  only  in 
private :  it  is  an  insult  to  name  her  in  his  pre- 
sence. The  children  are  not  indebted  to  their 
parents  for  their  education.  At  the  age  of  three 
or  four  they  are  committed  to  a  friend  of  the  fa- 
mily of  equal  rank,  who,  from  motives  of  regard, 
is  induced  to  undertake  this  task.  They  con- 
tinue under  his  sole  care  till  the  youths  are  fit 
for  martial  exercises,  and  the  females  to  marry. 
Then  it  is  lawful  for  the  parents  to  see  them. 
The  females  are  confined,  but  less  strictly  than  in 
other  countries  in  the  east.  Polygamy  is  lawful, 
but  is  not  much  practised,  at  least  as  it  respects 
the  number  of  their  wives. 

The  Circassians  are  remarkable  for  the  ele- 
gance of  their  external  appearance  :  the  men  are 
tall,  and  athletic,  though  slender ;  their  features 
are  expressive,  their  air  haughty  and  martial. 
The  beauty  of  the  females  has  been  long  cele- 
brated, and  Circassian  captives  are  particularly 
in  request  for  the  eastern  seraglios.  Every  care 
is  taken  to  preserve  their  beauty  in  youth,  only 
a  moderate  portion  of  food,  chiefly  milk  and 
pastry,  is  allowed  them ;  their  feet  are  preserved 
by  wooden  clogs,  and  their  hands  carefully  co- 
vered with  gloves.  It  was  in  this  country  that 
the  practice  of  inoculating  for  the  small-pox 
was  first  introduced.  At  the  age  of  ten  or  eleven 
a  broad  leathern  girdle  is  fastenened  with  silver 
clasps  round  the  waist :  this  is  allowed  to  be  re- 
moved only  by  the  bridegroom  after  marriage. 

The  Circassians  are  most  commonly  employed 
in  expeditions  for  war  against  the  neighbouring 
tribes,  or  in  excursions  into  t'ae  Russian  terri- 
tory in  pursuit  of  plunder.  At  home  they  are 
mostly  engaged  in  hunting  and  feasting.  They 
take  great  pride  in  their  arms  and  their  horses; 
large  sums,  even  of  four  or  five  hundred  pounds; 


are  frequently  expended  in  the  former  :  they  are 
indefatigable  in  keeping  them  bright  and  clean. 
These  consist  of  bow  and  quiver,  musket,  and 
pistols,  steel  helmet  and  arm-plates;  they  are 
mostly  covered  with  a  coat  of  mail,  composed 
of  polished  steel  rings.  These  are  richly  orna- 
mented with  gold  and  silver,  and  often  set 
with  pearls  and  precious  stones.  In  their  horses 
they  endeavour  to  attain  both  usefulness  and 
beauty ;  the  former  being  considered  essential  to 
the  light  plundering  expeditions  in  which  they 
so  much  delight.  Every  great  family  has  a  race 
peculiar  to  itself,  the  genealogy  of  which  they 
carefully  preserve.  At  the  birth  of  the  foal,  a 
mark,  denoting  its  pedigree,  is  branded  on  the 
thigh,  which  it  is  a  capital  offence  to  alter  or  de- 
face. Pallas  thinks,  that  if  the  Circassians  could 
be  induced  to  join  the  Russian  standard,  they 
would  make  excellent  light  troops ;  but  this  is 
an  object  which  no  administration  could  ever  ac- 
complish. Their  wars  among  themselves  chiefly 
arise  from  the  motives  of  private  revenge,  so  pre- 
valent in  all  rude  societies,  and  which  here  are 
very  strong.  Notwithstanding  this  lawless  state 
of  things,  however,  the  rights  of  hospitality  are 
held  sacred ;  when  a  Circassian  has  once  received 
a  stranger  under  his  roof,  he  will  defend  him  at 
all  hazards.  If  he  has  been  allowed  to  suck  a 
mouthful  of  milk  from  the  wife's  breast,  he  is  from 
that  moment  regarded  as  one  of  the  family.  In 
the  last  century,  they  were  converted  to  the  Ma- 
hommedan  faith ;  but  its  observances,  excepting 
that  of  circumcision,  are  little  regarded.  Ab- 
stinence from  brandy,  tobacco,  and  hogs'  flesh, 
and  more  frequent  polygamy,  are  almost  the  only 
effects  of  the  system.  There  are  many  remains 
of  paganism  among  them ;  but  great  numbers 
belong  to  the  Greek  church. 

The  Circassians  have  little  of  that  peace  and 
security  so  essential  to  success  in  industrious 
pursuits.  Men  are  often  seen  driving  the  plough 
in  complete  armour,  ready  at  a  moment's  warn- 
ing to  defend  the  land  which  they  are  cultivating. 
They  manure  the  ground  by  burning  the  herb- 
age ;  and  when  it  is  exhausted  by  two  or  three 
crops,  it  is  left  fallow  to  recover  its  fertility.  The 
chief  grain  cultivated  by  them  is  millet,  with  a 
little  barley  and  maize.  Their  sheep  are  valua- 
ble, and  are  the  animals  chiefly  reared  for  food ; 
the  flesh  of  young  horses  they  are  said  to  be  fond 
of,  and  mare's  milk  is  a  common  beverage  with 
them.  Oxen  are  employed  in  the  plough  and  in 
draught.  Bees  are  reared  in  great  numbers, 
some  having  200  or  300  hives.  Wool  and  wax 
are  exported. 

CIRCE,  in  fabulous  history,  a  daughter  of 
Sol  and  Perseis,  celebrated  for  her  knowledge  of 
magic  and  venomous  herbs.  She  was  sister  to 
.^Etes,  king  of  Colchis,  and  to  Pasiphae,  the  wife 
of  Minos.  She  married  a  Sarmatian  prince  of 
Colchis,  whom  she  murdered  to  obtain  the  king 
dom.  She  was  expelled  by  her  subjects,  and 
carried  by  her  father  upon  the  coasts  of  Italy  to 
an  island  called  ^Eaea.  Ulysses,  at  his  return 
from  the  Trojan  war,  visited  her  coasts;  and  all 
his  companions,  who  ran  headlong  into  pleasure 
and  voluptuousness,  were  changed  by  Circe's 
potions  into  swine.  Ulysses,  wh«»  was  fortified 
against  all  enchantments  by  an  herb  called  moly, 


CIR 


717 


CIR 


which  he  had  received  from  Mercury,  went  to 
Circe,  and,  sword  in  hand,  demanded  the  resto- 
ration of  his  companions  to  their  former  state. 
She  complied,  and  loaded  the  hero  with  plea- 
sures and  honors.  In  this  voluptuous  retreat 
Ulysses  had  by  Circe  one  son  called  Telegonus, 
or  two,  according  to  Hesiod,  called  Agrius  and 
Latinus.  For  one  whole  year  Ulysses  forgot  his 
glory  in  Circe's  arms.  At  his  departure  the 
nymph  advised  him  to  descend  to  hell,  and  to 
consult  the  manes  of  Tiresias  concerning  the 
fate  that  attended  him. 

CIRCELLO  MONTE,  a  hill  and  promontory 
of  the  Campagna  di  Roma,  in  the  States  of  the 
Church.  It  was  the  famous  Circseum  promon- 
torium,  or  jugum,  of  the  ancients,  mentioned  in 
the  Odyssey  and  /Eneid  as  having  been  an  island. 
It  has  six  towers,  each  about  two  miles  distant 
from  the  other,  arid  a  small  fortified  town,  called 
San  Felice,  twenty-eight  miles  west  of  Gaeta, 
and  fifty  south-east  of  Rome. 

CIRCENSIAN  GAMES,  a  general  term  under 
which  was  comprehended  all  combats  exhibited 
in  the  Roman  circus,  in  imitation  of  the  Olym- 
pic games  in  Greece.     Most  of  the  feasts  of  the 
Romans    were    accompanied    with    Circensian 
games ;  and  the  magistrates  and  other  officers  of 
the   republic   frequently  presented    the   people 
with  them,  in  order  to  procure  their  favor.    The 
grand  games  were  held  five  days,  commencing 
on  the  fifteenth  of  September.     See  CIRCUS. 
CI'RCINATE,  v.  a.  )     Lat.  circino.  To  make 
CI'RCINATION,  n.  s.  $a   circle;    to    compass 
round,  or  turn  round.     An  orbicular  motion  ;  a 
turning  round ;  a  measuring  with  the  compasses. 
CI'RCLE,  7i.  s.,  v.  a-  &  v.  n.-\      Lat.  circulus. 
CI'RCLED,  adj.  f  Aline  continued 

CI'RCLET,  n.  s.  £  till  it  ends  where 

CI'RCLING,  participial  adj.  )  it  begun,  having 
all  its  parts  equidistant  from  a  common  centre. 
The  space  included  in  a  circular  line.  A  line 
of  enclosure ;  whatever  has  a  centre  and  moves 
round  it;  applied  variously  to  anything  that 
ends  where  it  begins ;  to  an  assembly  drawn  by 
some  attraction  to  a  particular  place  ;  to  a  par- 
ticular species  of  inconclusive  argument ;  cir- 
cumlocution, going  round  about.  To  circle  is 
to  move  round  a  centre ;  to  enclose ;  to  sur- 
round. Circlet  is  the  diminutive  of  circle. 

It  is  he  that  sitteth  upon  the  circle  of  the  earth. 

Isaiah. 

Certes,  said  she,  I  wote  not  how  he  hight, 
But  under  him  a  gray  steede  he  did  wield, 
Whose  sides  with  dapled  circles  weren  dight ; 
Upright  he  rode,  and  in  his  silver  shield 
He  bore  a  bloodie  crosse,  that  quartred  all  the  field. 

Spenser. 

A  great  magician, 
Obscured  in  the  circle  of  the  forest.         Shakspeare. 

What  stern  ungentle  hands 

Have  lopped  and  hewed,  and  made  thy  body  bare 
Of  her  two  branches,  those  sweet  ornaments, 
Whose  circling  shadows  kings  have  sought  to  sleep  in  ? 

Id. 

The  inconstant  moon, 
That  monthly  changes  in  her  circled  orb.  Id. 

There  be  fruit  trees  in  hot  countries,  which  have 
blossoms  and  young  fruit,  and  young  fruit  and  ripe 
fruit,  almost  all  the  year,  succeeding  one  another  j 


but  this  circle  of  ripening  cannot  be  but  in  succulent 
plants,  and  hot  countries.  Bacon. 

The  lords,  that  were  appointed  to  circle  the  hill, 
had  some  days  before  planted  themselves  in  places 
convenient.  Id. 

Has  he  given  the  lye 
In  circle  or  oblique,  or  semicircle, 
Or  direct  parallel  ?  You  must  challenge  him. 

Fletcher't  Queen  of  Corinth. 
As  when  a  stone  troubliug  the  quiet  waters, 
Prints  in  the  angry  stream  a  wrinkle  round, 
Which  soon  another  and  another  scatters, 
Till  all  the  lake  with  circles  now  is  crowned  : 
Also  the  air,  struck  with  some  violence  nigh, 
Begets  a  world  of  circles  in  the  sky, 
All  which  inflected  move  with  sounding  quality. 

P.  Fletcher's  Purple  Island. 

Round  he  surveys,  and  well  might,  where  he  stood 
So  high  above  the  circling  canopy 
Of  night's  extended  shade.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 
That  heavy  bodies  descend  by  gravity ;  and  again, 
that  gravity  is  a  quality  whereby  an  heavy  body  de- 
scends, is  an  impertinent  circle,  and  teacheth  nothing. 

Glanville's  Scepsis. 
Let  others  strive  to  immure 
The  circle  in  the  quadrature.  Marvell. 

Regions  remote,  courts,  counsils, 
The  circling  wiles  of  tyrants'  treacherys 
He  views,  discerns,  uncyphers,  penetrates, 
From  Charles's  dukes  to  Europe's  armed  states.  Id 

When  daring  blood,  his  rent  to  have  regained 
Upon  the  English  diadem  distrained, 
He  chose  the  cassock,  circingle,  and  gown, 
The  fittest  mask  for  one  that  robs  the  crown.       Id. 
Nothing,  not  bogs,  nor  sands,  nor  seas,  nor  Alps, 
Separate  the  world  so  as  the  bishop's  scalps, 
Stretch  for  the  line  their  circingle  alone, 
'Twill  make  a  more  inhabitable  zone.  Id. 

Thus  in  a  circle  runs  the  peasant's  pain, 
And  the  year  rolls  within  itself  again. 

Dryden's  Vtrgil. 

While  these  fond  arms,  thus  circling  you.  may  prove 
More  heavy  chains  than  those  of  hopeless  love.  Prior. 

Unseen,  he  glided  through  the  joyous  crowd, 
WitL  darkness  circled  and  an  ambient  cloud.  Pope. 

To  have  a  box  where  eunuchs  sing 
And,  foremost  in  the  circle,  eye  a  king.  Id.  Horace. 
Any  thing  that  moves  round   about  in  a  circle,  in 
less  time  than  our  ideas  are  wont  to  succeed   one 
another  in  our  minds,  is  not  perceived  to  move  ;  but 
seems  to  be  a  perfect  intire  circle  of  that  matter,  or 
colour,  and  not  a  part  of  a  circle  in  motion.        Locke. 
By  a  circle  I  understand  not  here  a  perfect  geometri- 
cal circle,  but  an  orbicular   figure,  whose  length   is 
equal   to   its  breadth  ;  and   which,  as  to  sense,  may 
seem  circular.  Newton's  Optics. 

That  fallacy,  called  a  circle,  is  when  one  of  the 
premises  in  a  syllogism  is  questioned  and  opposed, 
and  we  intend  to  prove  it  by  the  conclusion. 

Watti's  Logick. 
Then  a  deeper  still 

In  circle  following  circle,  gathers  round 
To  close  the  face  of  things.          Thomson's  Summ 
The  pale  descending  year,  yet  pleasing  still 
A  gentler  mood  inspires  ;   for  now  the  leaf 
Incessant  rustles  from  the  mournful  grove  ; 
Oft  starting  such  as  studious  walk  below, 
And  slowly  circles  through  the  waving  air. 

Id.  Seatoiu. 

Shall  he  whose  birth,  maturity,  and  age, 
Scarce  fill  the  circle  of  one  summer  day, 
Shall  the  poor  gnat,  with  discontent  and  rage, 
Exclaim,  that  Nature  hastens  to  decay?       Beattie 


cm 


718 


CIR 


When  the  light  shines  serene,  but  doth  not  g  are, 
Then  in  this  magic  circle  raise  the  dead  : 
Heroes  have  trod  this  spot — 'tis  on  their  dust  ye  tread. 

Byron. 

CIRCLE,  in  geometry,  a  plane  figure,  compre- 
hended by  a  single  curve  line,  called  its  circum- 
ference, to  which  right  lines  drawn  from  a  point 
in  the  middle,  called  the  centre,  are  equal  to 
each  other.  See  GEOMETRY. 

CIRCLE  OF  PERPETUAL  APPARITION,  one  of 
the  lesser  circles,  parallel  to  the  equator ;  des- 
cribed by  any  point  of  the  sphere  touching  the 
northern  point  of  the  horizon;  and  carried  about 
with  the  diurnal  motion.  All  the  stars  included 
within  this  circle  never  set,  but  are  ever  visible 
above  the  horizon.  See  ASTRONOMY. 

CIRCLE  OF  PERPETUAL  OCCULTATION,  is 
another  circle  at  a  like  distance  from  the  equa- 
tor; and  contains  all  those  stars  which  never 
appear  in  our  hemisphere.  The  stars  situated 
between  these  circles  alternately  rise  and  set  at 
certain  times. 

CIRCLES,  DIURNAL,  are  immoveable  circles, 
supposed  to  be  described  by  the  seven  stars,  and 
other  points  of  the  heavens,  in  their  diurnal 
rotation  round  the  earth;  or  rather,  in  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  round  its  axis.  The  diurnal 
circles  are  all  unequal  :  the  equator  is  the 
biggest. 

CIRCLE,  DRUIDICAL,  in  British  topography, 
a  name  given  to  certain  ancient  enclosures 
formed  by  rude  stones  circularly  arranged. 
These,  it  is  now  generally  agreed,  were  temples, 
nnd  many  writers  think  also  places  of  solemn 
assemblies  for  councils  or  elections,  and  seats  of 
judgment.  'Instead,'  says  Mr.  Borlace,  'of  de- 
taining the  reader  with  a  dispute,  whether  they 
were  places  of  worship  or  council,  it  may  with 
g-reat  probability  be  asserted,  that  they  were  used 
for  both  purposes;  and,  having  for  the  most  part 
been  first  dedicated  to  religion,  naturally  became 
afterwards  the  curiae  and  fora  of  the  same  com- 
munity.' These  temples,  though  generally  cir- 
cular, occasionally  differ  both  in  figure  and 
magnitude :  with  relation  to  the  first,  the  most 
simple  were  composed  of  one  circle.  Stone- 
henge  consisted  evidently  of  two  circles  and  two 
ovals,  respectively  concentric;  whilst  that  at 
Bottalch,  near  St.  Just,  in  Cornwall,  is  formed 
by  four  intersecting  circles.  And  the  great  tem- 
ple at  Abury  in  Wiltshire,  it  is  said,  described 
the  figure  of  a  seraph,  or  fiery  flying  serpent, 
represented  by  circles  and  right  lines.  Some, 
besides  circles,  have  avenues  of  stone  pillars. 


stones  thrown  together  in  a  circular  form,  enclo- 
sing an  area  of  about  three  yards  diameter, 
without  any  larger  circle  round  them,  were 
originally  places  of  burial.  See  DRIJIDISM. 

CIRCLES,  HORARY,  in  dialing,  are  the  lines 
which  show  the  hours  on  dials ;  though  these  be 
not  drawn  circular,  but  nearly  straight.  See 
DIALING. 

CIRCLES  OF  ALTITUDE,  or  almucantars,  are 
circles  parallel  to  the  horizon,  having  their  com- 
mon pole  in  the  zenith,  and  still  diminishing  as 
they  approach  the  zenith.  See  ALMUCANTAR. 

CIRCLES  OF  LATITUDE,  or  secondaries  of  the 
ecliptic,  are  great  circles  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic,  passing  through  the  poles 
thereof,  and  through  every  star  and  planet. 
They  are  so  called,  because  they  serve  to  mea- 
sure the  latitude  of  the  stars,  which  is  nothing 
but  an  arch  of  one  of  these  circles,  intersected 
between  the  star  and  the  ecliptic.  See  LATI- 
TUDE. 

CIRCLES  OF  LONGITUDE  are  several  lesser  cir- 
cles, parallel  to  the  ecliptic ;  still  diminishing, 
in  proportion  as  they  recede  from  it.  On  the 
arches  of  these  circles  the  longitude  of  the  stars 
is  reckoned. 

CIRCLES  OF  THE  SPHERE  are  such  as  cut  the 
mundane  sphere,  and  have  their  periphery  either 
on  its  moveable  surface,  or  in  another  immove- 
able, conterminous,  and  equidistant  surface. 
See  SPHERE.  Hence  arise  two  kinds  of  circles, 
moveable  and  immoveable.  The  first  those  whose 
peripheries  are  in  the  moveable  surface,  and 
which  therefore  revolve  with  its  diurnal  motion ; 
as,  the  meridians,  &c.  The  latter  have  their 
periphery  in  the  immoveable  surface,  and  do  not 
revolve;  as  the  ecliptic,  equator,  and  its  paral- 
lels, &c.  See  GEOGRAPHY. 

CIRCLES,  POLAR,  are  immoveable  circles, 
parallel  to  the  equator,  and  at  a  distance  from 
the  poles,  equal  to  the  greatest  declination  of  the 
ecliptic.  That  next  the  north  pole  is  called  the 
arctic;  and  that  next  to  the  southern  one  the 
antarctic. 

CIRCONCELLIONES,  a  species  of  fanatics, 
who  took  their  rise  among  the  Donatists  in  the 
reign  of  the  emperor  Constantine,  and  commit- 
ted the  most  horrible  ravages  and  cruelties. 
Counts  Ursacius  and  Taurinus  were  employed 
to  quell  them ;  they  destroyed  a  great  number  of 
them,  of  whom  the  Donatists  made  as  many  mar- 
tyrs. Ursacius,  who  was  a  good  Catholic,  and 
a  religious  man,  having  lost  his  life  in  an  engage- 
ment with  the  barbarians,  the  Donatists  did  not 


Most,  if  not  all  of  them,  have  pillars  or  altars    fail  to  triumph  in  his  death,  as  an  effect  of  the 
within  their  centre.     In  magnitude  and  number    vengeance  of  heaven.     Africa  was  the  theatre  of 
of  stones  there  is  the  greatest  variety ;  some  cir- 
cles being  only  twelve  feet  diameter,  and  formed 
only  of  twelve  stones,  whilst  others,  such  as 
Stonehenge  and  Abury  contained,  the  first  140, 
the  second  652,  and  occupied   many  acres  of 
ground.     All  these  different  numbers  and  mea- 
sures  and   arrangements   had   their   pretended 


these  bloody  scenes  during  a  great  part  of  Con- 
stautine's  life.     See  DONATISTS. 

CI'RCUIT,  n.  i.  &  v.  n.-\      Fr.  circuit ;   Lat. 
CIRCUITED,  n.  s.  tcircuitus,    circmtio. 

CIRCUI'TION,  n.  s.  i  The  act  of  moving 

CIRCU'ITOUS,  adj.  *  round    any   thing; 

the  space  enclosed  in  a  circuit;  space,  extent, 

reference,  either  to  the  astronomical  divisions  of    measured  by  travelling  round,  applied   to  the 
the  year,  or  some  mysteries   of  the   druidical    districts  visited  by  the  judges,  where  they  bien- 
religion.     The  writer,  however,   above  quoted, 
supposes,  that  these  very  small   circles,  some- 
times formed  of  a  low  bank  of  eaith,  sometimes 
of  stones  erect,  and  frequently  of  loose  small 


nially  hold  the  assizes.  It  is  in  this  sense  a  term  of 
law.  A  ring;  a  diadem;  that  by  which  any  thing 
is  encircled ;  a  round-about,  or  protracted 
movement,  whether  applied  to  mind  or  action. 


cm 


719 


cm 


Circuition  is  the  act  of  going  round  anything ; 
compass ;  maze  of  argument.  To  move  iu  a 
circle  ;  to  go  round. 

He  attributed!  unto  it  smallness  in  respect  of  circuit. 

Hooker. 

To  apprehend  by  what  degrees  they  lean  to  things 
n  show,  though  not  in  deed,  repugnant  one  to  ano- 
ther, requireth  more  sharpness  of  wit,  more  intricate 
circuitions  of  discourse,  and  depth  of  judgment,  than 
common  ability  doth  yield.  Id. 

And  this  fell  tempest  shall  not  cease  to  rage, 
Until  the  golden  circuit  on  my  head 
Do  calm  the  fury'  of  this  mad-brained  flaw. 

Shakspeare. 

Up  into  the  watch  tower  get, 
And  see  all  things  despoiled  of  fallacies  ; 
Thou  shalt  not  peep  through  lattices  of  eyes, 
Nor  hear  through  labyrinths  of  ears,  nor  learn 
By  circuit  or  collections  to  discern.  Donne. 

But  if  within  the  circuit  of  these  walks, 
In  whatsoever  shake  he  lurk,  of  whom 
Thou  tell'st,  by  morrow  dawning  I  shall  know. 

Milton. 
He  led  me  up 

A  woody  mountain,  whose  high  top  was  plain, 

A  Circuit  wide  inclosed.  Id.  Paradise  Lost. 

The  lake  of  Bolsena  is  reckoned   one-and-twenty 

miles  in  circuit.  Addison  on  Italy. 

The  circuits,  in  former  times,  went  but  round  about 

the  pale ;    as  the  circuit  of  the  cynosura  about  the 

pole.  Davies. 

Like  your  fellow  circuiteer,  the  sun,  you  travel  the 

round  of  the  earth,  and  behold  all  the  iniquities  under 

the  heavens.  Pope. 

Pining  with  equinoctial  heat,  unless 
The  cordial  cup  perpetual  motion  keep, 
Quick  circuiting.  Philips. 

There  are  four  moons  also  perpetually  rolling  round 
the  planet  Jupiter,  and  carried  along  with  him  in  his 
periodical  circuit  round  the  sun.  Watts  on  the  Mind. 

And  now  the  downy  cheek  and  deepened  voice 
Gave  dignity  to  Edwin's  blooming  prime  ; 
And  walks  of  wider  circuit  were  his  choice, 
And  vales  more  wild,  and  mountains  more  sublime. 

Beatiie. 

CIRCUIT  signifies  the  journey  which  the  judges 
take  twice  every  year  through  the  several  coun- 
ties of  England  and  Wales,  to  hold  courts,  and 
administer  justice,  where  recourse  cannot  be 
had  to  the  king's  courts  at  Westminster :  hence 
England  is  divided  into  six  circuits,  viz.  the 
Home  circuit;  the  Norfolk,  Midland,  Oxford, 
Western,  and  Northern  circuits.  In  Wales  there 
are  but  two  circuits,  North  and  South  Wales  : 
two  judges  are  assigned  by  the  king's  commis- 
sion to  every  circuit.  In  Scotland,  the  judges 
of  the  supreme  criminal  court,  or  court  of  jus- 
ticiary, are  divided  into'  three  separate  courts, 
consisting  of  two  judges  each ;  and  the  kingdom 
into  as  many  districts.  In  certain  boroughs  of 
every  district,  each  of  these  courts  by  rotation, 
is  obliged  to  hold  two  courts  in  the  year,  in 
spring  and  autumn;  which  are  called  circuit 
courts. 

CI'RCULAR,  adj.  ^      Lat.  circularis, 

CIRCULA'RITY,  n.  s.  I  circulus.    Round 

CI'RCULARLY,  adv.  f  like  a  circle;  cir- 

CI'RCULATE,  v.  n.  &  v.  a.    /"cumscribed  by  a 
CIRCULATION,  n.  s.  I  circle.       Succes- 

CI'RCULATORY,  n.  s.  &  adj.  *  sive  in  order ;  al- 
ways going  round  and  returning.  Ending  in 
itself;  used  of  a  paralogism,  where  the  second 


proposition  at  once  proves  the  first,  and  is  proved 
by  it :  for  instance — 

One  of  Cartes's  first  principles  of  reasoning,  after 
he  had  doubted  of  every  thing,  seems  to  be  too  circular 
to  safely  build  upon  ;  for  he  is  for  proving  the  being 
of  God  from  the  truth  of  our  faculties,  and  the  truth 
of  our  faculties  from  the  being  of  a  God. 

Baker's  Reflections  on  Learning. 

It  is  applied  to  a  letter  directed  to  several  per- 
sons, who  have  the  same  interest  in  some  com- 
mon affair  ;  as  in  the  convocation  of  assemblies. 
Circular  lines.  Such  straight  lines  as  are  divided 
from  the  divisions  made  in  the  arch  of  a  circle ; 
as  the  lines  of  sines,  tangents,  and  secants,  on  the 
plain  scale  and  sector.  Circular  sailing  is  that 
performed  on  the  arch  of  a  great  circle.  Circu- 
larity signifies  the  circular  form.  The  adverb  is 
applied  both  to  form  and  motion.  The  verb  sig- 
nifies to  move  in  a  circle ;  to  convey  intelligence, 
or  any  thing  else,  through  or  round  a  country. 
The  derivative  nouns  are  applied  to  motion  in  a 
circle,  a  course  in  which  the  motion  tends  to  the 
point  from  which  it  began ;  to  a  series  in  which 
the  same  order  is  always  observed,  and  things  al- 
ways return  to  the  same  state.  Circulatory  has 
a  specific  application.  It  is  the  name  of  a  che- 
mical vessel,  in  which  that  which  rises  from  the 
vessel  on  the  fire  is  collected  and  cooled  in  another 
fixed  upon  it,  and  falls  down  again. 

The  frame  thereof  seemed  partly  circular, 

And  part  triangular.  Faerie  Queene. 

The  heavens  have  no  diversity  or  difference,  but  a 
simplicity  of  parts,  and  equiformity  in  motion,  con- 
tinually succeeding  each  other ;  so  that,  from  what 
point  soever  we  compute,  the  account  will  be  common 
unto  the  whole  circularity.  Browne. 

As  for  the  sius  of  peace,  thou  hast  brought  upon  ns 
the  miseries  of  war  ;  so  for  the  sins  of  war,  thou  seest 
fit  to  deny  us  the  blessing  of  peace,  and  to  keep  us  in 
a  circulation  of  miseries. 

King  Charles,  i.  e.  Dr.  Gauden^ 
If  our  lives  motions  theirs  must  imitate, 

Our  knowledge  like  our  blood  must  circulate. 

Denham. 

Nature  is  a  perpetual  motion  ;  and  the  work  of  the 
universe  circulates  without  any  interval  or  repose. 

L'Estrange. 

Trade,  which,  like  blood,  should  circularly  flow, 
Stopped  in  their  channels,  found  its  freedom  lost. 

Dry  den. 

He  first  inclosed  for  lists  a  level  ground  ; 
The  form  was  circular.  Id.  Fables. 

From  whence  tlie  innumerable  race  of  things 

By  circular  successive  order  springs.        Roscommon. 

The  internal  form  of  it  consists  of  several  regions, 
involving  one  another  like  orbs  about  the  same  centre  ; 
or  of  the  several  elements  cast  circularly  about  each 
other.  Burner.. 

As  the  mints  of  calumny  are  perpetually  at  work,  a 
great  number  of  curious  inventions,  issued  out  from 
time  to  time,  grow  current  among  the  party,  and  cir- 
culate through  the  whole  kingdom.  Addison. 

Nero's  port,  composed  of  huge  moles  running  round 
it  in  a  kind  of  circular  figure.  Id.  on  Italy. 

In  the  civil  wars,  the  money  spent  on  both  sidis 
was  circulated  at  home  ;  no  publick  debts  contracted. 

Swift. 

God,  by  the  ordinary  rule  of  nature,  permits  this 
continual  circulation  of  human  things. 

Id.  on  Modern  Education. 


720 


CIR 


4s  much  blood  passeth  through  the  lungs  as  through 
all  the  rest  of  the  body  :  the  circulation  is  quicker,  and 
heat  greater,  and  their  texture  extremely  delicate 

Arbuthnot  on  Aliments. 

The  pulmonary  circulation  is  a  system  within  a  sys- 
tem ;  and  an  action  of  the  heart  is  the  origin  of  both. 
Paley's  Natural  Theology. 

CIRCULAR  NUMBERS,  or  SPHERICAL  NUM- 
BERS, are  those  whose  powers  terminate  in  the 
roots  themselves.  Thus,  for  instance,  5  and  6, 
all  whose  powers  do  end  in  5  and  6,  as  the 
square  of  5  is  25 ;  the  square  of  6  is  36,  &c. 

CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD.  See  PHYSI- 
OLOGY. 

CIRCULUS,  in  chemistry,  an  iron  instru- 
ment in  form  of  a  ring,  which  being  heated  red- 
hot,  and  applied  to  the  necks  of  retorts  and  other 
glass  vessels  till  they  grow  hot,  a  few  drops  of 
cold  water  thrown  upon  them,  or  a  cold  blast, 
will  make  the  necks  fly  regularly  and  evenly  off. 
Another  method  of  doing  this,  is,  to  tie  a 
thread,  previously  dipped  in  oil  of  turpentine, 
round  the  place  where  you  would  have  it  break ; 
and  then  setting  fire  to  the  thread,  and  after- 
wards sprinkling  the  place  with  cold  water,  the 
glass  will  crack  exactly  where  the  thread  was 
tied. 

CIRCUMA'MBULATE,  v.  n.^     From  Lat. 

CIRCUMA'MBIENCY,  n.  s.  \circum     and 

CIRCUMA'MBIENT,  adj.  j  ambulo,  and 

circum  and  ambio.  To  walk  round  about.  The 
act  of  encompassing ;  surrounding  ;  encompass- 
ing ;  enclosing. 

Ice  receiveth  its  figure  according  unto  the  surface 
it  concreteth,  or  the  circumambiency  which  conform- 
eth  it.  Browne. 

The  circumambient  coldness  towards  the  sides  of  the 
vessel,  like  the  second  region,  cooling  and  condensing 
of  it.  Wilkins. 

j?ain  would  we  trace  with  reason's  erring  clue, 

The  darksome  paths  of  destiny  aright; 

n  vain;  the  task  were  easier  to  pursue 

The  trackless  wheeling  of  the  swallow's  flight. 

From  mortal  ken  himself  the  Almighty  shroud?, 

Pavilioned  in  thick  night  and  circumambient  clouds. 
Emily  on  Death, 

CIRCUMAGENTES  MTJSCULI,  in  anatomy, 

certain  oblique  muscles  of  the  eyes,  so  named 

from  their  helping  to  turn  the  eyes  about. 

CI'RCUMCISE,  v.  a.  )     Lat.  circumcido.  To 

CIRCUMCI'SION,  n.  s.     S  cut  the  prepuce,  or 

foreskin,  according  to  the  law  given  to  the  Jews. 

They  came  to  circumcise  the  child.  Luke. 

They  left  a  race  behind 
Like  to  themselves,  distinguishable  scarce 
From  Gentiles,  but  by  circumcision  vain.    Milton. 
While  with  feigned  treaties  they  invade  by  stealth 
Our  sore  new  circumcised  common-wealth.        Marvell. 

For  Hebrew  roots,  although  they're  found 
To  flourish  most  in  barren  ground, 
He  had  such  plenty,  as  sufficed 
To  make  some  think  him  circumcised.         Butler 
ne  is  alarmed   at  the  industry  of  the  whigs,  in 
aiming   to  strengthen  their  routed  party  by  a  rein- 
forcement from  the  circumcised.          Sicift's  Examples. 

CIRCUMCISION  was  first  enjoined  upon  Abra- 
ham when  God  established  his  covenant  with 
him,  as  a  sign  or  seal  of  what  that  covenant  re- 
spected, and  how  it  was  to  be  fulfilled  to  ADJ&- 


ham  and  the  multitude  of  whom  he  was  to 
become  the  father;  viz.  Messiah,  the  heir  of  all 
the  promises,  taking  flesh  of  the  seed  of  Abra- 
ham, and  being  cut  off  (put  to  death)  in  the  flesh, 
to  bring  in  that  righteousness  which  was  to  be 
rewarded  with  the  blessing,  Gen.  xvii.  Rom.  iv. 
11.  It  was  in  the  year  of  the  world  2178  that 
Abraham,  in  the  faith  of  this,  was  circumcised 
himself  and  all  the  males  of  his  house ;  and  in 
this  view  circumcision  became,  as  it  were,  the 
initiating  ordinance  into  the  Israelitish  church. 
During  the  last  thirty-eight  years  that  the  Israel- 
ites Wandered  in  the  desert  .he  Hebrew  children 
were  not  circumcised;  but  immediately  after 
their  passing  the  Jordan  the  institution  was  re- 
vived, all  the  males  being  circumcised ;  which  is 
called  a  circumcision  of  them  the  'second  *ime ;' 
and  this  was  a  '  rolling  away  of  the  reproach  of 
Egypt:'  God  hereby  declaring  that  they  were 
his  free  people  and  heirs  of  the  promised  land, 
and  removing  from  them  what  they  considered  the 
shame  of  the  Egyptians.  Josh.  v.  1 — 10. 

When  circumcision  had  continued  a  sacred 
institution  about  1930  years  its  design  was  ac- 
complished in  the  death  of  the  blessed  seed;  but 
like  many  other  ordinances  of  the  Jewish  church, 
which  were  originally  intended  to  point  forth  his 
death  and  resurrection,  circumcision  had  by  this 
time  become  merely  a  practice  among  the  greater 
part  of  the  Jews;  and  it  is  thus  unmeaningly 
continued  among  the  scattered  remains  of  that 
people  at  this  day.  Circumcision  was  not,  how- 
ever, confined  to  the  Jews,  though  the  high  im- 
portance in  which  it  was  originally  held  by  them 
seems  best  to  account  for  such  an  indelicate 
operation  being  performed  among  other  nations, 
who,  though  in  a  great  measure  ignorant  of  their 
design,  practised  in  their  own  way  many  other 
institutions  sacred  to  Israel.  Herodotus  and 
Philo  Judaeus  observe,  that  circumcision  obtained 
among  the  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians.  Hero- 
dotus says,  that  the  custom  was  very  ancient 
among  each  people  ;  so  that  there  was  no  deter- 
mining which  of  them  borrowed  it  from  the  other. 
The  same  historian  relates,  that  the  inhabitants 
of  Colchis  also  used  circumcision ;  whence  he 
concludes  that  they  were  originally  Egyptians. 
He  adds  that  the  Phoenicians  and  Syrians  were 
likewise  circumcised,  but  that  they  borrowed  the 
practice  from  the  Egyptians.  And  lastly,  that, 
a  little  before  the  time  when  he  wrote,  circum- 
cision had  passed  from  Colchis  to  the  people 
inhabiting  near  Thermodoon  and  Parthenius. 
Marsham  is  of  opinion  that  the  Hebrews  bor- 
rowed circumcision  from  the  Egyptians,  and 
that  God  was  not  the  first  author  of  it ;  citing 
Diodorus  Siculus,  and  the  fabulous  Herodotus, 
as  evidences  on  his  side ;  which  shows  he  knew 
not  its  design.  The  practice  of  circumcision 
among  the  Hebrews  differed  very  considerably 
from  that  of  the  Egyptians.  Among  the  first  it 
was  a  ceremony  of  religion,  and  was  performed 
on  the  eighth  day  after  the  birth  of  the  child 
Among  the  latter,  a  point  of  mere  decency  and 
cleanliness,  and,  as  some  will  have  it,  of  physi- 
cal necessity ;  and  was  not  performed  till  the 
thirteenth  year,  and  then  on  girls  as  well  as  boys. 
The  law  of  Moses  ordained  nothing  with  respect 
to  the  person  by  whom,  the  instrument  with 


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which,  or  the  manner  how,  the  ceremony  was  to 
be  performed ;  the  instrument  was  generally  a 
knife  of  stone.     The  child  is  usually  circumcised 
at  home,  where  the  father  or  godfather  holds  him 
in  his  arms,  while  the  operator  takes  hold  of  the 
prepuce  with  one  hand  and  with  the  other  cuts 
it  oft';  a  third  person  holds  a  porringer,  with  sand 
in  it,  to  catch  the  blood;    then  the  operator  ap- 
plies his  mouth  to  the  part,  and  having  sucked 
the  blood,  spits  it  into  a  bowl  of  wine,  and 
throws  a  styptic  powder  upon  the  wound.     This 
ceremony  was  usually  accompanied  with  great 
rejoicings  and  feasting;  and  it  was  at  this  time 
that  the  child  was  named  in  presence  of  the 
company.      The  Jews  invented  several  super- 
stitious customs  at  this  ceremony,  such  as  placing 
three  stools,  one  for  the  circumcisor,  the  second 
for  the  person  who  holds  the  child,  and  the  third 
for  Elijah,  who,  they  say,  assists  invisibly  at  the 
ceremony,  &c.     The  Jews  distinguished  their 
proselytes  into  two  sorts,  according  as  they  be- 
came circumcised  or  not :  those  who  submitted 
to  this  rite  were   looked  upon  as   children  of 
Abraham,  and  obliged  to  keep  the  laws  of  Moses; 
the  uncircumcised  were  only  bound  to  observe 
the  precepts  of  Noah,  and  were  called  Noachidze. 
The  Turks  nerer  circumcise  till  the  seventh  or 
eighth  year,  having  no  notion  of  its  being  neces- 
sary to  salvation.     The  Persians  circumcise  their 
boys  at  thirteen,  and  their  girls  from  nine  to 
fifteen.     Those  of  Madagascar  cut  the  flesh  at 
three  several  times ;  and  the  most  zealous  of  the 
relations  present  catches  hold  of  the  preputium, 
and  swallows  it.  We  are  told  that  the  Egyptian 
captive  women  were  circumcised  ;   and  the  sub- 
jects of  Prester  John. 

CIRCUMDU'CT,  v.a.  )       Lat.    circumduco. 

CIRCUMDU'CTION,  «. -s.   }  To   contravene  ;    to 

nullify ;  to  cancel ;  a  term  of  civil  law.    Hooker 

uses  the  noun  in  its  primitive  and  general  sense  ; 

a  leading  about;  or  a  conducting  round. 

By  long  circumduction  perhaps  any  truth  may  be 
derived  from  any  other  truth.  Hooker. 

Acts  of  judicature  may  be  cancelled  and  circum- 
ducted  by  the  will  and  direction  of  the  judge  ;  as  also 
by  the  consent  of  the  parties  litigant,  before  the  judge 
has  pronounced  and  given  sentence. 

Aylijfe's  Parergon. 

The  citation  may  be  circumducted,  though  the  de- 
fendant should  not  appear  ;  and  the  defendant  must 
be  cited,  as  a  circumduction  requires.  Id, 

CIRCU'MFERENCE,  n.  s.  Lat.  circumferen- 
tiu.  The  periphery  ;  the  line  including  and  sur- 
rounding anything.  The  space  enclosed  in  a 
circle.  The  external  part  of  an  orbicular  body. 
An  orb ;  a  circle ;  any  thing  circular  or  orbi- 
cular. 

His  ponderous  shit-Id 

Ehtereal  temper,  nr.assy,  large  and  round, 
Behind  him  cast ;  the  broad  circumference 
Hung  on  his  shoulders  like  the  moon.  Milton. 

So  was  his  will 

Pronounced  among  the  gods,  and  by  an  oath, 
That  shook  heaven's  whole  circumference,  confirmed. 

Id. 

Extend  thus  far  thy  bounds, 

This  be  thy  just  circumference,  O  world  '.  Id. 

Because  the  hero  is  the  centre  of  the  m?,in  action, 

all  the  lines  from  the  circumference  tend  to  him  alom-. 

Drydert. 
VOL.  V. 


He  first  inclosed  lor  lists  a  level  ground, 

The  whole  circumference  a  mile  around.    Id.  Pallet. 

Fire,  moved  nimbly  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle, 
makes  the  whole  circumference  appear  like  a  circle  of 
fire.  Newton. 

The  bubble,  being  looked  on  by  the  light  of  the 
clouds  reflected  from  it,  seemed  red  at  its  apparent 
circumference.  If  the  clouds  were  viewed  through  it, 
the  colour  at  its  circumference  would  be  blue. 

Id.  Optics 

CIRCUMFERENTOR,  a  mathematical  in- 
strument used  by  land-surveyors  for  taking  angles 
by  the  magnetic  needle.  It  is  an  instrument 
(where  great  accuracy  is  not  required)  much 
used  in  surveying  in  and  about  wood-lands,  com- 
mons, harbours,  sea-coasts,  in  the  working  of 
coal  mines,  &,c.  &c.  where  a  permanent  direction 
of  the  needle  is  of  the  most  material  consequence. 
The  index  is  commonly  of  brass,  and  consists  of 
an  index  and  circle  of  one  piece.  The  index  is 
commonly  about  fourteen  inches  Ions?,  and  an 
inch  and  a  half  broad  ;  the  diameter  of  the  circle 
is  about  seven  inches.  On  this  circle  is  made  a 
chart,  whose  meridian  line  answers  to  the  middle 
of  the  breadth  of  the  index,  and  is  divided  into 
360  degrees.  There  is  a  brass  ring  soldered  on 
the  circumference  of  the  circle,  on  which  screws 
another  ring  with  a  flat  glass  in  it,  so  as  to  form 
a  kind  of  box  for  the  needle,  suspended  on  the 
pivot  in  the  centre  of  the  circle.  The  two  sights 
scresv  on,  and  slide  up  and  down  the  index  ; 
the  spangle  and  socket  are  screwed  on  the  back 
side  of  the  circle  for  putting  the  head  of  the 
staff  in. 

An  improvement  of  this  instrument  has  been 
made  (see  PI. VI. CIRCUMFERENTOR  and  CYPHER) 
which  chiefly  consists  in  an  arm  or  index,  G,  so 
applied  to  the  centre  of  the  compass  box,  and 
within  it,  that  at  the  time  of  observing,  by  only 
slipping  a  pin,  p,  out,  the  circle  of  degrees  alone 
may  move  round,  and  leave  the  index,  G,  fixed. 
This  index  will  remain  stationary,  from  its  being 
attached  to  the  socket  that  screws  on  the  head  of 
the  staffs.  On  the  end  of  this  index,  next  the 
degrees  in  the  box,  there  is  graduated  a  nonius 
scale,  by  which  the  circle  of  360  degrees  is  sub- 
divided into  five  minutes,  or  less  if  desired.  To 
observe  the  quantity  of  an  angle  by  the  circum- 
ferentor  : — Let  it  be  required  to  find  the  quan- 
tity of  the  angle  EKG  ;  first  place  the  instrument 
at  K,  with  the  fleur-de-lis  of  the  chart  towards 
you ;  then  direct  the  sights  to  E,  and  observe 
what  degrees  are  cut  by  the  south  end  of  the 
needle,  which  let  be  296 ;  then,  turning  the  in- 
strument about,  direct  the  sights  to  G,  noting 
then  also  what  degrees  are  cut  by  the  south  end 
of  the  needle,  which  suppose  247.  This  done 
always  subtract  the  lesser  from  the  greater,  as  in 
this  example,  247  from  296  the  remainder  is 
forty-nine  degrees,  which  is  the  true  quantity  of 
t-hc  angle  EKG.  To  take  angles  of  altitude  or 
depressions  the  instrument  is  turned  down  on  its 
ball  and  socket,  into  a  perpendicular  position, 
and  adjusted  to  the  level  by  a  plumb-line,  /,  that 
is  hung  on  a  pin  at  the  back  of  the  box,  and  made 
to  coincide  with  a  mark  thereon.  Then  by  look- 
ing through  the  small  sight  holes  s,  purposi  ly 
made,the  angles  are  shown  on  the  circle  of  degrees 
i>v  the  nonius  as  before. 

3  A 


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CI'RCUMFLEX,  n.  s.  from  Lat.  circuniflexus. 
An  accent  used  to  regulate  the  pronunciation  of 
syllables,  including  or  participating  the  acute 
and  grave. 

The  circumflex  keeps  the  voic>;  in  a  middle  tone, 
and  therefore  in  the  Latin  is  compounded  of  both  the 
other.  Holder. 

CIRCUMFLEX,  in  grammar.  See  ACCENT.  It 
is  seldom  used  among  the  moderns,  unless  to 
show  the  omission  of  a  letter  which  made  the 
syllable  long  and  open.  This  is  much  more 
frequent  with  the  French  than  among  us  :  thus 
they  write  pate  for  paste,  tete  for  teste,  fumes 
for  fusmes,  &c.  They  also  use  the  circumflex  in 
the  participles;  some  of  their  authors  writing 
conneu,  peu,  others  connu,  pu,  &c.  Father 
Buffier  is  at  a  loss  for  the  reason  of  this  use  of 
the  circumflex.  The  form  of  the  Greek  circum- 
flex was  anciently  the  same  with  that  of  ours 
(viz.  A);'  being  a  composition  of  the  other  two 
accents  ("")  in  one.  But  the  copyists,  changing 
the  form  of  the  characters  and  introducing  the 
running  hand,  changed  also  the  form  of  the  cir- 
cumflex accent ;  and  instead  of  making  the  just 
angle,  rounded  it  off,  adding  a  dash  through  too 
much  haste ;  and  thus  produced  this  figure  ",  in- 
stead of  this*. 

CIRCU'MFLUENCE,  n.s.-}  Lat.  circum- 
CIRCU'MFLUENT,  adj.  .  \fluens,  circum- 
CIRCU'MFLUOUS,  adj.  jjluus.  An  en- 

closure of  waters.     Flowing  round  any  thing. 

He  the  world 

Built  on  circumfluous  waters  calm,  in  wide 
'     Crystalline  ocean.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

Laertes'  son,  girt  with  circumfluous  tides. 

Pope's  Odyssey. 

I  rule  the  Paphian  race, 

Whose  bounds  the  deep  circumfluent  waves  embrace  ; 
A  duteous  people,  and  industrious  isle.  LI. 

CIRCUMFORA'NEOUS,  adj.  Lat.  circum- 

joraneu*.  Wandering  from  house  to  house  :  as, 
a  circumforaneous  fiddler,  one  that  plays  at 
doors. 

CIRCUMFU'SE,  v.  a.  1     Lat.   circumfusus  ; 
CIRCUMFU'SILE,  adj.       /  circum    and    fusilis. 
CIRCUMFU'SION,  n.  s.     5  To  pour  round;  to 
spread  every  way.     That  which  may  be  poured 
or  spread  round  anything.     The  act  -of  spread- 
ing round ;  the  state  of  being  poured  round. 

Men  see  better  when  their  eyes  are  against  the  sun 
or  candle,  if  they  put  their  hand  before  their  eye. 
The  glaring  sun,  or  candle,  weakens  the  eye  ;  whereas 
the  light  circumfused  is  enough  for  the  perception. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

His  army,  circumfused  on  either  wing.        Milton. 
Earth,  with  her  nether  ocean  circumfused, 
Their  pleasant  dwelling  house.  Id. 

This  nymph  the  god  Cephisus  had  abused, 
With  all  his  winding  waters  circumfused. 

Addison's  Ovid. 

Artist  divine,  whose  skilful  hands  infold 
The  victim's  horn  with  circumfutile  gold. 

Pope's  Odyssey. 

CIRCU'MGYRATE;  .v.  a.  )        Lat.    circum 
CIRCUMGYRA'TION,  n.  s.       J  and   gyrus.     To 
roll  round. 

The  sun  turns  round  his  own  axis  in  twenty-five 
days,  from  his  first  being  put  into  such  a  circumgyra- 
tion. Cheyne. 


All  the  glands  of  the  body  be-  congeries  of  various 
sorts  of  vessels  curled,  circumgyrated,  and  complicated 
together.  Ray  on  the  Creation, 

CIRCUMJA'CENT,  adj.  Lat.  circumjacent. 
Lying  round  any  thing;  bordering  on  every 
side. 

CIRCUMITION,  n.  s.  from  Lat.  circumeo, 
circumitum.  The  act  of  going  round. 

CIRCUMLIGATION,  n.  s.  Lat.  circumligo. 
The  act  of  binding  round.  The  bond  with  which 
any  thing  is  encompassed. 

CIRCUMLOCUTION,  n.  s.  Lat.  drcumlu- 
cutio.  A  circuit  or  compass  of  words ;  peri- 
phrasis. 

Virgil,  studying  brevity,  could  bring  these  words 
into  a  narrow  compass,  which  a  translator  cannot  ren- 
der without  circumlocution.  Dryden^ 

I  much  prefer  the  plain  Billingsgate  way  of  calling 
names,  because  it  would  save  abundance  of  time,  lost 
by  circumlocution.  Stoift. 

The  use  of  indirect  expressions. 
These  people  are  not  to  be  dealt  withal,  out  by  a 
train  of  mystery  and  circumlocution.  L'Estranye, 

CIRCUMMU'RED*  adj.  Lat.  circum  and 
murus.  Walled  round ;  encompassed  with  a 
wall. 

He  hath  a  garden  circummured  with  bricks. 

Shakspeare. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATE,  v.  a.^      Lat.  circum 

CIRCUMNA'VIGABLE,  adj.          (and      navigo. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATION,  n.  s.        {To  sail  round. 

CIRCUMNA'VIGATOR,  n.  s.  J  That  which 
may  be  sailed  round.  The  act  of  sailing  round. 
One  that  sails  round. 

The  being  of  Antipodes,  the  habitableness  of  the 
torrid  zone,  and  the  rendering  the  whole  terraqueous 
globe  circumnavigable.  Ray  on  the  Creation. 

What  he  says  concerning. the  circumnavigation  of 
Africa,  from  the  straits  of  Gibraltar  to  the  Red  Sea, 
is  very  remarkable.  Arbuthnot  on  Coins. 

CIRCUMPLICATION,  n.  s.  Lat.  circum- 
plico.  The  act  of  enwrapping  on  every  side. 
The  state  of  being  enwrapped. 

CIRCUMPO'LAR,  adj.  from  circum  and 
polar.  Stars  near  the  north  pole,  which  move 
round  it,  and  never  set  in  the  northern  latitudes, 
are  said  to  be  circumpolar  stars. 

CIRCUMPOSITION,  n.  s.  from  circum  and 
position.  The  act  of  placing  any  thing  circu- 
larly. 

Now  is  your  season  for  circumposition,  by  tiles  or 
baskets  of  earth.  Evelyn's  Kalendar. 

CIRCUMRA'SION,  n.  s.  Lat.  circumrasio. 
The  act  of  shaving  or  paring  round. 

CIRCUMROTA'TION,  n.  s.  Lat.  circum  and 
roto.     The  act  of  whirling  round  with  a  motion 
like  that  of  a  wheel ;  circumvolution ;  circum- 
gyration.    The  state  of  being  whirled  round. 
CIRCUMSCRI'BE,  v.  a. )      Lat.  circum  and 
CIRCUMSCRIPTION,  n.  s.     ^scribo.  To  enclose 
CIRCUMSCRI'PTIVE,  adj.     jin    certain     lines 
and  boundaries ;  to  bound,  to  limit,  to  confine. 
Determination  of  particular  form  or  magnitude. 
Limitation  ;    boundary  ;    contraction  ;    confine- 
ment.    Enclosing  the  superficies;  marking  the 
form  or  limits  on  the  outside. 


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The  good  Andronicus 

V/ith  honour  and  with  fortune  is  returned  ; 
3?'<;m  whence  he  circumscribed   with  his  sword. 
And  brought  to  yoke,  the  enemies  of  Rome. 

Shakspeare. 

I  would  not  my  unhoused  free  condition 
Put  into  circumscription  and  confine.  Id. 

He  formed  the  powers  of  heaven 
Such  as  he  pleased,  and  circumscribed  their  being ! 

Milton. 

He  therefore  circumscribes  himself  in  rhimes, 
And,  swaddled  ill's  own  papers  seven  times. 
Wears  a  close  jacket  of  poetic  buff, 
With  which  he  doth  his  third  dimension  stuff. 

JUarvell. 

The  action  great,  yet  circumscribed  by  time  ; 
The  words  not  forced,  but  sliding  into  rhime.  Dryden. 

The  external  circumstances  which  do  accompany 
men's  acts,  are  those  which  do  circumscribe  and  limit 
them.  StUlingfieet. 

You  are  above 
The  little  forms  which  circumscribe  your  sex. 

Southern. 

Stones  regular,  are  distinguished  by  their  external 
forms  :  such  as  is  circumscriptive,  or  depending  upon 
the  whole  stone,  as  in  the  eagle-stone,  is  properly 
called  the  figure.  Grew. 

In  the  circumscription  of  many  leaves,  flowers,  fruits, 
aod  seeds,  nature  affects  a  regular  figure. 

Ray  on  the  Creation 

O  could  the  Muse  in  loftier  strains  rehearse 
The  glorious  Author  of  the  universe, 
Who  reins  the  winds,  gives  the  vast  ocean  bounds, 
And  circumscribes  the  floating  worlds  their  rounds  ; 
My  soul  would  overflow  in  songs  of  praise, 
And  my  Creator's  name  inspire  my  lays.  Gay. 

Their  lot  forbade  !  nor  circumscribed  alone 
Their  growing  virtues,  but  their  crimes  confined  ; 

Forbade  to  wade  through  slaughter  to  a  throne, 
And  shut  the  gates  of  mercy  oa  mankind. 

Gray's  Elegy. 

CIRCUMSPE'CT,  adj.       ^      Lat.    circum- 
CIRCUMSPE'CTION,  n.  s.  spectus.       Cau- 

CIRCUMSPE'CTIVE,  adj.  j^tious  ;   attentive 

CIRCUMSPECTIVELY,  adv.      ( to  everything; 
CIRCUMSPECTLY,  adv.  watchful  on  all 

CI'RCUMSPECTNESS,  n.  s.  J  sides.  Watch- 
fulness on  every  side ;  caution ;  general  atten- 
tion. Lat.  circumspicio,  circumspectum.  Look- 
ing round  every  way;  attentive;  vigilant;  cau- 
tious. Cautiously ;  vigilantly ;  attentively-  with 
watchfulness  every  way  ;  watchfully. 

None  are  for  me, 

That  look  into  me  with  considerate  eyes  : 
High  reaching  Buckingham  grows  circumtpect. 

Shakspeare. 

So  saying,  his  proud  step  he  scornful  turned, 
But  \vitl>  sly  circumspection,     Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

T'leir  authority  weighs  more  with  me  than  the  con- 
rurrent  suffrages  of  a  thousand  eyes,  who  never  ex- 
amined the  thing  so  carefully  and  cireonupeetly. 

Ray  on  the  Creation. 

No  less  alike  the  politick  and  wise. 
All  sly  slow  thim  s  wita  circitmtpectire  eyes.          Pope. 

Let  con-i*  -nt  vi.  ilan"o,  thy  footsteps  guide, 
And  wary  circtimfpec  ion  guard  thy  side.  Gay. 

Travel  forces  circumspec-'ness  on  those  abroad,  who 
*t  home  are  nursed  in  security.  Walton. 


CrRCUMSTANCE,ii.«.8O  Lat.  circum- 
CI'RCUMSTANT,  adj.  \y.  a.  I  stuntia,  circuin- 
CIRCUMSTA'NTIAL,  adj.  [ttans,  circum- 

CIRCUMSTANTIA'LITY,  n.  s.  (stantides. 
CIRCUMSTANTIALLY,  adv.  \  Something  ap- 
CIRCUMSTA'NTIATE,  v.  a.  J  pendant  or  re- 
lative to  a  fact :  the  same  to  a  moral  action  as 
accident  to  a  iiatural  substance.  The  adjuncts 
of  a  fact,  which  make  it  more  or  less  criminal ; 
or  make  an  accusation  more  or  less  probable. 
Something  adventitious,  which  may  be  taken 
away  without  the  annihilation  of  the  principal 
thing  considered.  Incident ;  event ;  generally 
of  a  minute  or  subordinate  kind.  Condition  ; 
state  of  affairs.  It  is  frequently  used  with  re- 
spect to  wealth  or  poverty ;  as,  good  or  ill  cir- 
cumstances. To  place  in  particular  situation,  or 
relation  to  the  things.  Surrounding;  environ- 
ing. Accidental ;  not  essential.  Incidental ; 
happening  by  chance ;  casual.  Full  of  small 
events,  particularly  detailed.  The  appendage  of 
circumstances;  the  state  of  any  thing  as  mo- 
dified by  circumstances.  According  to  circum- 
stance; not  essentially ;  accidentally.  Minutely; 
exactly ;  in  every  circumstance  or  particular. 
To  place  in  particular  circumstances ;  to  invest 
with  particular  accidents  or  adjuncts.  To  place 
in  a  particular  condition,  as  with  regard  to  power 
or  wealth. 

The  fifth  circumstance  is  how  many  times  that  he 
hath  sinned  (if  it  be  in  his  minde),  and  how  oft  he  hath 
fallen  ;  for  he  that  oft  falleth  in  sinne,  he  dcxpiseth 
the  mercy  of  God  and  encreseth  his  sinne. 

Chaucer.      The  Persones  Tale. 
Of  tXese  supposed  crimes  give  me  leave, 
By  circumstance,  but  to  acquit  myself.     S/uikspeare. 

This  fierce  abridgment 
Hath  to  it  circumstantial  branches,  which 
Distinction  would  be  rich  in.  Id. 

To  worthiest  things, 
Virtue,  art,  beauty,  fortune,  now  I  see, 
Ivareness  or  use,  not  nature,  value  brings; 
And  such  as  they  are  circumstanced,  they  be. 

Donne. 

Virtue's  but  anguish,  when  'tis  several, 
By  occasion  waked,  and  circumstantial.  Id. 

Of  the  fancy  and  intellect,  the  powers  are  only  cir- 
cumstantially different.  Glanville's  Scepsis. 

Tf  the  act  were  otherwise  circumstantiated,  it  might 
will  that  freely,  which  now  it  wills  freely.  Bramhall 


Our  confessing  or  concealing  persecuted  truths, 
vary  and  change  their  very  nature,  according  to  dif- 
ferent circumstances  of  time,  place,  and  persons. 

South. 

He  defended  Carlisle  with  very  remarkable  circum- 
stances of  courage,  industry,  and  patience.  Clarendon. 

Its  beams  fly  to  visit  the  remotest  parts  of  the  world, 
and  it  gives  motion  to  all  circumstant  bodies. 

Digby  on  the  Soul. 

He  had  been  provoked  by  men's  tedious  and  c/V- 
citmxtdjitial  recitals  of  their  affairs,  or  by  their  multi- 
plied questions  about  his  own.  Pri»r'f  Dctlic. 

A  number  infinitely  supcriour,  and  the  best  circum- 
stantiated imaginable,  are  for  the  succession  of  Ha 
nover.  Sivifr. 

When  mm  r.re  easy  in  their  circumstances,  they  ar« 


naturally  enuiiiies  to   innovations 


A ddisun '«  Freeh  :'Mr. 
:s  A  2 


CIR 


724 


CIR 


You  guess  each  circumstance  of  Edwin's  birth, 
The  parents'  transport  and  the  parents'  care, 
The  gossips'  prayer  for  wealth  and  wit  and  worth, 
And  one  long  summer  day  of  indolence  and  mirth. 

Beattic. 

And  circumstance  that  unspiritual  good, 
And  miscrcator,  makes  and  helps  along 
Our  coming  evils,  with  a  crutch-like  rod, 
Whose  touch  turns  hope  to  dust — the  dust  all  we  have 
trod.  Byron's  Childe  Harold. 

CIRCUMSTANTIBUS,  in  law,  by-standers, 
a  term  used  for  supplying  and  making  up  the 
number  of  jurors  (in  case  any  impanelled  appear 
not,  or  appearing  are  challenged  by  any  party), 
by  adding  to  them  so  many  of  the  persons  pre- 
sent as  will  make  up  the  number,  in  case  they 
are  properly  qualified.  This  mode  of  filling  up 
the  deficiency  is  called  tales  de  circumstantibus. 
CIRCUMVA'LLATE,  v.  a.  )  Lat.  circum- 
CIRCUMVALLA'TION,  n. f-  $  vallo.  To  en- 
close round  with  trenches  or  fortifications.  The 
art  or  act  of  casting  up  fortifications  round  a 
place.  The  fortification  or  trench  thrown  up 
round  a  place  besieged . 

This  gave  respite  to  finish  those  stupendous  circum- 
vallations  and  barricadoes,  reared  up  by  sea  and  land. 

Howell. 

When  the  czar  first  acquainted  himself  with  mathe- 
matical learning,  he  practised  all  the  rules  of  circum- 
vallation and  contravallation  at  the  siege  of  a  town  in 
Livonia.  Watts, 

CIRCUMVALLATION,  or  line  of  circumvallation, 
in  fortification,  a  rampart  of  earth,  consisting  of 
a  parapet  and  trench,  made  round  a  town  in- 
tended to  be  besieged,  when  any  attempt  to  re- 
lieve the  place  is  threatened.  This  line,  being  a 
fortification  opposed  to  an  enemy  that  may  come 
from  the  open  country,  ought  to  have  its  de- 
fences directed  so  as  to  fire  from  the  town  ;  and 
the  besiegers  are  to  be  encamped  between  this 
line  and  the  place.  The  camp  should  be  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  shot  of  the  place ;  and  the  line 
of  circumvallation  ought  still  more  to  be  out  of 
the  reach  of  its  artillery.  See  FORTIFICATION. 

CIRCUMVENTION,  n.s.  Lat.  circ uinvect io. 
The  act  of  carrying  round.  •  The  state  of  being 
carried  round. 

CIRCUMVE'NT,  v.  n.  )       Lat.  circumvenio. 
CIRCUMVENTION,  n  s.  $  To  deceive;  to  cheat; 
to   impose   upon;   to  delude.     Fraud;  impos- 
ture ;  cheat ;  delusion.     Prevention ;  pre-occu- 
pation.     This  sense  is  now  out  of  use. 

Whatever  hath  been  thought  on  in  this  state, 
That  could  be  brought  to  bodily  act,  ere  Rome 
Uad  circumvention.  Shakspeare. 

He,  fearing  to  be  betrayed  or  circumvented  by  his 
cruel  brother,  fled  to  Barbarossa. 

Knolles's  History  of  tlte  Turks. 
As  his  malice  is  vigilant,  he  resteth  not  to  circum- 
fent  the  sons  of  the  first  deceived. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 
Should  man 
Fall  circumvented  thus  by  fraud. 

Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

The  inequality  of  the  match  between  him  and  the 
subtlest  of  us,  would  quickly  .appear  by  a  fatal  circum- 
vention ;  there  must  be  a  wisdom  from  above  to  over- 
reach this  hellish  wisdom.  South. 
If  he  is  in  the  city  he  must  avoid  haranguing 
igaiast  circumvention  in  commerce. 

Collier  nf  Pojndarity. 


Obstinately  bent 

To  die  undaunted,  and  to  circumvent.    Dryden* 
Nature  supplied  the  wish  she  taught  to  crave, 

None  prowl'd  for  prey,  none  watch *d  to  circumoeiA. 
To  all  an  equal  lot  Heaven's  bounty  gave, 
No  vassal  fear'd  his  lord,  no  tyrant  feared  his  slave. 

Beattie. 

CIRCUMVE'ST,  n.  s.  Lat.  eimmvestio.  T<» 
cover  round  with  a  garment. 

Who  on  this  base  the  earth  did'st  firmly  found, 

And  madcst  the  deep  to  circumvent  it  round. 

Wotton. 

CIRCUMVOLATION,  from  Lat.  arctiniw- 
lo.  The  act  of  flying  round. 

CIRCUMVO'LVE,  v.  a.  Lat.  circumvolvo.  To 
roll  round  ;  to  put  into  a  circular  motion. 

Could  solid  orbs  be  accommodated  to  phenomena, 
yet  to  ascribe  each  sphere  an  intelligence  to  circum- 
volve  it,  were  unphilosophical.  Glanville's  Scepsis , 

CIRCUMVOLUTION,  n.s.  Lat.  circumvolu- 
tus.  The  act  of  rolling  round.  The  state  of  be- 
ing rolled  round. 

The  twisting  of  the  guts  is  really  either  a  circumvo- 
lution, or  insertion  of  one  part  of  the  gut  within  the 
other.  Arbutfinot. 

The  thing  rolled  round  another. 

Consider  the  obliquity  or  closeness  of  these  circum- 
volutions ;  the  nearer  they  are,  the  higher  may  be  the 
instrument.  Wttkm*. 

CI'RCUS,  ?i.  s.  }      Lat.   circus.       An    open 

CI'RQUE.  1  space  or  area  for    sports, 

with  seats  round  for  the  spectators. 

A  pleasant  valley  like  one  of  those  circuses,  which 
in  great  cities  somewhere  doth  give  a  pleasant  spec- 
tacle of  running  horses.  Sidney. 

The  one  was  about  the  cirque  of  Flora,  the  other 
upon  the  Tarpeian  mountain.  Stillingjieet . 

See  the  cirque  falls  !  the'  unpillared  temple  nods  ; 
Streets  paved  with  heroes,  Tyber  choaked  with  gods. 

Pope. 

CIRCUS,  in  antiquity,  a  large  building,  oval  or 
circular,  for  the  exhibition  of  shows  to  the  popu- 
lace. The  Roman  circus  was  a  large  oblong 
edifice,  arched  at  one  end  ;  encompassed  with 
porticoes,  and  furnished  with  rows  of  seats, 
placed  ascending  over  each  other.  In  the  middle 
was  a  kind  of  foot  bank,  or  eminence,  with  obe- 
lisks, statues,  and  posts  at  each  end.  This  served 
them  for  the  courses  of  their  bigae  and  quadrigae. 
There  were  from  a  remote  period  no  less  than 
ten  of  these  buildings  at  Rome  :  the  largest  was 
erected  by  the  elder  Tarquin,  called  Circus 
Maximus,  between  the  Aventine  and  Palatine 
mounts.  It  was  so  called,  either  because  of  its 
vast  circumference,  because  the  great  games  were 
celebrated  in  it,  or  because  it  was  consecrated  to 
the  superior  gods,  viz.  to  Vertumnus,  Neptune, 
Jupiter,  Juno,  Minerva,  and  the  Dii  Penates  of 
Rome.  -Dionysius  Halicarnassensis  says,  that  it 
was  three  stadia  and  a  half  in  length,  and  four 
jugera  broad.  All  the  curije,  or  divisions  of  the 
people,  as  established  by  Romulus,  had  their 
proper  places  assigned  to  them.  The  lowet 
orders  were  separated  from  the  rest ;  the  nobles, 
the  gentry,  and  magistrates,  were  seated  according 
to  their  quality.  The  nearest  and  most  conve- 
nient place  to  the  shows  was  the  orchestra,  which 
-was  assigned  to  the  senators  and  persons  of  the 


725 


CIS 


.noblest  quality.  Before  it  was  a  large  platform 
called  podium,  where  the  throne  of  the  emperor 
was  usually  placed,  and  was  also  appropriated  to 
the  nobles  and  foreigners  of  the  highest  distinc- 
tion, the  senate,  the  tribunes  of  the  people,  the 
vestal  virgins,  and  the  person  who  appointed  the 
games  and  paid  the  expenses.  He  was  styled 
by  the  various  names  of  Editor,  Munerarius, 
Agonotheta,  and  Brabeuta ;  as  publisher  or  de- 
clarer of  the  sports  and  their  conditions,  as  the 
giver  of  them  at  his  own  expense,  as  judge  of 
the  victors,  and  as  distributor  of  the  prizes.  And 
the  prize  that  was  bestowed  upon  the  victors  was 
called  Brabium,  or  Brabeum,  from  Bpa/3tioj/> 
premium.  See  AMPHITHEATRE. 

The  Romans  were  much  attached  to  the  games 
called  Ludi  Romani,  Roman  games,  either  on 
account  of  their  antiquity,  as  being  coeval  with 
the  Roman  people,  or  because  established  by  the 
Romans :  and  the  games  held  there,  the  great 
games,  ludi  magni,  because  celebrated  with  more 
expense  and  magnificence  than, others;  and  be- 
cause held  in  honor  of  the  great  god  Neptunej 
who  was  their  Census.  Those  who  insist  that 
they  were  instituted  in  honor  of  the  sun,  con- 
found the  pompa  circensis,  or  procession  of  the 
circus,  with  the  games.  The  games  of  the  circus 
were  instituted  by  Evander,  and  re-established 
by  Romulus :  the  pomp,  or  procession  was  only 
a  part  of  the  games,  making  the  prelude  thereof, 
and  consisting  of  a  simple  cavalcade  of  chariots, 
Till  the  time  of  the  elder  Tarquin,  they  were 
held  in  an  island  of  the  Tiber ;  and  were  called 
Roman  games ;  after  that  prince  had  built  the 
circus,  they  took  their  name  from  it.  There 
were  six  kinds  of  exercises  in  the  circus :  viz. 
1.  Wrestling,  and  fighting  with  swords,  staves, 
and  pikes.  2.  Racing.  3.  Saltatio,  leaping. 
4.  Disci,  quoits,  arrows,  and  cestus ;  all  which 
were  on  foot.  5.  Horse  coursing.  6.  Courses 
of  chariots,  with  two  horses  or  with  four.  7.  Wild 
beast  combats  with  dogs  or  men.  In  this  last 
exercise,  the  combatants  were  at  first  divided  into 
two  squadrons;  then  into  four;  each  bearing 
the  names  of  the  colors  they  wore  ;  factio  arba, 
nissea,  &c.  Oenomaus  invented  this  method  of 
distinguishing  the  squadrons  by  colors.  At  first 
tliere  were  only  white  and  red,  then  green  and 
blue  were  added.  The  green  was  for  those  who 
represented  the  earth ;  the  blue  for  the  sea,  &c. 

CIRENCESTER,  an  ancient  market  and 
oorough  town  of  Gloucestershire.  It  was  strongly 
fortified  with  walls  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and 
is  the  Corinumof  Ptolemy  and  the  Durocornovium 
of  Antoninus.  The  ruins  of  the  walls  and  streets 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  adjacent  meadows,  where 
many  Roman  coins,  chequered  pavements,  and 
inscriptions  on  marble,  have  been  found.  Two 
of  the  Roman  consular  ways  cross  each  other  at 
this  town.  The  Fossewav,  which  comes  from 
Scotland,  passes  through  it  to  Totness  in  Devon- 
shire; and  the  Irmin-street  comes  from  Glou- 
cester, and  runs  along  to  Southampton.  Some 
years  ago  was  discovered  in  a  meadow  near  the 
town,  an  ancient  building  under  ground,  fifty  feet 
io  g,  forty  broad,  and  four  high,  supported  by 
two  brick  pillars,  curiously  inlaid  with  stones  of 
various  colors,  and  supposed  to  have  been  a 
K-mian  bath.  Tlio  Stroudvvater  canal  communi- 


cates with  the  town,  and  is  of  great  advantage 
to  its  trade.  The  church  is  a  large  fine  building, 
the  windows  of  which  contain  the  remains  cf 
some  very  beautiful  painted  glass.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  two  rows  of  pillars;  and  the  tower  is 
forty-four  yards  high,  having  twelve  bells.  Here 
were  formerly  two  other  churches,  which  are  now 
destroyed.  The  town  is  governed  by  two  high  • 
constables,  and  fourteen  wardsmen,  who  govern 
seven  distinct  wards  ;  and  has  sent  two  members 
to  parliament  ever  since  the  year  1568.  It  has 
a  free  school,  a  charity  school,  with  several  alms- 
houses  ;  and  is  seated  on  the  river  Churn, 
eighteen  miles  south-west  of  Gloucester,  and 
eighty-nine  west  by  north  of  London. 

CIRO-FERRI,  an  excellent  Italian  painter 
and  architect,  born  at  Rome  in  1614.  He  was 
the  disciple  of  Peter  de  Cortona,  whose  designs 
he  imitated  with  such  exactness,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  distinguish  them.  He  was  principally  em- 
ployed by  Pope  Alexander  VII.  and  his  three 
successors,  and  died  at  Rome  in  1689. 

CIRRHUS,  or  CIRRUS,  a  clasper,  or  tendril. 
See  BOTANY.  Tendrils  are  either  simple,  i.  e. 
composed  of  one  fibre  or  chord,  as  in  the  retch, 
or  compound,  i-  e.  consist  of  two,  thiee,  or  more, 
as  in  the  everlasting  pea.  Bitter  sweet,  solanum, 
dulcamara,  bignonia,  and  ivy,  send  forth  tendrils 
which  plant  themselves  like  roots  in  the  adjacent 
walls,  or  the  bark  of  the  neighbouring  trees. 
Dr.  Grew  says,  they  are  like  trunk  roots,  a  mean 
betwixt  a  root  and  a  trunk,  but  a  compound  o. 
both,  as  may  be  gathered  from  their  circumvo- 
lutions, in  which  they  mutually  ascend  and  de- 
scend. In  the  mounting  of  the  trunk,  they  serve 
for  support. 

CIRRI,  in  ichthyology,  certain  oblong  and 
soft  appendages,  not  unlike  little  worms,  hanging 
from  the  under  jaws  or  mouths  of  some  fishes : 
these  cirri,  commonly  translated  beards,  afford 
marks  to  distinguish  the  different  species  of  the 
fishes  on  which  they  are  found. 

C1RTA,  in  ancient  geography,  the  metropolis 
and  royal  residence,  in  the  inland  parts  of  Nu- 
midia  Proper,  near  the  Ampsaga.  It  was  very 
rich,  and  was  called  Colonia  Sittianorum  when 
in  the  hands  of Syphax.  The  colony  was  led  by 
one  P.  Sittius,  under  the  auspices  of  Caesar,  and 
was  surnamed  Julia.  It  is  now  called  Constan- 
tina,  and  belongs  to  Algiers. 

CISALPINE,  any  thing  on  this  side  the  Alps. 
The  Romans  divided  Gaul,  and  the  country  now 
called  Lombardy,  into  Cisalpir/e  and  Transal- 
pine. That  which  was  Cisalpine  with  regard  to 
the  Romans,  was  Transalpine  with  regard  to  us; 
cis  signifying  on  this  side,  and  trans  on  the 
farther  side. 

CISALPINE  REPUBI-.IC,  an  extensive  democratic 
state  of  Italy,  established  during  the  revolution 
in  France,  and  destined  to  perish  with  it.  It 
comprehended  what  was  formerly  called  Austrian 
Lombardy,  the  territories  of  Bergamo,  Bresciano, 
and  Cremona,  the  town  and  fortress  of  Mantua, 
the  territory  of  Peschiera,  part  of  the  ci-devant 
Venetian  States,  all  the  ancient  territory  of  Mo- 
dena,  the  principalities  of  Mantua  and  Carrara, 
the  territory  of  Chiavenna,  and  the  three  lega- 
tions of  Bologna,  I'enara,  and  Romagna,  a  part 
of  the  Veronese,  the  ci-devant  duthy  of  Massa, 


CIS 


726 


CIS 


and  the  Valteline;  being  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Switzerland,  the  Tyrol,  and  the  late  maritime 
division  of  Austria ;  on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic 
and  Austria  Proper;  on  the  south  by  the  late 
Roman  and  Etruscan  republics,  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Parma ;  and  on  the  west  by  Parma 
and  Piedmont,  lying  between  long.  9°  0'  and 
14°  E.,  and  between  lat.  43°  and  47°  0'  N.  The 
Cisalpine  republic  was  finally  established  and 
defined  by  the  treaty  of  Campo-Formio,  on  the 
17th  of  October  1797;  and  acknowledged  by 
the  emperor,  the  pope,  the  kings  of  Sardinia 
and  Spain,  and  the  French,  Batavian,  and  Hel- 
vetic republics.  Buonaparte,  the  first  consul  of 
France,  was  afterwards  chosen  president  of  the 
republic,  and  the  name  Cisalpine  abolished  for 
that  of  Italian ;  which,  in  May  1805,  gave  way 
to  the  more  pompous  title  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy. 

CISLEU,  in  Hebrew  chronology,  the  ninth 
month  of  their  ecclesiastical,  and  third  of  their 
civil,  year,  answering  nearly  to  our  November. 

CISPADANA,  or  the  CISPADANE  REPUBLIC, 
was  a  small  democratic  state,  founded  in  October 
1796,  upon  the  plan  of  the  French  government. 
It  was  the  first  of  the  kind  in  Italy,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  CISALPINE  REPUBLIC,  which 
see.  .  . 

CISPADANA  GALLIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
district  of  Italy,  to  the  south  of  the  Po,  occupied 
by  the  Gauls  in  the  time  of  the  kings  of  Rome, 
separated  from  Liguria  on  the  west,  as  is  thought, 
by  the  Iria,  running  from  south  to  north  into  the 
Po ;  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Appenine,  and 
on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic.  The  term  is  formed 
analogically  with  respect  to  Rome.  Ptolemy  calls 
the  Gallia  Cispadana  peculiarly  Gallia  Togata, 
and  describes  it  as  extending  between  the  Po  and 
Appenines,  to  the  Sapis  and  Rubicon. 

CISSA,  or  CISSUM,  a  town  of  Hither  Spain, 
in  Lacetania,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Iberus, 
thought  to  be  Guissona;  where  the  Carthaginians 
were  first  defeated  by  Scipio.  Also  a  town  of 
Thrace,  situated  on  the  river  jEgos-Potamos. 

CISSAMPELOS,  in  botatiy,  a  genus  of  the 
monadelphia  order,  and  dioecia  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  eleventh,  sarmentaceae.  Male 
CAL.  tetraphyllous :  COR.  none:  NECTARIUM 
wheel-shaped  :  STAM.  four,  with  their  filaments 
grown  together.  Female  CAL.  monophyllous, 
and  ligulated  roundish :  COR.  none :  STYLES 
three :  SEED  monospermous  berry.  There  are 
five  species :  the  chief  are :  1 .  C.  caapeba,  a  native 
of  the  warmest  parts  of  America.  The  root  ap- 
plied externally,  is  said  to  be  an  antidote  against 
the  bites  of  venomous  serpents.  The  plant  being 
infusefl  in  water,  quickly  fills  the  liquor  with  a 
mucilaginous  substance,  which  is  as  thick  as 
jelly;  whence  the  name  of  freezing  wyth,  by 
which  this  genus  of  plants  has  been  distinguished 
by  the  Brazilians :  and,  2.  C.  pareira,  also  a  native 
of  the  warmest  parts  of  America ;  having  peltate 
leaves,  and  heart-shaped  flowers. 

CISSOID,  in  geometry,  a  curve  of  the  second 
order,  first  invented  by  Diocles,  whence  it  is 
called  the  cissoid  of  Diocles.  See  FLUXIONS. 

CISSUS,  the  wild  grape,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  tetrandria  class  of  plants  ;  natu- 
ral order  forty-sixth,  het'eraceic.  The  berry  15 


monospermous,  surrounded  by  the  calyx,  and  3 
quadripartite  corolla.  There  are  nineteen  species, 
all  natives  of  Jamaica,  and  some  of  the  other 
islands  in  the  warmest  parts  of  America.  They 
send  out  slender  branches,  having  tendrils  at  their 
joints,  by  which  they  fasten  to  the  neighbouring 
trees,  bushes,  and  any  other  support,  mounting 
to  a  considerable  height.  The  fruit  of  some  of 
the  species  are  eaten  by  the  negroes. 

CIST,  n. s.  Lat.  cista.  A  case;  a  tegument; 
commonly  used  in  medicinal  language  for  the 
coat  or  enclosure  of  a  tumor. 

CI'STED,  adj.  from  cist.  Enclosed  in  a  cist, 
or  bag. 

CISTERTIANS,  in  church  history,  a  religious 
order  founded  in  the  eleventh  century  by  St. 
Robert,  a  Benedictine.  They  became  so  power- 
fulj  that  they  governed  all  Europe,  both  in 
spirituals  and  temporals.  Cardinal  de  Vitri 
describing  their  observances,  says,  they  neither 
wore  skins  nor  shirts  ;  nor  ever  eat  flesh,  except 
in  sickness  ;  and  abstained  from  fish,  eggs,  milk, 
and  cheese ;  they  lay  upon  straw  beds,  in  tunics 
and  cowls :  they  rose  at  midnight  to  prayers ; 
they  spent  the  day  in  labor,  reading.,  and  prayer ; 
and  in  all  their  exercises  observed  a  continual 
silence.  The  habit  of  the  cistertian  monks  is  a 
white  robe,  in  the  nature  of  a  cassock,  witli  a 
black  scapulary  and  hood,  and  is  girt  with  a 
wooden  girdle.  The  nuns  wear  a  white  tunic, 
and  a  black  scapular  and  girdle.  The  ruins  of  a 
famous  cistertian  abbey  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
parish  of  New-Abbey,  to  which  it  gave  name,  in 
Kirkcudbrightshire  ;  founded  by  Dervigilla,  the 
mother  of  John  Baliol,  king  of  Scotland. 

CI'STERN,  n.  s,  Lat.  cisterna.  A  receptacle 
of  water  for  domestic  uses. 

Tis  not  the  rain  that  waters  the  whole  earth,  but 
that  which  falls  into  his  own  cittern,  that  must  relieve 
him.  Suvth. 

A  reservoir ;  an  enclosed  fountain. 

Had  no  part  as  kindly  staid  behind 
In  the  wide  cisterns  of  the  lakes  confined, 
Did  not  the  springs  and  rivers  drench  the  land, 
Our  globe  would  grow  a  wilderness  of  sand. 

Blackmore. 

Any  receptacle  or  repository  of  water. 
So  half  my  Egypt  were  submerged,  and  made 
A  cistern  for  scaled  snakes.  Shakspeare. 

But  there's  no  bottom,  none, 

In  my  voluptuousness  :  your  wives,  your  daughters, 
Your  matrons,  and  your  maids,  could  not  fill  up 
The  cistern  of  my  lust.  Id. 

CISTERN,  a  reservoir  for  the  reception  of  water. 
Anciently  there  were  cisterns  all  over  the  coun- 
try in  Palestine.  There  were  some  likewise  in 
cities  and  private  houses.  As  the  cities  for  the 
most  part  were  built  on  mountains,  and  the  rains 
fell  regularly  in  Judea  at  two  seasons  in  the  year 
only,  in  spring  and  autumn,  the  people  were 
obliged  to  keep  water  in  cisterns  in  the  country 
for  the  use  of  their  cattle,  and  in  the  cities  for  the 
conveniency  of  the  inhabitants.  There  are  still 
cisterns  of  very  large  dimensions  to  be  seen  in 
Palestine,  some  whereof  are  150  paces  long,  and 
fifty-four  wide. 

CI'STUS,  71.  s.  Lat.  The  name  of  a  plant. 
The  isame  with  roekroiu. 


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CISTUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  and  polyandria  class  of  plants ;  natural 
order  twentieth,  rotacete:  COR.  pentapetalous  : 
CAL.  pentaphyllous,  with  two  of  its  leaves  smaller 
than  the  rest.  The  seeds  are  *nany,  and  contained 
in  a  capsule.  There  are  seventy-eight  species, 
most  of  them  natives  of  the  southein  parts  of 
Europe,  but  hardy  enough  to  bear  t>ie  open  air 
in  this  country.  They  are  beautiful  evergreen 
shrubs,  generally  very  branchy  quite  from  the 
bottom,  and  forming  diffused  heads.  They  are 
very  ornamental  in  gardens,  not  only  as  ever- 
greens, making  a  fine  variety  at  ail  seasons  with 
their  leaves  of  different  figures,  sizes,  and  shades 
of  green  and  white,  but  also  as  flowering  shrubs, 
being  very  profuse  in  most  elegant  flowers  of 
white,  purple,  and  yellow  colors'.  These  flowers 
only  last  for  one  day ;  but  there  is  a  continual 
succession  of  new  ones  for  a  month  or  six  weeks 
on  the  same  plant ;  and,  when  there  are  different 
species,  they  exhibit  a  constant  bloom  forneaily 
three  months.  They  are  propagated  either  by 
seeds  or  cuttings,  and  thrive  best  in  a  dry  soil. 
Gum  labdanum  is  found  upon  a  species  of  cistus 
which  grows  naturally  in  the  Levant,  and  is  there- 
fore called  labdanifera.  See  LABDANUM. 

CITADEL,  n.  s.  Fr.  citadelle.  A  fortress ;  a 
castle,  or  place  of  arms,  in  a  city. 

As  he  came  to  the  rrown  by  unjust  means,  as  un- 
justly he  kept  it;  by  force  of  strangej  soldiers  in  ci- 
tadels,  the  nests  of  tyranny  and  murderers  of  liberty. 

Sidney. 
I'll  to  my  charge,  the  citadel,  repair.  Dryden. 

CITADELLA,  orCiuDADELLA,  a  sea-port  of 
the  island  of  Minorca,  and  capital  of  the  island, 
is  situated  on  the  west  coast,  and  surrounded 
with  walls  and  bastions.  It  has  barracks  for 
about  600  men ;  and  contains  a  cathedral,  two 
parish  churches,  and  four  convents.  The  port  is 
much  exposed  to  west  and  south  winds,  and  ter- 
minates in  marshy  shores.  It  was  taken,  with 
the  whole  island,  by  general  Stanhope  and  the 
confederate  fleet  in  1708,  and  ceded  to  Great 
Britain  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  It  was 
taken  by  the  French,  after  a  brave  defence,  in 
1756  ;  but  restored  at  the  peace.  In  1782  it  was 
taken  by  the  Spaniards,  and  confirmed  to  them  at 
the  subsequent  peace.  It  is  twenty-seven  miles 
west  of  Port  Marion. 

CITADENESCA,  in  natural  history,  a  name 
giVen  by  some  writers  to  the  Florentine  marble, 
which  is  supposed  to  represent  towns,  palaces, 
ruins,  rivers,  &c.  These  delineations  are  merely 
accidental,  and  are  commonly  much  assisted  by 
the  imagination,  though  the  natural  lines  of  a 
stone  muy  sometimes  by  chance  represent  the 
ruins  of  some  ancient  building,  or  the  course  of 
a  river.  In  England  there  is  a  kind  of  septaria, 
or  ludus  Ilelmontii,  which  has  sometimes  beauti- 
ful, though  very  irregular,  delineations  of  this 
kind.  The  Florentine  marble,  as  we  see  it 
wrought  up  in  the  ornaments  of  cabinets,  &c., 
owes  a  great  deal  to  the  skill  of  the  workmen, 
who  always  pick  out  the  proper  pieces  from  the 
mass,  and  dispose  them  in  the  work  so  as  to 
represent  what  they  please. 

C1TILERON,  in  ancient  geography,  a  moun- 
tain and  forest  of  Uoeotin,  celebrated  by  the 
ancient  poets.  To  the  west  it  ran  obliquely,  a 


little  above  the  Sinus  Crissaer;  Diking  its  rise 
contiguous  to  the  mountains  of  Megara  and  At- 
tica ;  then  levelled  into  plains,  it  terminates  at 
Thebes,  famous  for  the  fate  of  Pentheus  and 
Actacon  ;  the  former  torn  by  -the  Baccha;,  the 
latter  by  his  dogs;  as  also  for  the  orgia,  or  revels 
of  Bacchus. 

CITHARA,  in  antiquity,  a  musical  instru- 
ment, the  precise  structure  of  which  is  not  knowr  ; 
some  think  it  resembled  the  Greek  A ;  and  otherr 
the  shape  of  a  half-moon.  At  first  it  had  onl/ 
three  strings,  but  the  number  was  at  different 
times  increased  to  eight,  to  nine,  and  lastly  to 
twenty-four.  It  was  used  in  entertainments  and 
private  houses,  and  played  upon  with  a  plectrum 
or  quill,  like  the  lyre. 

CITHAREXYLON,  fiddle-wood:  a  genus 
of  the  angiospermia  order,  and  didynamia  class 
of  plants;  natural  order  fortieth,  personate: 
CAL.  quinquedentated,  campanulated,  and  wheel- 
shaped,  with  its  segments  villous  on  the  upper 
side,  equal :  FRUIT  a  dispermous  berry  :  SEED 
bilocular.  Species  six,  natives  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  America  and  the  West  Indies,  where 
they  grow  to  be  large  trees,  and  are  adorned 
with  white  flowers  growing  in  spikes.  In  Britain 
they  appear  only  as  shrubs,  and  must  be  con- 
stantly retained  in  the  stove,  where  they  make  a 
fine  appearance,  being  beautiful  ever-greens. 
They  may  be  propagated  either  by  seeds  or  cut- 
tings. 

CITE,  v.  a.       "^       Lat.  cito.    To  summon  ; 

CI'TAL, n.  s.         \  to  answer  in  a  court.     To 

CITA'TION,  n. s.  ^enjoin;  to  call   upon  ano- 

CI'TATOUY,  adj.  |  ther  authoritatively;  to  di- 

CI'TER,  n.  s.       J  rect;  to  summon.  To  quote. 
Quotation ;  the  adduction  of  any  passage  from 
another   author ;    or   of  ^another  man's   words. 
The  passage  or  words  quoted  ;  a  quotation.  The 
derivative  noun  cital  implies  reproof;    impeach- 
ment.  In  law,  citation  signifies  the  calling  a  per- 
son before  the  judge,  for  the  sake  of  trying  the 
cause  of  action  commenced  against  him. 
He  made  a  blushing  cital  of  himself, 
And  chid  his  truant  youth.  Shakspeare. 

I  speak  to  you,  Sir  Thurio  j 

For  Valentine,  I  need  not  cite  him  to  it.  Id. 

He  held  a  late  court,  to  whick 
She  oft  was  cited  by  them,  but  appeared  not.          Id. 

Demonstrations  in  scripture  may  not  otherwise  be 
shewed  than  by  citing  them  out  of  the  scripture. 

Hooker. 

Forthwith  the  cited  dead, 
Of  all  past  ages,  to  the  general  doom 
Shall  hasten.  Milton. 

This  power  of  citing,  and  dragging  the  defendant 
into  court,  was  taken  away.  AyliffJi  Parergon. 

If  a  judge  cite  one  to  a  place,  to  which  he  cannot 
come  with  safety,  he  may  freely  appeal,  though  au 
appeal  be  inhibited  in  the  letters  citatory.  Id. 

These  causes  effect  a  consumption  cndcmick  to  this 
island  :  there  remains  a  citation  of  such  as  may  pro- 
duce it  in  any  country.  Harvey  on  Consumption. 

This  sad  experience  cites  me  to  reveal, 
And  what  I  dictate  is  from  what  I  feel.  Prior. 

I  must  desire  the  citer  henceforward  to  inform  us 
of  his  editions  too.  Atierbunj. 

The  letter-writer  cannot  read  these  citations  witnout 
1'lubhiug,  after  the  charge  he  hath  advanced.  Id-. 


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View  the  principles  in  their  own  authors,  and  not 
ia  the  citations  of  those  who  would  confute  them. 

Watts. 

CITERN,  n.  s.  Lat.  cithara.  A  kind  of  harp ; 
a  musical  instrument. 

At  what  time  the  heathen  had  profaned  it,  even  in 
that  was  it  dedicated  with  songs  and  citherns,  and 
harps  and  cymbals.  Mace. 

CITIUM,  CETIUM,  or  CITTIUM,  in  aacient 
geography,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Cyprus,  fa- 
mous for  the  birth  of  Zeno,  founder  of  the  sect 
of  Stoics  ;  200  stadia  west  of  Salarriis.  It  was 
founded  by  a  colony  of  Phoenicians,  called  Che- 
tim  :  and  hence  not  only  Cyprus,  but  the  other 
islands  and  many  maritime  places,  are  called 
Chetim  by  the  Hebrews. 

A  CITIZEN  of  ancient  Rome  was  distinguished 
from  a  stranger,  because  the  latter  belonged  to 
no  certain  commonwealth  subject  to  the  Rqmans. 
A  citizen  was  either  by  birth  or  election  ;  and 
sons  might  derive  the  right  from  their  fathers. 
To  be  a  Roman  citizen,  it  was  necessary  to  be 
an  inhabitant  of  Rome,  to  be  enrolled  in  one  of 
the  tribes,  and  to  be  capable  of  dignities.  Those 
to  whom  were  granted  the  rights  and  privileges 
of  Roman  citizens,  were  only  honorary  citizens. 
It  was  not  lawful  to  scourge  a  citizen  of  Rome. 
For  modern  privileges  of  the  kind,  See  FREEMAN 
and  LONDON. 

CITRIC  ACID,  in  chemistiy,  the  juice  of 
lemons  or  limes  deprived  of  its  mucilage.  For 
chemical  purposes  this  acid  is  best  obtained  pure 
by  saturating  boiling  lemon-juice  with  powdered 
chalk,  on  which  the  saline  compound  falls  to  the 
bottom,  and  leaves  the  mucilage  suspended  in 
the  fluid,  which  must  be  decanted  off  and  the 
precipitate  washed  till  quite  clean.  Then  add  a 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  equal  to  the  chalk  in 
weight,  and  diluted  with  ten  parts  of  water,  and 
boil  it  for  a  few  minutes,  on  which  the  sulphuric 
acid  combines  with  the  earth  and  leaves  the  citric 
acid  dissolved  in  the  fluid.  If  this  fluid  is  eva- 
porated to  the  consistence  of  a  syrup,  the  pure 
citric  acid  will  appear  in  thin  needle-like  crystals. 
For  the  common  purposes  of  the  table  this  juice 
may  be  preserved  under  a  thin  stratum  of  oil  for 
a  considerable  time;  in  the  East  Indies  it  is  eva- 
porated into  a  thick  extract  or  ro-le,  and  kept  in 
closed  bottles,  but  no  method  seems  so  perfect  as 
that  of  concentrating  it  by  frost,  which  first  sepa- 
rates the  mucilage  and  afterwards  the  watery  so- 
lution, till  it  leaves  the  acid  with  eight  times  its 
usual  power,  as  may  be  proved  by  its  requiring 
eight  times  the  quantity  of  alkali  to  neutralise  it. 
Its  use  in  saline  draughts,  sauces,  &c.  is  too  well 
known  to  need  any  comment  or  remark.  It  is 
among  the  vegetable  acids  the  one  which  most 
powerfully  resists  decomposition  by  fire.  In  a 
dry  and  warm  air  it  seems  to  effloresce;  but  it 
absorbs  moisture  when  the  air  is  damp,  and  at 
length  loses  its  crystalline  form  It  is  not  alter- 
ed by  any  combustible  substance.  The  most 
powerful  acids  decompose  it  less  easily  than  they 
do  other  vegetable  acids  ;  but  the  sulphuric  evi- 
dently converts  it  into  .acetic  acid. 

The  ailimt ics  of  the  citric  acid  are  arranged  by 
Vauquelin  in  the  following  order:  barytes,  lime, 
potash,  soda,  strontia,  magnesia,  ammonia,  alu- 


mina.    Those  for  zircone,  glucine,  and  the  me- 
tallic oxides,  are  not  ascertained. 

All  the  citrates  are  decomposed  by  the  power- 
ful acids,  which  do  not  form  a  precipitate  with 
them,  as  with  the  oxalates  and  tartrates.  The 
oxalic  and  tartaric  acids  decompose  them,  and 
form  crystallised  or  insoluble  precipitates  in  their 
solutions.  All  afford  traces  of  acetic  acid,  or  a 
product  of  the  same  nature,  on  being  exposed  to 
distillation;  this  character  exists  particularly  in 
the  metallic  citrates.  Placed  on  burning  coals 
they  melt,  swell  up,  emit  an  empyreumatic  smell 
of  acetic  acid,  and  leave  a  light  coal.  All  of 
them,  if  dissolved  in  water,  and  left  to  stand  for 
a  time,  undergo  decomposition,  deposit  a  floccu- 
lent  mucus  which  grows  black,  and  leave  their 
bases  combined  with  carbonic  acid,  one  of  the 
products  of  the  decomposition.  Before  they  are 
completely  decomposed,  they  appear  to  pass  to 
the  state  of  acetates. 

Citric  acid,  being  more  costly  than  tartaric,  may 
be  occasionally  adulterated  with  it.  This  fraud 
is  discovered  by  adding  slowly  to  the  acid  dis- 
solved in  water,  a  solution  of  subcarbonate  of  po- 
tassa,  which  will  give  a  white  pulverulent  preci- 
pitate of  tartar,  if  the  citric  be  contaminated  with 
the  tartaric  acid. 

CITRINE,  adj.  Lat.  citrinus.  Lemon-co- 
lored ;  of  a  dark  yellow. 

His  nos  wos  high  ;  his  eyen  bright  eitrin ; 

His  lippes  round  ;  his  colour  was  sanguin. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

The  butterfly,  papilio  major,  has  its  wings  painted 
with  c'drinc  and  black,  both  in  long  streaks  and  spots. 

Grew. 

By  citrine  urine  of  a  thicker  consistence,  the  salt- 
ness  of  phlegm  is  known.  Flayer  on  the  Humours. 

CI'TRINE,  n.  s.  from  Lat.  citrinus. 

A  species  of  crystal  of  an  extremely  pure,  clear, 
and  fine  trxture,  generally  free  from  flaws  and  ble- 
mishes. It  is  ever  found  in  a  long  and  slender  co- 
lumn, irregularly  hexangular,  and  terminated  by  an 
hexangular  pyramid.  It  is  from  one  to  four  or  five 
inches  in  length.  This  stone  is  very  plentiful  in  the 
West  Indies.  Our  jewellers  have  learned  to  call  it 
citrine  ;  and  cut  stones  for  rings  out  of  it,  which  are 
mistaken  for  topazes.  Hill  on  Fossils. 

CITRINUS,  in  natural  history,  a  peculiar 
species  of  sprig  crystal,  which  is  of  a  beautiful 
yellow.  Many  of  the  common  crystals,  when  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  lead  mines,  are  liable  to  be 
accidentally  tinged  yellow,  by  an  admixture 
of  the  particles  of  that  metal;  and  all  these, 
whether  finer  or  coarser,  have  been  too  frequently 
confounded  together  under  the  name  of  citrine : 
but  Dr.  Hill  has  ascertained  this  to  be  a  peculiar 
species  of  crystal,  different  from  all  the  others  in 
form  as  well  as  in  color;  and  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  ellipomacrostylum  lucidum  flavescens, 
pyramide  brevi.  It  is  never  found  colorless  like 
the  other  crystals,  but  has  great  variety  of  tinges, 
from  that  of  the  deeper  ochres  to  a  pale  lemon 
color.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  Bohemia.  The 
pyramid  of  this  crystal  is  always  finer  than  the 
column. 

CITRON-TREE,  n.  s.  from  Lat.  citrus.  It 
has  broad  stiff  leaves,  like  those  of  the  laurel. 
The  flowers  consist  of  many  leaves,  expanded 
like  a  rose.  The  pistil  becomes  an  oblong,  thick, 


C  I  T  II  U  5. 


ileshy  fruit,  very  full  of  juice.  Genoa  is  the  great 
nursery  for  these  trees.  One  sort,  wlui  a  pointed 
fruit,  is  in  so  great  esteem,  that  the  single  fruits 
are  sold  at  Florence  for  two  shillings  each. 

May  the  sun 

With  citron  groves  adorn  a  distant  soil. 

Addison. 

CITRON-TREE,  in  botany.     See  CITRTIS. 
CITRON-WATER,  •».  s.     Aqua-vitae,  dis- 
tilled with  the  rind  of  citrons. 

Like  citron-waters  matrons'  cheeks  inflame. 

Pope. 

CITRON  WATER,  a  spirituous  cordial  thus 
made:  take  of  fine  thin  lemon-peel,  eighteen 
ounces;  of  orange-peel  nine  ounces;  perfect  nut- 
megs three  ounces;  rectified  spirits  of  wine  two 
gallons  and  a  half.  Digest  in  balneo  mariae  for 
one  night;  draw  off  with  a  slow  fire  ;  then  add 
as  much  water  as  will  just  make  the  matter  milky 
(which  will  be  about  seven  quarts  or  two  gal- 
lons); and,  lastly,  add  two  pounds  of  fine  sugar. 
This  composition  may  be  improved  by  fresh 
elder  flowers,  hung  in  a  cloth  in  the  head  of  the 
still,  sprinkled  with  ambergris  in  powder,  or  its 
essence. 

CITRON  WOOD,  the  wood  of  an  American  tree, 
called  by  the  natives  candle-wood ;  because,  being 
cut  into  splinters,  it  burns  like  a  candle.  The 
tree  is  frequent  in  the  Leeward  Islands,  and  grows 
to  a  considerable  size  :  the  leaves  are  like  those 
of  the  bay  tree,  but  of  a  finer  green ;  the  flower 
is  sweet  and  much  like  those  of  the  orange;  the 
fruit  succeeding  these  is  black,  and  of  the  size  of 
a  pepper-corn.  It  is  of  no  known  use  in  medi- 
cine ;  but  is  used  in  France  and  Germany  by  the 
turners,  being  a  fine  firm  grained  wood,  and  taking 
a  fine  polish,  and  with  age  becoming  of  a  very 
beautiful  brown. 

CITRUL,  n.  s.  The  same  with  pumpion,  so 
named  from  its  yellow  color. 

CITRUS,  the  citron-tree:  a  genus  of  the  po- 
lyadelphia  order, and  icosandria  class  of  plants: 
CAL.  quinquefid;  the  petals  oblong,  and  five  in 
number ;  the  antheroe  twenty,  with  their  filaments 
grown  together  so  as  to  form  various  pencils. 
The  fruit  is  a  nine-celled  berry.  There  are  six 
species;  viz. 

1.  C.  aurantium,  the  orange-tree,  has  an  up- 
right trunk  dividing  upward  into  a  branchy,  re- 
gular head,  from  five  to  ten  or  twelve  feet  high  ; 
oval,  spear-shaped,  entire  leaves,  having  winged 
foot-stalks  and  numerous  white  flowers  at  the 
sides  of  the  branches,  succeeded  by  globular 
fruit  compressed  at  both  ends.  The  most  noted 
varieties  are,  1.  the  Seville  orange.  This  is  a 
very  handsome  tree  and  the  hardiest  of  any;  as 
in  this  country  it  shoots  freely,  produces  large 
and  beautiful  leaves,  flowers  stronger,  &c.  The 
fruit  is  large,  rough-riuded,  and  sour,  of  excel- 
lent quality  for  household  uses.  2.  The  China 
orange.  This  tree  has  moderately  sized  leaves, 
and  a  smooth  thin-rinded  sweet  fruit,  of  which 
there  are  several  varieties  in  warm  countries,  where 
they  grow  in  the  open  ground.  3.  The  great 
shaddock  orange,  or  purnplemoes,  grows  larger 
and  stronger  than  the  foregoing,  with  large,  thick, 
and  somewhat  serrated  leaves,  and  very  large 
fruit,  having  a  reddish  pulp.  It  derives  the  uume 


of  shaddock  from  a  captain  of  that  name  that 
first  brought  it  from  the  East  Indies.  4.  The 
forbidden  fruit  tree,  in  trunk,  leaves,  and  flowers, 
very  much  resembles  the  common  orange-tree; 
but  the  fruit  when  ripe,  is  larger  and  longer  than 
the  orange.  It  has  somewhat  the  taste  of  shad- 
dock ;  but  far  exceeds  it,  as  well  as  the  orange, 
in  its  delicious  taste  and  flavor.  5.  The  horned 
orange  is  a  tree  of  moderate  size,  producing  fruit 
which  divides,  and  the  rind  runs  out  into  divisions 
like  horns.  6.  The  hermaphrodite  orange  is  a 
moderate  sized  tree,  producing  fruit  shaped  partly 
like  an  orange  and  partly  like  a  citron.  7.  The 
dwarf  orange  tree,  or  nutmeg  orange,  has  a  long 
stem  and  small  bushy  head,  growing  two  or 
three  feet  high;  small  oval  leaves  in  clusters 
and  numerous  flowers  in  clusters,  covering  the 
branches,  succeeded  by  a  very  small  fruit. 

2.  C.  lima,  the  lemon  tree,  has   an  upright 
smooth  trunk,  divided  upward  into  a  branch 
regular  head;  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  high; 
large,  oval,  spear-shaped,  pointed,  slightly  sawed 
leaves,  on  linear  foot-stalks :  and  many  flowers 
from  the  sides  of  the  branches  succeeded  by  large 
oval  fruit  prominent  at  the  top. 

3.  C.  medica,  the  citron  tree,  has  an  upright 
smooth  trunk,  divided  at  top  into  a  branchy  strong 
shooting,  full  head,  from  about  five  to  fifteen  feet 
high,  adorned   with   large   oval,   spear-shaped, 
thick  leaves,  having  linear  foot-stalks,  and  nume- 
rous flowers  from  the  sides  of  the  branches,  suc- 
ceeded by  very  large  oblong  oval,  pointed,  rough- 
ririded  fruit.      The  varieties  are   1.  citron  tree 
with  sour  fruit;  2.  with  sweet   fruit;  3.   with 
long  fruit;  4.  with  warted  fruit;  5.  with  recurved 
fruit;  and  6.  with  blotched  leaves.     These  are 
the  most  remarkable  varieties  of  the  three  fore- 
going species  of  citrus :  but  besides  these  there 
are  a  great  number  of  others ;  and  indeed,  in  those 
countries  where  they  grow  naturally,  the  varieties 
may  be  multiplied  without  end  like  those  of  our 
apples  and  pears.     The  flowers  of  all  the  species 
and  varieties  are  formed  each  of  five  spreading 
petals,  appearing  here  principally  in  May  and 
June;  and  the  fruit  continue  setting  in  June  and 
July,  and  ripen  the  year  following. 

4.  C.  trifoliata,  the  Japanese  citron,  is  a  thorny 
shrub  growing  naturally   in  Japan.     The  trunk 
acquires  by  age  and  culture  the  thickness  of  a 
tree.     The  branches  and  shoots  are  unequal ;  in 
some  parts  compressed,  in  others  swelling,  espe- 
cially about  the  spines.      These  proceed  singly 
from   the  stem  and  branches;  are  straight,  run 
out  from  a  broad  base  into  a  very  sharp  point ; 
and  are  protruded  from  the  wood,  with  the  com- 
mon bark  of  which  they  are  likewise  invested. 
The  wood  is  loose  and  soft ;  the  bark  of  a  shining 
green,  moist,  and  easily  parting  from  the  wood. 
The  leaves  are  few  in  number,  sawed  on  the  edges, 
veined,  placed  without  order,  but  generally  grow- 
ing under  the  spines.     They  grow  by  threes,  like 
those  of  trefoil,  upon  the  extremity  of  a  common 
foot-stalk,  which  is  furnished  on  each  side  with  a 
membranaceoua  frit  ge  or  margin,  somewhat  re- 
sembling the  pedicles  of  the  orange.     The  upper 
siu-iuce  of  the  leaves  is  of  a  bright  lucid  given, 
the  lower  dark  and  herbaceous.      The  floweis, 
which  resemble    those    of    ihe  medlar,  proceed 

from  tlio  arm-pits  of  the  leaves,  are  \\hiu-, 


730 


CITRUS 


possessed  of  no  great  degree  of  fragrance,  and 
consist  of  five  petals.  The  fruit  is  equally  beau- 
tiful with  a  middle  sized  orange;  their  internal 
structure  is  also  pretty  much  the  same :  only  the 
pulp  is  glutinous,  of  an  unpleasant  smell,  and  a 
harsh  disagreeable  taste.  The  seeds  have  the  same 
taste  with  the  pulp,  and  are  shaped  exactly  like 
those  of  the  orange. 

The  first  three  species  of  citrus  merit  particu- 
lar attention.  They  are  elegant  evergreens,  rising 
in  this  country  from  about  five  to  ten  feet  in 
height ;  forming  full  and  handsome  heads,  closely 
garnished  with  beautiful  large  leaves  all  the  year 
round,  and  putting  forth  a  profusion  of  sweet 
flowers  in  spring  and  early  in  summer;  which 
even  in  this  climate  are  often  succeeded  by  fruit. 
Though  all  the  varieties  were  originally  obtained 
by  seed,  yet  the  only  certain  method  of  continuing 
the  approved  varieties  is  by  budding  or  inarching 
them  on  stocks  raised  from  seed  to  a  proper  size. 
As  the  young  trees  however  are  brought  in  plenty 
from  abroad,  this  method  is  seldom  practised  in 
this  country  :  but  for  curiosity,  it  may  be  done 
by  those  who  are  so  inclined,  in  the  following 
manner:  Early  in  spring  procure  some  kernels, 
which  may  be  had  in  plenty  from  rotten  fruits, 
or  others  that  are  properly  ripened,  observing  that 
for  stocks,  the  citron,  lemon,  and  Seville  orange, 
as  being  the  freest  shooters,  are  to  be  preferred  ; 
and  of  these  the  citron  is  the- strongest.  Sow  the 
kernels  in  March,  in  pots  of  rich  light  earth  half 
an  inch  deep,  and  plunge  them  in  a  hot-bed  under 
frames  and  glasses.  Dung  or  tan  may  be  used, 
but  the  latter  is  preferable,  giving  air,  and  frequent 
sprinklings  of  water.  In  two  or  three  weeks,  the 
plants  will  come  up ;  and,  in  six  or  eight  weeks 
more,  they  will  be  advanced  four  or  five  inches 
or  more  in  height.  They  must  now  have  more 
air  and  water;  and  about  the  middle  of  June 
harden  them  to  the  full  air,  in  which  let  them 
remain  till  October  ;  then  remove  them  into  the 
green-house  to  stand  till  the  spring,  and  in  March 
or  April  plant  them  singly  in  small  pots; 
being  careful  to  shake  them  out  of  the  seed- 
pots  with  their  roots  entire.  They  must  be 
watered  immediately  after  planting,  and  the 
watering  must  be  occasionally  repeated.  After 
this  they  are  to  be  treated  as  woody  exotics  of  the 
green-house ;  and  in  a  year  or  two  the  largest  of 
those  designed  for  stocks  will  be  fit  for  budding. 
The  operation  for  budding  is  performed  in  the 
month  of  August,  and  is  done  in  the  common  way. 
As  soon  as  the  operation  is  finished,  the  pots 
with  their  plants  must  be  placed  in  the  green- 
house, or  in  a  glass  case ;  or  where  there  is  the 
convenience  of  a  spare  bark  pit,  where  the  heat 
of  the  bark  is  almost  exhausted,  the  pots  may  be 
plunged  therein  for  two  or  three  weeks.  In 
either  case,  however,  the  air  must  be  admitted 
freely  by  opening  the  front  glasses  :  allowing  also 
a  slight  shade  of  mats  in  the  middle  of  hot  sun- 
shine days,  and  supplying  them  with  water  every 
two  or  three  days  during  this  kind  of  weather. 
In  three  or  four  weeks  the  buds  will  be  united 
with  the  stock ;  when  it  will  be  proper  to  loosen 
the  bandages,  that  they  may  have  room  to  swell ; 
the  buds,  however,  will  all  remain  dormant  till 
the  next  spring.  But  the  most  cheap  and  expe- 
ditious method  of  procuring  a  collection  of  thase 


kinds  of  trees  is  by  having  recourse  to  such  as 
are  imported  from  Spam,  Italy,  and  Portugal. 
A  south  wall,  in  a  dry  situation,  is  proper  for 
training  them  as  wall  trees ;  against  which  may 
be  erected  wooden  frame-work  sloping,  either 
fixed  or  moveable,  for  the  support  of  glass  frames 
for  winter.  For  the  greater  protection  of  the 
trees  in  severe  frosts,  there  may  be  a  fire-place 
with  a  flue  or  two  carried  along  a  low  wall  in 
the  fronts  and  ends.  To  have  the  trees  as  stand- 
ards, a  more  capacious  and  lofty  glass-case 
should  be  erected  against  the  wall,  in  the  manner 
of  a  hot-house,  but  higher ;  in  this  one  or  two 
rows  of  orange  trees  may  be  planted,  suffering 
them  to  run  up  as  standards,  with  only  some  ne- 
cessary pruning,  just  to  preserve  their  regularity. 
In  some  places  there  are  lofty  moveable  glass- 
cases,  so  that  two  or  three  rows  of  trees  are  planted 
in  a  conspicuous  part  of  the  pleasure-ground. 
In  winter  the  frame  is  put  over  them,  and  in 
summer  wholly  taken  away;  so  that  they  appear 
like  a  little  orange  grove  growing  in  the  open 
ground.  The  flowering  and  fruit-setting  season 
of  all  the  sorts  of  citrus  is  in  June  and  July. 
They  are  often,  especially  the  orange  trees,  greatly 
loaded  with  blossoms;  and  when  these  stand 
very  thick,  it  is  proper  to  thin  them  a  little, 
taking  off  the  smallest.  As  the  trees  continue 
blowing  and  setting  their  fruit  for  three  months, 
when  a  full  crop  of  fruit  is  set,  it  is  of  benefit  to 
the  trees  and  fruit  to  gather  off  the  superabun- 
dant blossoms  as  they  are  produced  ;  though  some 
permit  them  to  remain  on  account  of  their  ap- 
pearance. 

The  fruits  of  the  citron,  lemon,  and  orange 
trees,  yield  very  agreeable  acid  juices;  which, 
besides  the  purposes  to  which  they  are  commonly 
applied,  are  much  used  in  medicine.  The  juice 
of  lemons  is  very  frequently  used  for  neutralising 
alkaline  salts  for  saline  draughts.  The  citron  is 
seldom  used  in  this  country;  though  its  peel,  as 
well  as  that  of  lemon,  is  candied  and  sold  as  a 
sweetmeat.  The  yellow  peel  of  the  lemon  is  an 
agreeable  aromatic,  as  is  also  that  of  the  orange ; 
and  in  cold  phlegmatic  constitutions  they  prove 
excellent  stomachics  and  carminatives,  promoting 
appetite,  warming  the  habit,  and  strengthening 
the  tone  of  the  viscera.  Orange-peel,  however, 
is  very  considerably  warmer  than  that  of  lemons, 
and  abounds  more  in  essential  oil :  to  this  circum- 
stance, therefore,  due  regard  ought  to  be  had  in 
the  use  of  these  medicines.  The  flavor  of  orange- 
peel  is  likewise  less  perishable  than  that  of  lemons. 
Both  are  ingredients  in  many  officinal  prepara- 
tions. The  young  fruits  of  the  Seville  orange 
dried  are  used  in  medicine  under  the  name  of 
aurantia  curaflaventia.  They  are  a  moderately 
warm  bitterish  aromatic,  of  a  sufficiently  agree- 
able flavor.  The  flowers  of  the  orange  tree  have 
been  for  some  time  in  great  esteem  as  a  perfume. 
They  are  highly  odoriferous,  of  a  somewhat  warm 
and  bitter  taste.  They  yield  their  flavor  by  in- 
fusion to  rectified  spirit,  and  in  distillation  both 
to  spirit  and  water.  The  bitter  matter  is  dis- 
solved in  water,  and,  on  evaporating  the  decoc- 
tion, remains  entire  in  the  extract.  The  distilled 
water  was  formerly  kept  in  the  shops,  but,  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  scarcity  of  the  flowers,  is  now 
laid  aside;  it  is  called  by  foreign  writers  acj-in 


CIT 


731 


CIT 


•naphae.  An  oil  distilled  from  these  flowers  is 
brought  from  Italy  under  the  uame  of  oleum,  or 
essentia  neroli. 

CITTA  CASTELLANA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the 
patrimony  of  St.  Peter,  is  twenty-three  miles 
north  of  Rome.  Near  this  town  the  French,  un- 
der general  Macdonald,  were  attacked  in  their 
encampments,  December  12th,  1798,  by  the  Nea- 
politans, who  surrounded  them  on  all  sides,  but 
were  repulsed  and  completely  routed,  with  the 
loss  of  2400  men,  3000  muskets,  their  military 
chest,  and  whole  baggage. 

CITTA  DUCALE,  a  town  of  Naples,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Abruzzo  Ulterior,  founded  in  1308,  by 
Robert,  duke  of  Calabria,  and  nearly  destroyed", 
in  1703,  by  an  earthquake.  It  is  a  bishop's  see, 
and  lies  eighteen  miles  west  of  Aquila. 

CITTA  NUOVA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  marqui- 
sate  of  Ancona,  containing  thirty-one  churches 
and  convents.  It  is  situated  on  the  coast  of  the 
Adriatic,  ten  miles  from  Loretto. 

CITTA  VECCHIA,  CITTA  NOTABILE,  or  MALTA, 
is  an  old  town  in  the  centre,  and  on  the  highest 
point,  of  the  island  of  Malta,  once  the  capital. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Phoenicians 
before  they  founded  Carthage,  and  to  have  been 
called  by  them  Melita,  the  ancient  name  of  the 
island,  and  by  the  Saracens,  Medina.  Alphonso, 
king  of  Sicily,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  gave  it 
the  name  of  Citta  Notabile.  It  has  been,  in  mo- 
dern times,  much  reduced,  especially  since  Va- 
letta  has  been  the  residence  of  the  public  autho- 
rities. It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  contains^be- 
sides  a  large  and  handsome  cathedral,  several  other 
churches  and  convents.  From  the  town  maybe 
seen  the  whole  island,  and  sometimes  the  coasts  of 
Africa  and  Sicily.  Here  is  also  an  ancient  pa- 
lace for  the  grand  master;  and  near  the  town 
some  ancient  catacombs.,  and  a  very  extensive 
cave,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  which,  St.  Paul 
is  said  to  have  been  shipwrecked. 

CITTERN,  a  musical  instrument  resembling 
the  guitar,  for  which  it  has  been  frequently  mis- 
taken. Anciently  it  was  called  the  cistrum,  and  till 
lately  was  held  in  great  contempt  both  in  France 
and  Britain.  The  practice  on  it  being  extremely 
easy,  it  was  formerly  the  amusement  of  lewd 
women  and  their  visitors ;  insomuch,  that  in 
many  of  the  old  English  dramatic  writers,  it  is 
made  the  symbol  of  a  woman  that  lived  by  pros- 
titution. 

CITY,  7i. s.  Scadj.      )     Tr.cit'e;  Lat.nuite. 

CI'TIZEN,  n.  s.  ik  «<//.  $  In  the  English  law,  a 
town  corporate,  that  has  a  bishop  and  a  cathedral 
church.  A  large  collection  of  houses  and  inhabi- 
tants. Sometimes  used  to  designate  the  inhabi- 
tants only;  and  sometimes  the  place  without  the 
inhabitants.  The  word  citizen,  as  an  adjective, 
is  used  only  by  Shakspeare. 

So  sick  I  am  not,  yet  I  am  not  well ; 
But  not  so  citizen  a  wanton,  as 
To  seem  to  die  ere  sick.  Shakspeare. 

CITIZEN,  as  a  noun,  distinguishes  an  individual 
tranchised  with  the  privileges  appertaining  to  a 
city;  a  tradesman  residing  in  a  city,  from  a 
gentleman ;  and  sometimes  it  similarly  designates 
an  inhabitant,  or  dweller,  in  any  place.  Cit  and 
citess  are  vulgar  contractions  of  citizen  and  citi- 


zeness.  The  latter  is  to  be  found  only  in  Dryden. 

By  veray  force,  at  Gaza  on  a  night, 
Maugre  the  Philistines  of  that  citee, 

The  gates  of  the  toun  he  hath  upplight, 
And  on  his  bak  ycaried  them  hath  he, 

High  on  a  hill,  where  as  men  might  hem  see. 
O  noble,  mighty,  Sampson,  lefe  and  dere  ! 

Maddest  thou  not  told  to  women  thy  secree, 
In  all  this  world  ne  had  ther  ben  thy  pere. 

Cliaucer. 

-  -  Running  day  and  night 
From  realm  to  realm,  from  city,  street  and  town  ; 
Why  dost  thou  wear  thy  body  to  the  bones  ? 
And  mightst  at  home  sleep  in  thy  bed  of  down, 
4nd  drink  good  ale  so  nappy,  for  the  nones. 

Wyalt. 
From  thence,  far  off,  he  unto  him  did  shew, 

A  little  path,  that  wos  both  steepe  and  long, 
Which  to  a  goodly  city  led  his  view  ; 

Whose  wals  and  towres  were  builded  •  high  and 

strong 
Of  peaiie  and  precious  stone,  that  earthly  tong 

Cannot  describe,  nor  wit  of  man  can  tell  ; 
Too  high  a  ditty  for  my  simple  song  . 

The  citty  of  the  Greate  King  hight  it  well. 

Spenser. 

What  is  the  city  but  the  people  ?  - 
-  True,  the  people  are  the  city. 

SFiakspearc. 

I  do  suspect  I  have  done  some  oflence, 
That  seems  disgracious  in  the  city's  eye.  Id. 

His  enforcement  of  the  city  wives.  Id. 

He,  I  accuse, 
The  city  ports  by  this  hath  entered.  Id. 

When  he  speaks  not  like  a  citizen, 
You  find  him  like  a  soldier.  Id 

All  inhabitants  within  these  walls  are  not  properly 
citizens,  but  only  such  as  are  called  freemen. 

Raleigh's  History. 

The  country  hath  his  recreation,  the  city  his  sevc- 
rall  gymuicks  and  exercises,  may-games,  feasts,  wakes, 
and  merry-meetings,  to  solace  themselves. 

Burton.     Anat.  Mel. 
Why  should'st  thou  here  looke  for  perpetual  good, 

At  every  loss  'gainst  heaven's  face  repining? 
Do  but  behold  where  glorious  cities  stood, 

With  gilded  tops  and  silver  turrets  shining  ; 
There  now  the  hart  fearless  of  greyhound  feeds, 
And  loving  pelican  in  safety  breeds  : 
There  screetching  satyrs  till  the  people's  empty  stedes 
[places],  Fletcher's  Purple  Island. 

Far  from  noisy  Rome  secure  he  lives, 

And  one  more  citizen  to  Sibyl  gives.    Drydcn. 

Cits  and  citetses  raise  a  joyful  strain  ; 

'Tis  a  good  omen  to  begin  a  reigK.  Id. 

Men   seek  safety  from   number  better  united,  and 

fuvn  walls  and   fortifications,  the    use  whereof  is   to 

make  the  few  a  match  for  the  many  :  this  is  the  ori- 

ginal of  cities.  Temple. 

City,  in  a  strict  sense,  means  the  houses  enclosed 

within  the  walls  :   in  a  larger  sense    it  reaches  to  all 

the  suburbs.  Watts. 

Study  your    race,   or  the  soil   of  your  family  will 

dwindle   into  cits  or  squires,  or  run  up  into  wits  or 

madmen.  Taller. 

Barnard,  thou  art  a  cit,  with  all  thy  worth  ; 
But  Bug  and  D  —  1,  their  honours,  and  so  forth. 


The  city  has  always  been  the  province  for  satire  , 
and  the  wits  of  King  Charles's  time  jested  upon  no 
thing  else  during  his  whole  reign.  AdJisun. 

Oh  !  had  they  been  of  court  or  city  breed, 
Such  delicacy  were  rijht  marvellous  indeed. 

Beattie. 


CIV 


732 


CIV 


Those  who  attempt  to  level,  never  equalize.  In  all 
societies  consisting  of  various  descriptions  of  citizens, 
«ome  description  must  be  uppermost.  Burke. 

Leave  your  arms  ;  ye  have  no  further  need 

Of  such  :  the  city's  rendered.     And  most  well 
You  keep  your  hands  clean,  or  111  find  out  a  stream, 
As  red  as  Tyber  now  runs,  for  your  baptism. 

Byron.      Deformed  Transformed. 

CITY,  among  the  Romans  was  called  civitas, 
oppidum,  and  urbs :  civitas,  as  being  governed 
by  a  justice  and  order  of  magistracy  ;  oppidum,  as 
containing  a  great  number  of  inhabitants ;  urbs, 
on  account  of  its  being  surrounded  with  walls. 
According  to  Blount,  city  is  a  word  that  hath 
obtained  ir  England  only  since  the  conquest ; 
for,  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons,  there  were  no 
cities,  but  all  the  great  towns  were  called 
burghs;  and  even  London  was  then  called  Lon- 
donburgh,  ae  the  capital  of  Scotland  is  still 
called  Edinburgh.  And  long  after  the  conquest 
the  word  city  was  used  promiscuously  with  burgh, 
as  in  the  charter  of  Leicester,  where  it  is  both 
called  civatas  and  burgus;  which  shows  that 
those  writers  were  mistaken  who  tell  us  that  every 
city  was,  or  is,  a  bishop's  see.  And  though  the 
word  city  signifies  in  England,  such  a  town  cor- 
porate as  hath  usually  a  bishop  and  a  cathedral 
church,  yet  these  are  by  no  means  necessary  re- 
quisites to  constitute  a  city. 

The  freedom  of  cities  was  first  established  in 
Italy,  owing  principally  to  the  introduction  of 
commerce.  The  German  emperors,  especially 
those  of  the  Franconian  and  Suabian  lines,  as  the 
seat  of  their  government  was  far  distant  from 
Italy,  possessed  a  feeble  and  imperfect  jurisdic- 
tion in  that  country.  This  induced  some  of  the 
Italian  cities,  towards  the  beginning  of  the  ele- 
venth century,  to  assume  new  privileges ;  to 
unite  together  more  closely  ;  and  to  form  them- 
selves into  bodies  politic,  under  the  government 
of  laws  established  by  common  consent.  The 
innovation  soon  made  its  way  into  France,  where 
Louis  the  Gross,  in  order  to  create  some  power 
that  might  counterbalance  those  potent  vassals 
who  controlled  the  crown,  first  adopted  the  plan 
of  conferring  new  privileges  on  the  towns  situated 
within  his  own  domain.  These  privileges  were 
called  charters  of  community,  by  which  he  en- 
franchised the  inhabitants,  abolishing  all  marks 
of  servitude,  and  formed  them  into  corporations 
or  bodies  politic,  to  be  governed  by  a  council 
and  magistrates  of  their  own  nomination.  The 
practice  spread  quickly  over  Europe,  and  was 
adopted  in  Spain,  England,  Scotland,  and  all 
the  other  feudal  kingdoms.  It  appears  from 
Mariana,  that  in  1350,  eighteen  cities  had 
obtained  a  seat  in  the  Cortes  of  Castile.  In  Ar- 
ragon,  cities  seem  early  to  have  acquired  exten- 
sive immunities,  together  with  a  share  in  the  le- 
gislature. In  1 1 18  the  citizens  of  Saragossa  had 
not  only  obtained  political  liberty,  but  they  were 
declared  to  be  of  equal  rank  with  the  nobles  of 
the  second  class ;  and  many  other  immunities, 
unknown  to  persons  in  their  rank  of  life,  in  other 
parts  of  Europe,  were  conferred  upon  them.  In 
England,  the  establishment  of  communities  or 
corporations  was  posterior  to  the  conquest.  The 
practice  was  borrowed  from  France,  and  the 
privileges  granted  by  the  crown  were  perfectly 
similar  to  those  above  enumerated.  It  is  not 


improbable,  that  some  of  the  towns  of  England 
were  formed  into  corporations  under  the  Saxon 
kings;  and  that  the  charters  granted  by  the 
kings  of  the  Norman  race  were  not  charters  of 
enfranchisement  from  a  state  of  slavery,  but  a 
confirmation  of  privileges  which  they  had 
already  enjoyed.  The  English  cities,  however, 
were  very  inconsiderable  in  the  twelfth  century. 
A  clear  proof  of  this  occurs  in  Lord  Lyttleton's 
History  of  Henry  II.  Fitz-Stephen,  a  contem- 
porary author,  gives  a  description  of  the  city  of 
London  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  and  the  terms 
in  which  he  speaks  of  its  trade,  its  wealth,  and 
the  number  of  its  inhabitants,  would  suggest  no 
inadequate  idea  of  its  state  at  present,  when  it 
is  the  greatest  and  most  opulent  city  in  Europe. 
But  all  ideas  of  grandeur  and  magnificence  are 
merely  comparative.  Tt  appears  from  Peter  of 
Blois,  archdeacon  of  London,  who  flourished  in 
the  same  reign,  and  who  had  good  opportunity 
of  being  informed,  that  the  city,  of  which  Fitz- 
Stephen  gives  such  a  pompous  account,  contained 
no  more  than  40,000  inhabitants.  The  other 
cities  were  small  in  proportion,  and  in  no  con- 
dition to  extort  any  extensive  privileges. 

CITIES,  IMPERIAL,  an  appellation  given  to 
those  cities  of  Germany  immediately  subject  to 
the  emperor :  they  make  a  part  of  the  Germanic 
body,  are  governed  by  their  own  magistrates, 
have  the  privilege  of  coining  money,  and  assist 
at  the  diet  of  the  empire. 

CI'VET,  n.  s.  Fr.  civet te ;  Arab,  zibetta,  sig- 
nifying scent.  A  perfume  from  the  civet-cat. 

Civet  is  of  baser  birth  than  tar  ;  the  very  unclean 
flux  of  a  cat.  Shakspeare. 

Some  putrefactions  and  excrements  do  yield  excel- 
lent odours;  as  civet  and  musk,  and,  as  some  think, 
ambergrease.  Bacon's  Natural  History. 

CIVET,  a  perfume  yielded  by  the  civet-cat,  of  a 
clear  yellowish,  or  brownish  color ;  not  fluid  nor 
hard,  but  about  the  consistence  of  butter  or 
honey,  and  uniform  throughout ;  of  a  very  strong 
smell,  quite  offensive  when  undiluted,  but  agree- 
able when  only  a  small  proportion  of  civet  is 
mixed  with  a  large  one  of  other  substances.  It 
unites  easily  with  oils  both  expressed  and  dis- 
tilled, but  not  at  all  with  water  or  spirit  of  wine : 
nor  can  it  be  rendered  miscible  with  water  by 
the  mediation  of  sugar.  The  yolk  of  an  egg 
seems  to  dispose  it  to  unite  with  water ;  but,  in 
a  short  time,  the  civet  separates  from  the  liquor, 
and  falls  to  the  bottom,  though  it  does  not  prove 
of  such  a  resinous  tenacity,  as  when  treated  with 
sugar  and  spirit  of  wine.  It  communicates, 
however,  some  share  of  its  smell  both  to  watery 
and  spirituous  liquors  :  hence  a  small  portion  of 
it  is  often  added  in  odoriferous  tinctures,  and 
suspended  in  the  still-head  during  the  distillation 
of  odoriferous  waters  and  spirits.  It  is  rarely 
employed  for  medicinal  purposes.  The  Italians 
make  it  an  ingredient  in  perfumed  oils,  and  thus 
obtain  the  whole  of  its  scent;  for  oils  wholly 
dissolve  the  substance  of  it.  It  is  very  rare, 
however,  to  meet  with  it  unadulterated.  The 
substances  usually  mixed  with  it  are  lard  and 
butter:  which,  agreeing  with  it  in  its  general 
properties,  render  all  ciiteria  for,  distinguishing 
the  adulteration  uncertain .  A  great  trade  of  civet 
was  formerly  carried  on  at  Calicut,  Bassora,  and 


CIV 


733 


CIV 


other  \\-\rts  of  (lie  Indies,  and  in  Africa,  where 
the  civet-cat  is  found. 

CIVET-CAT,  in  zoology.     See  VIVERRA. 

CI'VIC,  adj.  Lat.  civicus.  Relating  to  civi 
honors  or  practices;  not  military. 

With  equally  rays  immortal  Tally  shone  : 
Behind,  Rome's  genius  waits  with  civick  crowns, 
And  the  great  father  of  his  country  owns.       Pope. 

For  all  the  civic  garlands  due, 
To  him  our  branches  are  but  few.         Maroell. 
My  youthful  bosom  burns  with  thirst  of  fame, 
From  the  great  theme  to  build  a  glorious  name, 
To  tread  in  paths,  to  ancient  bards  unknown, 
And  bind  my  temples  with  a  civic  crown.         Gay. 

CivrcA  CORONA,  a  crown  given  by  the 
ancient  Romans  to  any  soldier  who  had  saved 
the  life  of  a  citizen  in  an  engagement.  The 
civic  crown  was  reckoned  more  honorable  than 
any  other  crown,  though  composed  of  no  better 
materials  than  oak  boughs;  because,  says 
Plutarch,  the  oaken  wreath  being  sacred  to 
Jupiter,  the  great  guardian  of  their  city,  they 
thought  it  the  most  proper  ornament  for  him 
who  had  preserved  the  life  of  a  citizen.  Pliny, 
speaking  of  the  honor  and  privileges  conferred 
on  those  who  had  merited  this  crown,  says, '  they 
who  had  once  obtained  it,  might  wear  it  always. 
When  they  appeared  at  the  public  spectacles, 
the  senate  and  people  rose  to  do  them  honor, 
and  they  took  their  seats 
on  these  occasions  among 
the  senators.  They  were 
not  only  personally  ex- 
cused from  all  troublesome 
offices,  but  procured  the 
same  immunity  for  their 
father  and  grandfather  by 
the  father's  side.'  It  is 
often  used  as  a  crest,  in 
armorial  bearings.  The 
annexed  diagram  exhibits  it  from  the  crest  of 
the  family  of  Falkland. 

ClVIDAD    DE    LAS    PALMAS,     Or    PALMAS,     the 

capital  of  the  island  of  Canary,  with  a  bishop's 
see,  and  a  good  harbour.  The  seat  of  adminis- 
tration is  removed  to  Santa  Cruz  in  Teneriffe. 
The  houses  are  well  built,  two  stories  high,  and 
flat-roofed.  The  cathedral  is  very  handsome, 
and  the  inhabitants  are  gay,  rich,  and  numerous, 
amounting  to  about  10,000.  The  air  is  temper- 
ate, and  free  from  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 
It  is  defended  by  a  small  castle  seated  on  a  hill. 

CIVIDAD  DI  FRIULT,  a  well  built  town  of  the 
late  Venetian  dominions  of  Austria,  in  Friuli, 
anciently  called  Forum  Julii.  It  contains  4000 
inhabitants,  and  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains,  on  the  river  Natisona,  ten  miles  east 
of  Udina. 

CIVIDAD  REAL,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  New 
Castile,  and  capital  of  La  Mancha.  The  inha- 
bitants are  noted  for  dressing  leather  extremely 
well.  Here  are  three  churches,  seven  convents, 
three  hospitals,  and  about  9000  inhabitants.  It 
is  fifty-seven  miles  south  of  Toledo,  and  ninety 
from  Madrid. 

CIVIDAD  RODRIGO,  a  strong  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  kingdom  of  Leon,  with  a  bishop's  see, 
suffragan  of  Compostella,  built  by  Ferdinand 
II.  as  a  rampart  against  Portugal.  In  the  Plaza 


Mayor,  or  principal  square,  are  three  Roman 
columns  with  inscriptions.  Population  10,000. 
On  the  llth  June,  1810,  it  was  invested  by  the 
French,  and  surrendered  on  the  10th  July:  it 
continued  in  their  possession  till  19th  January 
1812,  when  it  was  taken  by  storm  by  lord  Wel- 
lington, after  a  siege  of  eleven  days.  It  is  seated 
in  a  fertile  country,  on  the  river  Agueda,  forty- 
five  miles  S.  S,  W.  of  Salamanca. 

CI'VIL,  adj.  -\      Lat.  civilis.  Relating 

CI'VILLY,  adv.  (to   the  community,   as 

CIVI'LIAN,  n.  s.  £  artificial,  and  not  natu- 
CIVILISA'TION,  n.  s.  )  ral;  to  government,  as 
opposed  to  anarchy ;  to  what  is  intestine  and 
domestic,  as  distinguished  fro,m  what  is  foreign  ; 
to  courts  and  laws  of  a  general  nature,  belong- 
ing to  the  body  politic,  as  distinguished  from 
those  which  are  ecclesiastical,  military,  or  crimi- 
nal. It  designates  also  the  laws  relating  to  the 
ancient  consular  or  imperial  government.  Thus, 
civilian  is  one  that  professes  the  knowledge  of  the 
old  Roman  law,  and  of  general  equity ;  and  civi- 
lisation is  a  law,  act  of  justice,  or  judgment,  which 
renders  a  criminal  process  civil;  which  is  per- 
formed by  turning  an  information  into  an  in- 
quest, or  the  contrary. 

The  professors  of  that  law,  called  civilians,  because 
the  civil  law  is  their  guide,  should  not  be   discounte- 
nanced nor  discouraged.       Bacon's  Advice  to  Villiers. 
A  depending  kingdom  is  a  term  of  art  unknown  to 
all  ancient  civilians,  and  writers  upon  government. 

Swift. 
No  woman  had  it,  but  a  civil  doctor. 

Sftakspeare. 

Men  that  are  civil  lead  their  lives  after  one  com- 
mon law  ;  for  that  a  multitude  should,  without  har- 
mony, concur  in  the  doing  of  one  thing  (for  this  is 
civilly  to  live),  or  should  manage  community  of  life, 
it  is  not  possible.  Hooker. 

God  gave  them  laws  of  civil  regimen,  and  would 
not  permit  their  commonweal  to  be  governed  by  any 
other  laws  than  his  own.  Id. 

From  a  civil  war  God  of  his  mercy  defend  us,  as 
that  which  is  most  desperate  of  all  others. 

Bacon  to  Villiers. 

For  aught  I  can  see,  these  men  [lawyers]  fail  as 
often  as  the  rest  in  their  projects,  and  are  as  usually 
frustrate  of  their  hopes ;  for,  let  him  be  a  doctor  of  the 
law,  an  excellent  civilian  of  good  worth,  where  shall 
he  practice  and  expatiate  ?  Their  fields  are  so  scant, 
the  civil  law  with  us  so  contracted  with  prohibitions, 
so  few  causes,  by  reason  of  these  all-devouring  mu- 
nicipal laws.  Burton.  Anat.  Mel. 

Part  such  as  appertain 
To  civil  justice  ;  part  religious  rites 
Of  sacrifice.  Milton.     Paradise  Lost. 

When  cioil  dudgeon  first  grew  high, 
And  men  fell  out  they  knew  not  why.  Butler. 

Break  not  your  promise,  unless  it  be  unlawful  or 
impossible  ;  either  out  of  your  natural  or  out  of  youi 
civil  power.  Taylor 

For  rudest  minds  with  harmony  were  caught, 
And  civil  life  was  by  the  muses  taught. 

Roscommon 

But  there  is  another  unity,  which  would  be  most  a<l- 
vantageous  to  our  country ;  and  that  is,  your  endea- 
vour after  a  civil,  a  political  union  in  the  whole  nat:oi>. 

Spratt 


734 


CIV 


CI'VIL,  adj.  ~]       From    Lat.    civilis. 

CIVI'LITY,  n.s.          |  Refined,  instructed  ;en- 
CI'VILISE,  v.  a.          {Joying  the  benefits  of  a 
CIVILISA'TION,  n.  s.  {  community  established 
CIVILI'SED,  n.s.        |  on  the  basis  of  law  and 
CI'VILLY,  adv.          )  government,  as  distin- 
guished from  every  thing  barbarous.     Complais- 
ant, gentle,  well  bred,  elegant  of  manners ;  not 
rude;  not  brutal;  not  coarse.     Freedom  from 
barbarity  ;  the  state  of  being  civilised.      Polite- 
ness ;    complaisance ;    elegance    of    behaviour. 
The  verb  signifies  to  reclaim  from  savageness  and 
brutality;  to  instruct  in  the  arts  of  regular  life. 
The  adjective  and  adverb  are  also  applied  to 
what   is   grave  and  sober,  opposed  to  what  is 
gaudy,  showy,  and  gay. 

Bloud  is  no  blemish ;  for  it  is  no  blame 
To  punish  those  that  do  deserve  the  same  ; 
But  they  that  breake  bands  of  clviliiie 
And  wicked  customes  make,  those  doe  defame 
Both  noble  armes  and  gentle  curtesie  : 
No  greater  shame  to  man  than  inhumanitie. 

Spenser. 

The  English  were  at  first  as  stout  and  warlike  a 
people  as  ever  the  Irish ;  and  yet  are  now  brought 
unto  that  civility,  that  no  nation  excelleth  them  in  all 
goodly  conversation,  and  all  the  studies  of  knowledge 
and  humanity.  Id. 

Art  thou  thus  boldened,  man,  by  thy  distress  ? 
Or  else  a  rude  despiser  of  good  manners, 
That  in  civility  thou  seemest  so  empty.       Shakspeare. 

I  heard  a  mermaid,  on  a  dolphin's  back, 
Uttering  such  dulcet  and  harmonious  breath, 
That  the  rude  sea  grew  civil  at  her  song.  Id. 

The  chambers  were  handsome  and  cheerful,  and 
furnished  civilly.  Bacon's  New  Atlantis. 

Thus  night  oft  see  me  in  thy  pale  career, 
Till  civil  suited  morn  appear.  Milton's  Poems. 

I,  that  perceived  now  what  his  musick  meant, 

Asked  civilly  if  he  had  eat  his  Lent.  Manell. 

He,  by  his  great   civility    and   affability,   wroutrh1 

ve*y  much  upon  the  people.  Clarendon- 

Love  taught  him  shame  ;  and  shame,  with  love  at 

strife, 
Soon  taught  the  sweet  civilities  of  life.  Dryden. 

Musaeus  first,  then  Orpheus,  civilige 
Mankind,  and  give  the  world  their  deities.    Denhum. 

Wheresoe'er  her  conquering  eagles  fled, 
Arts,  learning,  and  eivility  were  spread.     Id.  Poems. 

We  send  the  graces  and  the  muses  forth 
To  civilize  and  to  instruct  the  north.  Waller. 

I  will  deal  civilly  with  his  poems :  nothing  ill  is 
to  be  spoken  of  the  dead. 

Dryden' s  Preface  to  his  Fables. 
I   would   have   had    Almeria  and   Osmyn  parted 
civilly  ;  as  if  it  was  not  proper  for  lovers  to  do  so. 

Collier  of  the  Stage. 

He  thought  them  folks  that  lost  fheir  way, 

And  asked  them  civilly  to  stay.  Prior. 

Amongst  those  who  are  counted  the  civilized  part 

of  mankind,  this  original  law  of  nature   still  takes 

place.  £0^, 

The  civilizers ! — the  disturbers  say  ; 
The  robbers,  the  corrupters  of  mankind  ! 

Philips's  Briton. 

Straight  the  vain  fop  in  ignorant  rapture  cries, 
'  Paris  the  barbarous  world  will  civilize.'  Gay. 

For  sure  a  civil  post  the  house  commands, 
Upon  whose  sign  this  courteous  motto  stands, — 


'  This  is  the  ancient  Hand  and  eke  the  Pen  ; 

'  Here  is  for  horses  hay,  and  meat  for  men.  Id. 

If  besides  the  accomplishments  of  being  witty  and 
ill-natured,  a  man  is  vicious  into  the  bargain,  he  is 
one  of  the  most  mischievous  creatures  that  can  enter 
into  civil  society.  Addison. 

The  insolent  civility  of  a  proud  man  is,  if  possible, 
more  shocking  than  his  rudeness  could  be  ;  because 
he  shows  you  by  his  manner  that  he  thinks  it  mere 
condescension  in  him ;  and  that  his  goodness  alone 
bestows  upon  you  what  you  have  no  pretence  to 
claim.  Chesterfield. 

CIVIL  LAW,  is  properly  the  particular  law 
of  each  state,  country,  or  city,  jus  civile  est,  quod 
quisque  populus  sibi  constituit,  Just.  Inst.    But 
what   is  more  usually   meant  by  the  civil  law, 
is  a  body  of  Roman  laws,  compiled  from  the 
laws  of  nature  and  nations;  and,  for  the  most  part, 
received  and   observed  throughout  the  empire 
for  above  1200  years.     It  was  originally  founded 
on  the  regal  constitutions  of  their  kings ;  next 
upon  the  twelve  tables  of  the  Decemviri ;  then 
upon  the  laws  or  statutes  enacted  by  the  senate 
or  people ;  the  edicts  of  the  praetor  and  the  re- 
sponsa  prudentum,  or  opinions  of  learned  lawyers  ; 
and  lastly,  upon  the  imperial  decrees  or  consti- 
tutions of  successive  emperors.     These  laws  had 
by  degrees  grown  to  an  enormous  bulk ;  but  this 
inconvenience  was  in  part  remedied,  by  the  col- 
lections of  the  lawyers,  Gregorius,  Hermogenes, 
and  Papinius ;  and  Theodosius  the  younger,  by 
whose  orders  a  code  was  compiled,  A.  D.  438, 
which  Theodosian  Code  was  the  only  book  of 
civil  law  received  as  authentic  in  the  western 
part  of  Europe,  till  many  centuries  after. — For 
Justinian  commanded  only  in  the  eastern  remains 
of  the  empire;  and  it  was  under  his  auspices 
that  the  present  body  of  civil  laws  was  compiled 
and  finished  by  Trebonian,  about  the  year  533. 
It  consists  of, — 1.  Institutes;  which  contain  the 
elements  or  first  principles  of  the  Roman  law, 
in  four  books. — 2.  Digests  or  Pandects,  in  fifty 
books ;  containing  the  opinions  and  writings  of 
eminent  lawyers,  digested  in  a  systematical  me- 
thod.— 3.  A  New  Code,  or  collection  of  impe- 
rial constitutions,  in  twelve  books ;  the  lapse  of 
a  century  having  rendered   the  former  code  of 
Theodosius  imperfect. — 4.  Novels  or  new  consti- 
tutions posterior  in  time  to  the  other  books,  and 
amounting  to  a  supplement  to  the  code,  contain- 
ing new  decrees  of  successive  emperors,  as  new 
questions  happened   to  arise. — These  form  the 
body  of  the  Roman  law,  or  Corpus  Juris  Civilis, 
as  published  about  the  time  of  Justinian  ;  which 
however  soon  fell  into  neglect  and  oblivion   till 
about  the  year  1 1 30,  when  a  copy  of  the  Digests 
was  found  at  Amain  in   Italy ;  which   accident, 
concurring  with  the  policy  of  the  Roman  eccle- 
siastics, suddenly  gave  a  new  vogue  and  autho- 
rity to  the  civil  law,  and  introduced  it  into  several 
nations.     See  LAW,  Index.     It  was  first  brought 
over  into  England  by  Theobald,  a  Norman  abbot, 
who  was   elected  to   the  see  of  Canterbury  in 
1183  ;  and  he  appointed  a  professor,  viz.  Roger, 
surnamed  Vicarius,  in  the  university  of  Oxford, 
to  teach  it  to  the  people  of  this  country.     Ne- 
vertheless, it  gained  ground  very  slowly.     King 
Stephen  issued  a  proclamation  prohibiting  the 
study  of  it.  And,  though  the  clergy  were  attached 


CIV 


735 


CIV 


to  it.  the  laity  rather  wished  to  preserve  the  old 
constitution.  However,  the  zeal  and  influence 
of  the  clergy  prevailed ;  and  the  civil  law  ac- 
quired great  reputation  from  the  reign  of  king 
Stephen  to  the  reign  of  king  Edward  III.  both  in- 
clusive. Many  transcripts  of  Justinian's  Institutes 
are  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  our  ancient 
authors,  particularly  of  Bracton  and  Fleta;  and 
judge  Blackstone  observes,  that  the  common  law 
would  have  been  lost  and  over-run  by  the  civil, 
had  it  not  been  for  the  incident  of  fixing  the 
court  of  common  pleas  in  one  certain  spot,  and 
the  forming  the  profession  of  the  municipal  law 
into  an  aggregate  body.  It  is  allowed  that  the 
civil  law  contains  all  the  principles  of  natural 
equity ;  and  that  nothing  can  be  better  calculated 
to  form  good  sense  and  sound  judgment.  Hence, 
though  in  several  countries  it  has  no  other  autho- 
rity but  that  of  reason  and  justice,  it  is  every 
where  referred  to  as  authority. 

But  the  civil  law  is  not  received  at  this  clay 
in  any  nation  without  some  alterations ;  some- 
times the  feudal  law  is  mixed  with  it,  or  general 
and  particular  customs ;  and  often  ordinances 
and  statutes  cut  off  a  great  part  of  it.  In  Turkey 
the  basilica  only  are  used.  In  Italy  the  canon 
law  and  customs  have  hitherto  excluded  a  good 
part  of  it.  In  the  ci-devant  state  of  Venice, 
custom  had  almost  an  absolute  government.  In 
the  Milanese  the  feudal  law,  and  particular  cus- 
toms, bore  sway.  In  Naples,  and  Sicily,  the 
constitutions  and  laws  of  the  Lombards  are  said 
to  prevail.  .  In  Germany  the  civil  is  esteemed 
to  be  municipal ;  but  yet  many  parts  of  it  are 
there  grown  obsolete ;  and  others  are  altered, 
either  by  the  canon  law  or  a  different  usage.  In 
the  northern  parts  of  Germany,  the  jus  Saxoni- 
fcum,  Lubecense,  or  Culmense,  is  preferred  be- 
fore it.  In  Denmark  and  Sweden,  it  has  scarcely 
any  authority  at  all.  In  France,  before  the  late 
revolution,  only  a  part  of  it  was  received,  in 
some  places  as  a  customary  law  ;  and,  in  those 
provinces  nearest  to  Italy,  it  was  received  as  a 
municipal  written  law.  In  criminal  causes  the 
civil  law  was  more  regarded  in  France ;  but  the 
manner  of  trial  was  regulated  by  ordinances  and 
edicts.  In  Spain  and  Portugal,  the  civil  law  is 
connected  with  the  jus  regium  and  custom.  In 
Scotland,  the  statutes  of  the  sederunt,  part  of  the 
regiae  majestatis,  and  their  customs,  control 
the  civil  law.  In  England  there  are  four  species 
of  courts  in  which  the  civil  and  canon  law  are 
permitted,  under  restriction  by  the  common  law, 
to  be  used.  1.  The  courts  of  the  archbishops 
and  bishops,  and  their  derivative  officers ;  usually 
called  in  our  law  courts  Christian,  or  the  eccle- 
siastical courts.  2.  The  military  courts,  or  courts 
of  chivalry.  3.  The  courts  of  admiralty.  4. 
The  courts  of  the  two  Universities.  In  all,  the 
reception  of  those  laws  in  general,  and  the  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  that  reception,  are  grounded 
entirely  upon  custom ;  corroborated  as  to  the 
Universities,  by  act  of  parliament  and  their 
charters. 

The  CIVIL  LIST,  is  a  revenue  awarded  to  the 
kings  of  Great  Britain  in  modern  times,  partly 
in  the  place  of  their  ancient  hereditary  income, 
and  partly  to  defray  certain  expenses  of  the  state. 
Queen  Elizabeth's  entire  revenue  did  not  amount 


to  more  than  £600,000  a  year;  that  of  king 
Charles  I.  was  £800,000  ;  and  the  revenue  voted 
for  king  Charles  II.  was  £1,200,000,  though 
complaints  were  made  (in  the  first  years  at  least) 
that  it  did  not  amount  to  so  much.  The  revenue 
of  the  Commonwealth  between  the  time  of  Charles 
I.  and  Charles  II.  was  upwards  of  £1,500,000. 

These  revenues  were  expected  to  defray  all 
public  expenses ;  among  which  lord  Clarendon, 
in  his  speech  to  the  parliament,  computed  that 
the  charge  of  the  navy  and  land  forces  amounted 
annually  to  £800,000.  The  same  revenue,  sub- 
ject to  the  same  charges,  was  settled  on  king 
James  II.  by  stat.  1  Jac.  II.  c,  1.;  but,  by  the 
increase  of  trade  and  more  frugal  management, 
it  amounted  on  an  average  to  a  million  and  a 
half  per  annum;  besides  o.ther  additional  cus- 
toms granted  by  parliament,  stat.  1  Jac.  II.  cc. 
3,  4,  which  produced  an  annual  revenue  of 
£400,000 ;  out  of  which  his  fleet  and  army  were 
maintained  at  the  expense  of  £1,100,000.  After 
the  Revolution,  when  the  parliament  took  into 
its  hands  the  annual  support  of  the  forces,  both 
maritime  and  military,  a  civil  list  revenue  was 
settled  on  the  new  king  and  queen,  amounting, 
with  the  hereditary  duties,  to  £700,000  per  an- 
num ;  the  same  was  continued  to  queen  Anne 
and  king  George  I.  That  of  king  George  II. 
was  augmented  to  £800,000  by  stat.  1  George  II. 
c.  2. ;  and  that  of  king  George  III.  was  from 
time  to  time  settled  and  increased  by  the  follow- 
ing statutes:  viz.  1  Geo.  III.  c.  1.  £800,000;  17 
Geo.  III.  c.  21,  £100,000;  and  44  Geo.  III.  c. 
80,  £60,000  more ;  and  by  52  Geo.  III.  c.  6, 
(amended  by  55  Geo.  III.  c.  15),  £70,000  more 
during  the  king's  indisposition.  By  the  latter 
acts  it  is  provided  that  an  account  of  any  accu- 
mulation of  arrears  shall  from  time  to  time  be 
laid  before  Parliament.  By  33  Geo.  III.  c.  34 
(amended  by  45  Geo.  III.  c.  76)  a  civil  list  of 
£145,000  is  made  payable  to  his  majesty  out  of 
the  revenues  of  Ireland.  By  stat  47  Geo.  III. 
st.  2,  c.  24,  the  king  is  empowered  to  direct  the 
execution  of  any  trusts  to  which  lands  vested  in 
him  by  escheat,  &c.  or  in  right  of  the  crown  on 
the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  might  have  been  liable, 
and  to  bestow  such  lands,  or  reward  discoverers. 
See  also  stats.  48  Geo.  III.  c.  73;  50  Geo.  III. 
c.  65 ;  and  54  Geo.  III.  c.  70,  for  improving 
the  land  revenue  of  the  crown  :  and  52  Geo.  III. 
c.  148,  respecting  the  king's  privy  purse. 

The  expenses  at  present  defrayed  by  the  civil 
list  are  those  that  in  any  shape  relate  to  civil 
government :  as  the  expenses  of  the  royal  house- 
hold ;  the  revenues  allotted  to  the  judges  previous 
to  the  year  1758  ;  all  salaries  to  officers  of  state, 
and  every  of  the  king's  servants;  the  appoint- 
ments to  foreign  ambassadors  ;  the  maintenance 
of  the  queen  and  royal  family ;  the  king's  pri- 
vate expenses,  or  privy  purse  ;  and  other  very 
numerous  out-goings,  as  secret-service  money, 
pensions,  and  other  bounties,  which  sometimes 
have  far  exceeded  the  revenues  appointed  for  that 
purpose,  and  application  has  accordingly  been 
made  to  parliament  to  discharge  the  debts  con- 
tracted on  the  civil  list.  No  part  of  our  state- 
machinery  seems  to  require  more  investigation 
and  reform. 

CIVIL   WAR,  a  war   between  people  of  the 


CLA 


736 


CLA 


state,  or  the  citizens  of  the  same  city. 
'  CIVIL  YEAR,  the  legal  year,  or  annual  account 
of  time,  which  every  government  appoints  to  be 
used  within  its  own  dominions.     See  ASTRONO- 
MY and  CHRONOLOGY. 

CIVITA  DI  CHIETI,  or  TETI,  a  city  of  Na- 
ples, anciently  called  Theati,  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Abruzzo  Citra.  It  is  the  see  of  an  arch- 
bishop, and  contains  four  churches  and  nine  con- 
vents, situated  near  the  Pescara,  seven  miles 
north  of  Capua,  and  ninety-three  north  of  Naples. 

CIVITA  ui  PENNA,  an  ancient  town  of  Naples, 
in  Abruzzo  Ulterior,  and  department  of  Pescara, 
with  a  bishop's  see.  It  is  situated  near  the  river 
Salino,  twenty-five  miles  north-east  of  Aquila. 

CIVITA  VECCHIA,  a  sea-port  town  of  Italy,  in 
the  pope's  territories,  with  a  good  harbour  and 
an  arsenal.  Here  the  pope's  galleys  are  sta- 
tioned; it  was  made  a  free  port  in  1741;  but 
the  air  is  very  unwholesome.  Population  about 
9000.  It  is  thirty-eight  miles  north-west  of 
Rome.  Long.  1 1°  51'  E.,  lat.  42°  5'  N. 

CIUS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  river  of  Bithy- 
nia,  which  gave  name  to  the  Cianus  Sinus. 
Hylas,  the  favorite  boy  of  Hercules,  is  said  to 
have  been  drowned  in  it.  Also,  a  town  of  Bi- 
thynia,  which  was  afterwards  called  Prusia,  hav- 
ing been  destroyed  by  Philip  the  father  of  Per- 
seus, and  rebuilt  by  Prusias  king  of  Bithynia. 

CIZE,  n.  s.,  perhaps  from  Lat.  incisa ;  shaped 
or  cut  to  a  certain  magnitude ;  the  quantity  of 
any  thing  with  regard  to  its  external  form:  often 
written  size. 

If  no  motion  can  alter  bodies,  that  is,  reduce  them 
to  some  other  cine  or  figure,  then  there  is  none  of 
itself  to  give  them  the  cine  and  figure  which  they 
have.  Crew's  Cosmologia. 

CLACK,  n.  s.,  v.  n.  &  v.  a.  Goth,  klak ;  Sax. 
clec ;  Fr.  claque ;  Welsh  dace ;  continued  noise ; 
a  mill-clapper ;  a  human  tongue,  always  wag- 
ging, to  very  little  purpose  besides  the  mono- 
tonous din  of  audible  nonsense;  to  make  a 
chinking  noise;  to  let  the  tongue  run.  The 
active  verb  is  used  in  another  sense,  as  to. 
clack  wool  is  to  cut  off  the  sheep's  mark,  which 
makes  it  to  weigh  less,  and  so  yield  the  less 
custom  to  the  king. 

Her  clacking  mill,  driven  by  her  flowing  gall, 
Could  never  stand,  but  chide,  rail,  bark,  and  bawl : 
Her  shield  no  word  could  find — her  tongue  engrossed 
them  all.  Fletcher's  Purple  Isltmd. 

But  still  his  tongue  ran  on, 
And  with  its  everlasting  clack 
Set  all  men's  ears  upon  the  rack.  Hudibras. 

Fancy  flows  in,  and  muse  flies  high  ; 
He  knows  not  when  my  clack  will  lie.         Prior, 
Says  John,  just  at  the  hopper  will  I  stand, 
And  mark  the  clack  how  justly  it  will  sound. 

Betterton. 

Tis  true,  your  asses  and  your  apes, 
And  other  brutes  in  human  shapes, 
And  that  thing  made  of  sound  and  show, 
Which  mortals  have  misnamed  a  beau, 
(  But  in  the  language  of  the  sky 
Is  called  a  two-legged  butterfly,) 
Will  make  your  very  heart-strings  ache 
With  loud  and  everlasting  clack, 
And  beat  your  auditory  drum 
TCI  you  grow  deaf  or  they  grow  dumb.        Beattie, 


CLACKMANNAN,  a  county  and  town  of  Scot- 
land, between  56°  5'  and  56°  15'  N.  lat.,  and  3° 
35'  and  3°  55'  W.  long.,  surrounded  on  all  sides 
by  Perthshire,  except  on  the  south  and  south- 
west, where  it  is  bounded  by  the  river  Forth, 
which  divides  it  from  Stirlingshire.  It  is  about 
seven  miles  broad  at  a  medium  from  north  to 
south,  and  where  longest  from  east  to  west  about 
nine,  including  fifty-two  square  miles,  or  32,280 
acres.  The  country  towards  the  Forth  is  plain 
and  fertile,  producing  abundance  of  corn  and 
pasture ;  three-fourths  of  the  surface  being  culti- 
vated, a  greater  proportion  than  almost  anywhere 
else  in  Scotland.  On  the  coast  there  are  several 
excellent  harbours  for  shipping,  as  well  as  creeks 
for  the  reception  of  boats  employed  in  the  fish- 
eries. From  the  shore  the  surface  rises  into  the 
Ochil  mountains,  the  highest  of  which,  Ben- 
cleugh,  nearly  2500  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  lies  in  the  parish  of  Tillycoultry.  The  sides 
of  these  mountains  afford  excellent  pasture  for 
sheep ;  but  towards  the  summit  the  rocks  appear 
quite  bare,  and  broken  by  bold  projections,  with 
deep  ravines,  down  which  many  streams  wildly 
dashing,  give  a  very  romantic  appearance  to 
the  scenery.  These  rocks  protect  the  lower  parts 
from  the  winds,  and  thus  produce  an  agreeable 
temperature  of  climate.  There  are  only  two  rivers 
of  any  consequence  beside  the  Forth,  these  are 
the  North  and  South  Dovan,  or  Devon,  the 
former  running  a  course  of  twenty-six  miles, 
and  both  falling  into  the  Forth,  which  is  navi- 
gable along  the  whole  boundary  of  this  county. 
Agriculture  has  been  considerably  improved  in 
this  county,  and  the  first  ploughing  match  in  Scot- 
land, in  the  way  of  competition  for  premium, 
was  instituted  in  the  parish  of  Clackmannan,  in 
1781,  by  the  gentlemen  of  the  Clackmannanshire 
Farmer  Club.  In  general,  however,  there  is 
more  attention  paid  to  pasture  than  tillage ;  yet 
considerable  quantities  of  corn  are  exported. 
The  land  rent  is  about  £32,000  sterling,  accord- 
ing to  the  valuation  taken  in  1811,  at  which 
time  the  estimated  population  was  12,010.  Coal 
is  found  in  abundance  almost  everywhere ;  free- 
stone and  granite  are  also  plentiful.  In  the 
Ochils,  at  various  times,  have  been  wrought 
valuable  ores  of  silver,  lead,  copper,  cobalt,  iron- 
stone, and  antimony ;  many  beautiful  specimens 
of  septaria,  or  geodes  (iron  ore),  are  also  found. 
Near  Stirling  the  Abbey  Craig,  a  mass  of  green- 
stone rock,  crystallised  internally,  but  exhibiting 
a  rough  column-like  appearance  externally,  af- 
fords a  mill-stone  equal  if  not  superior  to  the 
French  burstones.  Among  the  rubbish  which  is 
washed  from  the  hills,  pebbles,  agates,  and  even 
topazes,  are  sometimes  discovered.  The  inha- 
bitants carry  on  a  considerable  foreign  trade,  and 
export  coals,  pig-iron,  and  British  spirits,  nearly 
a  million  gallons  of  which  are  sent  to  the  Eng- 
lish markets.  They  import  grain  for  the  distil- 
leries, sugar,  timber,  iron,  &,c.  They  manufac- 
ture sail-cloth  and  coarse  linen,  girdles,  camblets, 
and  plaids  for  the  Highland  regiments ;  they  also 
bleach  a  great  quantity  of  flue  linen,  manufac- 
tured at  Dumfermline.  This  county  contains 
two  principal  to%vns,  Clackmannan  and  Allo;i. 

Clackmannan  sends  a  member  to  parliament 
alternately  with  the  county  of  Kinross.  There 


C  L  A 


737 


CLA 


are  four  parishes,  Clackmannan,  Alloa,  Dollar, 
and  Tillicoultry  ;  Cambuskennelh,  in  the  county 
of  Stirling,  forms  a  part  of  this  county,  and  a 
third  of  the  parish  of  Logic  is  likewise  included 
in  it.  There  is  no  assessment  for  the  poor,  ex- 
cept in  this  parish,  where,  in  1812,  the  total 
number  of  paupers  was  193,  receiving  annually 
£643,  or  nearly  £3.  10*.  each.  Among  the  an- 
tiquities of  the  county  may  be  reckoned  the  ruins 
of  Castle  Campbell,  in  a  very  wild  country  above 
the  village  of  Dollar.  Here  John  Kriox  found  a 
temporary  retreat.  It  was  burned  by  Montrose 
in  1644.  The  tower  of  Alloa,  erected  before  the 
year  1300,  the  residence  of  the  Erskines,  earls  of 
Mar,  is  in  good  preservation.  The  walls  are 
eleven  feet  thick,  and  one  of  the  turrets  is  eighty- 
nine  feet  from  the  ground. 

CLACKMANNAN,  the  chief  town,  is  pleasantly 
situated  on  an  eminence  190  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  Forth,  with  a  gradual  descent  on  every 
side  but  the  west,  where  it  is  bold  and  rocky. 
Here  the  old  tower  of  Clackmannan  stands,  com- 
manding a  beautiful  and  romantic  prospect  of 
the  mountains  of  Benmore,  Benledi,  and  Ben- 
lomond,  the  town  and  castle  of  Stirling,  the 
various  windings  of  the  Forth,  the  town  of  Alloa, 
&c.  The  great  sword  and  helmet  of  king  Robert 
Bruce,  and  a  large  two-handed  sword  of  Sir  J. 
Graham,  [the  friend  of  the  heroic  Wallace,  are 
preserved  in  the  tower.  Clackmannan  was  long 
the  seat  of  the  chief  of  the  Bruces,  who  were  he- 
reditary sheriffs  of  the  county  before  the  juris- 
dictions were  abolished  ;  the  Bruces  of  Kennel 
still  have  their  residence  here.  The  town,  how- 
ever, by  no  means  corresponds  with  the  beaut, 
of  its  situation.  The  principal  street  is  broad", 
but  many  of  the  houses  are  mean;  in  the  middle 
of  the  street  stands  the  tolbooth  and  court-house, 
a  heap  of  ruins.  Here  the  sheriff  sometimes 
holds  his  court,  and  the  election  for  members  of 
parliament  takes  place.  The  harbour  was  for- 
merly crooked  and  inconvenient,  but  was  much 
improved  in  1772.  The  town  contains  about 
5000  inhabitants,  and  lies  thirty-three  miles 
north  by  east  of  Glasgow.  Alloa  is  a  port  ot 
considerable  commerce,  with  a  good  harbour 
and  well-built  quay,  at  which  are  cleared  out 
annually  from  900  to  1000  vessels,  carrying 
50,000  tons,  and  furnishing  employ  for  2500 
seamen.  See  ALLOA. 

Packets  are  employed  between  Alloa  and  Leith, 
and  the  late  introduction  of  steam-boats,  which 
pass  between  that  and  Newhaven,  and  various 
other  places  on  the  Forth,  affords  a  convenient 
and  speedy  conveyance  for  passengers. 

CLAD,  part.  pret.  This  participle,  which  is 
now  referred  to  clothe,  seems  originally  to  have 
belonged  to  clogden,  or  some  such  word,  like 
Dutch,  kleeden.  Clothed;  invested;  garbed. 

He  hath  clad  himself  with  a  new  garment.  1  Kings. 

Ageynst  his  will,  sithe  it  mote  nedes  be, 
This  Troilus  up  rose,  and  fast  him  cled. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales, 

So  oft  in  feasts  with  costly  changes  clad, 
To  crammed  maws  a  spratt  new  stomach  brings. 

Sidney. 

Beyond 

The  flowery  dale  of  Sibma,  clad  with  vine.        Milton. 
VOL.  V. 


Their  prayers  clad 

With  incense,  where  the  golden  altar  fumed 
By  their  great  intercessor.  /J, 

Then  the  procurers  under  Progers  filed, 
Gentlest  of  men,  and  his  lieutenant  mild, 
Bronkard,  love's  squire,  through  all  the  field  arraye/i, 
No  troop  was  better  clad  nor  so  well  payed.    Marvell, 

But  virtue  too,  as  well  as  vice,  is  clad 
In  flesh  and  blood.  Waller 

To  her  the  weeping  heavens  become  serene  ; 
Fcr  her  the  ground  is  clad  in  cheerful  green. 

Dryden. 
The  courtiers  were  all  most  magnificently  clad. 

Swift. 

CLAGENFURT,  a  town  and  circle  of  Ger- 
many, capital  of  the  duchy  of  Carinthia,  situated 
on  the  Glan,  and  surrounded  with  a  good  wall. 
It  contains  a  castle,  lyceum,  university,  six 
churches,  and  three  convents ;  is  very  regularly 
and  well  built,  and  has  several  good  squares. 
It  has  a  manufacture  of  cloth,  which  is  much 
esteemed.  The  traveller  is  said  to  find  here  an 
excellent  collection  of  busts  and  paintings,  to- 
gether with  a  complete  and  well-arranged  cabi- 
net of  all  the  mineralogical  productions  of 
Carinthia.  This  town  was  taken  by  the  French, 
after  they  had  defeated  the  Austrians,  in  1797, 
and  again  in  1809.  Population  10,000.  It  is 
fifty  miles  north  of  Trieste,  and  132  south-west  of 
Vienna.  Not  far  distant  is  the  lake  of  Clagen- 
furt,  amidst  very  picturesque  scenery. 

CLAGETT  (William),  D.D.  an  eminent  and 
learned  divine,  born  in  1646.  He  was  preacher 
to  the  society  of  Gray's  Inn ;  which  employment 
he  exercised  until  he  died,  in  1688,  being  then 
one  of  the  king's  chaplains.  Bishop  Burnet  has 
ranked  him  among  '  those  worthy  men,  whose 
lives  and  labors  contributed  to  rescue  the  church 
from  the  reproaches  which  the  follies  of  others 
had  drawn  upon  it.'  Dr.  Clagett's  principal  work 
is  his  Discourse  concerning  the  Operations  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  He  was  one  of  those  divines  who 
made  a  noble  stand  against  the  designs  .of  James 
II.  to  introduce  popery.  Four  volumes  of  his 
sermons  were  published  after  his  death  by  his 
brother  Nicholas  Clagett,  archdeacon  of  Sudbury. 

CL'AIM,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.~\      Fr.   darner;    from 

CLAIMABLE,  adj.         f  Lat.   clamo.     To  re- 

CLA'IMANT,  n.  s.          £  quire  :  to  demand,  of 

CLA'IMER,  n.  s.  bright;  not  to  beg  or 

accept  as  favor,  but  to  exact  as  due. 

A  demand  of  any  thing  that  is  in  the  possession  of 
another,  or  at  least  out  of  his  own  ;  as  claim  by  char- 
ter, c/atmby  descent.  Cawell. 
Amongst  the  rest,  with  boastfull  vaine  pretense 

Slept  Braggadocchio  forth,  and  as  his  thrall 
Her  claymd,  by  him  in  battell  wonne  long  sens  : 

Whereto  herselfe  he  did  to  witnesse  call ; 

Who  being  askt,  accordingly  confessed  all. 

Spenter. 

You,  in  the  right  of  lady  Blanch  your  wife, 
May  then  make  all  the  claim  that  Arthur  did. 

Shaktpeare. 

Poets  have  undoubted  right  to  claim, 
If  not  the  greatest,  the  most  lasting  name. 

Congreve. 

If  only  one  man  hath  a  divine  right  to  obedience, 
nobody  can  claim  that  obedience  but  he  that  can  shew 
his  right.  Lockt' 

3  B 


CLA 


738 


CLA 


\Te  must  know  how  the  first  ruler,  from  whom 
any  one  claims,  came  by  his  authority,  before  we  can 
know  who  has  a  right  to  succeed  him  in  it.  Locke, 

Will  he  not,  therefore,  of  the  two  evils  cnuse  the 
feast,  by  submitting  to  a  master  who  hath  no  imme- 
diate daim  upon  him,  rather  than  to  another  who 
hath  already  revived  several  claims  upon  him? 

Swift. 

The  king  of  Prussia  lays  in  his  claim  for  Neuf- 
Chatel,  as  he  did  for  the  principality  of  Orange. 

Adilisan  on  Italy. 

His  well-armed  front  against  his  rival  aims, 
And  by  the  dint  of  war  his  mistress  claims. 

Gay's  Rural  Sports. 
Oh !  that  some  villager,  whose  early  toil 

Lifts  the  penurious  morsel  to  his  mouth, 

Had  claimed  my  birth  !  ambition  had  not  then 

Thus  slept  'twixt  me  and  heaven. 

Brooke's  Giutavus  Vasa. 
And  yet,  alas !  the  real  ills  of  life 
Claim  the  full  vigor  of  a  mind  prepared, 
Prepared  for  patient  long  laborious  strife, 
Its  guide  experience,  and  truth  its  guard. 

Beattie. 

CLAIRAC,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Lot  and  Garonne,  chief  place  of  a 
canton,  in  the  district  of  Tonneins,  and  advan- 
tageously situated  in  a  valley  on  the  Lot.  It 
contains  about  5000  inhabitants.  They  raise 
tobacco,  corn,  wine,  and  brandy.  Clairac  is  one 
league  south-east  of  Tonneins,  and  four  and  a 
half  north-west  of  Agen. 

CLAIRAULT  (Alexis),  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  mathematicians  in  Europe.  In 
1726,  when  not  thirteen  years  old,  he  presented 
to  the  academy  a  memoir  upon  four  new  geo- 
metrical curves  of  his  own  invention  ;  and  he 
supported  the  character  of  which  he  thus  laid  the 
foundation,  by  various  after  publications,  as, 
Elemens  de  Geometric,  1741,  in  8vo. ;  Elemens 
d'  Algebre,  1746,  in  8vo. ;  Theorie  de  la  Figure 
de  la  Terre,  1743,  in  8vo.;  Tables  de  la  Lune, 
1754,  in  8vo.  He  was  concerned  also  in  the 
Journal  des  Scavans,  to  which  he  supplied  many 
excellent  extracts  ;  and  was  one  of  the  academi- 
cians who  were  sent  into  the  north  to  determine 
the  figure  of  the  earth.  He  died  in  1756. 

CLAIRFAIT  (N.),  count  de,  a  celebrated 
Austrian  general,  of  whose  birth  we  have  learned 
only  that  he  was  a  Walloon.  He  entered  early 
on  a  military  life,  and  in  the  imperial  service 
distinguished  himself  against  the  Turks.  He 
commanded  the  Austrian  troops  against  France 
in  1792,  and  in  that  eventful  war  displayed  the 
most  eminent  military  talents,  though  not  accom- 
panied with  corresponding  success.  When  the 
combined  armies  of  Austria  and  Prussia  entered 
France,  under  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  general 
Clairfait,  with  the  army  under  his  command, 
joined  them,  and  they  made  a  very  rapid  progress 
into  France ;  but,  after  the  taking  of  Longwy  and 
Stenay,  Clairfait  returned  into  the  Low  Countries, 
where  he  lost  the  famous  battle  of  Gemappe, 
owing  to  the  superior  numbers  and  impetuosity 
of  the  French,  under  the  celebrated  Dumourier ; 
but  though  the  ability  of  Clairfait  had  been  emi- 
nently evinced  during  this  contest,  his  military 
skill  was  still  more  so  in  his  consequent  retreat 
across  the  Rhine,  October  1  st,  1 794.  He  was  next 


attached  to  the  army  under  the  command  of  the 
prince  of  Cobourg,  and  obtained  considerable 
advantages  at  Altenhoven,  Quievrain,  Hansen, 
and  Famars.  He  commanded  the  left  wing  ot 
the  army  at  the  battle  of  Nerwinde,  and  decided 
the  victory.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  army  in  Flanders,  opposed  to 
Pichegru,  with  whom  he  bravely  disputed  every 
foot  of  ground,  till  the  inequality  of  his  forces 
obliged  him  to  abandon  the  country.  In  1795 
he  obtained  the  command  of  the  army  of  Mayence, 
and  attacked  the  strong  camp  which  the  French 
had  formed  before  that  city.  Having  forced  this, 
and  .made  a  great  number  of  prisoners,  he  was 
following  up  the  victory  with  ardor,  when  he  re- 
ceived an  order  to  forbear.  Upon  this  he  gave  in 
his  resignation,  and  retired  to  Vienna,  where  he 
was  well  received  by  the  emperor.  He  was  after- 
wards made  a  counsellor  of  war,  and  died  at 
Vienna  in  1798.  General  Clairfait  was  a  strict 
disciplinarian,  but  greatly  beloved  by  his  soldiers; 
and  the  French  considered  him  as  the  ablest  gene- 
ral among  their  opponents  in  the  course  of  the 
war. 

CLAIR-OBSCURE,  n.  s.  See  CLARE-OB- 
SCURE. 

CLAM,  v.  a.  ~)      Dut.  dame,  to  stick ; 

CLA'MMINESS,  n.  s.    > Sax.  clam;    Bel.  clem, 

CLA'MMY,  adj.  j  wet  clay  ;  Teut.  lint ; 

gelim,  glue  ;  to  glue  together ;  to  clog  with  any 
glutinous  matter  ;  viscosity  ;  viscidity  ;  tenaci- 
ty ;  ropiness  ;  viscous  ;  glutinous  ;  tenacious  ; 
adhesive  ;  ropy. 

Bodies  clammy  and  cleaving,  have  an  appetite,  at 
once,  to  follow  another  body,  and  to  hold  to  them- 
selves. Bacon. 

A  swarm  of  wasps  got  into  a  honey-pot,  and  there 

they  cloyed  and  clammed  themselves  till  there  was  no 

getting  out  again.  L'Estrange. 

A  greasy  pipkin  will  spoil  the  clamminess  of  the  glue. 

Moron. 

Neither  the  brain  nor  spirits  can  conserve  mo- 
tion :  the  former  is  of  such  a  clammy  consistence, 
it  can  no  more  retain  it  than  a  quagmire. 

Glanmlle's  Scepsis. 

A  chilling  sweat,  a  damp  of  jealousy, 
Hangs  on  my  brows,  and  clams  upon  my  limbs. 

Dry  den. 

Joyful  thou'lt  see 

The  clammy  surface  all  o'er-strown  with  tribes 
Of  greedy  insects.  Philips. 

There  is  an  unctuous  clammy  vapour  that  arises 
from  the  stum  of  grapes,  when  they  lie  mashed  to- 
gether in  the  vat,  which  puts  out  a  light  when  dipped 
into  it.  Addison  on  Italy . 

The  continuance  of  the  fever,  clammy  sweats,  pale- 
ness, and  at  last  a  total  cessation  of  pain,  are  signs 
of  a  gangrene  and  approaching  death. 

Arbuthnot  on  Diet. 

CLA'MBER,  v.  n.  Probably  corrupted  from 
climb ;  as  climber,  clamber.  To  climb  with 
difficulty,  as  with  both  hands  and  feet.  More 
probably  from  clamp.  See  CLAMP. 

The  kitchen  malkin  pins 
Her  richest  lockram  'bout  her  reechy  neck, 
Clambering  the  walls  to  eye  him.         Shabspcare. 

When  you  hear  the  dram, 
Clamber  not  you  up  to  the  casements  then 


CLAN. 


739 


The  men  there  do,  not  without  some  difficulty, 
elamber  up  the  acclivities,  dragging  their  kine  with 
them.  Ray- 

They  were  forced  to  clamber  over  so  many  rocks, 
and  to  tread  upon  the  brink  of  so  many  precipices, 
that  they  were  very  often  in  danger  of  their  lives. 

Addison's  Freeholder. 

CLAMECY,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Nievre,  at  the  conflux  of  the  Beuvron 
and  the  Yonne.  In  one  of  the  fauxbourgs  of  this 
town  the  nominal  bishop  of  Bethlehem  resided ; 
the  see  having  been  fixed  here  from  the  expulsion 
of  the  Christians  out  of  the  Holy  Land.  His  in- 
come was  small,  and  his  diocese  confined  nearly 
to  the  place  of  his  residence.  The  inhabitants, 
who,  according  to  the  last  returns,  amount  to 
5300,  carry  on  a  considerable  hard-ware  manu- 
facture. It  is  eighteen  miles  south  .of  Auxerre. 
CLA'MQUR,  n.  s.  &  v.  n.  >  Lat.  clamor, 
CLA'MOROUS,  adj.  }  Outcry  ;  noise; 

turbulent  roaring  ;  exclamation  continued  for  a 
length  of  time.  Shakspeare  uses  the  verb  in  an 
active  sense  ;  and  it  seems  to  mean,  to  stop  from 
noise. 

For  which  oppression,  was  swich  clamour, 
And  swiche  pursuite  unto  the  king  Artour, 
That  damned  wos  this  knight  for  to  be  ded 
By  course  of  law,  and  should  have  lost  his  hed. 

Chaucer.   Canterbury  Tales. 
Clamour  your  tongues,  and  not  a  word  more. 

Shakspeare. 

Let  them  not  come  in  multitudes,  or  in  a  tribu- 
nitious  manner  ;  for  that  is  to  clamour  counsels,  not 
to  inform  them.  Bacon's  Essays. 

He  kissed  her  lips 

With  such  a  clamorous  smack,  that  at  the  parting 
All  the  church  echo'd.  Shakspeare. 

The  maid 

Shall  weep  the  fury  of  my  love  decayed ; 
And  weeping  •,  follow  me,  as  thou  dost  now, 
With  idle  clamour  of  a  broken  vow.  Prior, 

A  pamphlet  that  will  settle  the  wavering,  instruct 
the  ignorant,  and  inflame  the  clamorous.  Swift _ 

Here  the  loud  Arno's  boisterous  clamours  cease, 
That  with  submissive  murmurs  glides  in  peace. 

Addison. 

Tis  hence  you  lord  it  o'er  your  servile  senates. 
How  low  the  slaves  will  stoop  to  gorge  their  lusts 
When  aptly  baited  !     Even  the  tongues  of  patriots, 
Those  sons  of  clamours,  oft  relax  the  nerve 
Within  the  warmth  of  favour. 

Brooke's  Gustavus  Vasa. 

And  now  from  far  the  mingling  clamours  rise, 
Loud  and  more  loud,  rebounding  through  the  skies. 

Beattie. 

Echoing  far  and  wide 
The  clamorous  noru  along  the  cliffs  above 
The  hollow  murmur  of  the  ocean-tide  ; 
The  hum  of  bees,  the  linnet's  lay  of  love, 
And  the  full  choir  that  wakes  the  universal  grove. 

Id. 

Echoed  the  vale  with  many  a  cheerful  note, 
The  lowing  of  the  herds  resounding  long, 

The  shrilling  pipe,  and  mellow  horn  remote, 
And  social  clamours  of  the  festive  throng.  7<i_ 

CLAMP,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  Goth  klauf ';  Dan. 
klampe ;  Sax.  clamm ;  Fr.  clamp.  A  claw,  a 
grapple,  a  brace,  that  which  holds  together  and 
supports. 

When  a  piece  of  board  is  fitted  with  the  grain  to 
the  end  of  another  piece  of  board  cross  the  grain, 


the  first  board  is  damped.     Thus  the   ends  of  tables 

are  commonly  damped  to  preserve  them  from  warping. 

Moxon's  Mechanical  Exercises. 

CLAMP,  a  pile  of  utiburnt  bricks  built  up  for 
burning.  They  are  built  after  the  same  manner 
as  arches  are  built  in  kilns,  viz.  with  a  vacuity 
betwixt  each  brick's  breadth  for  the  fire  to  ascend 
by ;  but  with  this  difference,  that  instead  of  arch- 
ing, they  truss  over,  or  overspan ;  that  is,  the 
end  of  one  brick  is  laid  about  half  way  over  the 
end  of  another,  and  so  till  both  sides  meet  within 
half  a  brick's  length,  and  then  a  binding  brick  at 
the  top  finishes  the  arch. 

C  LAMP,  in  ship-building,  denotes  a  piece  of  tim- 
ber applied  to  a  mast  or  yard,  to  prevent  the  wood 
from  bursting  ;  and  also  a  thick  plank  lying  fore 
and  aft  under  the  beams  of  the  first  orlop,  or 
second  deck,  and  is  the  same  that  the  rising  tim- 
bers are  to  the  deck. 

CLAMP  NAILS,  such  nails  as  are  used  to  fasten 
on  clamps  in  the  building  or  repairing  of  ships. 

CLAMPETIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town 
of  the  Brutii,  one  of  those  which  revolted  from 
Hannibal,  called  Lampetia  by  Polybius. 

CLAN,  n.  s.  probably  of  Scottish  original ; 
klaan,  in  the  Highlands,  signifies  children.  A 
family ;  a  race ;  a  community,  from  the  Gothic 
kylla ;  to  procreate.  In  a  sense  of  contempt  it 
is  sometimes  applied  to  a  body  of  persons  united 
for  some  sinister  purpose. 

They  around  the  flag 

Of  each  his  faction,  in  their  several  clans, 
Swarm  populous,  unnumbered,  Milton. 

Milton  was  the  poetical  son  of  Spenser,  and  Mr. 
Waller  of  Fairfax ;  for  we  have  our  lineal  descents 
and  clans  as  well  as  other  families.  Dryden. 

Partridge  and  the  rest  of  his  clan  may  hoot  me  for 
a  cheat,  if  I  fail  in  any  single  particular.  Swift. 

CLAN,  in  history,  and  particularly  in  that  of 
Scotland,  means  a  tribe  of  people  of  the  same 
race,  and  often  all  of  the  same  name.  The  na- 
tions which  overran  Europe  were  originally  di- 
vided into  many  small  tribes ;  and,  when  they 
came  to  parcel  out  the  lands  which  they  had  con- 
quered, it  was  natural  for  every  chieftain  to  be- 
stow a  portion,  in  the  first  place,  upon  those 
of  his  own  tribe  or  family.  -"These  all  held  their 
lands  of  him ;  and,  as  the  safety  of  each  individual 
depended  on  the  general  union,  these  small  so- 
cieties clung  together,  and  were  distinguished  by 
some  common  appellation,  either  patronymical 
or  local,  long  before  the  introduction  of  surnames 
or  ensigns  armorial.  But  when  these  became 
common,  the  descendants  and  relations  of  every 
chieftain  assumed  the  same  name  and  arms  with 
him ;  other  vassals  were  proud  to  imitate  their 
example ;  and  by  degrees  they  were  communi- 
cated to  all  those  who  held  of  the  same  superior. 
Thus  clanships  were  formed  ;  and,  in  a  genera- 
tion or  two,  that  consanguinity,  which  was  at 
first  in  a  great  measure  imaginary,  was  believed 
to  be  real.  An  artificial  union  was  converted 
into  a  natural  one  :  men  willingly  followed  a 
leader,  whom  they  regarded  both  as  the  superior 
of  their  lands,  and  the  chief  of  their  blood ;  and 
served  him  not  only  with  the  fidelity  of  vassals, 
but  the  affection  of  friends.  In  the  other  feudal 
kingdcms,  we  may  observe  such  uniors  as  we 

3  B2 


740 


L    A    N. 


have  described,  imperfectly  formed ;  but  in  Scot- 
and,  whether  they  were  the  production  of  chance, 
or  the  effect  of  policy,  or  strengthened  by  their 
preserving  their  genealogies  both  genuine  and 
fabulous,  clanships  were  universal.  Such  a  con- 
federacy might  be  overcome;  it  could  not  be 
broken  ;  and  no  change  of  manners  or  govern- 
ment has  been  able,  in  some  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
completely  to  dissolve  associations  which  are 
founded  upon  prejudices  so  natural  to  the  human 
mind.  How  formidable  were  nobles  at  the  head 
of  followers,  who,  counting  that  cause  just  and 
honorable  which  their  chief  approved,  were  ever 
ready  to  take  the  field  at  his  command,  arid  to 
sacrifice  their  .ives  in  defence  of  his  person  or  of 
his  fame  !  Against  such  men  a  king  contended 
with  great  disadvantage  ;  and  that  cold  service 
which  money  purchases,  or  authority  extorts, 
was  not  an  equal  match  for  their  ardor  and  zeal. 
The  foregoing  observations  will  receive  con- 
siderable confirmation  from  what  Sir  John  Dal- 
rymple  remarks  of  the  Highland  clans,  in  his 
Memoirs  of  Great  Britain.  '  The  castle  of  the 
chieftain  was  a  kind  of  palace  to  which  every 
man  of  his  tribe  was  made  welcome,  and  where 
he  was  entertained  according  to  his  station  in 
time  of  peace,  and  to  which  all  flocked  at  the 
sound  of  war.  Thus  the  meanest  of  the  clan, 
considering  himself  to  be  as  well  born  as  the 
head  of  it,  revered  in  his  chieftain  his  own 
honor;  loved  in  his  clan  his  own  blood;  com- 
plained not  of  the  difference  of  station  into  which 
fortune  had  thrown  him,  and  respected  himself: 
the  chieftain  in  return  bestowed  a  protection, 
founded  equally  on  gratitude,  and  the  conscious- 
ness of  his  own  interest.  Hence  the  Highlanders, 
whom  more  savage  nations  called  savage,  carried, 
in  the  outward  expression  of  their  manners,  the 
politeness  of  courts  without  their  vices,  and,  in 
their  bosoms,  the  high  points  of  honor  without 
its  follies.  In  countries  where  the  surface  is 
rugged,  and  the  climate  uncertain,  there  is  little 
room  for  the  use  of  the  plough ;  and,  where  no 
coal  is  to  be  found,  and  few  provisions  can  be 
raised,  there  is  still  less  for  that  of  the  anvil  and 
shuttle.  As  the  Highlanders  were,  upon  these 
accounts,  excluded  from  extensive  agriculture 
and  manufacture  alike,  every  family  raised  just 
as  much  grain,  and  made  as  much  raiment,  as 
sufficed  for  itself;  and  nature,  whom  art  cannot 
force,  destined  them  to  the  life  of  shepherds. 
Hence,  they  had  not  that  excess  of  industry 
which  reduces  man  to  a  machine,  nor  that  want 
of  it  which  sinks  him  into  a  rank  of  animals  be- 
low his  own.  They  lived  in  villages  built  in 
valleys  and  by  the  sides  of  rivers.  At  two  seasons 
of  the  year  they  were  busy ;  the  one  in  the  end 
of  spring  and  beginning  of  summer,  when  they 
put  the  plough  into  the  little  land  they  had  capa- 
ble of  receiving  it,  sowed  their  grain,  and  pre- 
pared their  provision  of  turf  for  next  winter's 
fuel ;  the  other  just  before  winter,  when  they 
reaped  their  harvest :  the  rest  of  the  year  was  all 
tiieir  own,  for  amusement  or  for  war.  If  not  en- 
gaged in  war,  they  indulged  themselves  in  sum- 
mer in  the  most  delicious  of  all  pleasures,  to  men 
in  a  cold  climate  and  a  romantic  country,  the  en- 
joyment of  the  sun,  and  of  the  summer  views  of 
nature ;  never  in  the  house  during  the  day,  even 


sleeping  often  at  night  in  the  open  air,  among  the 
mountains  and  woods.  They  spent  the  winter  in 
the  chase,  while  the  san  was  up ;  and,  in  the 
evening,  assembling  round  a  common  fire,  they 
entertained  themselves  with  the  song,  the  tale, 
and  the  dance  :  but  they  were  ignorant  of  sitting 
days  and  nights  at  games  of  skill,  or  of  hazard, 
amusements  which  keep  the  body  in  inaction, 
and  the  mind  in  a  state  of  vicious  activity.  The 
want  of  a  good,  and  even  of  a  fine  ear  for  music, 
was  almost  unknown  amongst  them ;  because  it 
was  kept  in  continual  practice,  among  the  multi- 
tude from  passion,  but  by  the  wiser  few,  because 
they  knew  that  the  love  of  music  both  heightened 
the  courage  and  softened  the  tempers  of  their 
people.  Their  vocal  music  was  plaintive,  even 
to  the  depth  of  melancholy  ;  their  instrumental, 
either  lively  for  brisk  dances,  or  martial  for  the 
battle.  Some  of  their  tunes  even  contained  the 
great  but  natural  idea,  of  a  history  described  in 
music  j  the  joys  of  a  marriage,  the  noise  of  a 
quarrel,  the  sounding  to  arms,  the  rage  of  a  oat- 
tie,  the  broken  disorder  of  a  flight, — the  whole 
concluding  with  the  solemn  dirge  and  lamenta- 
tion for  the  slain.  By  the  loudness  and  artificial 
jarring  of  their  war  instrument,  the  bagpipe, 
which  played  continually  during  the  action,  their 
spirits  were  exalted  to  a  phrenzy  of  courage  in 
battle.  They  joined  the  pleasures  of  history  and 
poetry  .to  those  of  music,  and  the  love  of  classi'-al 
learning  to  both.  For,  in  order  to  cherish  hign 
sentiments  in  the  minds  of  all,  every  considerable 
family  had  an  historian  who  recounted,  and  a 
bard  who  sung,  the  deeds  of  his  clan  and  of  its 
chieftain :  and  all,  even  the  lowest  in  station, 
were  sent  to  school  in  their  youth ;  partly  because 
they  had  nothing  else  to  do  at  that  age,  and  partly 
because  literature  was  thought  the  distinction, 
not  the  want  of  it  the  mark,  of  good  birth.  The 
severity  of  their  climate,  the  height  of  their  moun- 
tains, the  distance  of  their  villages  from  each 
other,  their  love  of  the  chase  and  of  war,  with 
their  desire  to  visit  and  be  visited,  forced  them 
to  great  bodily  exertions.  The  vastness  of  the 
objects  which  surrounded  them,  lakes,  moun- 
tains, rocks,  cataracts,  extended  and  elevated 
their  minds  :  for  they  were  not  in  the  state  of 
men,  who  only  know  the  way  from  one  town  to 
another.  Their  want  of  regular  occupation  led 
them,  like  the  ancient  Spartans,  to  contemplation, 
and  the  powers  of  conversation :  powers  which 
they  exerted  in  striking  out  the  original  thoughts 
which  nature  had  suggested,  not  in  languidly  re- 
peating those  which  they  had  learned  from  other 
people.  They  valued  themselves  without  under- 
valuing other  nations.  They  loved  to  quit  their 
own  country  to  see  and  to  hear,  adopted  easily 
the  manners  of  others,  and  were  attentive  and 
insinuating  wherever  they  went.  When  stran- 
gers came  amongst  them,  they  received  them 
not  with  a  ceremony  which  forbids  a  second 
visit,  not  with  a  coldness  which  causes  repentance 
of  the  first,  not  with  an  embarrassment  which 
leaves  both  the  landlord  and  his  guest  in  equal 
misery,  but  with  the  most  pleasing  of  all  polite- 
ness, the  simplicity  and  cordiality  of  affection ; 
proud  to  give  that  hospitality  which  they  had  not 
received,  and  to  humble  the  persons  who  had 
thought  of  them  with  contempt,  by  showing  how 


CLAN. 


741 


little  they  deserved.  Having  been  driven  from 
the  low  countries  of  Scotland  by  invasion,  they, 
from  time  immemorial,  thought  themselves  en- 
titled to  make  reprisals  upon  the  property  of 
their  invaders  ;  but  they  touched  not  that  of  each 
other ;  so  that  in  the  same  men  there  appeared, 
to  those  who  did  not  look  into  the  causes  of 
things,  a  strange  mixture  of  vice  and  of  virtue. 
For  what  we  term  theft  and  rapine,  they  termed 
right  and  justice.  But  from  the  practice  of  these 
reprisals,  they  acquired  the  habits  of  being  en- 
terprising, artful,  and  bold.  An  injury  done  to 
one  of  a  clan,  was  held  to  be  an  injury  done  to 
all,  on  account  of  the  common  relation  of  blood. 
Hence  the  Highlanders  were  in  the  habitual 
practice  of  war  ;  and  hence  their  attachment  to 
their  chieftain,  and  to  each  other,  was  founded 
upon  the  two  most  active  principles  of  human 
nature,  love  of  their  friends,  and  resentment 
against  their  enemies.  But  the  frequency  of  war 
tempered  its  ferocity.  They  bound  up  the 
wounds  of  their  prisoners,  while  they  neglected 
their  own  ;  and  in  the  person  of  an  enemy,  re- 
spected and  pitied  the  stranger.  They  went 
always  completely  armed  :  a  fashion  which,  by 
accustoming  them  to  the  instruments  of  death, 
removed  the  fear  of  death  itself ;  and  which, 
from  the  danger  of  provocation,  made  the  com- 
mon people  as  polite,  and  as  guarded  in  their 
behaviour,  as  the  gentry  of  other  countries. 
From  these  combined  circumstances,  the  higher 
ranks  and  the  lower  ranks  of  the  Highlanders 
alike  joined  that  refinement  of  sentiment,  which, 
in  all  other  nations,  is  peculiar  to  the  former,  to 
that  strength  and  hardiness  of  body,  which,  in 
other  countries,  is  possessed  only  by  the  latter. 
To  be  modest  as  well  as  brave ;  to  be  contented 
with  the  few  things  which  nature  requires  ;  to 
act  and  to  suffer  without  complaining ;  to  be  as 
much  ashamed  of  doing  anything  insolent  or  in- 
jurious to  others,  as  of  bearing  it  when  done  to 
themselves  ;  and  to  die  with  pleasure  to  revenge 
the  affronts  offered  to  their  clan  or  their  country  : 
these  they  considered  their  highest  accomplish- 
ments. In  religion  every  man  followed,  with 
indifference  of  sentiment,  the  mode  which  his 
chieftain  had  assumed.  Their  dress,  which  was 
the  last  remains  of  the  Roman  habit  in  Europe, 
was  well  suited  to  the  nature  of  their  coun- 
try, and  still  better  to  the  necessities  of  war. 
It  consisted  of  a  roll  of  light  woollen,  called  a 
plaid,  six  yards  in  length,  and  two  in  breadth, 
wrapped  loosely  round  the  body  ;  the  upper 
lappet  of  which  rested  on  the  left  shoulder, 
leaving  the  right  arm  at  full  liberty;  a  jacket  of 
thick  cloth  fitted  tightly  to  the  body ;  and  a 
loose  short  garment  of  light  woollen,  which 
went  round  the  waist  and  covered  the  thigh. 
In  rain  they  formed  the  plaid  into  folds,  and 
laying  it  on  the  shoulders,  were  covered  as 
with  a  roof.  When  they  were  obliged  to  lie 
abroad  in  the  hills,  in  their  hunting  parties," 
or  tending  their  cattle,  or  in  war,  the  plaid 
served  them  both  for  bed  and  for  covering ; 
for,  when  three  men  slept  together,  they  could 
spread  three  folds  of  cloth  below,  and  six  above 
them.  The  garters  of  their  stockings  were  tied 
under  their  knee,  with  a  view  to  give  more  free- 
dom to  the  limb;  and  they  wore  no  breeches, 


that  they  might  climb  mountains  with  the  grealer 
ease.  The  lightness  and  looseness  of  their  dress, 
the  custom  they  had  of  going  always  on  foot, 
never  on  horseback  ;  their  love  of  long  journeys, 
but  above  all,  that  patience  of  hunger,  and  every 
kind  of  hardship,  which  carried  their  bodies  for- 
ward, even  after  their  spirits  were  exhausted, 
made  them  exceed  all  other  European  nations 
in  speed  and  perseverance  of  march.  In  en- 
campments, they  were  expert  at  forming  beds  in 
a  moment,  by  tying  together  bunches  of  heath, 
and  fixing  them  upright  in  the  ground ;  an  art, 
which,  as  the  beds  were  both  soft  and  dry,  pre- 
served their  health  in  the  field,  when  other 
soldiers  lost  theirs.  Their  arms  were  a  broad 
sword,  a  dagger,  called  a  dirk,  a  target,  a  mus- 
ket, and  two  pistols;  so  that  they  carried  the 
long  sword  of  the  Celtes,  the  pugio  of  the  Ro- 
mans, the  shield  of  the  ancients,  and  both  kinds 
of  modern  fire-arms,  all  together.  In  battle  they 
threw  away  the  plaid  and  under  garment,  and 
fought  in  their  jackets,  making  thus  their  move- 
ments quicker,  and  their  strokes  more  forcible. 
Their  advance  to  battle  was  rapid,  like  the 
charge  of  dragoons  :  when  near  the  enemy,  they 
stopped  a  little  to  draw  breath  and  discharge 
their  muskets,  which  they  then  dropped  on  the 
ground :  advancing,  they  fired  their  pistols, 
which  they  threw,  almost  at  the  same  instant, 
against  the  heads  of  their  opponents ;  and  then 
rushed  into  their  ranks  with  the  broad  sword, 
threatening,  and  shaking  the  sword  as  they  ran 
on,  so  as  to  conquer  the  enemy's  eye,  while  his 
body  was  yet  unhurt.  They  fought  not  in  long 
and  regular  lines,  but  in  separate  bands,  like 
wedges  condensed  and  firm ;  the  army  being 
ranged  according  to  the  clans  which  composed 
it,  and  each  according  to  its  families ;  so  that 
there  arose  a  competition  in  valor  of  clan  witli 
clan,  of  family  with  family,  of  brother  with  bro- 
ther. To  make  an  opening  in  regular  troops, 
and  to  conquer,  they  reckoned  the  same  thing; 
because  in  close  engagements,  and  in  broken 
ranks,  no  regular  troops  could  withstand  them. 
They  received  the  bayonet  in  the  target,  which 
they  carried  on  the  left  arm ;  then  turning  it 
aside,  or  twisting  it  in  the  target,  they  attacked 
with  the  broad  sword,  the  enemy  encumbered 
and  defenceless;  and,  where  they  could  not 
wield  the  broad  sword,  they  stabbed  with  the 
dirk.'  The  indissolubility  of  these  associations 
has  been  already  noticed ;  and  it  may  now  be 
added,  that  though  the  abolition  of  the  feudal 
system  effected  a  greater  alteration  in  the  cha- 
racter of  these  people,  by  inspiring  them  with 
sentiments  and  views  of  independence,  during 
the  last  century,  than  a  thousand  years  before 
had  effected,  yet  the  sensibility  of  their  nature, 
the  hardiness  of  their  constitution,  their  warlike 
disposition,  and  their  generous  hospitality  to 
strangers,  remain  undiminished.  And,  though 
emancipated  now  from  the  feudal  yoke,  they 
still  show  a  voluntary  reverence  to  .heir  chiefs, 
as  well  as  affection  to  those  of  their  own  tribe 
and  kindred:  qualities  which  are  not  only  \ery 
amiable  and  engaging  in  themselves,  but  which 
are  connected  with  that  character  of  alacrity  and 
inviolable  fidelity  and  resolution,  which  their  exer- 
tions in  the  field  have  justly  obtained  in  thewjild. 


742 


CLAN 


After  the  battle  of  Culloden,  government,  it  is 
x  well  known,  felt  it  necessary  to  break  up  these 
incongruous  and  dangerous  associations.  The 
clans  were  disarmed,  and  an  act  was  passed  for 
abolishing  ttieir  peculiarity  of  garb,  as  being 
supposed  to  keep  up  their  strong  party  distinc- 
tions, to  encourage  their  martial  propensities, 
and  to  perpetuate  too  obviously  the  exploits  of 
their  ancestors.  The  heritable  jurisdiction  also 
was  entirely  abolished.  King  William's  treat- 
ment of  the  Highlands  has  often  been  condemned 
as  severe,  but  some  of  the  oaths  fixed  upon  these 
unhappy  tribes  by  a  British  government,  so  late 
as  1747  and  1748,  will  ever  be  the  disgrace  of 
that  period.  The  Highlander  was  at  this  peri- 
od required  to  swear  'As  he  would  answer  to 
God  at  the  great  day  of  judgment,'  not  only  that 
he  had  not  in  his  possession  gun,  sword,  pistol, 
or  any  other  arms  whatsoever,  but  that  he  never 
used  tartan,  plaid,  or  any  part  of  the  Highland 
garb  ; — '  If  I  do  so,'  this  horrible  oath  continued, 
'  may  I  be  cursed  in  my  undertakings,  family, 
and  property;  may  I  never  see  my  wife  and 
children,  father,  mother,  or  relations ;  may  I  be 
killed  in  battle  as  a  coward,  and  lie  without 
Christian  burial  in  a  strange  land,  far  from  the 
graves  of  my  forefathers  and  kindred.'  Dr. 
Johnson,  whose  visit  here  in  1773,  was  not  too. 
late  to  enable  him  to  witness  some  of  the  effects 
of  this  policy,  frequently  mourns  over  the  neces- 
sky  which  he  contends  to  have  dictated  it.  He 
says  '  Perhaps  there  is  no  example  till  within  a 
century  and  a  half,  of  any  family,  whose  estate 
was  alienated  otherwise  than  by  violence  or  for- 
feiture. Since  money  has  been  brought  amongst 
them,  they  have  found,  like  others,  the  art  of 
spending  more  than  they  receive ;  and  I  saw 
with  grief  the  chief  of  a  very  ancient  clan,  whose 
island  was  condemned  by  law  to  be  sold  for  the 
satisfaction  of  his  creditors.'  Then  follows  a 
correct  picture  of  the  clan-system  in  its  first 
exhibition : — 

'The  name  of  highest  dignity  is  laird,  of 
which  there  are  in  the  extensive  isle  of  Sky  only 
three,  Macdonald,  Macleod,  and  Mackinnon. 
The  laird  is  the  original  owner  of  the  land, 
whose  natural  power  must  be  very  great,  where 
no  man  lives  but  by  agriculture ;  and  where  the 
produce  of  the  land  is  not  conveyed  through  the 
labyrinths  of  traffic,  but  passes  directly  from  the 
hand  that  gathers  it  to  the  mouth  that  eats  it. 
The  laird  has  all  those  in  his  power  that  live 
upon  his  farms.  Kings  can,  for  the  most  part, 
only  exalt  or  degrade.  The  laird  at  pleasure  can 
feed  or  starve,  can  give  bread,  or  withhold  it. 
This  inherent  power  was  yet  strengthened  by  the 
kindness  of  consanguinity,  and  the  reverence  of 
patriarchal  authority.  The  laird  was  the  father 
of  the  clan,  and  his  tenants  commonly  bore  his 
name.  And  to  these  principles  of  original  com- 
mand was  added,  for  many  ages,  an  exclusive 
right  of  legal  jurisdiction. 

'This  multifarious  and  extensive  obligation 
operated  with  force  scarcely  credible.  Every 
duty,  moral  or  political,  was  absorbed  in  affec- 
tion and  adherence  to  the  chief.  Not  many 
years  have  passed  since  the  clans  knew  no  law 
but  the  laird's  will.  He  told  them  to  whom 
they  should  be  friends  or  enemies,  what  king 


they  should  obey,  and  what  religion  they  should 
profess.  When  the  Scots  first  rose  in  arms 
against  the  succession  of  the  house  of  Hanover, 
Lovat,  the  chief  of  the  Frasers,  was  in  exile  for 
a  rape.  The  Frasers  were  very  numerous,  and 
very  zealous  against  the  government.  A  pardon 
was  sent  to  Lovat.  He  came  to  the  English 
camp,  and  the  clan  immediately  descrte'd  to  him. 

'  Next  in  dignity  to  the  laird  is  the  tacksman ; 
a  large  taker,  or  lease-holder  of  land,  of  which 
he  keeps  part  as  a  domain  in  his  own  hand,  and 
lets  part  to  under-tenants.  The  tacksman  is 
necessarily  a  man  capable  of  securing  to  the 
laird  the  whole  rent,  and  is  commonly  a  colla- 
teral relation.  These  tacks,  or  subordinate  pos- 
sessions, were  long  considered  as  hereditary,  and 
the  occupant  was  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
the  place  at  which  he  resided.  He  held  a  mid- 
dle station,  by  which  the  highest  and  the  lowest 
orders  were  connected.  He  -paid  rent  and  reve- 
rence to  the  laird,  and  received  them  from  the 
tenants.  This  tenure  still  subsists,  with  its 
original  operation,  but  not  with  the  primitive 
stability.  Since  the  islanders,  no  longer  content 
to  live,  have  learned  the  desire  of  growing  rich, 
an  ancient  dependent  is  in  danger  of  giving  way 
to  a  higher  bidder,  at  the  expense  of  domestic 
dignity  and  hereditary  power. 

'The  only  gentlemen  in  the  islands  are  the 
lairds,  the  tacksmen,  and  the  ministers,  who  fre- 
quently improve  their  livings  by  becoming  farm- 
ers. If  the  tacksmen  be  banished,  who  will  be 
left  to  impart  knowledge,  or  impress  civility  ? 
The  laird  must  always  be  at  a  distance  from  the 
greater  part  of  his  lands;  and,  if  he  resides  at  all 
upon  them,  must  drag  his  days  in  solitude,  hav- 
ing no  longer  either  a  friend  or  a  companion; 
he  will  therefore  depart  to  some  more  comfort- 
able residence,  and  leave  the  tenants  to  the  wis- 
dom and  mercy  of  a  factor.' 

The  reasoning  of  this  great  sage  on  the 
disarming  act  is  equal  to  that  of  any  part  of  his 
writings : — 

'To  disarm  part  of  the  Highlands,  could  give 
no  reasonable  occasion  of  complaint.  Every 
government  must  be  allowed  the  power  of  taking 
away  the  weapon  that  is  lifted  against  it.  But 
the  loyal  clans  murmured,  with  some  appear- 
ance of  justice,  that,  after  having  defended  the 
king,  they  were  forbidden  for  the  future  to  de- 
fend themselves;  and  that  the  sword  should  be 
forfeited,  which  had  been  legally  employed. 
Their  case  is  undoubtedly  hard,  but  in  political 
regulations  good  cannot  be  complete,  it  can  only 
be  predominant. 

'  Whether  by  disarming  a  people  thus  broken 
into  several  tribes,  and  thus  remote  from  the 
seat  of  power,  more  good  than  evil  has  been 
produced,  may  deserve  enrjuiry.  The  supreme 
power  in  every  community  has  the  right  of  de- 
barring every  individual,  and  every  subordinate 
society,  from  self-defence,  only  because  the 
supreme  power  is  able  to  defend  them;  and 
therefore  where  the  governor  cannot  act,  he 
must  trust  the  subject  to  act  for  himself.  These 
islands  might  be  wasted  with  fire  and  sword, 
before  their  sovereign  would  know  their  distress. 
A  gang  of  robbers,  such  as  has  been  lately  found 
confederating  themselves  in  the  Highlands,  might 


CLA 


743 


CLA 


lay  a  wide  region  under  contribution.  The 
crew  of  a  petty  privateer  might  land  on  the 
largest  and  most  wealthy  of  the  islands,  and  riot 
without  control  in  cruelty  and  waste.  It  was 
observed  by  one  of  the  chiefs  of  Sky  that  fifty 
armed  men  might,  without  resistance,  ravage  the 
country.  Laws  that  place  the  subject  in  such  a 
state,  contravene  the  first  principles  of  the  com- 
pact of  authority  :  they  exact  obedience,  and 
yield  no  protection.' — Journey  to  the  Western 
Islands. 

CLA'NCULAR,  adj.  Lat.  clancularius.  Clan- 
destine; secret;  private;  concealed;  obscure; 
hidden. 

L«  us  withdraw  tall  supplies  from  our  lusts,  and 
not  by  any  secret  reserved  affection  give  them  clan- 
calar  aids  to  maintain  their  rebellion. 

Decay  of  Piety. 

CLANDE'STINE,  adj.  )      Lat.  clandestinus. 

CLANDESTINELY,  adv.  ]  Secret;  hidden;  pri- 
vate ;  in  an  ill  sense. 

Tho'  nitrous  tempests,  and  clandestine  death, 
Filled  the  deep  caves  and  numerous  vaults  beneath. 

Blackmvre. 

CLANG,  v.  a.  <§•  n.  s. }  Lat.  clango.  To 
CLA'NGOUR,  n.  s.  £  strike  together  with  a 
CLA'NGOUS,  adj.  j  noise  ;  to  clatter  ;  to 

make  a  loud,  sharp,  shrill  noise. 

Have  I  not  in  a  pitched  battle  heard 

Loud  'larums,  neighing  steeds,  and  trumpets'  clung. 

Shahspeare. 
We  do  not  observe   the  cranes,  and  birds  of  long 

necks,   have  any    musical,  but   harsh   and  clangous, 

throats.  Browne. 

CLANK,  n.  s.  from  clang.  A  loud,  shrill, 
sharp  noise,  made  by  the  collision  of  hard  and 
sonorous  bodies. 

They  were  joined  by  the  melodious  clank  of  marrow- 
hone  and  cleaver.  Spectator. 

One  thought  alone  he  could  not,  dared  not  meet. 
'  Oh,  how  these  tidings  will  Medora  greet!' 
Then,  only  then,  his  clanking  chains  he  raised, 
And  strained  with  rage  the  chain  on  which  he  gazed. 

Byron. 

CLAP,  n.  s.,  v. a. &i>.  n.~l      Isl.  klapp  ;   Dan. 

CLA'PPER,  n.  s.  >klap;  Swed.  klapp  ; 

CLA'PPING,  part.  J  Sa.x.clapp;Be\.klap; 

Teut.  klopp.  A  sudden  motion ;  a  blow  or  sound 
of  collision  ;  the  noise  of  thunder.  Applied  not 
only  to  noise  thus  produced,  but  to  hasty  unex- 
pected or  sudden  action,  where  one  thing  is 
joined  to  another  to  effect  the  purpose  intended. 
To  do  any  thing  unexpectedly  ,  to  enter  upon  it 
with  alacrity  and  briskness.  The  manner  of  ex- 
pressing applause  in  popular  assemblies,  by  clap- 
ping the  hands.  Clapper  is  the  instrument  that 
makes  a  noise. 

There  shall  be  horrible  elaps  of  thunder,  and  Sashes 
of  lightning,  voices  and  earthquakes. 

Hakewill  on  Providence. 

He  hath  a  heart  as  sound  as  a  bell,  and  his  tongue 
is  the  clapper  ;  for  what  his  heart  thinks,  his  tongue 
speaks.  Shakspeare. 

AU  the  best  men  are  ours  ;  for  'tis  ill  hap 

If  they  hold,  when  their  ladies  bid  'em  clap.       Id. 

CLAP,  Goth,  klaup ;  Teut.  geluppe,  gelauf ; 
Belg.  geloop,  a  running  ;  Teut.  gelippe,  venom  ; 
infection  ;  another  name  for  the  disease  called 
gonorrhoea,  not  strictly  venereal,  yet  derived  in 


the  same  manner  ;  a  gleet ;  a  dripping  derived 
from  contagion. 

CLAP,  in  medicine,  the  first  stage  of  the 
venereal  disease.  See  GONORRHOEA. 

CLAP-NET,  in  birding,  a  sort  of  net  contrived 
for  the  taking  of  larks  with  the  looking-glass 
by  the  method  called  daring  or  doring.  The 
nets  are  spread  over  an  even  piece  of  ground, 
and  the  larks  are  invited  to  the  place  by  other 
larks  fastened  down,  and  by  a  looking-glass 
composed  of  five  pieces,  and  fixed  in  a  frame, 
so  that  it  is  turned  round  very  swiftly  backwards 
and  forwards,  by  a  cord  pulled  by  a  person  at  a 
considerable  distance  behind  a  hedge.  See 
DORING. 

To  CLA'PPERCLAW,  v.  a.  from  clap  and  claw. 
To  tongue-beat ;  to  scold. 

CLAPPERTON  (captain  Hugh),  the  African 
traveller,  was  born  in  Annan,  Dumfrieshire,  in 
1788.  After  some  elementary  instruction  in 
practical  mathematics,  he  was  bound  apprentice, 
at  the  age  of  thirteen,  to  the  owner  of  a  vessel 
trading  between  Liverpool  and  North  America, 
in  which  he  made  several  voyages.  He  was 
then  pressed  into  his  Britannic  majesty's  service, 
was  soon  after  made  a  midshipman,  served  on 
the  American  lakes  in  1815,  and,  in  1816,  re- 
ceived the  commission  of  lieutenant.  Having 
retired  to  Scotland,  he  became  acquainted  with 
doctor  Oudney,  who  was  about  to  embark  for 
Africa,  and  requested  permission  to  accompany 
him.  Lieutenant  (afterwards  colonel)  Denham 
having  volunteered  his  services,  and  it  being  in- 
tended that  researches  should  be  made,  to  the 
east  and  west,  from  Bornou,  where  doctor 
Oudney  was  to  reside  as  British  consul,  his 
name  was  added  to  the  expedition  by  lord 
Bathurst.  In  the  Recent  Discoveries  in  Africa, 
made  in  1823  and  1824,  by  major  Denham, 
captain  Clapperton,  and  doctor  Oudney  (Lon- 
don, 1826),  we  have  accounts  of  an  excursion 
from  Mourzouk  to  Ghraat,  a  town  of  the  Tuarics, 
by  doctor  Oudney;  of  a  journey  across  the 
desert  to  Bornou,  of  various  expeditions  to  the 
southward  and  eastward,  by  maj or* Denham  ; 
and  of  an  excursion  through  Soudan  to  the 
capital  of  the  Fellatahs,  by  captain  Clapperton. 
The  expedition  set  out  from  Mourzouk,  Nov. 
29,  1822,  and  arrived  at  lake  Tchad,  in  the  king- 
dom of  Bornou,  Feb.  4,  after  a  journey  of  800 
miles.  Six  days  after  they  entered  the  capital, 
Kouka,  Clapperton,  in  company  with  doctor 
Oudney,  who  died  on  the  way,  set  out  on  an 
expedition  to  Soccatoo,  the  capital  of  Houssa, 
more  than  700  miles  east  of  Kouka,  which  he 
reached  in  ninety  days.  He  was  not  permitted 
to  pursue  his  journey  to  the  west,  and  returned 
to  Kouka,  and  thence  to  England  in  1825.  The 
information  which  the  travellers  collected,  in  re- 
gard to  the  habits  and  commerce  of  the  people  of 
Central  Africa,  was  important,  as  showing  the 
existence  in  that  quarter  of  a  large  population  of 
a  peaceable  disposition,  and  possessed  of  a  con- 
siderable civilization.  The  geographical  in- 
formation collected  was  not  without  its  value, 
although  it  left  undecided  the  disputed  questions 
of  the  course  and  termination  of  the  Niger. 
They  proceeded  south  from  Tripoli  (lat.  32°  30"), 
to  Musfeia  (lat.  9°  10'),  being  1400  miles  in 


744 


CLARE. 


difference  of  latitude,  and  from  Zangalia,  on  the 
east  of  lake  Tchad  (long.  17°  E.),  to  Soccatoo 
(long.  6°  E.),  making  a  difference  of  longitude  01 
660  miles.  They  thus  determined  the  position 
of  the  kingdoms  of  Mandara,  Bornou,  and 
Houssa,  their  extent,  and  the  position  of  their 
principal  cities.  On  his  return  to  England, 
lieutenant  Clapperton  received  the  rank  of  cap- 
tain, and  was  immediately  engaged,  by  lord 
Bathurst,  for  a  second  expedition,  to  start  from 
the  Bight  of  Benin.  Leaving  Badagry,  Dec.  7, 
1825,  he  pursued  a  north-easterly  direction,  with 
the  intention  of  reaching  Soccatoo  and  Bornou. 
Two  of  his  companions,  captain  Pearce  and 
doctor  Morrison,  perished  a  short  time  after 
leaving  the  coast,  and  Clapperton  pursued  his 
way,  accompanied  by  his  faithful  companion 
Lander.  At  Katunga,  he  was  within  thirty 
miles  of  the  Quorra  or  Niger,  but  was  not  per- 
mitted to  visit  it.  Coatinuinghis  journey  north, 
he  reached  Kano,  and  then  proceeded  westward 
to  Soccatoo,  the  residence  of  his  old  friend 
Bello.  Bello  refused  to  allow  him  to  proceed  to 
Bornou,  and  detained  him  a  long  time  in  his 
capital.  This  conduct  appears  to  have  arisen 
from  the  war  then  existing  between  Bello  and 
the  sheik  of  Bornou,  and  to  the  intrigues  of  the 
pacha  of  Tripoli,  who  had  insinuated  that  the 
English  meditated  the  conquest  of  Africa,  as 
they  had  already  conquered  India.  This  disap- 
pointment preyed  upon  Clapperton's  mind,  and 
he  died,  April  13,  1827,  at  Chungary,  a  village 
four  miles  from  Soccatoo,  of  a  dysentery.  (See 
Journal  of  a  Second  Expedition  from  Kano  to  the 
Sea-coast,  partly  by  a  more  eastern  Route,  Lon- 
don, 1829.)  Clapperton  was  the  first  European 
who  traversed  the  whole  of  Central  Africa,  from 
the  Bight  of  Benin  to  the  Mediterranean.  We 
have  thus  a  continuous  line  from  Tripoli  to 
Badagry,  which  is  of  great  importance  from  the 
assistance  which  it  affords  to  the  researches  of 
others.  Clapperton  was  a  man  without  edu- 
cation, but  intelligent  and  impartial ;  of  a  ro- 
bust frame  and  a  happy  temperament.  He  was 
capable  of  enduring  great  hardships.  His  know- 
ledge of  the  habits  and  prejudices  of  the  Central 
Africans,  his  frank,  bold,  and  cheerful  manners, 
would  have  rendered  him  peculiarly  useful  in 
promoting  the  designs  of  the  British  government 
in  that  quarter. 

They  are  clapperclawing  one  another,  I'll  look  on. 

Shakspeare. 

They  have  always  been  at  daegers-drawing, 
And  one  another  clapperclawing.  Hudibras. 

CLARAMONT  POWDER,  a  kind  of  earth 
called  terra  de  Baira,  from  the  place  where  it  is 
found ;  it  is  famous  at  Venice  for  its  efficacy  in 
stopping  hemorrhages  of  all  kinds,  and  in  curing 
malignant  fevers. 

CLARE,  a  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  province 
of  Munster,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Galway, 
from  the  west  part  of  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
oay  of  that  name,  on  the  east  and  south  by  the 
Shannon,  which  divides  it  from  the  counties  of 
Tipperary  and  Limerick, 'and  on  the  west  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  It  forms  a  peninsula,  being 
surrounded  by  the  Ocean  and  the  Shannon  on  all 
sides  except  part  of  the  north,  where  it  joins  the 
county  of  Galway.  Its  shape  is  nearly  triangu- 


lar, the  extreme~point  of  which  is  Cape  Lean,  o 
Loup  Head,  on  the  south-west ;  extending  abou 
sixty-five  miles  in  length  from  east  to  west,  and 
forty-two  in  breadth  from  north  to  south,  and 
containing  an  area  of  about  1200  square  miles, 
probably  occupied  by  nearly  120,000  inhabitants. 
A  large  proportion  of  this  county  consists  of 
mountains,  bogs,  and  moors ;  the  soil  is  light, 
but  the  valleys  are  extremely  fertile.  In  the 
mountainous  parts  the  herbage  is  sweet,  and  re- 
markably good  for  the  feeding  of  sheep.  As  in 
most  other  parts  of  Ireland,  especially  near  the 
coast,  the  climate  is  moist,  but  not  unfavorable 
to  health  and  long  life ;  fevers,  which  are  some- 
times very  prevalent,  mostly  originating  in  the 
dampness  of  the  houses,  and  want  of  cleanli- 
ness. 

The  Shannon  is  the  only  river  of  any  magni- 
tude, which,  flowing  between  the  counties  of 
Sligo  and  Limerick,  almost  divides  the  kingdom 
and  falls  into  the  sea  between  Loup  and  Kerry 
Heads,  being  for  some  distance  above  its  mouth 
about  five  miles  in  breadth,  and  navigable  for 
vessels  of  400  tons  burden  up  to  the  quay  of 
Limerick.  The  Fergus  is  a  beautiful  stream, 
which  rising  within  the  county,  connected  with  a 
number  of  lakes,  and  passing  through  the  Ennis, 
falls  into  the  Shannon,  after  forming  many  pic- 
turesque little  islands,  about  thirty  miles  from 
the  ocean :  vessels  of  200  tons  can  navigate  it 
for  about  eight  miles,  and  after  heavy  rains  it 
often  overflows  its  banks  to  a  considerable  extent. 
A  multitude  of  small  lakes  are  found  in  the  in- 
terior, and  in  many  places  water,  either  forced 
under  ground  or  flowing  down  from  the  higher 
parts  of  the  country,  accumulates  in  large  bodies, 
until  the  summer,  when  it  evaporates  and  a  rich 
herbage  springs  up,  furnishing  support  in  the 
dry  season  for  vast  herds  of  cattle  and  a  multi- 
tude of  sheep. 

This  county  possesses  a  large  extent  of  coast, 
indented  with  numerous  bays,  the  principal  of 
which,  except  Galway  Bay  and  that  formed  by 
the  mouth  of  the  Shannon,  is  the  Bay  of  Lisca- 
nor,  about  half  way  between  these  two  points. 
It  has  also  a  cluster  of  islands  called  Arran,  the 
nearest  of  which  is  about  five  miles  from  the 
coast.  Rich  arid  inexhaustible  mines  of  coal  are 
found  here,  but  they  are  not  worked,  which  is 
the  case  also  with  regard  to  the  ironstone,  of 
which  there  are  clearly  indications  ;  lead  is  also 
discovered  in  several  parts,  and  limestone 
abounds.  Agriculture  has  made  but  little  pro- 
gress in  this  country ;  corn  and  potatoes  are 
almost  the  only  objects  of  attention  with  the 
farmers;  turnips  and  other  green  crops  being 
much  neglected.  The  crops  of  corn  frequently 
follow  each  other  year  after  year  till  the  soil  is 
exhausted,  and  if  manure,  such  as  sea-weed  and 
sand,  cannot  be  obtained,  it  lies  unproductive  for 
years.  The  pasturage  in  the  low  country  is  rich 
and  equal  to  the  fattening  of  the  largest  cattle ; 
there  is  a  tract  of  land  extending  for  twenty 
miles,  from  Paradise  to  Limerick,  including 
about  20,000  acres  of  rich  dark  colored  soil, 
which,  though  in  some  parts  it  is  much  neglected, 
is  so  productive  that  it  was  let  at  £5  per  acre 
Irish,  equal  to  £3.  2s.  an  English  acre,  and  even 
more  when  designed  for  meadow;  in  manT 


CLARE. 


745 


places  it  is  known  to  produce  twice  as  much 
hay  as  any  land  in  Great  Britain. 

Clare  was  formerly  celebrated  for  orchards 
and  cydei  from  the  cockagee  apple ;  but  of  late 
.'ittle  of  it  has  been  made,  though  it  is  still  deemed 
excellent  in  quality.  The  inhabitants  breed  a 
great  number  of  mules ;  the  poorer  sort  use 
asses ;  but  horses  are  of  poor  quality  here.  Coarse 
woollens  or  friezes,  worsted  stockings,  a  little 
broad  cloth,  a  few  blankets  and  serges,  form  the 
products  of  the  woollen  manufacture  ;  there  are 
three  small  bleachfields,  and  coarse  hats  are  ma- 
nufactured, and  dyed  with  alder  mixed  with  a 
little  logwood.  The  fishery  on  the  coast  is  not 
extensive,  though  it  might  be  if  properly  attended 
to.  The  boats  generally  used  are  such  as  we  read 
of  in  very  remote  periods,  being  constructed  of 
wicker-work,  and  covered  with  hides ;  they  fre- 
quently stop  a  hole,  if  an  accident  happens  at 
sea,  with  their  wigs  or  any  article  of  their  dress, 
and  sometimes  with  their  foot,  and  remain  with 
the  greatest  apathy,  exposed  to  the  violent  surf 
that  dashes  on  this  shore.  Oysters,  crabs,  and 
lobsters,  are  very  abundant ;  eels  are  plentiful  in 
almost  every  small  stream,  and  the  Shannon 
salmon  fishery  is  very  valuable. 

The  great  body  of  the  people  of  this  country 
live  in  houses  built  of  stone,  without  cement;  in 
some  parts  they  are  made  of  sods  or  turf, 
thatched  with  heath  or  fern,  mostly  without 
chimneys,  as  they  think  the  smoke  keeps  them 
warm.  Their  beds  are  of  hay  or  straw,  on  the 
damp  and  dirty  ground,  and  the  pig  and  the  dog 
are  tenants  of  the  same  chamber.  Potatoes  form 
their  chief  diet,  sometimes  they  have  a  little 
milk  and  vegetables,  and  occasionally  fish.  The 
men  are  generally  clad  in  frieze,  and  the  women 
in  red  flannel,  both  made  by  the  family ;  but 
dimity  and  cotton  are  used  by  the  latter  on  going 
to  market  or  to  chapel ;  the  men  never,  and  the 
women  almost  never,  wear  shoes.  A  common 
laborer  earns  from  eightpence  to  tenpence  a  day. 
There  are  many  schools,  and  in  summer  great 
numbers  attend  them ;  but  they  are  generally  ill 
managed. 

This  county  was  formerly  called  Thomond,  or 
North  Munster;  the  origin  of  its  present  name 
is  not  ascertained.  Ennis  is  the  chief  town,  and 
the  only  one  of  importance,  containing  about 
90,000  inhabitants ;  it  sends  one  member  to  the 
imperial  parliament,  and  the  county  two.  Clare 
is  part  of  the  united  diocese  of  Killaloe  and  Kil- 
fenora,  having  seventy-nine  parishes  and  eighteen 
resident  clergymen ;  there  are,  however,  very  few 
Protestants,  the  Catholics  forming  the  far  greater 
part  of  the  population.  The  Irish  is  the  language 
of  the  country  people,  but  the  English  is  gener- 
ally understood,  and,  from  being  used  in  the 
schools,  is  likely  soon  to  become  universal.  Not 
less  than  118  castles,  and  many  Danish  entrench- 
ments called  cromlechs,  made  of  earth  or  stone, 
are  found  in  the  county.  At  the  island  of  Scat- 
tery,  in  the  mouth  of  the  Shannon,  there  is  a  tower 
150  feet  high,  the  ruins  of  several  churches  and 
a  castle,  and  a  monastery  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  St.  Patrick  more  than  1200  years  ago. 

CLARE,  an  island  of  Ireland,  on  the  south-west 
coast  of  Cork,  about  three  miles  long,  and  one 


wide..  On  a  rock  in  the  sea,  and  off  the  north- 
west point,  stands  a  ruined  castle,  to  the  east  of 
which  is  the  cove  of  Tra  Kieran,  or  St.  Kieran's 
Strand,  where  a  pillar  of  stone  is  found  with  a 
rude  cross,  the  supposed  work  of  that  saint,  and 
is  held  in  great  veneration,  and  much  resorted  to 
on  the  fifth  of  March,  St.  Kieran's  festival.  The 
island  is  subject  to  frequent  predatory  expedi- 
tions. Long.  9°  23'  W.,  lat.  51°  21'  N.  Also 
an  island  of  Ireland,  near  the  coast  of  Mayo, 
about  four  miles  long,  and  one  and  a  half  wide 
Long.  9°  49'  W.,  lat.  53°  49'  N. 

CLARE,  a  market  town  in  the  county  of  Suffolk, 
situated  on  the  river  Stour,  with  the  ruins  of  a 
castle  and  a  monastery,  founded  by  Richard  St. 
Clair,  earl  of  Gloucester,  in  1248.  There  is  a 
weekly  market  on  Tuesday.  It  is  fourteen  miles 
south  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  and  fifty-five  N.N  E. 
of  London. 

CLARE  (St.),  LAKE,  a  lake  of  the  United  States, 
about  half  way  between  Lake  Huron  and  Lake 
Erie,  and  is  about  ninety  miles  in  circumference. 
It  receives  the  water  of  the  three  great  lakes  Su- 
perior, Michigan,  and  Huron,  and  discharges 
them  through  the  river  Detroit  into  Lake  Erie. 
This  lake  is  of  a  circular  form,  and  navigable  for 
large  vessels,  except  a  bar  of  sand  towards  the 
middle,  which  prevents  loaded  vessels  from  pas- 
sing. The  cargoes  of  such  as  are  freighted  must 
be  taken  out,  and  carried  across  the  bar  in  boats, 
and  re-shipped. 

CLARE,  (St.)  NUNS  OF,  were  founded  in  As- 
sisa,  in  Italy,  about  1212.  They  observed  the 
rule  of  St.  Francis,  and  wore  habits  of  the  same 
color  with  those  of  the  Franciscan  friars,  and 
hence  were  called  Minoresses ;  and  their  house, 
without  Aldgate,  the  Minories,  where  they  were 
settled  when  first  brought  over  into  England 
about  A.D.I  293.  Thisordercomprehendsnotonly 
those  nuns  who  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Francis, 
according  to  the  strict  letter,  without  mitigation, 
but  those  likewise  who  follow  the  same  rule  miti- 
gated by  several  popes.  After  Ferdinand  Cortez 
had  conquered  Mexico  for  the  king  of  Spain, 
Isabella,  of  Portugal,  wife  of  the  emperor  Charles 
V.,  sent  thither  some  nuns  of  the  order  of  St. 
Clara,  who  made  several  settlements  there. 

CLAREMONT,  a  township  of  America,  in 
Cheshire  county  and  State  of  New  Hampshire ; 
situated  on  the  east  side  of  Connecticut  river, 
opposite  to  Ascutney  Mountain  in  Vermont,  and 
on  the  north  side  of  Sugar  river;  it  is  twenty- 
four  miles  south  of  Dartmouth  College,  and 
121  south-west  by  west  of  Portsmouth.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1764,  and  contained  1889  in- 
habitants. 

CLARENCIEUX,  the  second  king  at  arms, 
so  named  from  the  duke  of  Clarence,  to  whom 
he  first  belonged :  for  Lionel,  third  son  to  Ed- 
ward III.,  having  by  his  wife  the  honor  of  Clare 
in  the  county  of  Thomond,  was  afterwards  de- 
clared duke  of  Clarence,  which  dukedom  after- 
wards escheating  to  Edward  IV.,  he  made  this 
earl  king  at  arms.  His  office  is  to  marshal  and 
dispose  of  the  funerals  of  all  the  lower  nobility 
baronets,  knights,  esquires,  on  the  south  side  of 
the  Trent;  whence  he  is  sometimes  called  sur- 
roy  or  south  roy,  in  contradistinction  to  norroy. 


CLA 


746 


CLA 


CLARENDON,  a  county  of  South  Carolina, 
in  the  most  southern  part  of  Camden  district.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Georgetown  district, 
on  the  west  by  Orangeburg,  on  the  south  by 
Charleston,  and  on  the  north  by  Salem  county. 
It  is  thirty  miles  long,  and  thirty  broad.  A  court 
is  held  in  it  quarterly. 

CLARENDON,  a  township  of  the  United  States, 
in  Rutland  county,  Vermont,  on  the  Otter  creek. 
Ir  the  west  part  of  the  town  is  a  curious  cave, 
the  mouth  of  which  is  not  more  than  two  feet 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  but  at  a  depth  of  thirty-one 
feet  and  a  half  opens  into  a  spacious  room, 
twenty  feet  long  twelve  and  a  half  wide,  and 
eighteen  or  twenty  feet  high.  The  floor,  sides, 
and  roof,  of  this  room  are  of  solid  rock,  very 
rough  and  uneven,  and  the  water  is  continually 
dropping  through  the  top,  forming  stalactites  of 
various  forms.  Population  of  the  town  about 
2000. 

CLARENDON,  a  village  three  miles  east  of  Sa- 
lisbury, where  Henry  II.  summoned  a  council 
of  the  barons  and  prelates  in  1164,  who  enacted 
»he  laws  called  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon ; 
and  here  were  two  palaces  built  by  king  John. 

CLARENDON,  CONSTITUTIONS  OF,  certain  con- 
stitutions made  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  A.D. 
1 1 64,  in  a  parliament  held  at  Clarendon ;  where- 
by the  king  checked  the  power  of  the  pope  and 
his  clergy,  and  greatly  narrowed  the  total  exemp- 
tion they  claimed  from  secular  jurisdiction.  See 
ENGLAND,  HISTORY  OF. 

CLARENS,  or  CHATILLARD,  a  village  of 
Switzerland,  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  celebrated  as 
the  principal  scene  of  Rousseau's  Eloise.  It  is 
delightfully  situated,  not  far  from  Vevay,  on  an 
eminence,  whose  gentle  declivity  slopes  gradually 
towards  the  lake  of  Geneva.  It  commands  a 
view  of  that  majestic  body  of  water,  its  fertile 
borders,  and  the  bold  rocks  and  Alps  of  Savoy. 
The  adjacent  scenery  consists  of  vineyards,  fields 
of  corn  and  pasture,  and  rich  groves  of  oak,  ash, 
and  Spanish  chestnut  trees. 

CLARE-OBSCURE,  n.  s.,  from  Lat.  clarus,  bright, 
and  obscurus.  Light  and  shade  in  painting. 

As  masters  in  the  dare-obscure 
With  various  light  your  eyes  allure  ; 
A  flaming  yellow  here  they  spread, 
Draw  off  in  blue,  or  change  in  red  ; 
Yet  from  these  colours,  oddly  mixed, 
Your  sight  upon  the  whole  is  fixed.  Prior. 

CLA'RET,  n.  s.,  Fr.  clairet ;  Goth,  klar,  signi- 
fied wine,  and  riod,  red.  French  wine  of  a  clear 
pale  red  color. 

Red  and  white  wine  are  in  a  trice  confounded  into 
claret.  Boyle. 

The  claret  smooth,  red  as  the  lips  we  press 
In  sparkling  fancy  while  we  drain  the  bowl.  Thomson. 

The  credulous  hope  of  mutual  minds  is  o'er, 
The  copious  use  of  claret  is  forbid  too. 
So  for  a  good  old -gentlemanly  vice 
I  think  I  must  take  up  with  avarice.  Byron. 

CLA'RICORD,  n.s.  from  clarus,  and  Lat. 
chorda.  A  musical  instrument  in  form  of  a 
spinette,  but  more  ancient.  It  has  forty-nine  or 
fifty  keys,  and  seventy  strings. 

CLARIFICATION.  The  substances  usually 
employed  for  clarifying  liquors,  art.  whites  of 
fggs,  blood,  and  isinglass.  The  two  first  are 


used  for  such  liquors  as  are  clarified  whilst  boil- 
ing hot ;  the  last  for  those  which  are  clarified  in 
the  cold,  such  as  wines,  &c.  The  whites  of  eggs 
are  beat  up  into  a  froth,  and  mixed  with  the  li- 
quor, upon  which  they  unite  with,  and  entangle, 
the  impure  matters  that  floated  in  it;  and  pre- 
sently growing  hard  by  the  heat,  carry  them  up 
to  the  surface  in  form  of  a  scum  no  longer  disso- 
luble in  the  liquid.  Blood  operates  in  the  same 
manner,  and  is  chiefly  used  in  purifying  the  brine 
from  which  salt  is  made.  Great  quantities  of 
isinglass  are  used  for  fining  turbid  wines.  For 
this  purpose  some  throw  an  entire  piece,  about  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce,  into  a  wine  cask ;  by  degrees 
the  glue  dissolves,  and  forms  a  skin  upon  the 
surface,  which  at  length  subsiding,  carries  down 
with  it  the  feculent  matter  which  floated  on  the 
wine.  Others  previously  dissolve  the  isinglass, 
and,  having  boiled  it  to  a  slimy  consistence,  mix  it 
with  the  liquor,  roll  the  cask  strongly  about,  and 
then  suffer  it  to  stand  to  settle.  Neumann  ques- 
tions the  wholesomeness  of  wines  thus  purified  ; 
and  assures  us  that  he  himself,  after  drinking  only 
a  few  ounces  of  sack  thus  clarified,  but  not  set- 
tled quite  fine,  was  seized  with  sickness  and  vo- 
miting, followed  by  such  a  vertigo,  that  he  could 
not  stand  upright  for  a  minute  together.  The 
giddiness  continued  with  a  nausea  and  want  of 
appetite  for  several  days. 

CLA'RIFY,  v.  a.  &  n.  J       Fr.  clarifier.     To 

CLARIFICATION,  n.  s.  )  purify  or  clear  any 
liquor ;  to  separate  from  feculencies  or  impuri- 
ties. To  brighten;  to  illuminate.  This  sense  is 
rare.  To  clear  up  ;  to  grow  bright. 

The  apothecarries  clarify  their  syrups  by  whites  of 
eggs,  beaten  with  the  juices  which  they  would  clarify  ; 
which  whites  of  eggs,  gather  all  the  dregs  and  grosser 
parts  of  the  juice  to  them ;  and  after,  the  syrup  being 
set  on  the  fire,  the  whites  of  eggs  themselves  harden, 
and  are  taken  forth.  Bacon. 

Whosoever  hath  his  mind  fraught  with  many 
thoughts,  his  wits  and  understanding  do  clarify 
and  break  up  in  the  discoursing  with  another ;  he 
marshelleth  his  thoughts  more  orderly,  he  seeth  how 
they  look  when  they  are  turned  into  words. 

Bacon'*  Essays. 

Liquors  are,  many  of  them,  at  the  first,  thick  and 
troubled  ;  as  muste,  and  wort :  to  know  the  means  of 
accelerating  clarification,  we  must  know  the  causes  of 
clarification.  Bacon. 

CLARIGATIO,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  cere- 
mony that  always  preceded  a  formal  declaration 
of  war.  It  was  thus  performed  :  first  four  heralds, 
crowned  with  vervain,  were  sent  to  demand  sa  - 
tisfaction  for  the  injuries  done  the  Roman  state. 
These  heralds  taking  the  gods  to  witness  that  their 
demands  were  just,  one  of  them,  with  a  clear 
voice,  demanded  restitution  within  a  limited 
time,  commonly  thirty-three  days  ;  which  being 
expired  without  restitution  made,  then  the  pater 
patratus,  or  prince  of  the  heralds,  proceeded  to 
the  enemies'  frontiers,  and  declared  war. 

CLARII  APOLLINIS  NANUM,  a  temple  and 
grove  of  Apollo,  situated  between  Colophon  and 
Lebedos,  in  Ionia ;  called  Claros  by  Thucydides 
and  Ovid. 

CLA'RION,  n.  s.  Span,  clarin;  from  Lat. 
clarus,  loud.  A  trumpet ;  a  wind  instrument  of 
war. 


C    L    A    R    K    E 


747 


And  after  te  his  palace  he  them  brings, 
With  shaums,  aud  trumpets,  and  with  clarions  sweet  j 
And  all  the  way  the  joyous  people  sings.          Spenter, 

Then  »traight  commands,  that  at  the  warlike  sound 
Of  trumpets  loud,  and  clarions,  be  upreared 
The  mighty  standard.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

Let  fuller  notes  the  applauding  world  amaze, 
And  the  loud  clarion  labour  in  your  praise.          Pope. 
The  breezy  call  of  incense  breathing  morn, 

The  swallow  twittering   from  the  straw-built  shed, 
The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 

No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed. 

Gray. 
No  note  the  clarion  of  renown  can  breathe, 

To  alarm  the  long  night  of  the  lonely  grave, 
Or  check  the  headlong  haste  of  time's   o'erwhelming 
wave.  Beattie. 

CLARION  has  its  tube  narrower,  and  its  tone 
acuter  and  shriller  than  that  of  the  common 
trumpet.  It  is  said  that  the  clarion,  now  used 
among  the  Moors,  and  Portuguese,  who  bor- 
rowed it  from  the  Moors,  served  anciently  for  a 
treble  to  several  trumpets,  which  sounded  tenor 
and  bass. 

CLARISSES,  an  order  of  nuns  so  called  from 
their  founder  St.  Clara  or  St.  Clare.  See  CLARE, 
ST. 

CLA'RITY,  n.  s.  Fr.  clarte ;  Lat.  claritas. 
Brightness ;  splendor. 

A  light  by  abundant  clarity  invisible;  an  under- 
standing which  itself  can  only  comprehend. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

Man  was  not  onlydeceivable  in  his  integrity,  but 
the  angels  of  light  in  all  their  clarity. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

CLARK  (John),  a  useful  critic  and  commen- 
tator of  the  last  century,  was  the  master  of  a 
grammar-school  at  Hull  in  Yorkshire,  where  he 
died  May  1734.  His  publications  are :  An 
Essay  on  the  Education  of  Youth  in  Grammar- 
Schools ;  An  Essay  on  Study,  to  which  is  sub- 
;oiued  an  arranged  catalogue  of  books ;  the 
Foundation  of  Morality  considered ;  On  Moral 
Religion;  An  Examination  of  Middleton's  An- 
swer to  Christianity  as  old  as  the  Creation;  An 
Introduction  to  making  Latin ;  and  editions  of 
several  Latin  authors  with  Translations. 

CLARKE  (Samuel),  D.D.  a  preacher  and  wri- 
ter of  considerable  note  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
was,  during  the.inter-regnum,  and  at  the  time  of 
the  ejection,  minister  of  St.  Bennet  Fink,  in 
London.  In  November,  1660,  he,  in  the  name 
of  the  presbyterian  ministers,  presented  an  ad- 
dress of  thanks  to  the  king  for  his  declaration  of 
liberty  of  conscience.  He  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners of  the  Savoy,  and  behaved  on  that 
occasion  tvith  great  prudence  and  moderation. 
He  attended  the  church  as  a  hearer  and  commu- 
nicant ;  and  was  much  esteemed  by  all  that  knew 
him  for  his  probity  and  industry.  The  most  va- 
luable of  his  numerous  works  are  said  to  be  his 
Lives  of  the  Puritan  Divines  and  other  persons 
of  note,  twenty-two  of  which  are  printed  in  his 
Martyrology ;  the  rest  are  in  his  Lives  of  sundry 
Eminent  Persons  in  this  latter  Age,  folio,  and  in 
his  Marrow  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  ip  folio 
and  4to.  He  died  in  1680. 

CLARKE  (Samuel),  D.D.,  a  very  celebrated 
English  divine,  was  the  sou  of  Edward  Clarke, 
Esq.,  alderman  and  M.P.  of  Norwich.  He  was 
born  at  Norwich,  October  llth,  1675,  and  in- 


structed in  classical  learning  at  the  fiee  school  of 
that  town.  In  1691  he  removed  to  Caius  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  his  abilities  soon  began 
to  display  themselves.  Though  the  Cartesian 
was  at  that  time  the  established  philosophy  of  the 
University,  Clarke  quickly  made  himself  master 
of  the  new  system  of  Newton ;  and,  in  order  to 
his  first  degree  of  arts,  performed  a  public  exer- 
cise in  the  schools  upon  a  question  taken  from 
it.  He  contributed  much  to  the  establishment 
of  the  Newtonian  philosophy  by  an  excellent 
translation  of  Rohault's  Physics,  with  notes, 
which  he  finished  before  he  was  twenty-two  years 
of  age.  This  work  was  first  printed  in  1697, 
8vo.  There  were  four  successive  editions  of  it, 
in  every  one  of  which  improvements  were  made , 
especially  in  the  last,  in  1718,  which  was  trans- 
lated by  Dr.  John  Clarke,  dean  of  Sarum,  the 
author's  brother,  and  published  in  two  volumes 
8vo.  He  afterwards  turned  his  thoughts  to  di- 
vinity, and  studied  the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew, 
the  New  in  Greek,  and  the  primitive  Christian 
writers.  Having  taken  orders,  he  became  chap- 
lain to  bishop  Moore,  who  was  ever  after  his 
friend  and  patron.  In  1699  he  published  Three 
Practical  Essays  on  Baptism,  Confirmation,  and 
Repentance,  and  Some  Reflections  on  that  part 
of  a  Book  called  Amyntor,  or  a  Defence  of  Mil- 
ton's Life,  which  relates  to  the  Writings  of  the 
Primitive  Fathers,  and  the  Canon  of  the  New 
Testament.  In  1701  he  published  A  Paraphrase 
upon  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew;  which  was 
followed,  in  1702,  by  the  Paraphrases  upon  the 
Gospels  of  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke,  and  soon 
after  by  a  third  volume,  upon  St.  John.  They 
were  afterwards  printed  together  in  two  volumes 
8vo. ;  and  have  since  passed  through  several 
editions.  Bishop  Moore  now  appointed  him  to 
the  rectory  of  Drayton,  near  Norwich,  and  pro- 
cured for  him  a  parish  in  that  city.  In  1704  he 
was  appointed  to  preach  Boyle's  lecture,  and  the 
subject  he  chose  was,  The  Being  and  Attributes 
of  God.  In  this  he  gave  such  high  satisfaction, 
that  he  was  appointed  to  the  same  lecture  the 
next  year ;  when  he  chose  for  his  subject,  The 
Evidences  of  Natural  and  Revealed  Religion. 
These  sermons  were  first  printed  in  two  distinct 
volumes,  the  former  in  1705,  the  latter  in  1706. 
They  have  since  been  united  in  one  volume, 
under  the  general  title  of  A  Discourse  concern- 
ing the  Being  and  Attributes  of  God,  the  Obli- 
gations of  Natural  Religion,  and  the  Truth  and 
Certainty  of  the  Christian  Revelation,  in  answer 
to  Hobbes,  Spinoza,  the  author  of  the  Oracles  of 
Reason,  and  other  Deniers  of  Natural  and  Re- 
vealed Religion.  Clarke  having  endeavoured, 
in  the  first  part  of  this  work,  to  show  that  the 
being  of  a  God  may  be  demonstrated  by  argu- 
ments, a  priori,  incurred  the  censure  of  Pope  ir» 
the  Dunciad.  But  the  merit  of  this  work  is  un- 
doubtedly great.  The  defence,  in  particular,  of 
the  sacred  original  and  authority  of  Christianity  » 
is  admirably  conducted.  In  1706  he  published 
A  Letter  to  Mr.  Dodwell;  wherein  all  the  argu- 
ments in  his  epistolary  discourse  against  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul  are  particularly  answered. 
Clarke's  letter  to  Dodwell  was  soon  followed  by 
four  defences  of  it  in  four  several  letters  to  him, 
containing  Remarks  on  a  pretended  Demonstra 


748 


CLARKE. 


tion  of  the  Immateriality  and  Natural  Immor- 
tality of  the  Soul,  &c.     They  were  afterwards  all 
printed  together,  and  the  Answer  to  Toland's 
Amyntor  added  to  them.     In  the  midst  of  all 
these  labors  he  found  time  to  show  his  regard  to 
mathematical  and  physical  science ;  and  his  ca- 
pacity for  these  studies  was  not  a  little  improved 
by  the  friendship  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  at  whose 
request   he  translated  his  Optics  into  Latin,  in 
1706.     Sir  Isaac  was  so  highly  pleased  with  this 
version,  that  he  presented  him  with  the  sum  of 
£500.     This  year  also,  bishop  Moore,  who  had 
long  formed  a  design  of  fixing  him  more  conspi- 
cuously,  procured  for  him   the   rectory   of  St. 
Bennet's,  London ;  and  soon  after  carried  him  to 
court,   and   recommended   him  to  the  favor  of 
queen   Anne.     She   appointed  him  one  of  her 
chaplains  in  ordinary,  and  presented  him  to  the 
rectory  of  St.  James's,  Westminster,  in    1709. 
Upon  his  advancement  to  this  station  he  took 
the  degree   of  D.D.  when   the  public  exercise 
which   he  performed   for  it  at  Cambridge  was 
much   admired.     The  questions  he  maintained 
were :  1 .  Nullum    fidei  Christianae  dogma,    in 
sacris  Scripturis  traditum,  est  rectae  rationi  dis- 
sentaneum,  i.  e.  No  article  of  the  Christian  faith, 
delivered  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  is  disagreeable 
to  right  reason.     2.  Sine  actionum  humanarum 
libertate  nulla  potest  esse  religio ;  that  is,  With- 
out the  liberty  of  human  actions  there  can  be  no 
religion.     The  same  year  he  revised  and  cor- 
rected Whiston's  translation  of  the  Apostolical 
Constitutions  into   English.     In  1712   he  pub- 
lished a  beautiful  edition  of  Caesar's  Commen- 
taries, adorned  with  elegant  sculptures.     It  was 
printed  in  folio;  and  afterwards,  in  1720,  8vo. 
It  was  dedicated  to  the  duke  of  Marlborough. 
In  the   annotations   he   selected    the    best  and 
most  judicious  in  former  editions,    interspersed 
with  corrections   of  his  own.     The  same  year, 
1712,    Dr.    Clarke    published    his    celebrated 
book  entitled,   The  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,    &c.    divided    into    three    parts.     The 
first    is   a   collection   and    explication,   on   the 
Arian  hypothesis,  of  all  the  texts  in  the  New 
Testament,  relating  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity ; 
in  the  second  the  doctrine  is  set  forth  at  large, 
and  explained  in  particular  and  distinct  propo- 
sitions ;  and  in  the  third,  the  principal  passages 
of  the  liturgy  of  the  church  of  England,  relating 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  are  considered. 
This  work  naturally  made  its  author  obnoxious 
to  the  ecclesiastical  powers,  and  his  book  was 
complained  of  by  the  Lower  House  of  Convo- 
cation.     The   doctor   drew  up  a  preface,  and 
afterwards  gave  in  several  explanations,  which 
seemed  to  satisfy  the  Upper  House ;  at  least  the 
affair  was  not  brought  to  any  issue,  the  members 
appearing  desirous  to  prevent  dissentions.     But 
shortly  afterwards  his  alteration  of  the  doxology 
in  the  singing  psalms  at  St.  James's  excited  still 
more  animadversion.     The   bishop   of  London 
prohibited  the  use  of  the  altered  version  in  his 
diocese.     In  1715  and  171d  he  had  a  dispute 
with  the  celebrated  Leibnitz,  relating  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  natural  philosophy  and  religion  ;  and  a 
tollection  of  the  papers  which  passed  Between 
mem  was  published   in  1717.     About  this  time, 
he  was  presented  by  lord  Lechmere,  the  chan- 


cellor of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  to  the  master- 
ship of  Wigston's  hospital  in  Leicester.    In  1724 
he  published  seventeen  much  admired  sermons,  in 
1727,  upon  the  death  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  he 
was  offered  by  the  court  the  place  of  master  of 
the  mint,  worth  from  £1200   to  £1500  a  year. 
But  this,  being  a  secular  preferment,  he  abso- 
lutely refused.    In  1728  was  published,  a  Letter 
from  Dr.  Clarke  to  Mr.  Benjamin  Hoadly,  F.R.S. 
occasioned  by  the  controversy,  relating  to  the 
proportion  of  Velocity  and  Force  in  Bodies  in 
motion  ;  and  printed  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions, No.  401.     In  1729  appeared  the   first 
twelve  books  of  Homer's  Iliad,  in  4to.  The  Latin 
version  is  almost  entirely  new ;  and  annotations 
are  added  to  it.     The  year  of  this  publication 
was  the  last  of  this  great  man's  life.     Though 
not  robust,  he  had  always  enjoyed  a  firm  state 
of  health,  without  any  indisposition  that  confined 
him,  except  the  small  pox  in  his  youth;  till,  on 
Sunday,  May  1 1  th,  1 729,  going  out  in  the  morn  ing 
to  preach  before  the  judges  at  Serjeant's  Inn,  he 
was  seized  with  a  pain  in  his  side,  which  quickly 
became  so  violent,  that  he  was  obliged  to  be 
carried  home.     He  went  to  bed,  and  thought 
himself  so  much  better  in  the  afternoon,  that  he 
would  not  suffer  himself  to  be  blooded.     But  the 
pain   returning   violently   about   two  the   next 
morning,  he  lingered  until  Saturday,  the  seven- 
teenth, when  he  died,  in  his  fifty-fourth  year. 
Soon  after  were  published,  from  his  original  MSS. 
by  his  brother,  Dr.  John  Clarke,  An  Exposition 
of  the  Church  Catechism,  and  ten  volumes  of 
sermons,  in  8vo.     Few  discourses  are  more  ju- 
dicious or  equally  instructive.     Three  years  after 
the   doctor's  death   als©  appeared   in   4to.   the 
Last  Twelve  Books  of  the  Iliad.      Dr.  Clarke 
married  Catharine,  the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Lockwood,  rector  of  Little  Missingham,  in  Nor- 
folk, with  whom  he  lived  happy  till  his  death ; 
and  by  whom  he  had  seven  children.  His  widow 
received  a  pension   of  £100  per  annum  from 
queen  Caroline.     As  a  critic,  particularly  upon 
Homer,   as  a   classical   scholar,  and   an   acute 
reasoner,  Dr.  Clarke's  name  will  be  long  revered : 
in  private  life  he  is  said  to  have  been  a  most  up- 
right, kind,  and   amiable  man ;  but  his  leading 
theological  sentiments  were  clearly  not  those  of 
the  church  in  which  he  remained. 

CLARKE  (William),  an  English  divine,  was 
born  at  Haghmon-abbey,  in  Shropshire,  1696; 
and  after  a  grammar  education  at  Shrewsbury 
School,  was  sent  to  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, of  which  he  was  elected  fellow,  January 
17th,  1716;  B.  A.  1731,  and  M.  A.  1735.  He 
was  presented  by  archbishop  Wake,  in  1724,  to 
the  rectory  of  Buxted,  in  Sussex,  at  the  recom- 
mendation of  Dr.  Wotton,  whose  daughter  he 
married.  In  1738  he  was  made  prebendary  and 
residentiary  of  the  cathedral  church  of  Chichester. 
Some  years  before  this  he  had  given  a  specimen 
of  his  literary  abilities,  in  a  preface  to  Dr. 
Wotton's  Leges  Wallise  Ecclesiasticse  et  Civiles 
Hoeli  Boni,  et  Aliorum  Walliae  Principum  ;  or 
Ecclesiastical  and  Civil  Laws  of  Howel  Dha, 
and  other  princes  of  Wales.  But  Mr.  Clarke's 
chief  work  was  The  Connexion  of  the  Roman, 
Saxon,  and  English  Coins  ;  deducing  the  An- 
tiquities, Customs,  and  Manners  of  each  People 


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to  Modern  Times;  particularly  the  Origin  of 
Feudal  Tenures,  and  of  Parliaments ;  illustrated 
throughout  with  Critical  and  Historical  Remarks 
on  various  Authors,  both  Sacred  and  Profane. 
It  was  published  in  one  vol.  4to.  in  1767.  Mr. 
Clarke's  last  promotions  were  the  chancellorship 
of  the  church  of  Chichester,  and  the  vicarage  of 
Amport,  in  1770.  He  died  October  21st,  1771. 
He  had  resigned,  in  1768,  the  rectory  of  Buxted 
to  his  son  Edward.  Though  antiquities  were 
the  favorite  study  of  Mr.  Clarke,  he  was  a 
secret,  and  by  no  means  an  unsuccessful,  votary 
of  the  muses.  Perhaps  there  are  few  better 
epigrams  in  our  language  than  the  following, 
which  he  composed  on  seeing  the  words  Domus 
Ultima  inscribed  on  the  vault  belonging  to  the 
dukes  of  Richmond,  in  the  cathedral  of  Chi- 
chester : — • 

Did  he,  who  thus  inscribed  the  wall, 
Not  read,  or  not  believe  St.  Paul, 
Who  says  there  is,  where'er  it  stands, 
Another  house  not  made  with  hands  ? 
Or,  may  we  gather  from  these  words, 
That  house  is  not  a  House  of  Lords  ? 

CLARKE  (Henry),  LL.D.,  a  professor  of  ma- 
thematics, was  born  at  Salford,  near  Manchester, 
and  educated  as  a  land  surveyor.  On  the  for- 
mation of  the  Manchester  Philosophical  Society, 
his  Lecture  in  Natural  and  Experimental  Philo- 
sophy first  brought  him  before  the  public.  He 
removed  in  1802  to  the  Military  College  at  Mar- 
low,  Buckinghamshire,  as  mathematical  professor 
i*iere,  and  published  various  treatises,  viz.  An 
Essay  on  the  Usefulness  of  Mathematical 
Learning ;  a  Dissertation  on  Perspective,  8vo. ; 
another  On  Circulating  Numbers,  8vo. ;  and  a 
third  On  Stenography ;  Tabulae  Linguarum,  or 
Grammars  of  most  of  the  Modern  European 
Languages ;  The  Seaman's  Desiderata,  or  Rules 
for  Finding  the  Longitude  at  Sea;  an  Introduc- 
tion to  Geography,  12mo. ;  Virgil  Revindicated^ 
in  answer  to  bishop  Horsley,  4to. ;  Rules  for 
Clearing  the  Lunar  Distances  from  a  Star  or  the 
Sun;  and  a  translation  from  the  Latin,  entitled, 
The  Summatim  of  Series,  4to.  He  died  at  Is- 
lington, April  30th,  1818. 

CLARKE  (Edward  Daniel,)  LL.D.,  a  cele- 
brated divine,  and  traveller  of  modern  times, 
and  professor  of  mineralogy  in  the  university  of 
Cambridge,  was  the  second  son  of  the  Rev.  Ed- 
ward Clarke,  and  born  in  1767.  He  was  entered 
at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  society  he 
became  a  fellow  in  1794,  and  took  the  degree  of 
A.  M.  He  accompanied  lord  Berwick  soon  after- 
wards to  Italy,  and  in  1799  set  out  with  his  friend 
Mr.  Cripps  on  a  tour  through  Denmark,  Sweden, 
J  upland,  Finland,  Russia,  Tartary,  Circassia, 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Palestine,  Greece,  and  Turkey; 
returning  in  1802  through  Germany  and  France, 
and  enriched  the  public  libraries  and  institutions 
of  his  alma  mater  by  a  variety  of  contributions, 
among  which  was  a  MS.  of  Plato's  works,  and  a 
noble  statue  of  ihe  Eleusinian  Ceres.  The  British 
Museum  was  indebted  to  him  also  for  the  acqui- 
sition of  the  sarcophagus  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
which  he  discovered  in  the  possession  of  the 
French  troops  in  Egypt,  and  procured  to  be 
surrendered  to  our  army.  He  commenced  at 


Cambridge,  in  1806,  a  course  of  lectures  on  mi- 
neralogy, and  in  1808  obtained  the  endowment 
and  a  professorship  for  the  encouragement  of 
that  science.  Soon  after  his  return  he  was  pre- 
sented to  the  rectory  of  Harlton  in  Cambridge- 
shire, and  discharged  with  great  assiduity  hia 
duties  as  a  parish  priest.  He  became  even  emi- 
nent as  a  preacher  and  public  speaker ;  and  was 
conspicuous  as  a  warm  advocate  of  the  esta- 
blishment of  a  Bible  Society  at  Cambridge. 
His  works  are  :  Testimony  of  Different  Authors 
respecting  the  Colossal  Statue  of  Ceres,  placed 
in  the  Vestibule  of  the  Public  Library  at  Cam- 
bridge, with  an  Account  of  its  removal  from 
Eleusis,  8vo.  1801-3  ;  The  Tomb  of  Alexander, 
a  Dissertation  on  the  Sarcophagus  brought  from 
Alexandria,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
4to,  1805;  A  Methodical  Distribution  of  the 
Mineral  Kingdom,  folio,  1807 ;  A  Letter  to  the 
Gentlemen  of  the  British  Museum,  4to,  1807; 
A  Description  of  the  Greek  Marbles  brought 
from  the  Shores  of  the  Euxine,  Archipelago,  and 
Mediterranean,  and  deposited  in  the  Vestibule 
of  the  University  Library,  Cambridge,  8vo.  1809  ; 
Travels  in  various  Countries  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa ;  part  I.  containing  Russia,  Tartary, 
and  Turkey,  4to,  1810;  Part  II.  containing 
Greece,  Egypt,  and  the  Holy  Land,  section  1, 
4to,  1812,  section  2,  1814;  and  a  Letter  to 
Heibert  Marsh,  D.  D.  in  Reply  to  Observations 
in  his  Pamphlet  on  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  8vo.  1811.  Dr.  Clarke  died  March  9th, 
1821,  in  Pall  Mall,  and  was  buried  on  the  18th 
with  public  honors  in  the  chapel  of  Jesus  College; 
Cambridge. 

CLARKE  (Adam),  LL.  D ,  F.  S.  A.,  and 
M.  R.  I.  A.,  an  eminent  divinity  scholar,  and 
also  conspicuous  for  the  extent  of  his  attainments 
in  oriental  languages  and  literature.  He  was 
born  in  the  town  of  Moyheg,  in  the  county 
of  Londonderry,  in  Ireland,  in  what  year  is  not 
exactly  known ;  and,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  was 
placed  by  his  parents  with  Mr.  Bennet,  manu- 
facturer of  linen,  a  trade  the  most  lucrative 
and  respectable  in  that  part  of  the  kingdom. 
The  comprehensive  mind  of  this  future  great 
man  did  not  bear  either  long  or  patiently  the 
restriction  to  a  single  object,  however  honorable ; 
and,  returning  home  to  the  care  and  instruction 
of  a  pious  and  excellent  mother,  he  was  shortly 
after  invited  to  enter  as  a  pupil  of  Kingswood 
school,  by  the  amiable  founder  of  Methodism, 
John  Wesley.  This  was  after  his  own  heart ; 
and  from  this  date  he  appears  to  have  sur- 
rendered himself,  in  the  most  entire  manner,  to 
the  cultivation  of  his  mind,  for  the  sole  object  of 
pursuing  his  pious  and  then  arduous  ministry. 
Here,  too,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  that  great 
knowledge  he  subsequently  erected  in  ancient 
classics  and  oriental  languages,  in  which  he  was 
his  own  instructor ;  and  it  was  during  his  eon*- 
tinuance  at  Kingswood  that  he  first  became 
possessed  of  a  Hebrew  grammar,  which  he  pur- 
chased from  the  savings  of  a  very  slender  allow- 
ance. His  literary  ambition,  and  the  manly 
spirit  with  which  he  pursued  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge,  are  strongly  marked  in  the  motto 
he  selected  for  his  guidance  while  he  was 
yet  a  youth  ;  it  was — "  Through  desire,  a  man; 


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naving  separated  himself,  seeketh  and  inter- 
meddleth  with  all  wisdom."  After  a  residence 
of  no  great  length  at  Kingswood,  he  was  visited 
by  John  Wesley,  who  examined  him  minutely 
upon  doctrinal  points,  and  plans  of  preaching, 
and,  being  satisfied  with  the  account  young 
Clarke  was  able  to  give  of  himself,  desired  him 
to  be  seated.  For  some  minutes  silence  was 
observed  by  both;  at  length  Mr.  Wesley  ad- 
dressed himself  to  Clarke,  saying,  are  you  willing 
to  become  an  itinerant  preacher  ?  To  which  he 
replied,  "  I  am  willing  if  you  think  me  worthy." 
All  persons  again  observed  profound  silence, 
while  Mr.  Wesley,  who,  for  a  time,  sat  motionless 
and  with  closed"  eyes,  rising  up  and  walking 
over  to  Clarke,  laid  his  hand  upon  his  head,  and 
repeated  these  remarkable  words — "  May  God 
Almighty  out  of  heaven  bless  thee,  my  dear  lad, 
and  make  thee  useful  in  thy  day  and  generation ! 
Hold  thyself  in  readiness,  and  in  a  few  weeks  I 
hope  to  appoint  thee  to  a  circuit."  This  trans- 
action occurred  when  the  subject  of  this  memoir 
was  but  nineteen  years  of  age.  Having  entered 
upon  his  ministry,  his  abilities  at  once  discovered 
themselves ;  his  chapels  were  constantly  crowded 
to  excess,  and  he  obtained  a  character  for  per- 
suasiveness, clearness,  and  sound  learning,  which 
never  suffered  any  abatement  or  detraction  to  the 
latest  occasion  that  he  ever  addressed  a  congre- 
gation. In  the  hour  of  danger  he  was  not 
found  deficient.  While  on  a  mission  to  the 
Norman  Isles,  his  doctrines  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  populace,  who,  savagely  enough, 
hung  a  halter  round  his  neck,  and  in  this  manner 
drummed  him  out  of  their  town,  cautioning  him 
against  any  future  publication  of  his  doctrines 
there.  But  Clarke  felt  that  he  had  set  his  hand 
to  the  plough,  and,  almost  immediately  returning 
to  the  duty  of  his  calling,  by  his  courage  and 
self-devotion,  converted  the  revilings  of  his 
enemies  into  admiration  of  his  character.  As  a 
writer,  he  fills  an  honorable  niche.  His  first 
essay  was  "A  Dissertation  on  the  Use  and 
Abuse  of  Tobacco."  This  was  followed  by  a 
work  of  great  labour  and  research,  called  "A  Bib- 
liographical Dictionary,  in  6  vols."  To  these  are 
to  be  added,  "  The  Bibliographical  Miscellany ;" 
"An  Abridgment  of  Baxter's  Christian  Di- 
rectory ;"  "  Claude  Fleury's  History  of  the 
Ancient  Israelites  ;"  "  The  Succession  of  Sacred 
Literature ;"  "  Shuckford's  Sacred  and  Profane 
History,  connected  with  Bishop  Clayton's  Stric- 
tures ;"  "  A  Translation  of  Sturm's  Reflections ;" 
"Clavis  Biblica;"  "Memoirs  of  the  Wesley 
Family,"  and  various  Sermons.  But  the  pe- 
destal upon  which  his  fame,  as  a  man  of  eru- 
dition, is  likely  to  find  a  permanent  position,  is 
his  Commentary  on  the  Bible.  The  variety  and 
extent  of  learning  accumulated  and  applied  in 
Clarke's  annotations  excite  wonder  as  the  work 
of  an  individual ;  and  the  commentator  has  some- 
where mentioned,  in  speaking  of  this  great  la- 
bour, "  thus  forty  years  of  my  life  have  been 
consumed."  Dr.  Clarke  was  associated  with 
the  public  commissioners  .in  arranging  the  re- 
cords of  our  country,  and  to  him  was  confided 
the  care  of  bringing  out  a  new  edition  of  Rymer's 
Foedera,  the  publication  of  two  parts  of  which  he 
superintended.  Having  passed  a  long  and 
useful  life,  in  which  he  refused,  frequently,  the 


good  things  of  this  world,  and  neglected  all 
avenues  to  wealth  or  worldly  aggrandisement ; 
distinguished  as  a  preacher  and  scholar,  and 
obtaining  an  interest  even  from  the  circumstance 
of  being  one  of  those  who  caught  a  spark  from 
the  bright  mind  of  Wesley,  he  died  at  the  house 
of  his  friend,  Mr.  Hobbs,  at  Bayswater,  of  the 
cholera  morbus,  on  the  26th  day  of  August, 
1832,  in  the  seventy-second  year  of  his  age,  and 
was  interred  in  the  burial-ground  adjoining  the 
Wesleyan  chapel,  City  Road,  where  the  remains 
of  his  friend  and  patron,  John  Wesley,  had 
been  deposited. 

CLARKSBURG,  a  town  of  Virginia,  the  ca- 
pital of  Harrison  county,  seated  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Monongahela,  forty  miles  above  Morgan- 
town,  and  nine  north-west  of  Richmond. 

CLARKSVILLE,  a  town  of  the  United  States, 
in  the  south-western  territory,  and  county  of 
Tennessee,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  east  side  of 
Cumberland,  at  the  mouth  of  Red  River.  It 
has  a  court-house,  in  which  a  county-court  is 
held  quarterly.  It  is  forty-five  miles  north-west 
of  Nashville,  220  west  by  north  of  Knoxville, 
and  940  west  by  south  of  Philadelphia. 

CLARKSVILLE,  a  town  in  the  north-western  ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States,  seated  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Ohio,  within  view  of  Louis dlle,  a 
mile  below  the  Rapids,  and  forty-five  west  of 
Frankfort. 

CLARUS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of 
Ionia,  famous  for  an  oracle  of  Apollo,  thence 
named  Clarius.  It  was  built  by  Manto,  daugh- 
ter of  Tiresias,  who  fled  from  Thebes  after  it  had 
been  destroyed  by  the  Epigoni. 

CLA'RY,  n.  s.  Lat.  herminium.    An  herb. 

CLARY -WATER,  a  cordial,  composed  of 
brandy,  sugar,  clary-flowers,  and  cinnamon,  with 
a  little  ambergris  dissolved  in  it.  This  water  is 
rendered  either  purgative  or  emetic,  by  adding 
resin  of  jalap  and  scammony,  or  crocus  metal- 
lorum.  Some  make  clary  water  of  brandy, 
juice  of  cherries,  strawberries,  and  gooseberries, 
sugar,  cloves,  white  pepper,  and  coriander  seeds, 
infused,  sugared,  and  strained. 

CLASH,  v.  n.,  v.  a.  fc  n.  s.  Teut.  klats ;  Belg. 
klits  ;  from  Lat.  collido.  Opposition,  collision, 
or  the  sound  proceeding  from  it.  To  act  with 
opposite  power  or  contrary  direction;  to  con- 
tradict; to  oppose. 

CLASMIUM,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of 
fossils,  of  the  class  of  gypsums.  They  are  of  a 
soft  texture,  and  of  a  dull  opaque  look,  being 
composed,  as  the  other  gypsums,  of  irregularly 
arranged  flat  particles.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  flaky  small  particles  of  which  they  are 
composed.  There  is  only  one  species,  of  a  to- 
lerably regular  and  even  structure,  though  very 
coarse  and  harsh  to  the  touch.  .  It  is  of  a  very 
lively  and  beautiful  red  color,  and  is  found  in 
thick  roundish  masses,  which,  when  broken,  are 
seen  composed  of  irregular  arrangements  of  flat 
particles,  and  emulate  a  striated  texture.  It  will 
neither  give  fire  with  steel  nor  ferment  with 
acids  ;  but  calcines  very  easily,  and  affords  a  very 
valuable  Paris  plaster,  as  do  all  the  purer  gyp- 
sums. It  is  common  in  Italy,  and  is  greatly  es- 
teemed there ;  it  is  also  found  in  some  parts  of 
England.  See  FLOUR  SPA. 


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CLASP,n.s.&u.a.  \      Goth.  Mas,  klops;  Sax. 

CLA'SPER,  n.  s.        £  clypps,  from  clyppan,  to 

CLA'SP-KNIFE,  n.  s.  j  embrace.       A    hook    to 

hold  anything  close,  as  a  book  or  garment.     To 

enfold  ;  to  shut  up  ;  to  clina;  to ;  to  catch,  hold, 

or  embrace  ;  to  enclose.     Clasper,  the  tendrils  or 

threads  of  creeping  plants,  by  which  they  cling 

to  other  things  for  support.     A  clasp-knife  is 

a  knife  which  folds  into  the  handle. 

CLASSIC,  or  CLASSICAL,  is  chiefly  applied  to 
authors  read  in  the  classes  at  schools.  This 
term  is  said  to  owe  its  origin  to  Servius  Tullius, 
who,  in  order  to  make  an  estimate  of  every  per- 
son's estate,  divided  the  Roman  people  into  six 
bands,  which  he  called  classes.  The  estate  of 
the  first  class  was  not  to  be  under  £200,  and 
these  by  way  of  eminence  were  called  classici, 
classics :  hence  authors  of  the  first  rank  came  to 
be  called  classics,  all  the  rest  being  said  to  be 
infra  classem. 

CLA'SSICK,  n.  s.  &  adj.  \      Lat.  classicus.  Of 

CLA'SSICAL,  adj.  $  the  first  order   or 

rank  ;    applied  to  literature  it  relates  to  authors 

first  in  order  of  time,  and  therefore  to  the  ancient, 

and  to  first  in  ability  and  excellence. 

CLASSIC  UM,  in  antiquity,  the  alarm  for  battle, 
given  by  the  Roman  generals ;  and  sounded  by 
martial  music  throughout  the  army. 

CLA'SSIS,  n.  s.       ^      Lat.  classis ;  a  rank  or 

CLASS,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  >  order  of  persons;  a  set  of 

CLA'SSIFY,  v.  )  beings  or  things  ranged 

in  distribution  under  some  common  denomi- 
nation. The  verb  is  applied  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  ;  to  range  according  to  the 
respective  ranks  of  different  persons  or  things ; 
or  according  to  some  stated  method  of  distribu- 
tion. 

He  had  declared  his  opinion  of  that  classis  of  men, 
and  did  all  he  could  to  hinder  their  growth. 

Clarendon. 

Segrais  has  distinguished  the  readers  of  poetry, 
according  to  their  capacity  of  judging,  into  three 
classes.  Dryden. 

Among  this  herd  of  politicians,  any  one  set  make 
a  very  considerable  class  of  men. 

Addison's  Freeholder. 
Whate'er  of  mongrel,  no  one  class  admits 

A  wit  with  dunces,  and  a  dunce  with  wits.     Pope. 

I  considered  that,  by  the  classing  and  methodising 
such  passages,  I  might  instruct  the  reader. 

Arbuthnot  on  Coins. 

We  shall  be  seized  away  from  this  lower  class  in 
the  school  of  knowledge,  and  our  conversation  shall 
be  with  angels  and  illuminated  spirits. 

Watts  on  the  Mind. 

There  is  a  class  of  men,  that  one  has  sometimes  the 
misfortune  to  meet  with,  who  affect  what  they  call  a 
bluntness  of  manners,  and  value  themselves  on 
speaking  their  minds  on  all  occasions,  whether  people 
take  it  well  or  ill.  Beattie. 

By  many  who  live  within  the  sound  of  Bow  bells, 
the  internal  wonders  of  St.  Paul's  or  the  Tower  may 
not  be  thought  in  the  least  degree  interesting.  Yet 
how  justly  would  such  persons  be  classed  with  tbe  in- 
curious of  -<£sop.  Monro. 

CLATTER,  v.  a.  v.  n.  &c  n.  s.  >     Goth,  klutr ; 

CLA'TTERJNG,  adj.  S  Svted.  klutter ; 

Bel.  klater;  Sax.  kkother,  cleadur.  To  make 
a  tumultuous  confused  noise,  generally  by 
knocking  two  sonorous  bodies  frequently  toge- 


ther; applied  to  fast  and  idle  talking,  where 
many  persons  speak  together;  a  clatter  is  a 
clash,  often  repeated  with  great  quickness,  and 
seems  to  convey  the  idea  of  a  sound  sharper 
and  shriller  than  rattle. 

And  on  the  morwe,  when  the  day  gan  spring 
Of  hors  and  harneis  noise  and  clattering 
Ther  was  in  the  hostelries  all  aboute  • 
And  to  the  paleis  rode  ther  many  a  route 
Of  lordes,  upon  stedes  and  palfreis. 

Chaucer.    Canterbury  Tale*. 

The  ringes  on  the  temple  dore  that  honge, 
And  eke  the  dores,  clattereden  full  fast, 
Of  which  Arcita  somewhat  him  agast.  Id. 

Here  is  a  great  deal  of  good  matter 

Lost  for  lack  of  telling ; 

Now,  siker,  I  see  thou  do'st  but  clatter; 

Harm  may  come  of  melling.  Spenser. 

By  this  great  clatter,  one  of  greatest  note 
Seems  bruited.  Shukspeare. 

I  only  with  an  oaken  staff  will  meet  thee, 
And  raise  such  outcries  on  thy  clattered  iron. 
That  thou  oft  shall  wish  thyself  at  Gath.  Milton, 

Draw  next  a  pair  of  tables  opening  then 
The  House  of  Commons  clattering  like  the  men. 

Maroell. 

Down   sunk   the    monster-bulk,   and    pressed    the 

ground  ; 

His  arms  and  clattering  shield  on  the  vast  body  sound. 

Dryden. 

Now  the  sprightly  trumpet  from  afar 
Had  roused  the  neighing  steeds  to  scour  the  fields, 
While  the  fierce  riders  clattered  on  their  shields.     Id. 

I  have  seen  a  monkey  overthrow  all  the  dishes  and 
plates  in  a  kitchen,  merely  for  the  pleasure  of  seeing 
them  tumble,  and  hearing  the  clatter  they  made  in 
their  fall.  Swift. 

Beneath  the  clattering  iron's  sound 
The  caverned  echoes  wake  around. 

Byron.      The  Giaour. 

r 

CLAVARIA,  club-top,  in  botany,  a  genus  o 
the  cryptogamia  class  of  plants,  and  of  the  order 
of  fungi.  The  fungus  is  smooth  and  oblong; 
simple  or  branched ;  seeds  dispersed  over  the 
whole  surface,  or  collected  in  tubercles  opening 
at  top.  Species  thirty-seven,  of  which  some  are 
simple,  and  others,  about  a  third  part,  branched. 
The  chief  are,  1.  C.  hemotades,  or  the  oak  leather 
club-top,  exactly  resembles  tanned  leather,  ex- 
cept that  it  is  thinner  and  softer.  It  is  of  no 
determinate  form.  It  grows  in  the  clefts  and  hol- 
lows of  old  oaks,  and  sometimes  on  ash  in 
Ireland,  and  in  some  places  of  England,  &c. 
In  Ireland  it  is  used  to  dress  ulcers,  and  in 
Virginia  to  spread  plasters  upon,  instead  of  lea- 
ther. 2.  C.  militaris,  and  one  or  two  other  species, 
are  remarkable  for  growing  only  on  the  head  of 
a  dead  insect  in  the  nympha  sxate. 

CLAVARIUM,  in  antiquity,  an  allowance 
made  to  Roman  soldiers,  for  furnishing  nails  to 
secure  their  shoes  with.  They  raised  frequent 
mutinies,  demanding  largesses  of  the  emperors 
under  this  pretence. 

CLA V ATA  VESTIMENTA,  in  antiquity,  habits 
adorned  with  purple  clavi,  which  were  eithe^ 
broad  or  narrow.  See  CtAVUS. 

CLA'VATED,  adj.  Lat.  clavatus.  Knobbed ; 
set  with  knobs. 

These  appear  plainly  to  have  been  clarated  spikes 
of  some  kind  of  echinus  ovarius.  Woodward  on  Fistilt. 


CLA 


752 


CLA 


CLAUDA,  a  small  island  near  Crete,  which 
Paul  and  his  company  passed,  in  their  voyage 
to  Rome.  Acts  xxvii.  16.  It  is  now  called 
Gozzo. 

CLAUDE  (John),  a  French  protestant  divine, 
born  in  the  provine  of  Agenois,  in  1690.  Messrs, 
de  Port  Royal  using  their  utmost  endeavours  to 
convert  M.  deTurenne  to  the  catholic  faith,  pre- 
sented him  with  a  piece  calculated  to  that  end, 
which  his  lady  engaged  Claude  to  answer ;  and 
his  performance  gave  rise  to  the  most  famous 
controversy  that  was  ever  carried  on  in  France 
between  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants. 
On  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  he  re- 
tired to  Holland,  where  he  met  with  a  kind  re- 
ception, and  was  honored  with  a  considerable 
pension  by  the  prince  of  Orange.  He  died  in 
1687 ;  and  left  a  son,  Isaac  Claude,  whom 
he  lived  to  see  minister  of  the  Walloon 
church  at  the  Hague,  and  who  published  se- 
veral of  the  excellent  works  of  his  deceased  fa- 
ther. 

CLAUDE  OF  LORRAIN,  or  CLAUDE  CELEB,  a  ce- 
lebrated landscape  painter,  and  a  striking  example 
of  the  efficacy  of  industry  to  supply,  or  call 
forth,  genius.  Claude  was  born  in  1600,  and 
put  apprentice  to  a  pastry-cook ;  he  after- 
wards rambled  to  Rome  to  seek  a  livelihood ; 
but,  being  unacquainted  with  the  language,  no- 
body employed  him.  He  at  last  fell  in  with 
Augustine  Trasso,  who  hired  him  to  grind  his 
colors.  Trasso,  hoping  to  make  him  serviceable 
in  some  of  his  greatest  works,  taught  him  by 
degrees  the  rules  of  perspective  and  the  elements 
of  design.  Claude  at  first  did  not  know  what 
to  make  of  those  principles  of  art;  but  being 
encouraged,  and  not  failing  in  application,  he 
came  at  length  to  understand  them.  He  exerted 
his  utmost  industry  to  explore  the  true  natural 
principles  of  painting,  for  which  purpose  he 
studied  in  the  open  fields ;  where  he  often  con- 
tinued from  sun-rise  till  the  dusk  of  the  evening 
compelled  him  to  withdraw.  It  was  his  custom 
to  sketch  whatever  he  thought  beautiful  or  strik- 
ing; and  every  curious  tinge  of  light,  on  all 
kinds  of  objects,  he  marked  in  his  sketches  with 
a  similar  color;  from  which  he  perfected  his 
landscapes  with  so  much  nature,  and  gave  them 
such  an  appearance  of  truth,  as  proved  superior 
to  any  artist  that  ever  painted  in  that  style. 
Whatever  struck  his  imagination,  while  he  ob- 
served nature  abroad,  it  was  so  strongly  impressed 
on  his  memory,  that  on  his  return  to  his  work  he 
never  failed  to  make  the  happiest  use  of  it.  His 
skies  are  full  of  lustre,  and  every  object  is  pro- 
perly illumined.  His  distances  are  admirable, 
and  in  every  part  there  is  a  delightful  union  and 
harmony.  His  invention  is  pleasing,  his  color- 
ing delicate,  and  his  tints  have  such  an  agreeable 
sweetness  and  variety,  as  have  been  but  imper- 
fectly imitated  by  the  best  subsequent  artists, 
but  were  never  excelled.  He  gave  an  uncom- 
mon beauty  to  his  finished  trees  by  glazing  ;  and 
in  his  large  compositions,  which  he  painted  in 
fresco,  he  was  so  exact  that  the  distinct  species 
of  every  tree  might  readily  be  distinguished.  As 
to  his  figures,  they  were  very  indifferent ;  and  he 
was  so  conscious  of  his  deficiency  in  this  respect 
that  he  usually  engaged  other  artists  who  were 


eminent  to  paint  them  for  him,  particularly 
Courtois  and  Philip  Laura.  His  pictures  are 
now  very  rare,  especially  such  as  are  undamaged ; 
no  price  is  thought  superior  to  their  merit.  To 
avoid  a  repetition  of  the  same  subject,  and  to 
detect  such  copies  of  his  works  as  might  be  in- 
jurious to  his  fame,  by  being  sold  for  original 
it  was  his  custom  to  draw,  in  a  paper  book,  the 
designs  of  all  those  pictures  which  were  trans- 
mitted to  different  countries ;  and  on  the  back 
of  the  drawings,  he  wrote  the  name  of  the  per- 
son who  had  been  the  purchaser.  That  book 
which  he  titled  Libro  de  Verita,  was  lately  in 
the  possession  of  the  duke  of  Devonshire. 

CLAUDE  (St.),  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Jura,  and  ci-devant  province  of  Franche 
Compte,  seated  among  the  mountains  on  the 
river  Lisson.  In  this  town  are  many  fine  public 
fountains.  Population  3600.  It  is  twenty-eight 
miles  north-west  of  Geneva. 

CLAUDE  (St.),  a  high  mountain  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Jura.  It  forms  a  part  of 
mount  Jura,  and  affords  a  fine  prospect  of  Swit- 
zerland and  Mont  Blanc,  the  lake  and  town  of 
Geneva,  and  the  Pays  de  Vaud. 

CLA'UDENT,  adj.  Lat.  claudens.  Shutting ; 
enclosing ;  confining. 

CLAUDIA,  a  vestal  virgin  at  Rome,  who, 
being  suspected  of  unchastity,  is  said  to  have 
been  cleared  from  that  imputation  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  ;  the  image  of  Cybele  being  brought 
out  of  Phrygia  to  Rome  in  a  barge,  and  it  hap- 
pening to  stick  so  fast  in  the  river  Tyber  that  it 
could  not  be  moved,  she  tying  her  girdle,  the 
badge  of  chastity,  to  the  barge,  drew  it  along  to 
the  city,  which  a  thousand  men  were  not  able 
to  do. 

CLAUDIA  AQUA,  or  AQUA  APPIA,  water  con- 
veyed to  Rome  by  a  canal  or  aqueduct  of  eleven 
miles  in  length,  the  contrivance  of  Appius  Clau- 
dius the  censor,  and  the  first  structure  of  the  kind, 
in  the  year  of  Rome  441. 

CLAUDIA  LEX,  the  Claudian  law,  in  antiquity. 
Of  these  there  were  several ;  such  as,  1 .  De 
Comitiis,  enacted  by  M.  Claudius  Marcellus, 
A.  U.  C.  702.  It  ordained,  that  at  public  elec- 
tions of  magistrates  no  no*;ce  should  be  taken  of 
the  votes  of  such  as  were  absent.  2.  De  Usura, 
which  forbade  people  to  lend  money  to  minors 
on  condition  of  payment,  after  the  decease  of 
their  parents.  3.  De  Negotiatione,  by  Q.  Clau- 
dius the  tribune,  535.  It  forbade  any  senator, 
or  father  of  a  senator,  to  have  any  vessel  con- 
taining above  3OO  amphorae,  for  fear  of  their 
engaging  themselves  in  commercial  schemes.  It 
also  prohibited  the  same  thing  to  the  scribes  and 
the  attendants  of  the  questors,  as  it  was  naturally 
supposed  that  people,  who  had  any  commercial 
connexions,  could  not  be  faithful  to  their  trust, 
nor  promote  the  interest  of  the  state.  4.  A  law 
enacted  A.U.C.  576,  to  permit  the  allies  to  re- 
turn to  their  respective  cities,  after  their  names 
were  enrolled..  Liv.  41.  c.  9.  5.  Another  to 
take  away  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  Rome  from 
the  colonists  which  Czesar  had  carried  to  Nori- 
comum. 

CLAUDIA  VIA,  or  CLODIA  VIA,  a  road  of  an- 
cient Rome,  which,  beginning  at  the  Pons  Mil- 
vius,  joined  the  Flaminia,  passing  through 


CLA 


753 


CLA 


Etruria,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Lacus  Seban- 
tinus,  and  striking  oft"  from  the  Cassia,  and 
leading  to  Lucca :  large  remains  of  it  are  to  be 
seen  above  Bracciano. 

CLAUDIANUS  (Claudius),  a  Latin  poet, 
who  flourished  in  the  fourth  century,  under  Theo- 
i  ;us,  Arcadius  and  Honorius.  He  came  to 
Rome  A.  D.  395,  when  he  was  about  thirty  years 
old ;  and  insinuated  himself  into  Stilicho's  favor  ; 
who,  though  a  Goth  by  birth,  was  so  considerable 
a  person  under  Honorius  that  he  maybe  said  for 
many  years  to  have  governed  the  western  empire. 
Stilicho  afterwards  fell  into  disgrace  and  was  put 
to  death  ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  poet  was 
involved  in  the  misfortunes  of  his  patron  ;  but 
he  rose  afterwards  to  great  favor ;  and  obtained 
several  honors  both  civil  and  military.  There 
are  a  few  little  Christian  poems  on  sacred  sub- 
jects, which  have  been  ascribed  by  some  critics 
to  Claudian  ;  but  St.  Austin,  who  was  contem- 
porary with  him,  expressly  says  that  he  was  a 
Heathen. 

To  CLA  UDICATE,  v.  n.  Lat.  claudico.  To  halt ; 
to  limp. 

•     CLAUDICA'TION,   n.  s.   from  claudicate.     The 
act  or  habit  of  halting. 

CLAVE,  the  preterite  of  cleave.     See  CLEAVE. 

CLAUDIUS  (Appius),  a  Sabine  by  birth, 
one  of  the  principal  inhabitants  of  Regillum. 
His  merit  having  drawn  the  envy  of  his  fellow 
citizens  upon  him,  he  retired  to  Rome  with  all 
his  family.  He  was  admitted  into  the  senate, 
and  was  made  consul,  with  Publius  Servilius 
Priscus,  A.  U.  C.  258  :  but  he  was  hated  by  the 
plebeians,  being  an  austere  opposer  of  their  cla- 
mors and  seditions.  The  Claudian  family  con- 
tinued long  one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  the 
patrician  families  in  Rome ;  and  several  in  suc- 
cession of  the  name  of  Appius  supported  the  same 
stern  aristocratic  character,  that  distinguished 
their  first  founder. 

CLAUDIUS  (Caius).     See  CARTHAGE. 

CLAUDIUS  I.  emperor  of  Rome.  See  ROME, 
HISTORY  OF. 

CLAUDIUS  II.  (Flavius),  surnamed  Gothicus, 
signalised  himself  by  his  courage  and  prudence 
under  Valerian  and  Galienus ;  and  on  the  death 
of  the  latter  was  declared  emperor,  A.  D.  268* 
He  put  to  death  Aureolus,  the  murderer  of  Gali- 
enus; defeated  the  Germans;  and  in  296  marched 
against  the  Goths,  who  ravaged  the  empire  with 
an  army  of  300,000  men,  which  he  at  first  ha- 
rassed, and  the  next  year  entirely  defeated  ;  but 
a  contagious  disease,  which  had  spread  through 
that  vast  army,  was  introduced  into  that  of  the 
Romans  ;  and  the  emperor  himself  died  of  it  a 
short  time  after,  aged  fifty-six. 

CLA'VELLATED,  adj.  low.  Lat.  davellatus. 
Made  with  burnt  tartar ;  a  chemical  terrr-. 

Air,  transmitted  through  clavellated  ashes  into  an 
exhausted  receiver,  loses  weight  as  it  passes  through 
them.  Arbuthnoi. 

CLA'VER,  n.  s.  Sax.  cla? nert  pynt.  This  is  now 
universally  written  clover,  though  not  so  pro- 
perly. See  CLOVER. 

CLAVERACK,  a  populous  town  of  NewYork, 
the  capital  of  Columbia  county,  pleasantly  seated 
en  a  large  plain  about  six  miles  east  of  Hudson, 
VOL.  V, 


near  the  creek.  It  has  a  Dutch  church,  and  a 
court-house,  in  which  courts  of  common-pleas 
and  general  sessions  are  held  quarterly.  The 
township  contains  an  area  of  seventy  square 
miles,  and  between  3000  and  4000  inhabitants. 

CLAVICHORD,  and  CLAVICITHERIUM,  two 
musical  instruments  used  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
They  were  of  the  nature  of  the  spinet,  but  of  an 
oblong  figure  The  first  is  still  used  by  the 
nuns  in  convent « :  an  J,  that  the  practitioners  may 
not  disturb  the  sisters  in  the  dormitory,  the 
strings  are  muffled  with  small  bits  of  fine  woollen 
cloth. 

CLA'VICLE,  ra.s.Lat.  clavicula.  The  collar- 
bone. 

Some  quadrupeds  can  bring  their  fore  feet  unto 
their  mouths ;  as  most  that  have  clavicles,  or  collar- 
bones. Brown. 

A  girl  was  brought  with  angry  wheals  down  her 
neck,  towards  the  clavicle.  Wiseman's  Surgery. 

CLAVICLE,  in  anatomy,  the  collar-bone.  See 
ANATOMY, 

•  CLAV YC  YMBALUM,  in  antiquity,  a  musical 
instrument  with  thirty  strings.  Modern  writers 
apply  the  name  to  our  harpsichords. 

CLAVIS,  Latin,  properly  signifies  a  key;  and 
is  sometimes  used  in  English  to  denote  an  ex- 
planation of  some  obscure  passage  of  any  book 
or  writing. 

CLA VI,  VESTIUM,  were  flowers  or  studs  of 
purple,  interwoven  with  or  sewed  upon  the  gar- 
ments of  knights  or  senators  ;  the  former  used 
them  narrow,  the  latter  broad. 

CLAVIUS  (Christopher),  a  German  Jesuit, 
born  atBamberg,  who  excelled  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  mathematics,  and  was  one  of  the  chief 
persons  employed  to  rectify  the  calendar ;  the 
defence  of  which  he  also  undertook  against  those 
who  censured  it,  especially  Scaliger.  He  died  at 
Rome  in  1618,  aged  seventy-five.  His  works 
have  been  printed  in  five  volumes  folio  ;  the 
principal  of  which  is  his  commentary  on  Euclid's 
Elements. 

CLAUSE,  n.  s.  Lat.  clausula.  A  sentence  ;  a 
single  part  of  a  discourse ;  a  subdivision  of  a 
larger  sense ;  so  much  of  a  sentence  as  is  to  be 
construed  together ;  an  article,  or  particular  sti- 
rmlation. 

To  wise  is  he  to  doen  so  grete  a  vice  j 
Ne  als  I  n'il  him  never  so  cherice, 
That  he  shall  make  a  vaunt,  by  juste  cause  ; 
He  shall  me  never  bind  in  soche  a  clause. 

Chaucer.    Troilus  and  Cresteide. 

God  may  be  glorified  by  obedience,  and  obeyed 
by  performance  of  his  will,  although  no  special  clause 
or  sentence  of  Scripture  be  in  every  such  action  se- 
before  men's  eyes  to  warrant  it.  Hooker. 

The  clause  is  untrue  concerning  the  bishop. 

Id. 

WLen,  after  his  death,  they  were  sent  both  to  Jew! 
and  Gentiles,  we  find  not  this  clause  in  their  commis. 
sion.  South. 

But  when  he  came  the  odious  clause  to  pen 
That  summons  up  the  parliament  agen, 
His  writing-master  many  times  he  ban'd, 
And  wished,  himself,  the  gout  to  seize  his  hand. 

Marvdl, 

CLAUSENBURG,  the  capital  of  Transyl- 
vania, and  of  a  county  of  this  name,  is  situated 

O    \~f 


CIA 


754 


CLA 


en  Cue  Little  Szamos  River  in  a  beautiful  valley, 
surrounded  by  mountains.  It  contains  a  noble 
public  square,  and  several  elegant  streets  and 
churches.  The  public  gardens  and  walks  are 
also  worth  notice.  The  Old  Town  was  fortified 
by  the  Romans,  and  formed  the  sixth  colony  of 
the  emperor  Trajan,  whose  name  is  still  to  be 
seen  on  one  of  the  gates.  Population  in  1797, 
14,522.  On  12th  of  August,  1798,  the  greater 
part  of  the  town  was  destroyed  by  fire,  but  it  has 
since  been  rebuilt.  145  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Bel- 
grade, and  225  E.  S.  E.  of  Vienna. 

CLAUSTHAL,  a  considerable  town  of  Han- 
over, in  the  Upper  Hartz,  near  Zellerfeld.  Here 
is  the  silver  mint  for  the  Hanoverian  part  of  the 
Hartz,  the  value  of  the  coinage  of  which  is  yearly 
£100,000.  The  mine-office,  two  churches,  a 
public  school,  and  orphan  house,  are  respectable 
buildings.  The  population,  8000,  are  almost  all 
miners,  twenty-five  miles  north-east  of  Nord- 
heim. 

CLATJSTRAL,  adj.  from  Lat.  claustrum.  Re- 
lating to  a  cloister,  or  religious  house. 

Claustral  priors  are  such  as  preside  over  monas- 
teries, next  to  the  abbot  or  chief  governour  in  such 
religious  houses.  Ayliffe. 

CLA'USURE,  n. s.  Lat  clamura.  Confine- 
ment ;  the  act  of  shutting ;  the  state  of  being 
shut. 

In  some  monasteries  the  severity  of  the  clausure  is 
hard  to  be  born.  Geddes. 

CLAVUS,  in  antiquity,  an  ornament  upon  the 
7obes  of  the  Roman  senators  and  knights ;  which 
was  more  or  less  broad,  according  to  the  dignity 
of  the  person ;  hence  the  distinction  of  tunica 
jingusti-clavia  and  lati-clavia. 

CLAVUS,  ANNALIS,  in  antiquity,  the  nail  an- 
pually  fixed  by  the  Romans  to  mark  their  years. 
So  rude  and  ignorant  were  the  Romans  in  the 
beginning  of  their  state,  that  the  driving  a  nail 
was  the  only  method  they  had  of  keeping  a 
register  of  time.  There  was  an  ancient  law  or- 
daining the  chief  praetor  to  fix  a  nail  every  year 
on  the  ides  of  September  ;  it  was  driven  into  the 
right  side  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Optimus 
Maximus,  towards  Minerva's  temple.  The  Etru- 
rians used  likewise  to  drive  nails  into  the 
temple  of  their  goddess  Nortia  with  the  same 
view. 

CLAVUS,  in  medicine  and  surgery,  is  used  in 
several  significations  :  1 .  An  indurated  tubercle 
of  the  uterus  :  2.  A  chirurgical  instrument  of  gold, 
mentioned  by  Amatus  Lusitanus,  designed  to  be 
introduced  into  an  exulcerated  palate,  for  the 
better  articulation  of  the  voice  :  3.  A  corn  on  the 
foot. 

CLAVUS  HYSTERICUS  is  a  shooting  pain  in 
the  head,  between  the  pericranium  and  cranium, 
which  affects  women  who  are  troubled  with 
hysterics. 

CLAVUS  OCULORUM,  according  to  Celsus,  is  a 
callous  tubercle  on  the  white  of  the  eye,  taking 
its  denomination  from  its  figure. 

CLAW,  n.s.  &r.a.  \-    Goth  klo,  kits ;  Swed. 

CLA'WED,  adj.  S  klo ;  Sax.  claw;  Bel. 

klaauw.  See  to  CLEAVE.  The  toe  of  a  beast 
or  bird  armed  with  sharp  nails  ;  properly  a  di- 
vision of  the  foot.  The  pincers  or  holders  of  a 


shell-fish :  to  tear  with  nails  or  claws ;  to  scratch 
and  tear  in  general ;  to  tickle ;  to  please,  hence 
clawback. 

The  coke  of  London  while  the  rere  spake, 
For  joye  (him  thought)  he  clawed  him  on  the  bak. 

Chaucer.  Canterbury  Talcs. 
I  saw  her  range  abroad  to  seek  her  food, 
To  embrue  her  teeth  and  claws  with  lukewarm  blood. 

Spenser. 

Look  if  the  withered  elder  hath  not  his  poll  clawed 

like  a  parrot.  Shakspeare. 

I  must  laugh  when  I  am  merry,  and  claw  no  man 

in  his  humour.  Id. 

But  we  must  claw  ourselves  with  shameful 
And  heathen  stripes,  by  their  example.     Hudibras. 

They  for  their  own  opinions  stand  fast, 
Only  to  have  them  clawed  and  canvast.  Id. 

What's  justice  to  a  man,  or  laws, 
That  never  comes  within  their  claws  ?  Id. 

I  am  afraid  we  shall  not  easily  claw  off  that  name. 

South. 

Among  quadrupeds,  of  all  the  clawed,  tbe  lion  is 

the  strongest.  Grew's  Cosmologia. 

Meanwhile  they  trim  their  plumes   for  length  of 

flight, 
Whet  their  keen  beaks,  and  twisting  claws  for  fight. 

Beattie. 

CLAW,  among  zoologists  implies  only  the 
sharp-pointed  nail  of  a  bird  or  quadruped,  not 
the  whole  foot. 

CLA'WBACK,  n.  s.  from  claw  and  back.  A 
flatterer ;  a  sycophant ;  a  wheedler. 

The  Pope's  clawbacks.  Jewel. 

CLAY,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.^      Teut.  kley ;  Bel.  kleg ; 

CLA'YEY,  adj.  I  Sax.    cloeg ;   Lat.    glis. 

CLA'YISH,  adj.          [Poetically     applied     to 

CLA'YMARL,  n.  s.      f  earth  in  general ;  to  the 

CLA'Y-COLD,  adj.      I  terrestrial  elements;    to 

CLA'YPIT,  n.s.         J  the    human   body;     to 

matter  as  opposed  to  mind.     Strictly  it  signifies 

a  tenacious  sort  of  earth ;  such  as  will  mould 

into  a  certain  form.     Organic  bodies  when  life 

is  extinct  are  called  clay  and  clay-cold. 

Sal  tartre,  alcali  and  salt  preparat, 
And  combust  materes,  'and  coagulet ; 
Cley  made  with  hors  and  mannes  here  and  oile 
Of  tartre  alum  glos,  berme,  wort,  and  argoile. 

Chaucer.   Canterbury  Tales. 
Why  should  our  clay 

Over  our  spirits  so  much  sway  ?  Donne. 

Clays  are  earths  firmly  coherent,  weighty  and  com- 
pact, stiff,  viscid,  and  ductile  to  a  great  degree,  while 
moist ;  smooth  to  the  touch,  not  easily  breaking  be- 
tween the  fingers,  nor  readily  diffusible  in  water ; 
and,  when  mixed,  not  readily  subsiding  from  it. 

Hill  on  Fossils. 
Deep  Acheron, 

Whose  troubled  eddies,  thick  with  oose  and  clay, 
Are  whirled  aloft.  Dryden. 

Some  in  a  lax  or  sandy,  some  a  heavy  or  clayey 
soil.  Derham. 

I  washed  his  clay-cold  corse  with  holy  drops, 
And  saw  bim  laid  in  hallowed  ground.  Rowe. 

The  sun,  which  softens  wax,  will  harden  day. 

Watts. 

Small  beer  proves  an  unwholesome  drink ;  perhaps, 
by  being  brewed  with  a  thick,  muddish,  and  clayish 
water,  which  the  brewers  covet. 

Harvey  on  Consumptions. 

Twas  found  in  a  clay-pit.         Woodward  on  Fossils. 


CLA 


755 


CLA 


dot/marl  resembles  clay,  and  is  near  a-kin  to  it; 
but  is  more  fat,  and  sometimes  mixed  with  chalk- 
stones.  Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

Ah,  whither  fled  !  ye  dear  illusions  stay, 
So  pale  and  silent  lies  the  lovely  clay.  Beattie. 

A  sleep  without  dreams,  after  a  rough  day 
Of  toil,  is  what  we  covet  most ;  and  yet 
How  clay  shrinks  back  from  more  quiescent  day ! 

Byron. 
No,  my  gallant  boy  ; 

Death  is  upon  me.     But  what  is  one  life  ? 

The  Bourbon's  spirit  shall  command  them  still. 

Keep  them  yet  ignorant  that  I  am  but  clay, 

Till  they  are  conquerors,  then  do  as  ye  may. 

Id.   Deformed  Transformed. 

CLAY,  in  natural  history,  is  a  kind  of  earth 
to  which  chemists  formerly  gave  the  name  of  ar- 
gilla,  or  argillaceous  earth,  but  which,  in  the  new 
chemical  nomenclature,  is  called  alumina.  See 
CHEMISTRY. 

CLAYS  may  be  easily  diffused  and  suspended 
in  water,  but  are  not  soluble  in  any  sensible  de- 
gree. The  sudden  application  of  strong  heat 
hardens  their  external  parts,  which  afterwards 
burst  by  the  expansion  of  the  moisture  within. 
By  a  more  gradual  heat  pure  clay  contracts  very 
much,  becomes  hard,  and  full  of  cracks  or  fis- 
sures. The  presence  of  silicious  earth  in  com- 
mon clays,  where  it  usually  constitutes  above 
half  the  weight,  renders  the  contraction  more 
uniform  throughout,  and  prevents  the  cracks ; 
probably  in  no  other  way  than  by  rendering 
them  more  numerous,  and  too  small  to  be  per- 
ceived. When  thus  baked,  it  constitutes  all 
the  varieties  of  bricks,  pottery,  and  porcelain. 
These,  if  baked  in  a  strong  heat,  give  fire  with 
steel ;  a  property  that  may  be  attributed  to  the 
silicious  earth  they  contain,  which  cannot  act  on 
the  steel  unless  firmly  set  in  the  hardened  clay. 
Baked  clay  is  no  longer  kneadable  with  water, 
though  as  finely  pulverised  as  mechanical  means 
can  go.  Hence  it  has  been  inferred,  that  clays 
owe  their  ductility  to  a  kind  of  gluten,  which 
is  supposed  to  be  dissipated  by  heat.  They  re- 
cover that  property,  however,  by  a  solution  in 
an  acid  and  precipitation ;  whence  it  should 
seem  to  depend  either  on  a  minute  portion  of 
acid  contained  in  clays^  or  the  smallness  of  the 
particles  when  precipitated.  Clays  are  of  very 
extensive  use.  Some  varieties  of  the  porcelain 
clay  become  perfectly  white  in  the  fire.  The 
indurated  porcelain  clay,  however,  cannot  be 
easily  heated  without  cracking  ;  and  therefore  we 
can  go  no  great  length  in  hardening  it.  The 
boles  have  lost  their  value  as  medicines  ;  but  are 
still  employed  to  make  bricks,  potter's  ware,  &c. 
Tripoli  is  of  indispensable  use  in  polishing,  and 
is  likewise,  on  many  occasions,  used  for  making 
moulds  to  cast  metals  in.  In  agriculture,  clay  is 
indispensably  necessary ;  excepting,  however, 
according  to  Cronstadt,  the  white  and  ferment- 
ing clays  above  mentioned,  for  which  no  use  has 
yet  been  discovered.  By  its  coherence,  clay  re- 
tains humidity;  on  which  peihaps  its  chief 
power  of  promoting  vegetation  depeuda.  Dr. 
Black  observes,  that  clay,  when  mixed  with  a 
large  proportion  of  water,  and  kneaded  a  little, 
becomes  a  remarkably  ductile  adhesive  mass, 
which  is  not  easily  dissolved  in  more  water,  and, 
to  render  it  thin  and  fluid,  requires  great  trouble. 


Hence  it  is  employed  for  confining  large  quanti- 
ties of  water,  as  in  making  canals  and  dykes  : 
but  the  soil  must  either  contain  a  great  quantity 
of  clay  naturally,  or  some  quantity  of  it  must  be 
spread  on  the  bottom ;  or  the  water  itself  must 
deposit  a  quantity  of  clay  sufficient  to  render  it 
tight.  Hence  also  we  see  the  bad  effects  of  allow- 
ing cattle  to  tread  much  on  clay  grounds  when 
wet ;  for  the  clay  is  reduced  to  such  an  adhe- 
sive mass,  as  not  to  admit  the  roots  to  penetrate 
the  soil,  or  the  water  to  enter  to  the  roots.  Clay 
is  used  in  the  refining  of  sugar,  for  which  no 
other  property  is  requisite  than  that  it  may  not 
dry  too  soon ;  but  that  species  used  in  fulling, 
must,  if  we  were  to  judge  a  priori,  besides  the 
fineness  of  its  particles,  be  of  a  dry  nature,  or 
such  as  attracts  oils ;  though  this  quality  perhaps 
may  not  be  found  in  all  those  clays  that  are  now 
employed  in  the  business.  According  to  Fa- 
broni,  the  pure  white  clay,  being  calcined  in  a 
strong  heat,  acquires  a  phosphorescent  quality. 

CLAYES,  n.  s.  Fr.  clai/e.  In  fortification, 
wattles  made  with  stakes  interwoven  with  osiers, 
to  cover  lodgments. 

CLAYTON  (Dr.  Robert,  F.  R.S.)  a  learned 
prelate  of  the  last  century,  was'advanced  to  the 
bishopric  of  Killala,  January  23d,  1 729  ;  trans- 
lated to  the  see  of  Cork,  December  19th,  1735  ; 
to  that  of  Clogher,  August  26th,  1745  ;  and  died 
much  lamented,  February  25th,  1758.  His  pub- 
lications are  :  1.  A  Letter  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions,  No.  461,  p.  813,  giving  an  account 
of  a  Frenchman  seventy  years  old  (at  Inishanan, 
in  his  diocese  of  Cork,)  who  gave  suck  to  a 
child.  2.  The  Chronology  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 
vindicated,  &c.  1751,4to.  3.  An  Impartial  En- 
quiry into  the  Time  of  the  coming  of  the  Mes- 
siah, 1751,  8vo.  4.  An  Essay  on  Spirit,  1751, 
8vo.  5.  A  Vindication  of  the  Histories  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  in  Answer  to  the  Ob- 
jections of  the  late  lord  Bolingbroke,  1752,  8vo. 
reprinted  in  1753.  6.  A  Defence  of  the  Essay 
on  Spirit,  with  Remarks  on  the  several  pretended 
Answers ;  and  which  may  serve  as  an  Antidote 
against  all  that  shall  ever  appear  against  it,  1753, 
8vo.  7.  A  Journal  from  Grand  Cairo  to  Mount 
Sinai,  and  back  again,  translated  from  a  MS. 
written  by  the  Prefetto  of  Egypt,  in  company 
with  some  missionaries  de  propagandfi  fide  at 
Grand  Cairo  ;  to  which  are  added,  Remarks  on 
the  Origin  of  Hieroglyphics,  and  the  Mythology 
of  the  ancient  Heathen,  1753,  4to.  and  8vo. 

8.  Some   thoughts  on   Self-love,  Innate  Ideas, 
Freewill,  Taste,  Sentiments,  Liberty,  and  Neces- 
sity, &c.    occasioned  by   reading  Mr.   Hume's 
Works,  and  the  short  Treatise  written  in  French 
by  lord  Bolingbroke  on  Compassion,  1754,  8vo. 

9.  A  Vindication  of  the  histories  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament,  Part  II.  1754,  8vo.      10.  Let- 
ters between   the  bishop   of  Clogher  and  Mr. 
William  Penn,  concerning  Baptism,  1755,  8vo. 
11.  A  Speech  made  in  the  House  of  Lords  in 
Ireland,  on  Monday,  February  2d,  1756,  for  omit- 
ting the  Nicene  and  Athanasian  Creeds  out  of 
the  Liturgy,  &c.  1756,  8vo.     12.  A  Vindication, 
Part  III.   1768,  8vo.     The  three   parts   of  the 
Vindication,  with  the  Essay  on  Spirit,  were  re- 
printed by  Mr.  Bowyer,  in  1  vol,  8vo.  1759,  with 
notes  and  an  index. 

3C  2 


CLE 


756 


CLE 


CLAYTONIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants  , 
natural  order  thirteenth,  succulentce :  CAL.  bi- 
valved :  COR.  pentapetalous :  STIG.  trifid : 
CAPS,  trivalved,  unilocular,  and  trispermous. 
Species  three,  natives  of  America.  They  are 
very  low  herbaceous  plants,  with  white  flowers ; 
and  are  possessed  of  no  remarkable  property. 

CLAZOMENA,  or  CLAZOMEN.E,  one  of  the 
twelve  ancient  cities  of  Ionia,  situated  near  Co- 
lophon. The  city  was  small,  its  port  on  the 
N.N.W.  side  of  the  island.  Traces  of  the  walls 
are  found  by  the  sea;  and  on  a  hill  are  vestiges 
of  a  theatre.  A  hovel  or  two  made  with  stones 
piled,  are  all  the  present  structures ;  and  these 
are  chiefly  frequented  by  fishermen,  and  by  per- 
sons employed  to  drive  away  birds  when  the 
grain  ripens.  Clazomenae  was  the  birth  place 
of  Anaxagoras. 

CLEAN,  adj.,  v.a.Sa  adv.^    Sax.  cloen,  which 
CLE'ANLILY,  adv.  I  does  not  appear, 

CLE'ANLINESS,  n.  s.  V  says  Thomson,  to 

CTJE'ANLY,  adj.  &udv.       I  have  any  cognate 
CLE'ANNESS,  n.  s.  J  unless  it  be  hlam ; 

Teut.  Swed.  and  Bel.  kkin,  thin,  slender,  small ; 
whence  Bel.  kleinzen,  to  purify  liquor ;  to  make 
it  thin,  in  opposition  to  thick.  Our  word  fine  is 
also  thin,  small,  pure,  bright;  but  the  Sax. word 
may  have  been  confounded  with  gloen ;  Swed. 
glan  ;  Welch,  glan,  bright,  fair,  pure,  neat,  cor- 
responding with  clear.  The  word,  in  all  its  ap- 
plications and  derivatives,  signifies  free  from 
dirt  or  filth,  pure.  It  is  applied  to  anything 
that  is  elegant  either  in  form  or  act ;  to  whatever 
is  nice ;  neatness  in  shape  oj  construction,  and 
dexterity  in  execution,  is  called  clean ;  metapho- 
rically applied  to  the  absence  of  moral  impurity  ; 
to  what  is  chaste,  guiltless  and  innocent  To  be 
clean  is  also  to  be  free  from  the  taint  of  any  le- 
prous or  loathsome  disease.  To  clean  anything 
is  to  underlie  it.  The  adjectives  are  employed 
by  the  older  writers  to  signify  perfectly,  fully, 
completely :  but  in  this  sense  are  now  obsolete. 

If  the  plague  be  somewhat  dark,  and  spread  not  in 
the  skin  the  priest  shall  pronounce  him  clean. 

Leviticus. 
He  that  hath  clean  hands  and  a  pure  heart. 

Psalms. 
Create  in  me  a  clean  heart,  O  God !  Id. 

They  make  clean  the  outside  of  the  cup  and  of  the 
platter,  but  within  they  are  full  of  extortion  and  ex- 
cess. Matthew. 

Therefore  we  mendiants  we  sely  freres, 
Ben  wedded  to  poverte  and  continence, 
To  charitee,  humblesse,  and  abstinence. 
To  persecution  for  rightwisnesse, 
To  weping  misericorde,  and  to  clenenessc. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 
The  clenenesse  and  the  fasting  of  us  freres, 
Making  that  Crist  accepteth  our  praieres.  Id. 

Through  his  fine  handling,  and  his  cleanly  play, 
All  those  royal  signs  had  stole  away.  Spenser. 

Both  his  hands,  most  filthy  feculent, 
Above  the  water  were1  on  high  extent, 
And  feined  to  wash  themselves  incessantly  ; 
Yet  nothing  cleaner  were  for  such  intent, 
But  rather  fouler.  Id.     Faerie  Queene. 

Their  actions  have  been  clean  contrary  unto  those 
lefore  mentioned.  Hooker. 


Being  seated,  and  domestick  broils 
Clean  overblown.  SJiakspeare* 

If  I  do  grow  great,  I'll  leave  sack,  and  live  cleanly, 
as  a  nobleman  should.  Id.  Henry  IV. 

He  shewed  no  strength  in  shaking  of  his  staff,  but 
the  fine  cleanness  of  bearing  it  was  delightful.  Sidney. 
The  mistress  thought  it  either  not  to   deserve,  or 
not  to  need,  any  exquisite  decking,  having  no  adorn- 
ing but  cleanliness.  Id. 
The  timber  and  wood  are  in  some  trees  more  clean, 
in  some  more  knotty.              Bacon's  Natural  History. 
Perhaps  human  nature  meets  few  more  sweetly  re- 
lishing and  cleanly  joys,  than  those  that  derive  from 
successful  trials.                                                 Glanville. 

Next  that  shall  mountain  'sparagus  be  laid, 
Pulled  by  some  plain  but  cleanly  country  maid. 

Dryden. 

In  our  fantastick  climes,  the  fair 
With  cleanly  powder  dry  their  hair.  Prior. 

An  ant  is  a  very  cleanly  insect,  and  throws  out  of 
her  nest,  all  the  small  remains  of  the  corn  on  which 
she  feeds.  Addition. 

I  shall  speak  nothing  of  the  extent  of  this  city,  the 
cleanliness  of  its  streets,  nor  the  beauty  of  its  piazza. 

Id. 

The  cleanness  and  purity  of  one's  mind  is  never  bet- 
ter proved  than  in  discovering  its  own  faults  at  first 
view.  Pope, 

Pope  came  off  deem  with  Homer  ;  but  they  say 
Broome  went  befoie,  and  kindly  swept  the  way. 

Henley. 

Through  winter  streets  to  steer  your  course  aright, 
How  to  walk  dean  by  day,  and  safe  by  night, 
How  jostling  crowds  with  prudence  to  decline, 
When  to  assert  the  wall,  and  when  resign, 
I  sing.  Gay. 

Their  tribes  adjusted,  cleaned  their  vigorous  wings, 
And  many  a  circle,  many  a  short  essay, 
Wheeled  round  and  round.  Thomson 

Examine  well 

His  milk-white  hand  is  hardly  clean, — 
But  here  and  there  an  ugly  smutch  appears. 

Cowper. 

The  dingy  denizens  are  reared  in  dirt ; 
No  personage  of  high  or  mean  degree 
Doth  care  for  cleanness  of  surtout  or  shirt, 
Though  shent  with   Egypt's  plague,  unkempt,  un- 
washed, unhurt.  Byron.      Childe  Harold. 
CLEANSE,  v.  a.  l      Sax.  claenpan.    To  free 
CLE'ANSEE,  n.  s.   i  from  filth  or  dirt,  by  wash- 
ing or  rubbing ;  to  purify  from  guilt ;  to  free 
from  noxious  humors  by  purgation ;  to  free  from 
cutaneous  and  loathsome  disease ;  to  scour  ;  to 
rid  of  all  offensive  things. 

The  blueness  of  a  wound  cleanseth  away  evil. 

Proverbs. 

Show  thyself  to  the  priest,  and  offer  for  thy  clean- 
sing those  things  which  Moses  commanded. 

Mark,  i.  44. 

Canst  thou  not  minister  to  a  mind  diseased, 
And,  with  some  sweet  oblivious  antidote, 
Cleanse  the  stuffed  bosom  of  that  perilous  stuff 
Which  weighs  upon  the  heart  ?  Shahspeare. 

Not  all  her  odorous  tears  can  cleanse  her  crime, 
The  plant  alone  deforms  the  happy  clime.      Dryden. 

Cleanse  the  pale  corps  with  a  religious  hand 
From  the  polluting  weed  and  common  sand.       Prior. 
This  oil,  combined  with  its  own  salt  and  sugar, 
makes  it  saponaceous  and  cleansing,  by  which  quality 
it  often  helps  digestion,  and  excites  appetite. 

Arbuthnot  on  Aliments. 


OLE 


757 


GLE 


If  there  happens  an  imposthume,  honey,  and  even 
noney  of  roses,  taken  inwardly,  is  a  good  cleanser.  Id. 

Those  baits  will  test  reward  the  fisher's  pains, 
Whose  polished  tails  a  shining  yellow  stains  ; 
Cleanse  them  from  filth  to  give  a  tempting  gloss, 
Cherish  the  sallied  reptile  race  with  moss. 

Gay's  Rural  Sports. 

CLEANTHES,  a  stoic  philosopher,  a  dis- 
ciple of  Zeno,  flourished  A.  A.  C.  240.  He 
maintained  himself  in  the  day  by  working  in 
the  night;  being  questioned  by  the  magistrates 
how  he  subsisted,  he  brought  a  woman  for  whom 
he  kneaded  bread,  and  a  gardener  for  whom  he 
drew  water ;  and  refused  a  present  from  them. 
He  composed  several  works,  of  which  there  are 
now  only  a  few  fragments  remaining. 

CLEAR,  v.  n.,  adj.  &  adv.~]      French,  claire ; 

CLE'ARANCE,  n.  s.  I  Swedish,     klar  ; 

CLE'ARER,  n.  s.  [from  Lat.  clams. 

CLE'ARLY,  adv.  [Bright;  manifest; 

CLE'ARNESS,  n.  s.  pure;  free.  Very 

CLE'AR-SIGHTED.  J  numerous  are  its 

applications,  most  of  them  retaining  the  primi- 
tive sense ;  others  varying  but  slightly.  It  is 
opposed  to  whatever  is  dark,  opaque,  nebulous, 
or  cloudy;  applied  to  objects,  it  conveys  the 
idea  of  pellucid,  transparent,  luminous,  simple, 
unmixed,  serene,  unincumbered  ;  free,  as  empty 
space.  To  subjects,  it  signifies  that  which  is 
perspicuous,  unambiguous,  indisputable  ;  evi- 
dent, undeniable,  apparent,  manifest ;  free  from 
deductions.  To  the  human  mind,  it  means 
whatever  is  perspicuous,  sharp,  acute,  quick  of 
apprehension,  unprepossessed,  impartial.  To 
the  disposition,  cheerful ;  free  from  distress.  To 
the  character,  unspotted,  guiltless,  irreproach- 
able. Applied  to  sound,  it  signifies  sounding 
distinctly,  plainly,  articulately.  The  verb  has 
all  these  applications,  and,  in  addition,  it  means 
to  make  pure ;  to  resolve  a  compound  into  its 
simple  elements;  to  clarify,  as  liquors.  To 
clear  is  also  to  grow  bright,  transparent,  &c.  &c. 

Clere  was  the  day  (as  I  have  told  or  this) ; 
And  Theseus,  with  alle  joye  and  blis  j 
With  his  Ipolita,  the  fayre  queen  ; 
And  Emelie,  yclothed  all  in  grene  ; 
On  hunting  ben  they  ridden  really. 

Chaucer.     Canterbury  Tales. 

Mysteries  of  grace  and  salvation,  which  •were  but 
darkly  disclosed  unto  them,  have  unto  us  more  clearly 
shined.  Hooker. 

Whereof  conceiving  shame  and  foul  disgrace, 
Albe  her  guiltless  conscience  her  cleared, 
She  fled  into  the  wilderness  a  space, 
Till  that  unweeldly  burden  she  had  reard, 
And  shund  dishonour,  which  as  death  she  feard. 

Spenser* 

Leucippe,  of  whom  one  look,  in  a  clear  judgment, 
would  have  been  more  acceptable  than  all  her  kind- 
ness so  prodigally  bestowed.  Sidney. 

Love,  more  clear  than  yourself,  with  the  clearness, 
lays  a  night  of  sorrow  upon  me.  Id. 

Duncan  has  been  so  clear  in  his  great  office. 

Shakspeare. 

Think  that  the  clearest  gods,  who  make  them  ho- 
nours 

Of  men's  impossibilities,  have  preserved  thee.         Id . 
So  foul  a  sky  clears  not  without  a  storm.  Id. 


My  hands  are  of  your  colour ;  but  I  shame 
To  wear  a  heart  so  white  : 

A  little  water  clears  us  of  this  deed.  la 

Finding  ourselves  too  slow  of  sail,  we  put  en  a 
compelled  valour,  and  in  the  grapple  1  boarded  them  : 
on  the  instant  they  got  clear  of  our  ship.  Id. 

There  is  almost  no  man  but  sees  clearlier  and  shar- 
per the  vices  in  a  speaker  than  the  virtues. 

Ben  Jonscxi. 

By  a  certain  day  they  should  clearly  relinquish 
unto  the  king  all  their  lands  and  possessions. 

Davies  on  Ireland. 

He  that  doth  not  divide,  will  never  enter  into 
business ;  and  he  that  divideth  too  much,  will  never 
come  out  of  it  clearly.  Bacon's  Essays. 

He  that  clean  at  once,  will  relapse  ;  for,  finding 
himself  out  of  straits,  he  will  revert  to  his  customs  • 
but  he  that  cleareth  by  degrees,  induceth  a  habit  of 
frugality,  and  gaincth  as  well  upon  his  mind  as  upon 
his  estate.  /^. 

Glass  in  the  furnace  grows  to  a  greater  magnitude, 
and  refines  to  a  greater  clearness,  only  as  the  breath 
within  is  more  powerful,  and  the  heat  more  intense. 

Id. 

When  the  case  required  dissimulation,  if  they  used 
it,  the  former  opinion  spread  abroad,  of  their  good 
faith  and  clearness  of  dealing,  made  them  almost  in- 
vincible. Id. 

Now  clear  I  understand 

What  oft  my  steadiest  thoughts  have  searched  in  vain. 

Hilton. 

The  hemisphere  of  earth,  in  clearest  ken, 
Stretched  out  to  the  amplest  reach  of  prospect  lay.  Id. 

Michael  from  Adam's  eyes  the  film  removed. 
Which  that  false  fruit,  that  promised  clearer  sight,. 
Had  bred.  Id. 

Remained  to  our  almighty  foe 
Clear  victory  ;  to  our  part  loss,  and  rout 
Through  all  the  empyrean.  Id. 

Your  eyes,  that  seem  so  clear, 
Yet  are  but  dim,  shall  perfectly  be  then 
Opened  and  cleared.  Id. 

And  the  clear  sun  on  his  wide  watery  glass 
Gazed  hot.  Id. 

Mother  of  science,  now  I  feel  thy  power 
Within  me  dear,  not  only  to  discern 
Things  in  their  causes,  but  to  trace  the  ways 
Of  highest  agents,  deemed  however  wise.  Id. 

Sternly  he  pronounced 
The  rigid  interdiction,  which  resounds 
Yet  dreadful  in  mine  ear,  though  in  my  choice 
Not  to  incur ;  but  soon  his  clear  aspect 
Returned,  and  gracious  purpose  thus  renewed.    Id. 

Clearsighted  reason  wisdom's  judgment  leads, 
And  sense,  her  vassal,  in  her  footsteps  treads. 

Denham. 

The  stream  is  so  transparent,  pure,  and  clear, 
That,  had  the  self-enamoured  youth  gazed  here, 
He  but  the  bottom,  not  his  face,  had  seen.         Id. 
The  sun  much  brighter,  and  the  sky  more  clear, 
He  finds  the  air  and  all  things  sweeter  here. 

Marvell, 
When  magpies   and   parrots   cry,  '  walk,    knaves, 

walk !' 

It  is  a  clear  proof  that  birds,  too,  may  talk.  Id. 

Whatever,  a  foreigner,   who  purchases  land  here, 

gives  for  it,  it  is  so  much  every  farthing  clear  gain  to 

the  nation  ;  for  that  money  comes  clear  in,  without 

carrying  out  anything  for  it.  Locke. 

Though  the  peripatctick  philosophy  has  beeu  most 

eminent   in    .ts  way,   yet   other  sects  have  not  bceu 

wholly  clear  of  it.  Id. 


OLE 


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Many  men  reason  exceeding  dear  and  rightly,  who 

know  not  how  to  make  a  syllogism.  Locke. 

None  is  so  fit  to  correct  their  faults,  as  he  who  is 

clear  from  any  in  his  own  writings.  Dryden. 

When,  in  the  knot  of  the  play,  no  other  way  is  left 

for  the  discovery,  then  let  a  god  descend,  and  dear 

the  business  to  the  audience.  Id. 

To  dear  herself, 

For  sending  him  no  aid,  she  came  from  Egypt.  Id. 
I  will  appeal  to  the  reader,  I  am  sure  he  will  dear 
me  from  partiality.  Id. 

When  vou  are  examining  these  matters,  do  not 
take  into  consideration  any  sensual  or  worldly  inte- 
rest ;  but  deal  dearly  and  impartially  with  youselves. 

Tillotion. 

How  !  wouldst  thou  dear  rebellion  ?         Addison. 
Gold  is  a  wonderful  dearer  of  the  understanding  : 
it  dissipates  every  doubt  and  scruple  in  an  instant.  Id. 
A  statute  lies  hid  in  a  block  of  marble  ;  and   the 
art  of  the  statuary  only  dears  away  the  superfluous 
matter,  and  removes  the  rubbish.          Id.     Spectator. 
If  he  chances  to  think  right,  he  does  not  know  how 
to  convey  his  thoughts  to  another  with  clearness  and 
perspicuity.  Id. 

He  dears  but  two  hundred  thousand  crowns  a  year, 
after  having  defrayed  all  the  charges  of  working  the 
salt.  Id. 

I  much  approved  of  my  friend's  insisting  upon  the 
qualifications  of  a  good  aspect  and  a  clear  voice.  Id. 
Our  common  prints  would  dear  up  their  under- 
standing, and  animate  their  minds  with  virtue. 

Id.   Spectator. 

Multitudes  will  furnish  a  double  proportion  towards 
the  clearing  of  that  expense.  Id.  Freeholder. 

Hark !  the  numbers  soft  and  dear 
Gently  steal  upon  the  ear  ; 
Now  louder  and  yet  louder  rise, 
And  fill  with  spreading  sounds  the  skies      Pope. 
The  cruel  corporal  whispered  in  my  ear, 
Five  pounds,  if  rightly  tipt,  would  set  me  clear.  Gay. 

Now,  sporting  muse,  draw  in  the  flowing  reins, . 
Leave  the  dear  streams  awhile  for  sunny  plains. 

Gay1*  Rural  Sports. 

Augustus,  to  establish  the  dominion  of  the  seas, 
rigged  out  a  powerful  navy  to  dear  it  of  the  pirates  of 
Malta.  Arbuthnot. 

Christianity  first  dearly  proved  this  noble  and  im- 
portant truth  to  the  world.  Rogers. 

Simplkity  apace 

Tempers  his  rage  j  he  owns  her  charms  divine, 
And  clears  the'  ambiguous  phrase,  and  lops  the'  un- 
wieldy line.  Beattie. 
And  her  brow  cleared,  but  not  her  troubled  eye  ; 
The  wind  was  down,  but  still  the  sea  ran  high.  Byron. 

CLEARCHUS,  a  Lacedaemonian,  who  was 
sent  to  quiet  the  Byzantines ;  but  being  recalled, 
refused  to  obey,  and  fled  to  Cyrus  the  younger, 
who  gave  him  the  command  of  13,000  Greek 
soldiers.  He  obtained  a  victory  over  Artaxerxes, 
who  was  so  enraged  at  the  defeat,  that  when 
Clearchus  fell  into  his  hands  by  the  treachery  of 
Tissaphernes,  he  put  him  immediately  to  death. 
Also  a  tyrant  of  Heraclea  in  Pontus,  who  was 
killed  by  Chion  and  Leonidas,  Plato's  pupils, 
during  the  celebration  of  the  festivals  of  Bac- 
chus. He  had  enjoyed  the  sovereign  power 
twelve  years. 

CLEAR'STARCH,  v.  a.;~  from  clear  and  starch. 
To  stiffen  with  starch. 

He  took  his  present  lodging  at  the  mansion-house 
of  a  tailor's  widow,  who  washes  and  can  clearstarch, 
his  builds.  Addition. 


CLEATS,  in  naval  affairs,  pieces  of  wood 
having  one  or  two  projecting  ends  whereby  to 
fasten  the  ropes :  some  of  them  are  fastened  to 
the  shrouds  below  for  this  purpose,  and  others 
nailed  to  different  places  of  the  ship's  deck  or 
sides. 

Belaying  Cleat,  fig.  1.  is  formed  with  two 
arms,  one  on  each  side  the  centre  or  middle 
part,  and  nailed  or  bolted  to  the  side,  for  the 
purpose  of  belayingthe  running-rigging  to. 

Mast  Cleat,  fig.  2,  is  made  with  a  score,  to 
admit  a  seizing,  a  long  hole  in  the  centre,  for 
an  under  seizing,  and  two  round  holes,  by  which 
the  seizing  may  be  crossed. 

fig.  1. 


Shroud  Cleat,  fig.  3.  is  formed  like  the  belay- 
ing cleats,  having  two  arms,  the  remaining  part 
being  straight,  and  grooved  on  the  edge.  Jt  has 
scores  cut  towards  the  extremity  for  the  seizings 
to  lie  in,  which  are  naked,  and  a  groove  in  the 
part  where  the  shroud  lies. 

CLEAVE,  v.n.  kv.  a.     ~)      Pret.   I   clave; 
CLE'AVER,  n.  s.  >  Sax.  eleonan ;  Dut 

CLEFT,  n.  s.  &  part.  past,  j  kleven ;  preter.  I 
clove,  I  clave,  I  cleft ;  part.  pass,  cloven  or  cleft  -r 
Sax.  cleojtan ;  Dutch,  kloven.  No  senses  can  be 
more  opposite  than  of  these  verbs.  The  neuter 
signifies  to  adhere;  to  stick;  to  hold  to;  to 
unite  aptly;  to  fit;  to  be  concomitant;  to  be 
united  with ;  to  unite  in  concord  and  interest. 
The  other  is  applied  to  dividing  with  violence  ; 
splitting  forcibly  into  pieces.  It  is  also  used  for 
the  act  of  naturally  dividing;  parting  naturally. 
It  is  used  in  the  neuter  sense,  and  signifies  to 
part  asunder  and  to  suffer  division.  The  cleaver 
is  the  instrument  used  for  cleaving ;  a  butchers' 
utensil  for  cutting  animals  into  joints.  There  is 
a  plant  so  called  from  its  adhering  quality.  Ape- 
rine  or  goose-grass.  Cleft,  the  noun,  is  the 
chasm  made  fty  cleaving,  or  separating. 

And  every  beast  that  parteth  the  hoof,  and  deaveth 
the  deft  into  two  claws.  Deuteronomy. 

He  stroke  so  hugely  with  borrowed  blade, 
That  it  cmpiest  the  pagan's  burganet ; 
And,  cleaving  the  hard  steele,  did  deep  invade 
Into  his  head,  and  cruel  passage  made 
Quite  through  his  brayne.  Spenser. 

Full  of  ficrs  fury  and  indignant  hate 
To  him  he  turned  and  with  vigour  fell, 
Smote  him  so  rudely  on  the  pannikell, 
That  to  the  chin  he  clefte  his  head  in  twaine.  Id. 

We  cannot  imagine,  that,  in  breeding  or  begetting 
faith,  his  grace  doth  deave  to  the  one,  and  forsake  the 
other.  Uuokcr- 


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759 


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The  apostles  did  conform  the  Christians  according 
to  the  pattern  of  the  Jews,  and  made  them  cleave  the 
better.  Hooker. 

New  honours  come  upon  him 

Like  our  strange  garments,  cleave  not  to  the  mould, 
But  with  the  aid  of  use.  Shakspeare. 

Wars  'twixt  you  twain,  would  be 
As  if  the  world  should  cleave,  and  that  slain  men 
Should  solder  up  the  rift  Id. 

If  you  shall  cleave  to  my  consent  when  'tis, 
It  shall  make  honour  for  you.  Id. 

The  clarifying  of  liquors  by  adhesion,  is   effected 
when  some  cleaving  body  is  mixed  with  the  liquors, 
whereby  the  grosser  part  sticks  to  that  cleaving  liody. 
Bacon's  Natural  Ifistury. 

Water,  in  small  quantity,  deaveth  to  anything  that 
is  solid.  Id. 

Fat  with  incense  strewed 
On  the  cleft  wood.  Milton. 

And  at  their  passing  cleave  the  Assyrian  flood.     Id. 

never  did  on  cleft  Parnassus  dream, 
Nor  taste  the  sacred  Heliconian  stream.  Dryden. 

The  blessed  minister  his  wings  displayed, 

And,  like  a  sheoting-star,  he  cleft  the  night.         Id. 

Raised  on  her  dusky  wings  she  cleaves  the  sky.     Id. 

The  fountains  of  it  arc  said  to  have  been  cloven,  or 
burst  open.  Burnet's  Theory  of  the  Earth. 

It  cleaves  with  a  glossy  polite  substance,  not  plain, 
but  with  some  little  unevenness.  Newton's  Optics. 

Though  armed  with  all  thy  cleavers,  knives, 
And  axes  made  to  hew  down  lives.  Hwlibras. 

The  cascades  seem  to  break  through  the  clefts  and 
cracks  of  rocks.  Addison's  Guardian. 

The  extremity  of  this  cape  has  a  long  cleft  in  it, 
which  was  enlarged  and  cut  into  shape  by  Agrippa, 
who  made  this  the  great  port  of  the  Roman  fleet. 

Id.  on  Italy. 

Now,  when  the  height  of  heaven  bright   '  Phoebus 

gains,' 

And  level  rays  cleave  wide  the  thirsty  plains, 
When  heifers  seek  the  shade  and  cooling  lake, 
And  in  the  middle  path-way  basks  the  snake, 
O  lead  me,  guard  me  from  the  sultry  hours  ! 
Hide  me,  ye  forests,  in  your  closest  bowers.  Gay. 

You  gentlemen  keep  a  parcel  of  roaring  bullu  s 
about  me  day  and  night,  with  huzzas  and  hunting 
horns,  and  ringing  the  changes  on  butchers'  cleavers. 

Arbuthnot. 

Now  where  the  swift  Rhone  cleaves  his  way  between 
Heights,  which  appear  as  lovers  who  have  parted 

In  hate,  who  mining  depths  so  intervene, 
That  they  can  meet  no  more  though  broken  hearted. 

Byron. 

CLEAVER  (William),  D.  D.  late  bishop  of 
St.  Asaph,  was  born  in  1742,  at  Twyford,  Bucks, 
where  his  father,  also  a  clergyman,  kept  a  re- 
spectable seminary.  He  entered  the  university 
of  Oxford,  on  a  demyship  at  Magdalen  College, 
but  soon  after  removed,  upon  a  fellowship,  to 
Brazennose,  and  was  appointed  tutor  to  Richard, 
marquis  of  Buckingham,  through  whose  in- 
terest he  was  presented,  in  1784,  with  a  preben- 
dal  stall  at  Westminster.  The  following  year 
he  was  chosen  principal  of  Brazennose  College  ; 
and  raised  to  the  bench,  in  1787,  as  bishop  of 
Chester.  In  1800  he  was  translated  to  the  see 
of  Bangor  ;  and  six  years  after  to  that  of  Saint 
Asaph.  His  theological  works  consist  of  Ob- 
servations on  Herbert  Marsh's  Dissertation  on 
the  Gospels  of  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke; 
Directions  to  the  Clergy  on  the  Choice  of  Books ; 
and  some  volumes  of  occasional  sermons.  lie 


also  edited  the  Oxford  Homer,  published  \\i\far 
the  auspices  of  the  Grenville  family.  He  died 
much  respected  in  1815. 

CLECIIE,  in  heraldry,  a  kind  of  cross, 
charged  with  another  cross  of  the  same  figure, 
but  of  the  color  of  the  field. 

CLEDER,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Finisterre,  and  chief  place  of  a  canton., 
in  the  district  of  Lesneven,  four  miles  and  a 
quarter  west  of  St.  Pol  de  Leon. 

CLEDGE,  among  miners,  denotes  the  upper 
stratum  of  Fullers'  earth. 

CLEDONISMUS,  or  CLEDONISM,  a  kind  of 
divination  in  use  among  the  ancients.  The  word 
is  formed  from  K\i]St<>v,  which  signifies  two 
tilings ;  a  report  and  a  bird.  In  the  first  sense 
cledonism  denotes  a  kind  of  divination  drawn 
from  words  occasionally  uttered.  In  the  second 
sense  it  is  a  divination  drawn  from  birds ;  the 
same  with  ornithomantia. 

CLEES,  n.  s.  The  two  parts  of  the  foot  of 
beasts  which  are  cloven-footed.  It  is  a  country 
word,  and  probably  corrupted  from  claws. 

CLEF,  n.  s.  from  Fr.  clef,  key.  In  music  a 
mark  at  the  beginning  of  the  lines  of  a  song, 
which  shews  the  tone  or  key  in  which  the  piece 
is  to  begin. 

CLEF,  in  music,  a  mark  at  the  beginning  of 
the  lines  of  a  piece,  which  expresses  the  funda- 
mental sound  in  the  diatonic  scale,  which  requires 
a  determined  succession  of  tones  and  semitones, 
whether  major  or  minor,  peculiar  to  the  note 
whence  we  set  out  and  resulting  from  its  position 
in  the  scale.  Hence,  as  it  opens  a  way  to  this 
succession,  and  discovers  it,  the  technical  term 
key  is  used  with  great  propriety.  But  clefs  ra- 
ther point  out  the  position  of  different  musical 
parts  in  the  general  system,  and  the  relations 
which  they  bear  to  one  another.  A  clef,  says 
Rousseau,  is  a  character  in  music  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  a  stave  to  determine  the  degree  of 
elevation  occupied  by  that  stave  in  the  general 
claviary  or  system,  and  to  point  out  the  names 
of  all  the  notes  which  it  contains  in  the  line  of 
that  clef.  Anciently  the  letters  by  which  the 
notes  of  the  gamut  were  signified  were  called 
clefs.  Thus  the  letter  A  was  the  clef  of  the  note 
la,  C  the  clef  of  ut,  E  the  clef  of  mi,  &c.  In 
proportion  as  the  system  was  extended  the  em- 
barrassment and  superfluity  of  this  multitude  of 
clefs  were  felt.  Gui  d'  Arezzo,  who  had  invented 
them,  marked  a  letter  or  clef  at  the  beginning  of 
each  line  in  the  stave ;  for  as  yet  he  had  placed 
no  notes  in  the  spaces.  In  process  of  time  they 
marked  only  one  of  the  seven  clefs  at  the  begin- 
ning of  one  of  the  lines  only ;  and  this  was  suf- 
ficient to  fix  the  position  of  all  the  rest,  accord- 
ing to  their  natural  order :  at  last,  of  these  seven 
lines  or  clefs  they  selected  four,  which  were 
called  claves  signals,  or  discriminating  clefs,  be- 
cause they  satisfied  themselves  with  marking  one 
of  them  upon  one  of  the  lines,  from  which  the 
powers  of  all  the  others  might  be  recognis'ecl. 
Presently  afterwards  they  even  retrenched  one  of 
these,  viz.  the  gamma,  of  which  they  made  uso 
to  mark  the  sol  below,  that  is  to  say,  the  hypo- 
proslambanomene  added  to  the  system  of  the 
Greeks.  Kirchcr  asserts,  that  if  we  understood 
the  characters  in  uhich  ancient  music  was  writ- 


CLE 


760 


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ten,  and  examined  minutely  the  forms  of  our  clefs, 
we  should  find  that  each  of  them  represents  the 
Better,  a  little  altered  in  its  form,  by  which  the 
note  was  originally  named.  Thus  the  clef  of  sol 
was  originally  a  G,  the  clef  of  ut  a  C,  and  the 
clef  of  fa  an  F. 

.  We  have  then  three  clefs,  one  a  fifth  above  the 
other  ;  the  clef  of  F,  or  fa,  which  is  the  lowest ; 
the  clef  of  ut,  or  C,  which  is  a  fifth  above  the 
former ;  and  the  clef  of  sol,  or  G,  which  is  the 
fifth  above  that  of  ut.  By  an  ancient  practice, 
the  clef  is  always  placed  upon  a  line  and  never 
in  a  space.  The  clef  of  fa  is  marked  in  three 
different  ways :  one  in  music  which  is  printed, 
another  in  music  which  is  written  or  engraven, 
and  a  third  in  the  full  harmony  of  the  chorus. 
By  adding  four  lines  above  the  clef  of  sol,  and 
three  lines  beneath  the  clef  of  fa,  which  gives 
both  above  and  below  the  greatest  extent  of  per- 
manent or  established  lines,  it  appears  that  the 
whole  scale  of  notes  which  can  be  placed  upon 
the  gradations  relative  to  these  clefs  amounts  to 
twenty-four ;  that  is  to  say,  three  octaves  and  a 
fourth  from  the  F,  or  fa,  which  is  found  beneath 
the  first  line,  to  the  si  or  B,  which  is  found 
above  the  last,  and  all  this  together  forms  what 
we  call  the  general  claviary;  whence  we  may 
judge  that  this  compass  has,  for  a  long  time,  con- 
stituted the  extent  of  the  system.  But  as  at 
present  it  is  continually  acquiring  new  degrees, 
as  well  above  as  below,  the  degrees  are  marked 
by  leger  lines,  which  are  added  above  or  below 
as  occasion  requires. 

Whatever  may  be  the  character  and  genius  of 
any  voice  or  instrument,  if  its  extent  above  or 
below  does  not  surpass  that  of  the  general  clavi- 
ary, in  this  number  may  be  found  a  station  and 
a  clef  suitable  to  it ;  and  there  are,  in  reality, 
clefs  determined  for  all  the  parts  in  music.  If 
the  extent  of  a  part  is  very  considerable,  so  that 
the  number  of  lines  necessary  to  be  added  above 
or  below  may  become  inconvenient,  the  clef  is 
then  changed  in  the  course  of  the  music.  Jt 
may  be  plainly  perceived  by  the  figure  what  clef 
is  necessary  to  choose  for  raising  or  depressing 
any  part,  under  whatever  clef  it  may  be  actually 
placed.  It  will  likewise  appear  that,  in  order  to 
adjust  one  clef  to  another,  both  must  be  com- 
pared by  the  general  claviary,  by  means  of  which 
we  may  determine  what  every  note  under  one  of 
the  clefs  is  with  respect  to  the  other.  It  is  by 
this  exercise  repeated  that  we  acquire  the  habit 
of  reading  with  ease  all  the  parts  in  any  clef  what- 
ever. 

CLEFT,  n.  s.  in  farriery,  a  crack  in  a  horse's 
foot. 

His  horse  it  is  the  herald's  weft  ; 
No,  'tis  a  mare*  and  hath  a  cleft.         Ben  Jonson. 
Clefts  appear  on  the  bought  of  the  pasterns,  and  are 
caused  by  a  sharp  and  malignant  humour,  which  frets 
the   skin  ;  and  it   is  accompanied  with  pain,  and  a 
noisome  stench.  Farrier's  Dictionary. 

To  CLF/FTGRAFT,  v..a.  cleft  and  graft.  To 
engraft  by  cleaving  the  slock  of  a  tree,  and  in- 
serting a  branch. 

Filberts  may  be  clef/grafted  on  the  common  nut. 

Mortimer. 

CLEGHORN  (George),  a  celebrated  physi- 
cian of  the  last  century,  was  born  in  1716,  near- 


Edinburgh,  where  he  received  his  education. 
He  became  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Alex.  Munro,  in  1731, 
and  contracted  an  intimacy  with  Fothergill  and 
Gumming,  in  conjunction  with  whom,  and  other 
medical  students,  those  meetings  for  mutual  im- 

grovement  were  held  which  gave  rise  to  the 
oyal  Medical  Society  of  that  city.  In  1736,  he 
went  to  Minorca,  as  surgeon  to  the  22nd  regi- 
ment, and  resided  in  that  island  thirteen  years. 
On  his  return  he  published  a  Treatise  on  the  Dis- 
eases of  Minorca,  a  work  which  has  always  been 
considered  as  an  excellent  model  of  medical  to- 
pography. In  the  composition  of  it  he  is  said  to 
have  been  assisted  by  his  friend  Dr.  Fothergill. 
In  1751  Dr.  Cleghorn  settled  at  Dublin,  and 
gave  lectures  on  anatomy.  In  1784  he  was 
elected  an  honorary  member  of  the  Irish  College 
of  Physicians,  and  anatomical  professor.  He 
was  one  of  the  earliest  members  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy,  and  died  in  December,  1789. 

CLELAND  (John),  an  English  writer  of  no- 
vels, was  the  son  of  colonel  Cleland,  the  Will 
Honeycomb  of  the  Spectator.  He  was  educated 
at  Westminster  school,  and  went  early  in  life  as 
consul  to  Smyrna ;  he  afterwards  sailed  to  the  East 
Indies,  but  returned  to  Europe  embarrassed,  and 
wrote  an  infamous  novel  for  which  he  only  obtained 
twenty  guineas  (though  the  sale  is  supposed  to  have 
produced  some  thousands),  and  threats  of  a  pub- 
lic prosecution.  The  late  earl  of  Granville,  in 
order  to  draw  him  from  such  pursuits,  nobly- 
offered  him  a  hundred  a  year ;  after  which  he 
wrote  The  Memoirs  of  a  Coxcomb ;  The  Man 
of  Honor ;  and  an  etymological  work,  entitled, 
The  Way  to  Things  by  Words,  and  to  Words 
by  Things,  8vo.  He  died  in  1 789,  aged  eighty- 
two. 

CLEMA,  in  antiquity,  a  twig  of  the  vine, 
which  served  as  a  badge  of  the  centurion's 
office. 

CLEMATIS,  virgin's  bower,  in  botany,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  polygynia  order,  and  polyandria  class ; 
natural  order  twenty-sixth,  multisiliquae  :  CAL. 
none  :  the  petals  are  four,  rarely  five ;  the  seeds 
have  a  train;  species  twelve,  all  of  which,  except 
two,  are  shrubby  climbing  plants,  very  hardy, 
and  adorned  with  quadrupetalous  flowers  of  red, 
blue,  purple,  white,  and  greenish  colors.  They 
are  very  easily  propagated  by  layers  or  cuttings. 
One  of  the  species,  viz.  C.  vitis  alba,  is  very 
acrid  to  the  taste,  and  without  any  smell.  It  is 
frequently  used  as  a  caustic,  and  for  cleansing 
old  ulcers.  The  root  is  said  to  be  purgative. 
The  leaves  of  all  the  species  bruised  and  applied 
to  the  skin,  burn  it  into  carbuncles  as  in  the 
plague;  and  if  applied  to  the  nostrils  in  a  sultry 
day  immediately  after  being  cropped,  will  cause 
the  same  uneasy  sensation  as  a  flame  applied  to 
that  part  would  occasion.  Hence  the  title  of 
flammula,  or  little  flame,  by  which  this  genus  of 
plants  was  formerly  distinguished. 

CLEMENCET  (Dr.  Charles),  a  catholic  di- 
vine, was  born  in  1722,  at  Painblanc,  in  the 
diocese  of  Autun.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
entered  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur,  ana,  after 
teaching  rhetoric  with  great  credit,  was  appointed 
to  the  monastery  of  the  Blanc-Manteaux,  Paris, 
where  he  died  in  1778.  His  works  are,  1.  L'Arc 
de  Verifier  les  Dates,  the  historical  ."part  of  which 


CLE 


761 


CLE 


contains  the  foundation  and  substance  of  uni- 
versal history  from  Jesus  Christ  to  the  present 
time. 

CLEMENCY,  M.S.)       Fr.  demence ;    Lat. 
CLE'MENT,  adj.          j  dementia.    Mercy;  re- 
mission of  severity ;  willingness  to  spare ;  ten- 
derness in  punishing;  mildness;  softness];  mild  ; 
gentle ;  merciful ;  kind ;  tender ;  compassionate. 

You  are  more  clement  than  vile  men, 
Who  of  their  broken  debtors  take  a  third, 
Letting  them  thrive  again  on  the  abatement. 

Shakspeare. 

Then  in  the  clemency  of  upward  air 
We'll  scour  our  spots,  and  the  dire  thunder  scar. 

Dryden. 

I  have  stated  the  true  notion  of  clemency,  mercy, 
compassion,  good-nature,  humanity,  or  whatever  else 
it  may  be  called,  so  far  as  is  consistent  with  wisdom. 

Addison. 

Then,  Envy,  then  is  thy  triumphant  hour, 
When  mourns  Benevolence  his  baffled  scheme, 

When  Insult  mocks  the  clemency  of  power, 
And  loud  Dissension's  livid  firebrands  gleam. 

Beattie. 

CLEMENCY,  in  antiquity,  was  deified  at  Athens, 
and  had  an  altar  erected  to  her  by  the  kindred 
of  Hercules.  A  temple  was  also  dedicated  to 
her  by  the  Roman  senate,  after  the  death  of  Ju- 
lius Caesar,  on  some  of  whose  denarii  this  goddess 
appears.  The  poets  describe  her  as  the  guardian 
of  the  world,  and  she  is  exhibited,  holding  a 
branch  of  laurel  or  olive,  and  a  spear,  to  show 
that  gentleness  and  pity  ought  principally  to  distin- 
guish victorious  warriors.  The  name  of  asylum 
was  given  to  the  temples  that  were  erected  to  this 
goddess.  '  The  distinguishing  character  of  Cle- 
mency,' says  the  learned  Spence,  '  both  in  her 
statues  and  in  the  poets,  is  the  mildness  of  her 
countenance;  she  has  an  olive  branch  in  her 
hand,  as  a  mark  of  her  peaceful  and  gentle 
temper.' 

When  the  Athenian  council  of  thirty,  esta- 
blished by  Lysander,  after  having  committed 
most  execrable  cruelties,  had  been  overthrown 
by  Thrasybulus,  he  proposed,  after  the  recall  of 
the  exiles,  a  celebrated  amnesty,  by  which  the 
citizens  engaged  on  oath  that  all  past  transactions 
should  be  forgotten.  The  government  was  now 
re-established  upon  its  ancient  foundation,  the 
laws  restored  to  their  pristine  vigor,  and  magis- 
trates elected  with  the  usual  forms.  This,  says 
Ilollin  (Anc.  Hist.  vol.  iii.  p.  309),  is  one  of 
the  finest  events  in  ancient  history,  worthy  of  the 
Athenian  lenity  and  benevolence,  and  has  served 
as  a  model  to  successive  ages  in  good  govern- 
ment. Never  had  tyranny  been  more  cruel  and 
bloody  than  that  from  which  the  Athenians  had 
been  rescued.  Every  house  was  in  mourning ; 
every  family  bewailed  the  loss  of  some  relation. 
It  had  been  a  series  of  public  robbery  and  rapine, 
in  which  licence  and  impunity  had  authorised 
all  manner  of  crimes.  The  people  seemed  to 
have  a  right  to  demand  the  blood  of  all  accom- 
plices in  such  notorious  malversations,  and  even 
the  interest  of  the  state  to  authorise  such  a  claim, 
that  by  exemplary  severities  such  enormous 
crimes  might  be  prevented  for  the  future.  But 
Thrasybulus  rising  above  those  sentiments,  from 
the  superiority  of  his  more  extensive  genius,  and 


the  views  of  a  more  discerning  and  profound  po- 
licy, foresaw,  that  by  giving  way  to  the  punishment 
of  the  guilty,  eternal  seeds  of  discord  aud  enmity 
would  remain,  to  weaken  the  republic  by  domes- 
tic divisions,  which  it  was  necessary  to  unite 
against  the  common  enemy,  and  occasion  a  loss 
to  the  state  of  a  great  number  of  citizens,  who 
might  render  it  important  services  from  the  view 
itself  of  making  amends  for  past  misbehaviour. 
Such  a  conduct,  continues  Rollin,  after  great 
troubles  in  a  state,  has  always  seemed  with  the 
ablest  politicians,  the  most  certain  and  ready 
means  to  restore  the  public  peace  and  tran- 
quillity. 

Montesquieu  observes  (Spirit  of  Laws,  vol.  i. 
p.  134),  that  clemency  is  the  peculiar  character- 
istic of  monarchs.  In  monarchies,  great  men  are 
governed  by  honor,  which  frequently  requires 
what  the  law  forbids,  and  they  are  so  much  pu- 
nished by  disgrace,  by  the  loss  (though  often 
imaginary),  of  their  fortune,  credit,  acquaintances, 
and  pleasures,  that  rigor  in  respect  to  them  is 
needless.  It  can  lead  only  to  divest  the  subjects 
of  the  affection  they  have  for  the  person  of  their 
prince,  and  of  the  respect  they  ought  to  have  for 
public  posts  and  employments.  So  many  are 
the  advantages  which  monarchs  gain  by  cle- 
mency, such  love,  such  glory  attend  it,  that  it  is 
generally  a  point  of  happiness  with  them  to  have 
an  opportunity  of  exercising  it. 

CLEMANGIS,  or  DE  CLAMINGES  (Nicholas), 
a  distinguished  divine  of  the  university  of  Paris, 
of  which  he  was  rector  in  1393.  His  works  so 
decidedly  reprove  the  corruptions  of  the  church 
of  Rome,  that  they  were  republished  by  Lydius, 
a  protestant  minister  in  Holland,  in  1613.  One 
of  them  is  entitled,  Of  the  corrupt  State  of  the 
Church.  His  style  is  very  much  superior  to  the 
general  taste  of  the  age.  He  died  about  1440. 

CLEMENS  ALEXANDRINUS,  an  eminent  fa- 
ther of  the  church,  who  flourished  at  the  end 
of  the  second,  and  beginning  of  the  third 
centuries.  He  was  the  scholar  of  Pantsenus. 
and  the  instructor  of  Origen.  The  best  edition 
of  his  works  is  that  in  2  vols.  folio,  published 
in  1715,  by  archbishop  Potter. 

CLEMENS  ROMANUS,  or  ST.'  CLEMENT,  was 
the  fourth  bishop  of  Rome,  we  are  told,  where 
also  he  is  said  to  have  been  born  ;  and  to  have 
been  a  fellow  laborer  with  the  apostles  Peter 
and  Paul.  We  have  nothing  remaining  of  his 
works  clearly  genuine,  excepting  one  epistle,  a 
very  valuable  relic  of  antiquity. 

Its  principal  design  is  to  compose  those  differ- 
ences which  appear  to  have  subsisted  in  the 
church  of  Corinth,  about  their  spiritual  guides. 
The  style  is  clear  and  simple.  It  is  called  by 
the  ancients  an  '  excellent '  and  '  useful,'  a 
'  great'  and  '  admirable,  epistle.'  It  is  not  in- 
deed entire;  and,  as  there  is  but  one  authentic 
MS.  of  it  remaining,  we  cannot  expect  to  obtain 
its  sense  so  correctly  as  if  we  had  the  opportu- 
nity of  collating  several  copies.  It  appears, 
from  expressions  that  occur  in  it,  to  have  been 
written  after,  or  at  the  conclusion  of,  some  per- 
secution, either  that  of  Nero  about  64,  or  that 
of  Domitian  in  94,  or  95.  Several  passages  seem 
to  intimate,  that  it  was  written  after  the  latter 
and  not  so  soon  as  that  of  Nero.  Irenaeus  says,  that 


CLE 


7G2 


CLE 


in  the  time  of  Clement,  when  many  were  alive, 
who  had  been  taught  by  the  apostles,  and  when 
there  was  no  small  dissension  among  the  bre- 
thren of  Corinth,  the  church  at  Rome  sent  a  most 
excellent  letter  to  the  Corinthians,  persuading 
them  to  peace  among  themselves,  &c.  Eusebius 
also  bears  testimony  to  the  excellence  of  this 


to  the  suppression  of  the  knights  templars ;  and 
was  author  of  a  compilation  of  the  decrees  of  the 
general  councils  of  Vienna,  styled  Clementines. 
He  died  in  1314. 

CLEMENT  VII.  (pope),  whose  original  name  was 
Julius  de  Medicis,  is  memorable  for  his  refusing 
to  divorce  Catharine  of  Arragon  from  Henry 


epistle,  and  to  the  dissention  at  Corinth  which    VIII ;    and  for  the  bull  he  published  upon  t'>e 


occasioned  it ;  and  he  adds,  that  this  epistle  has 
been  formerly,  and  is  still  publicly  read  in  many 
churches.  St.  Jerome  also  says,  that  Clement 
wrote  a  very  useful  epistle  in  the  name  of  the 
church  of  Rome  to  the  church  of  Corinth,  which 
in  some  places  is  read  publicly.  Upon  the 
whole  we  may  conclude  with  Dr.  Lardner,  that 
this  epistle  was  written  at  the  latter  end  of  the 
reign  of  Domitian,  in  the  year  95,  or  rather  96. 
In  this  epistle  there  is  but  one  book  of  the  New 


king's  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn ;  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  Romish  authors,  lost  him  England. 
He  died  in  1534. 

CLEMENT  XIV.  (pope),  whose  family  name 
was  John  Vincent  Antony  Ganganelli,  was  the 
son  of  a  physician  of  St.  Archangelo  near 
Rimini.  He  was  born  in  1705,  and  educated 
at  Rimini,  whence  he  proceeded  at  the  age  of 
eighteen  to  enter  the  order  of  Minor  Conventual 
Franciscans  at  Urbino.  At  thirty-five  he  was 


Testament  expressly  named,  which  is  the  first    appointed  theological  professor  in  the  Roman 
epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Corinthians,  and  which,    college  of  St.  Buonaventure.  His  learning,  liber- 
it  is  said,  was  written  by  the  apostle  Paul.     But    ality,  and  general  fame,  soon  reached  the  ears  of 
it  contains  frequent  references  and  allusions  to 
the  Scriptures  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 


ment.  Words  of  our  blessed  Lord,  found  in  the 


Benedict  XIV.,  who  made  him  counsellor  of  the 
holy  office.     In  1759  he  was  created  cardinal- 
by  Clement  XIII.,  on  the  death  of  whom,  chiefly 


gospels  of  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke,  are  re-  through  the  influence  of  the  house  of  Bourbon, 
commended  with  a  high  degree  of  respect,  Ganganelli  was  chosen  his  successor.  His 
though  without  the  names  of  the  Evangelists,  election,  which  took  place  in  May  1764,  was 
There  are  also  allusions  to  the  Acts  of  the  Apos-  very  popular  at  Rome;  and  he  immediately 
ties,  the  epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Romans,  both  the  began  to  conciliate,  though  with  dignity,  the 
epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  the  epistles  to  the  offended  sovereigns.  The  great  event  of  his 
Galatians,  Ephesians,  Philippians,  Colossians,  pontificate,  was  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits, 
the  first  to  the  Thessalonians,  first  and  second  to  for  which  he  signed  a  brief,  July  21st,  1773.  He 
Timothy,  the  epistle  to  Titus,  the  epistle  to  the  survived  this  event  only  about  two  years,  but  it 
Hebrews,  the  epistle  of  James,  and  the  first  and  was  the  means  of  his  reconciliation  with  the 
second  of  Peter ;  but  all  without  any  name,  or  courts  formerly  hostile  to  him.  His  final 
mark  of  citation.  Mill  observes,  that  it  appears  illness  was  attended  with  severe  pains  in  the 
from  this  epistle,  that  Clement  had  in  his  hands  bowels,  which  reduced  him  to  a  skeleton,  and 
not  only  our  first  three  gospels,  but  also  the  Acts  the  enemies  of  the  suppressed  order  did  not 
of  the  Apostles,  and  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  fail  to  connect  the  circumstances  with  the  known 
both  the  epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  and  the  Jesuitical  doctrines  on  the  subject  of  assassination, 
epistle  to  the  Hebrews  :  and  the  testimony  thus  and  circulated  a  suspicion  that  he  had  been 
given  to  the  antiquity,  genuineness,  or  authority,  poisoned.  This  seems  never,  however,  to  have 
of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  is  to  be  es-  been  substantiated,  and  Clement  did  not  suspect 
teemed  not  only  the  testimony  of  Clement,  but  it.  He  died  on  September  22nd,  1775.  This 
likewise  of  the  church  of  Rome  in  his  time,  pontiff  was  distinguished  for  simplicity  of  man- 
Moreover,  it  ought  to  be  allowed,  that  the  Corin-  ners,  disinterestedness  and  modesty.  His  letters 
thians  likewise,  to  whom  this  epistle  was  sent,  are  known  to  be  fabrications. 


were  acquainted  with,  and  highly  respected,  the 
books  quoted,  or  alluded  to.  In  this  epistle 
there  are  not  any  quotations  or  references  to  any 
of  the  apocryphal  gospels. 

A  second  epistle  of  Clement,  which  some  have 
been  inclined  to  own,  is  expressly  rejected  by 


CLEMENT  (Francis),  an  ingenious  French 
writer  of  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur,  was 
born  at  Beze,  in  Burgundy,  in  1714.  His 
superiors  called  him  to  Paris,  and  employed 
him  in  continuing  the  Literary  History  of 
France,  which  Rivet  had  begun.  He  wrote  the 


Photius ;  and  Grabe  has  observed,  that  Diony-  eleventh  and  twelfth  volumes  of  that  work,  and 

sius,  bishop  of  Corinth  in  the  second  century,  was  afterwards  engaged  to  continue  the  collection 

mentions  only  one  epistle  of  Clement ;  that  Cle-  of  the  French  historians,  begun  by  Bouquet ;  of 

ment  of  Alexandria  and  Origen,  who  have  quoted  which  he  compiled  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 

the  first,  never  take  any  notice  of  the  second  ;  volumes.     But  the  most   important  service  he 

nor  yet  Irenaeus,  who  has  particularly  mentioned  rendered  to  the  literary  world,  was  the  improve- 

the  first,   and  could   not  well   have  omitted   to  ment  of  the  excellent  work  L'Art  de   Verifier 

mention  the  other   also,   if  he   had   known  it.  les  Dates,  designed  by  Dantine,  and  afterwards 

Grabe  concludes,  from  these  circumstances,  that  published  by  Durand  and  Clemencet,  in  one  • 

this  piece  was  not  written  before  the  middle  of  large  volume  4to.     After  thirteen  years  labor,  he 

the  third  century.     The  Constitutions  and  Re-  increased  it  to  no  less  than  three  large  volumes 

cognitions,  ascribed  to  Clement,  are  clearly  spu-  folio,  which  were  published  between  1783  and 

rious.  1792.     He   was   engaged   on   a   similar  work, 

CLEMENT  V.  (pope),  the  first  who  made  a  pub-  under  the  title  of  L'Art  de  Verifier  les  Dates 


'.ic  sale  of  indulgences.  He  transplanted  the  holy 
see  to  Avignon  in  France ;  greatly  contributed 


avant  J.  C.  about  the  time  of  his  death  in  1793. 
CLEMENTINE,  a  term  used  among  the  Au- 


CLEOPATRA. 


gustincs,  who  apply  it  co  one,  who,  after  having 
been  nine  years  a  superior,  ceases  to  be  so,  and 
becomes  a  private  monk,  under  the  command  of 
a  superior  :  pope  Clement  having  prohibited  any 
superior  among  the  Augustines  from  continuing 
above  nine  years  in  his  office. 

CLEMENTINES,  in  the  canon  law,  are  the  con- 
stitutions of  pope  Clement  V.  and  the  canons  of 
the  council  of  Vienne. 

CLENARD  (Nicholas),  a  celebrated  gramma- 
rian of  the  sixteenth  century,  born  at  Diest. 
After  having  taught  languages  at  Louvain,  he 
travelled  into  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Africa ;  and  wrote  in  Latin,  1 .  Letters  relating  to 
his  Travels,  which  are  very  curious  and  scarce. 
2.  A  Greek  Grammar.  .He  died  at  Grenoble, 
in  1542. 

CLENCH.    See  CLINCH. 

CLEOBIS  and  BITON,  in  fabulous  history, 
two  youths,  sons  of  Cydippe  the  priestess  of 
Juno  at  Argos.  When  oxen  could  not  be  pro- 
cured to  draw  their  mother's  chariot  to  the  tem- 
ple of  Juno,  they  put  themselves  under  the 
yoke,  and  drew  it  forty-five  stadia  to  the  temple, 
amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  multitude,  who 
congratulated  the  mother  on  account  of  the  piety 
of  her  sons.  Cydippe  entreated  the  goddess  to 
reward  the  piety  of  her  sons  with  the  best  gift 
that  could  be  granted  to  a  mortal.  They  went  to 
rest  and  awoke  no  more ;  and  by  this  the  god- 
dess indicated  that  death  is  the  most  happy 
event  that  can  happen  to  a  man.  The  Argives 
raised  them  statues  atsDelphi. 

CLEOBULUS,  one  of  the  seven  sages  of 
Greece,  was  the  son  of  Evagoras  of  Lindus,  a  city 
of  Rhodes,  and  famous  for  his  personal  attrac- 
tions. He  wrote  poetry  and  moral  maxims ;  and 
died  in  the  seventieth  year  of  his  age,  564  B.  C. 
or  according  to  some  writers,  B.  C.  584.  Cleo- 
bulina,  his  daughter,  is  said  to  have  composed 
enigmas,  which  were  sent  into  Egypt,  where 
they  excited  great  admiration.  Some  of  them 
have  been  preserved  ;  and  to  her  has  been  attri- 
buted the  Grecian  riddle  respecting  the  months  of 
the  year,  mentioned  in  our  article  CHRONOLOGY. 

CLEOMBROTUS  I.  king  of  Sparta,  was  the 
son  of  Anaxandridas.  He  was  deterred  from 
building  a  wall  across  the  isthmus  of  Corinth 
against  the  approach  of  the  Persians,  by  an 
eclipse  of  the  sun,  and,  dying  in  the  seventy-fifth 
Olympiad,  was  succeeded  by  Plistarchus,  the 
son  of  Leonidas,  a  minor. 

CLEOMBROTUS  II.  the  son  of  Pausanias,  king 
of  Sparta,  after  his  brother  Agesipolis  I.  He 
made  war  against  the  Boeotians ;  and,  lest  he 
should  be  suspected  of  treacherous  communica- 
tions with  Epaminondas,  gave  battle  at  Leuctra, 
in  a  very  disadvantageous  place.  He  was  killed 
in  the  engagement,  and  his  army  destroyed,  in 
the  year  of  Rome  382. 

CLEOMBROTUS  HI.  a  son-in-law  of  Leonidas, 
king  of  Sparta,  who  for  a  while  usurped  the 
kingdom  after  the  expulsion  of  his  father-in- 
law.  When  Leonidas  was  recalled,  Cleom- 
brotus  was  banished,  and  his  wife  Chelonis,  who 
had  accompanied  her  father,  now  accompanied 
her  husband  in  his  exile. 

CLEOME,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  siliquosa 
order,  and  tetradyuamia  class  of  plants ;  natural 


order  twenty-fifth,  putaminezD.  Nectariferous 
glandules  three,  one  at  each  sinus  of  the  r,\i,. 
except  the  lowest ;  the  PET.  all  rising  upwards : 
the  siliqua  unilocular  and  bivalved.  Species 
twenty-three,  all  natives  of  warm  climates. 
They  are  herbaceous  plants  rising  from  one  to 
two  feet  high ;  and  are  adorned  with  flowers  of 
various  colors,  as  red,  yellow,  flesh  color,  &c 
They  are  propagated  by  seeds,  and  require  no 
other  care  than  what  is  common  to  other  exotics 
which  are  natives  of  warm  countries. 

CLEO  M  ED  ES,  an  ancient  Greek  philosopher, 
whom  Dr.  Priestley  supposes  to  have  flourished 
about  A.  D.  427.  He  wrote  a  considerable 
treatise  on  astronomy  and  cosmology,  still  extant, 
It  is  divided  into  two  books,  and  discourses  on 
the  dimensions  of  the  earth,  which  is  supposed 
to  be  the  centre  of  the  universe ;  of  the  magni- 
tudes and  distances  of  the  heavenly  bodies ;  of 
the  eclipses  of  the  moon,  &c. 

CLEOMENES  I. king  of  Sparta,  subdued  the 
Argives  and  freed  Athens  from  the  tyranny  of 
the  Pisistratidse.  By  bribing  the  oracle  he  pro- 
nounced Demaratus,  his  colleague  on  the  throne, 
illegitimate,  because  he  refused  to  punish  the 
people  of  ./Egida,  who  had  deserted  the  Greeks. 
He  killed  himself  in  a  fit  of  madness. 

CLEOMENES  II.  succeeded  his  brother  Agesi- 
polis II.  He  reigned  thirty-four  years  in  the 
greatest  tranquillity,  and  was  father  to  Acrotatus 
and  Cleonymus.  He  was  succeeded  by  Areus  I. 
son  of  Acrotatus. 

CLEOMENES  III.  succeeded  his  father  Leonidas. 
He  was  of  an  enterprising  spirit,  and  resolved  to 
restore  the  ancient  discipline  of  Lycurgus  in  its  full 
force.  He  killed  the  Ephori,  poisoned  his  royal 
colleague  Eurydamidas,  and  made  his  own  bro- 
ther Euclidas  king,  contrary  to  the  express  laws 
of  the  state,  which  ordained  one  of  each  family  to 
sit  on  the  throne.  He  also  made  war  against 
the  Achaeans,  and  attempted  to  destroy  the  cele- 
brated Achaean  league.  Aratus,  the  general  of  the 
Achaeans,  who  supposed  himself  inferior  to  his 
enemy,  called  Antigonus  to  his  assistance ;  and 
Cleomenes,  when  he  had  fought  the  unfortunate 
battle  of  Sellasia,  retired  into  Egypt  to  the 
court  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes.  Ptolemy  received 
him  and  his  family  with  great  cordiality ;  but 
his  successor,  weak,  and  suspicious,  soon  ex- 
pressed his  jealousy  of  this  noble  stranger,  and 
imprisoned  him.  Cleomenes  killed  himself,  and 
his  body  was  exposed  on  a  cross  in  the  140th 
Olympiad. 

CLEON/E,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of 
Argolis,  above  Mycenae,  on  the  road  which  leads 
from  Argos  to  Corinth  ;  standing  on  an  emi- 
nence, on  every  side  occupied  by  houses. 

CLEON/EUS,  an  epithet  of  Hercules,  so  called 
from  his  having  killed  the  huge  Nemean  lion, 
near  Cleonae,  which  was  fabled  to  have  been 
translated  to  the  stars,  and  turned  into  the  con- 
stellation of  the  lion. 

CLEONIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  didynamia  class,  and  gymnospermia  order. 
Filaments  bifid,  one  point  having  the  anthers  on 
its  tip  ;  stigma  four-cleft.  Species,  one  only. 

CLEOPATRA  III.  a  celebrated  queen  of 
Egypt,  and  the  last  of  its  native  sovereigns,  was 
the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Auletes,  who  left  the 


76* 


CLEOPATRA. 


crown  by  will  to  this  princess  and  her  brother  Pto- 
lemy, on  cond  ition  that  they  should  mar  ry  and  reign 
jointly.  As  they  were  both  young,  he  further 
directed  that  they  should  be  educated  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Roman  senate.  Cleopatra 
seems  to  have  been  first  acknowledged  queeu  in 
the  second  year  of  the  182nd  Olympiad,  or  the 
703rd  A.U.C.  and  B.C.  51 ;  but  the  early  history 
both  of  her  and  her  brother  Ptolemy's  affairs  is 
obscure.  He  seems  to  have  been  mainly  under 
the  guidance  of  the  Egyptian  general  Achillas 
and  the  eunuch  Pothinus,  who,  ambitious  to  en- 
large their  power,  intrigued  against  Cleopatra, 
and  compelled  her  to  retire  into  Syria.  Here 
she  raised  a  considerable  army  which  she  led  into 
Egypt  to  assert  her  rights.  Ptolemy  having  also 
taken  the  field,  both  armies  encamped  between 
Pelusium  and  Mount  Casius ;  but  seemed  mu- 
tually unwilling  to  hazard  an  engagement.  Pom- 
pey  at  this  juncture,  who  had  been  appointed 
one  of  the  guardians  of  the  young  king,  sought, 
after  his  defeat  at  Pharsalia,  an  asylum  in  Egypt; 
but,  on  his  reaching  Pelusium  was  basely  mur- 
dered: and  Julius  Caesar  shortly  after  arrived  at 
Alexandria  in  pursuit  of  him.  The  funeral  of 
Pompey  detaining  him  at  first,  and  contrary 
winds  afterwards,  Caesar  applied  for  the  payment 
of  the  money  due  to  him  from  Auletes,  and  en- 
tered warmly  into  the  difference  subsisting  be- 
tween Ptolemy  and  his  sister.  His  haughty 
behaviour  irritated  the  Egyptians ;  but  the  cause 
of  the  prince  and  princess  was  finally  referred  to 
his  tribunal,  and  advocates  were  appointed  to 
state  their  respective  claims. 

Cleopatra  now  resolved  on  that  disgraceful 
oartering  of  her  person  for  her  momentary  in- 
terests, which  resulted  so  quickly  in  her  own 
ruin  and  that  of  her  country.  Asking  leave  to 
appear  before  Caesar,  or,  as  Plutarch  says,  having 
been  invited  to  plead  her  own  cause  in  his  pre- 
sence, she  caused  herself  to  be  secretly  conveyed 
to  his  apartment  in  a  mattrass ;  being  carried 
thither  through  the  streets  of  Alexandria  on  the 
back  of  Apollodorus.  Caesar,  it  is  said,  applauded 
the  stratagem,  and  when  Cleopatra  presented 
herself,  was  so  charmed  with  her  person  that  he 
detained  her  all  night.  Next  morning  he  sent 
for  Ptolemy,  and  pressed  him  to  comply  with  all 
his  sister's  wishes.  The  young  prince,  on  finding 
that  Caesar  was  become  the  advocate  of  Cleopatra 
on  terms  so  disgraceful  to  her  family,  was  roused 
to  indignation,  and  running  half  frantic  through 
the  streets  of  Alexandria,  excited  an  insurrection  of 
the  populace.  The  Roman  chief,  however,  con- 
trived to  appease  the  tumult,  by  showing  himself 
from  a  balcony  to  the  multitude,  and  promising 
to  do  whatever  should  be  suggested  for  the  best 
by  their  leaders.  Next  day  he  convened  a  gene- 
ral assembly  of  the  people,  and  decreed  between 
the  parties,  as  guardian  and  arbitrator,  that  Pto- 
lemy and  Cleopatra  should  reign  jointly  in 
Egypt,  according  to  their  father's  will.  This 
decree  at  first  gave  satisfaction;  but  Pothinus 
now  suggested  to  the  people,  that  it  was  part  of 
the  Roman  plan  to  place  Cleopatra  alone  on  the 
throne;  and  measures  were  again  adopted  for 
expelling  the  Roman  army  from  the  capital. 
But  Caesar  secured  the  person  of  Ptolemy,  put 
Pothinus  to  death,  and  gained  several  successive 


victories  over  this  uohanpy  people;  on  the  las' 
occasion  only,  20,000  Egyptians  were  slain, 
12,000  taken  prisoners,  and  Ptolemy  drowned 
in  the  Nile,  in  his  attempt  to  escape.  Caesar 
afterwards  returning  to  Alexandria  without  op- 
position, bestowed  the  crown  on  Cleopatra,  mar- 
rying her  to  her  younger  brother  Ptolemy,  not 
more  than  eleven  years  of  age.  The  revolt  of 
Pharnaces,  king  of  the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus, 
now  finally  called  him  away :  and  Cleopatra 
reigned  undisturbed,  except  by  her  own  fears 
of  the  future  interference  of  her  brother.  At 
fifteen  years  of  age,  according  to  the  Egyptian 
laws,  he  was  to  share  the  royal  authority  with 
her :  inured  to  vice  and  blood,  she  caused  him 
therefore  to  be  poisoned,  in  the  fourth  year  of 
his  reign,  and  from  that  time  became  the  sole 
sovereign  of  Egypt.  On  the  death  of  Caesar,  she 
declared  herself  in  favor  of  the  triumvirate,  and 
sailed  with  a  numerous  fleet  to  join  Antony  and 
Octarianus ;  but  lost  a  number  of  her  ships  in  a 
storm. 

We  now  arrive  at  the  crisis  of  her  fate :  An- 
tony having  received  information,  after  the  battle 
of  Philippi,  that  Cleopatra  had.  sent  succours  to 
Cassius,  required  her  to  appear  before  him  at 
Tarsus.  The  Egyptian  queen  had  not  forgotten 
her  first  conquest :  providing  herself  with  large 
sums  of  money,  magnificent  presents,  and  a  pro- 
fusion of  the  most  splendid  royal  attire,  she  em- 
barked in  a  galley,  beautifully  gilt  and  orna- 
mented, attended  by  her  whole  fleet :  and  cross- 
ing the  sea  of  Pamphylia,  sailed  up  the  Cydnus, 
towards  the  Roman  head  quarters.  Here  she 
mounted  sails  of  purple  silk,  and  her  oars  were 
plated  with  silver.  The  queen  herself  appeared 
under  a  canopy  of  cloth  of  gold,  raised  on  the 
deck,  in  the  attitude  and  attire  of  Venus  rising 
out  of  the  sea.  The  neighbouring  hills,  as  she 
sailed  up  the  river,  echoed  with  the  enchanting 
melody  of  a  skilful  military  band,  to  which  the 
oars  kept  time ;  while  the  most  fragrant  perfumes 
burning  on  the  deck,  diffused  their  odors  on 
every  side  to  a  considerable  distance.  Shakspeare 
is  quite  historical  here — 

The  barge  she  sat  in,  like  a  burnished  throne, 
Burned  on  the  water :  the  poop  was  beaten  gold  ; 
Purple  the  sails,  and  so  perfumed  that 
The  winds  were  love-sick  with  them  :  the  oars   were 

silver ; 

Which  to  the  tune  of  flutes  kept  stroke,  and  made 
The  water,  which  they  beat,  to  follow  faster, 
As  amorous  of  their  strokes.     For  her  own  person, 
It  beggared  all  description ;  she  did  lie, 
In  her  pavilion  (cloth  of  gold,  of  tissue), 
O'er-picturing  that  Venus,  where  we  see 
The  fancy  out  work  nature  :  on  each  side  her 
Stood  pretty  dimpled  boys,  like  smiling  Cupids, 
With  diverse-colored  fans,  whose  wind  did  seem 
To  glow  the  delicate  cheeks  which  they  did  cool. 
And  what  they  undid,  did  ! 

Antony  who,  as  she  approached  the  tower  of 
Tarsus,  was  distributing  justice  in  the  forum, 
soon  found  himself  deserted  by  the  people.  Oil 
her  landing,  he  invited  her  to  supper;  but  the 
queen,  declining  the  invitation,  requested  a  visit 
from  him  in  her  tent.  The  triumvir  at  once 
complied,  and  was  entertained,  it  is  said,  with  a 
magnificence  which  words  cannot  describe.  He 


CLEOPATRA. 


was  no  less  charmed  by  her  conversation,  and  by 
her  yet  unfading  beauty. 

A  succession  of  the  most  costly  entertainments 
were  now  given  by  Cleopatra  to  the  Roman 
officers  and  army.  She  made  no  hesitation  at 
presenting  Antony  frequently  with  the  gold  and 
silver  vessels  which  he  admired ;  including  some- 
times the  entire  plate  of  her  sumptuous  feasts. 
It  was  on  one  of  these  occasions  that  she  endea- 
voured to  exhibit  her  contempt  for  riches  by  call- 
ing for  two  immense  pearls,  that  have  been 
valued  by  historians  at  the  enormous  sum  of 
£50,000  each,  and  dissolving  one  of  them  in  vi- 
negar, drank  it  off.  See  PEARLS.  It  is  pretty 
evident  that  her  ambition  was  urging  forward 
these  sacrifices ;  and  she  more  than  once  ex- 
pressed her  hopes  of  reigning  at  Rome  as  well 
as  in  Egypt.  Her  common  oath  was, '  As  I  hope 
to  give  law  in  fhe  capitol.'  One  of  the  first 
exertions  of  her  influence  over  her  lover  was  to 
induce  him  to  send  assassins  to  Alexandria  to 
despatch  her  sister  Arsinoe.  Hither  she  soon 
caused  him  also  to  repair  with  her.  The  death 
of  his  wife  Fulvia,  however,  aroused  him  for  a 
time ;  and  on  repairing  to  Rome  to  adjust  his 
relations  with  Octavianus,  he  married,  it  is  well 
known,  Octavia,  the  sister  of  the  latter,  and  re- 
ceived a  sort  of  agreed  dominion  over  the 
eastern  part  of  the  empire. 

But  on  Antony's  second  arrival  in  Syria, 
Cleopatra  resumed  her  sway  over  him,  and  he 
bestowed  on  her  all  Phoenicia,  Ccelosyria,  Cyprus, 
and  a  great  part  of  Arabia  and  Judaea ;  a  profu- 
sion which  offended  the  Roman  people.  His 
disgraceful  expeditions  into  Parthia  and  Armenia 
followed;  and  when  the  faithful  Octavia  was 
about  to  join  him,  his  more  powerful  mistress 
prevailed  on  him  to  forbid  the  interview,  and 
recalled  him  to  Alexandria  to  spend  the  winter. 
On  the  war  between  the  two  triumvirs  breaking 
out,  her  influence  appeared  rather  increased  than 
diminished.  She  mainly  induced  the  famous 
battle  of  Actium  to  be  fought  at  sea,  against  the 
advice  of  Antony's  best  officers,  and  to  display, 
apparently,  her  naval  forces.  Yet  in  the  midst 
of  the  action,  Cleopatra,  with  her  fifty  galleys, 
took  flight,  and  Antony  followed  her  in  a  small 
vessel.  On  his  reproaching  her  for  her  conduct 
they  now  parted;  he  pursuing  his  course  to 
Libya,  where  he  had  stationed  a  considerable 
body  of  troops,  and  the  queen  returning  to 
Alexandria.  On  his  arrival  Antony  found  that 
his  soldiers  had  deserted  to  Octavianus.  Almost 
distracted  with  disappointment,  he  returned 
therefore  to  Egypt,  and  to  Cleopatra.  Hither  his 
rival  followed,  only  to  find  him  abandoned  to 
dissipation ;  and  though  a  successful  sally  was 
made  against  the  invaders,  the  Egyptian  fleet  de- 
serted Antony's  interests.  Cleopatra,  as  he  sus- 
pected, betrayed  him,  and  he  fell,  as  we  have 
elsewhere  stated,  on  his  own  sword ;  hut  the 
wound  did  not  prove  immediately  mortal ;  and, 
being  drawn  up  by  ropes,  to  the  tower  in  which 
Cleopatra  lodged,  he  expired  in  her  arms  in 
the  year  before  Christ,  30,  and  was  magnificently 
interred  by  her. 

Alexandria  now  submitting  to  Octavianus, 
Cleopatra  fell  into  his  hands,  having  previously 
attempted  to  despatch  herself  with  a  dagger. 
Being  introduced  to  him,  the  only  favor  she 


asked,  was  leave  to  bury  Antony.  She  after 
wards  appears  to  have  rallied  her  spirits  and 
strength  to  attempt  the  new  conquest  of  Octa- 
vianus ;  her  efforts,  however,  were  ineffectual. 
His  laconic  answer  to  her  most  artful  efforts 
was,  Be  cheerful,  lady,  no  harm  will  befal  you. 
But  Cleopatra  soon  discovered  that  it  was  Oc- 
tavianus's  intention  to  make  her  serve  as  an  or- 
nament to  his  triumph  :  and  even  heard  that  in 
three  days  she  was  to  be  embarked  for  Rome  : 
an  ignominy  which  she  resolved  to  escapfe.  She 
obtained  leave  to  pay  a  tribute  of  respect  to  the 
tomb  of  Antony,  which  she  bathed  with  her  tears 
and  covered  with  flowers.  She  afterwards  or- 
dered a  splendid  entertainment  to  be  prepared, 
and  appeared  amongst  her  friends  more  cheer- 
ful than  usual.  Rising  however  from  table, 
she  delivered  to  Epaphroditus  a  sealed  letter  for 
Octavianus,  and  suddenly  withdrew  to  her  apart- 
ment, attended  by  two  of  her  women.  Here 
she  dressed  herself  in  her  raost  sumptuous 
robes,  and  asked  for  a  basket  of  figs,  in  which 
an  asp  was  concealed,  the  poison  of  which 
is  said  to  be  such  as  to  produce  a  kind  of 
lethargy,  ending  in  death  without  any  pain. 
Her  letter  to  Octavianus  only  requested  that  he 
would  permit  her  to  be  buried  in  the  same  tomb 
with  Antony.  On  receiving  it,  he  despatched 
some  of  his  friends  in  haste,  to  prevent,  if  possi- 
ble, her  death.  But  on  their  entrance  into  her 
apartment,  she  was  found  lying  dead  on  a  golden 
bed  in  her  royal  robes ;  one  of  her  maids  like- 
wise being  dead  at  her  feet,  and  the  other  dying. 
Octavianus  in  vain  attempted  to  recover  her; 
but  granted  her  request  as  to  her  interment,  and 
buried  her  with  great  pomp  in  his  rival's  tomb. 
At  her  death  she  was  in  her  thirty-ninth  year,  and 
left  a  sou  by  Julius  Caesar,  (afterwards  sacri- 
ficed to  the  political  jealousy  of  Octavianus), 
and  two  sons  and  a  daughter  by  Antony.  With 
her  reign  terminated  that  of  the  family  of  Pto- 
lemy Lagus,  which  had  held  the  throne  of 
Egypt  from  the  time  of  Alexander,  and  the 
country  became  a  Roman  province.  Cleopatra 
was  evidently  ambitious  and  vain  to  a  high  de- 
gree :  many  of  her  personal  habits,  however, 
looking  to  their  early  corruption,  were  clearly 
the  result  of  a  wretclied  education.  She  is  said 
to  have  greatly  enlarged  and  improved  the  Alex- 
andrian library,  and  to  have  patronised  the  fine 
arts  generally.  She  also  conversed  fluently  in 
Latin,  Greek,  Syriac,  and  all  the  oriental  lan- 
guages. 

CLEOSTRATUS,   a  celebrated  astronomer, 
born  in  Tenedos,  who,  according  to  Pliny,  was 
the  first  who  discovered  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac 
others  say,  that  he  only  discovered  the   sign 
Aries  and  Sagittarius.      He  also  corrected  the 
errors  of  the  Grecian  year  about  A.  A.  C.  306 

To  CLEPE,  v.  a.    Sax.  clypian.     To  call. 

obsolete. 

Go  up,  quod  he  unto  his  knave,  anen  ; 
Clepe  at  his  dore,  or  knocke  with  a  ston. 

Chaucer.  Canterbury  Tales. 

Now  was  ther  of  that  chirche  a  parish  clerk. 
The  which  that  wos  ycleped  Absolon. 

Three  crabbed  months  had  sowr'd   themselves  to 

death , 

Ere  I  could  make  thee  open  thy  white  hand. 
And  clepe  thyself  my  love.  Shatupeare 


7G6 


CLEPSYDRA. 


CLEPSYDRA,  from  K\firru,  to  conceal, 
and  vSiap,  water,  an  instrument  or  machine 
serving  to  measure  time  generally,  by  the  fall  of 
a  certain  quantity  of  water ;  though  there  have 
likewise  been  clepsydrae  made  with  mercury. 
The  Egyptians,  by  this  machine,  measured  the 
course  of  the  sun  ;  Tycho  Brache,  in  later  days, 
made  use  of  it  to  measure  the  motion  of  the 
stars,  &c.  and  Dudley  employed  the  same  con- 
trivance in  all  his  maritime  observations.  The 
clepsydras  are  very  ancient  instruments ;  they 
were  invented  in  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies; 
being  used  chiefly  in  the  winter,  as  the  sun-dials 
in  the  summer.  But  they  had  two  great  de- 
fects ;  the  one,  that  the  water  ran  out  with  a 
greater  or  less  facility,  as  the  air  was  more  or 
less  dense;  the  other,  that  it  ran  more  readily 
at  the  beginning  than  towards  the  conclusion. 
Ctesibius  of  Alexandria  obviated  the  latter  of 
these  objections,  by  adding  a  continual  supply 
of  water,  and  a  waste  pipe  to  take  off  the  super- 
fluous quantity. 

The  clepsydra,  in  its  ancient  form  of  an  as- 
tronomical instrument,  by  the  help  of  which  the 
equator  was  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts, 
before  the  mathematical  division  of  a  circle  was 
understood,  was  deemed  of  more  value  than  a 
sun-dial,  on  account  of  its  dividing  the  hours 
of  the  night  as  well  as  of  the  day.  It  was  in- 
troduced into  Greece  by  Plato,  and  into  Rome 
by  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica,  about  157  years 
B.  C.  Pliny  says,  lib.  xxxvii.,  that  Pompey 
brought  a  valuable  one  among  his  spoils  from 
the  eastern  nations ;  and  Coesar  is  said  to  have 
met  with  an  instrument  of  this  kind  in  Britain, 
by  the  help  of  which  he  observed  that  the  sum- 
mer nights  of  this  climate  are  shorter  than  they 
are  in  Italy.  The  use  which  Pompey  made  of 
his  instrument  was  to  limit  the  speeches  of  the 
Roman  orators ;  which  Cicero  alludes  to  when 
he  says,  '  latrare  ad  clepsydram.' 

F.  Berthoud  mentions  another  ancient  clep- 
sydra, Histoire  de  la  Mesure  du  Temps,  torn.  i. 
p.  20,  which  was  called  the  anaphoric,  on  the 
dial-plate  of  which  were  projected  the  circles  of 
the  sphere,  including  the  parallels  of  the  sun's 
altitude,  with  the  semi-diurnal  and  semi-noctur- 
nal arcs,  to  which  an  adjustable  bead,  as  the 
sun's  representative,  pointed  as  an  index  to  show 
the  hours,  parallels,  &c.  as  the  dial-plate  re- 
volved daily  by  means  of  wheel-work,  which 
was  impelled  by  water.  It  does  not  seem  cer- 
tain at  what  period  this  instrument  was  invented 
and  used ;  but  Berthoud  thinks  that  tables  of 
the  sun's  motion  must  have  existed  previously 
to  its  invention,  and  also  a  knowledge  of  projec- 
tions of  the  sphere  on  a  plane  surface,  whence 
he  fixes  the  date  posterior  to  the  time  of  Hip- 
parchus,  who,  according  to  Pliny,  died  about 
125  years  B.  C.  The  name  anaphoric  is  evi- 
dently derived  from  anaphora,  which  was  the 
second  house  in  the  heavens,  according  to  the 
doctrine  of  astrology,  which. prevailed  about  the 
time  here  specified. 

Athenaeus  describes  under  this  name  a  Greek 
musical  instrument,  formed  like  a  round  altar, 
not  having  strings,  but  pipes,  the  orifices  of 
which  being  turned  towards  water,  the  agitation 
of  it  impelled  the  air  through  the  pipes,  and 


caused  them  to  give  a  soft  sound ;  but,  as  he 
also  informs  us  that  there  were  a  sort  of  levers 
projecting  beyond  the  instrument,  it  is  probable 
that  the  levers  acted  as  keys  by  the  pressure  of 
the  hand  causing  them  to  unclose  valves  placed 
on  or  in  the  pipes ;  while  the  water,  rising  by 
means  of  some  apparatus  in  the  altar-shaped  re- 
cipient, forced  the  air  through  these  valves  as 
they  opened,  and  thus  formed  a  kind  of  water 
organ. 

Beckmann,  in  his  History  of  Inventions,  vol.  i. 
p.  136,  attributes  the  modern  contrivance  and  in- 
troduction of  a  water-clock  to  some  time  between 
A.  D.  1643  and  1663,  and  gives  nearly  the  same 
account  of  one  as  we  meet  with  in  Bion,  on  Ma- 
thematical Instruments,  and  Ozanam's  Recrea- 
tions, edited  by  Dr.  Hutton.  The  last  writer 
says,  that  father  Timothy,  a  Barnabite,  gave  the 
machine  all  the  excellence  it  was  capable  of,  by 
constructing  it  so  as  to  make  it  go  a  month  at 
one  winding  up,  ar.d  to  exhibit  not  only  the  hours 
on  a  dial-plate,  but  also  the  sun's  place,  day  of 
the  month,  and  festivals  throughout  the  year. 

How  these  and  similar  particulars  are  indi- 
cated, will  appear  from  the  following  description 
of  a  water-clock  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

In  fig  1,  of  Plate  CLEPSYDRA,  ABCD  is 
an  oblong  frame  of  wood,  to  the  upper  part  of 
which  two  cords,  A  a  and  B  b,  are  fixed  at  their 
superior  extremities,  and  at  their  inferior,  to  the 
metallic  arbor,  a  b,  of  the  drum,  E,  which  con- 
tains distilled  water;  this  water  is  confined  in 
cells  so  peculiarly  constructed,  that  they  regulate 
the  velocity  with  which  the  drum  shall  descend 
by  the  force  of  gravity  from  the  top  to  the  bottom 
of  the  frame,  and  the  ends  of  the  arbor  indicate 
the  hours  marked  on  the  vertical  plane  of  the 
frame  during  the  time  of  descent.  An  observer, 
who  knows  riot  the  nature  of  the  interior  cells  of 
the  drum,  is  surprised  to  see  that  its  weight  does 
not  make  it  run  down  rapidly,  when  mounted  to 
the  top  of  the  frame  by  merely  folding  the  strings 
round  the  arbor,  there  being  apparently  no  me- 
chanical impediment  to  the  natural  action  of  gra- 
vity. To  explain  how  this  phenomenon  is  pro- 
duced, we  must  refer  to  fig.  2,  which  is  a  section 
of  the  drum  at  right  angles  to  its  arbor;  this 
circular  plane  we  will  suppose  to  be  six  inches, 
which  is  about  the  usual  size,  in  diameter,  and  to 
represent  the  inner  surface  of  either  of  the  two 
ends  of  the  drum,  which  may  be  made  of  any  of 
the  unoxidable  metals;  then,  if  we  conceive 
seven  metallic  partitions,  F/,  Gg,  II  h,  li,  Kk, 
L  /,  and  M  m,  to  be  closely  soldered  to  both  ends 
of  the  drum,  in  the  sloping  direction  indicated 
by  the  figure,  where  the  black  lines  are  equidis- 
tant tangents  to  the  small  dotted  circle  of  an  inch 
and  half  diameter  at  the  points  f,  g,  h,  &c.;  it  is 
evident,  that  any  small  quantity  of  water  intro- 
duced into  the  drum  would  fall  into  two,  or  at 
most  three,  of  the  lower  compartments,  and 
would  remain  there  until  some  external  force 
should  alter  the  position  of  the  drum,  supposing 
in  this  case  the  cords  tied  fast  to  the  arbor ;  but 
we  have  said  that  they  are  wound  round  the  cir- 
cumference of  an  arbor,  that  has  a  sensible  dia- 
meter, suppose  one-eighth  of  an  inch ;  therefore, 
they  are  removed  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch,  or 
upwards,  if  we  take  their  thickness  into  the  ac- 


V01..V.J-AOE766 


0  I,  E  P  S  Y  D  R  A. 


767 


count,  from  the  centre  of  the  drum,  which  would 
also  he  in  its  centre  of  gravity,  if  it  were  empty, 
on  which  account  it  would,  in  that  case,  revolve 
to  the  left,  in  the  direction  F  G  II  downwards, 
from  the  cord  being  at  the  remote  side  of  the 
centre,  as  represented  by  N  O ;  but  conceive  the 
water  to  be  included  now  and  then,  it  would  be 
elevated  to  the  right,  till  its  weight  became  a 
counterpoise  to  the  gravity  of  the  heavier  side  of 
the  drum,  in  which  situation  all  motion  would 
cease,  and  the  drum  would  remain,  suspended, 
indeed,  by  the  cords,  but  in  a  state  of  equilibrio. 
Conceive  again  a  small  hole  perforated  in  the 
partition  pressed  upon  by  the  water  near  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  large  circle,  and  also  at  the 
points  F,  G,  H,  I,  K,  L,  M,  and  the  consequence 
•will  be,  that  the  water  will  first  force  its  way 
slowly  through  the  perforation  at  K,  from  the 
more  elevated  to  the  lower  compartment,  which 
effect  will  diminish  its  power  as  a  counterpoise, 
and  give  such  an  advantage  to  the  heavy  side, 
F  G  H,  of  the  drum,  cdnsidered  as  empty,  as  will 
occasion  a  small  degree  of  motion  towards  the 
left,  and  consequently  carry  the  water  once  more 
towards  the  right ;  but  now  the  water  passes 
through  the  perforation  of  the  next  partition  also 
at  I,  and  produces  again  the  same  effect  as  has 
been  described  with  respect  to  K,  and  will  con- 
tinue to  do  so,  at  the  successive  perforations,  till 
all  the  compartments  have  been  filled  and  emptied 
by  means  of  these  perforations,  in  succession, 
which  kind  of  motion  of  the  drum,  contrary  to 
that  of  the  water,  it  is  now  not  difficult  to  con- 
ceive, will  be  pretty  regular,  if  all  the  partitions 
are  perforated  exactly  alike.  The  difference  of 
the  pressures  of  the  water  in  cells,  nearly  full 
and  nearly  empty,  will  occasion  some  litfle  de- 
viation from  regularity ;  but  these  will  be  pe- 
riodic, and  must  be  allowed  for  in  the  hour 
divisions,  which  ought  to  be  made  by  a  compa- 
rison of  the  spaces  fallen  through,  with  the  time 
indicated  by  a  clock  or  watch.  About  nine 
ounces  of  distilled  water  will  suffice  for  a  clep- 
sydra of  six  inches  diameter,  and  two  inches 
depth,  and  the  velocity  of  the  fall  may  be  limited, 
either  by  varying  the  quantity  of  water,  or  by 
hanging  a  small  metallic  cup  F,  to  receive 
weights,  by  a  cord  wound  in  a  direction  contrary 
to  the  cords  of  suspension,  to  act  as  a  counter- 
poise in  aid  of  the  water,  if  the  fall  be  too  rapid, 
or  vice  versa.  It  is  necessary  that  the  arbor 
should  fit  the  central  square  hole  so  well  as  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  water  from  the  drum, 
otherwise  the  instrument  would  continue  to  gain 
velocity,  till  at  length  it  would  no  longer  afford 
a  true  indication  of  time. 

Sometimes  a  cord,  cd,  with  a  weight,  P,  is 
made  to  pass  round  a  pulley  fixed  to  an  arbor  at 
the  top  of  the  frame,  with  a  noose  passing  over 
the  axis  near  «,  as  is  seen  in  the  same  figure, 
which  arbor,  projecting  through  a  dial-plate  or 
face,  turns  round  and  carries  a  hand  to  indicate 
the  hours  like  an  ordinary  clock  ;  when  this  con- 
struction is  preferred,  it  is  an  indispensable  re- 
quisite that  the  circumference  of  the  pulley's 
groove  be  exactly  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the 
fall  of  the  drum  in  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours, 
accordingly  as  the  dial  is  divided.  This  clep- 
sydra, it  is  said,  goes  faster  in  summer  than  in 


.winter,  which  is  owing  to  the  drum  being  rela- 
tively heavier  in  rarefied  than  in  dense  air ;  we 
can  hardly  suppose  that  any  alteration  in  the 
fluidity  of  the  water,  as  formerly  imagined,  would 
make  any  difference.  The  minute  hand,  and 
also  the  striking  part  of  a  common  clock,  might 
easily  be  superadded  to  this  clepsydra. 

Another,  and  more  simple,  form  of  the  modern 
clepsydra  is  derived  from  that  law  in  hydrostatics 
by  which  the  efflux  of  water  out  of  an  orifice  is 
influenced  under  different  pressures,  or,  which  is 
the  same  thing,  at  different  depths  from  the  sur- 
face, the  velocity  being  directly  as  the  square 
loot  of  the  height  of  the  surface  from  the  aper- 
ture. If  a  glass  vessel,  like  that  in  fig.  3,  there- 
fore be  taken,  out  of  which  all  the  water  will  flow 
in  exactly  twelve  hours,  from  a  small  aperture  in 
its  lower  extremity,  the  whole  height  must  be 
divided,  or  supposed  to  be  divided,  into  the 
square  of  12  or  144  equal  parts,  of  which  parts 
11  x  11,  or  121  measured  from  the  bottom,  or 
23  measured  from  the  top,  will  give  the  division 
for  the  hour  11,  10  x  10  or  100  from  the  bot- 
tom will  give  the  line  for  10,  81  for  9,  64  for  8, 
and  so  on  down  to  the  bottom,  as  represented  in 
the  figure  ;  which  scale  is  in  the  inverted  propor- 
tion of  that  according  to  which  heavy  bodies  fall 
in  free  space  by  the  sole  force  of  gravity.  Now  if, 
instead  of  the  vessel  itself  being  divided  by  hour- 
lines  as  above  directed,  the  stem  of  a  floating 
piece  like  an  hydrometer  were  to  have  a  similar 
scale  kept  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  by  pass- 
ing through  the  central  hole  of  a  cap  or  cover  of 
the  vessel,  the  indication  of  time  would  be  made 
on  the  stem  at  the  surface  of  the  cap,  which  con- 
struction would  admit  of  the  vessel  being  of  wood 
or  metal. 


ducn    a    ngure 
might  be  given  to 
the  containing  ves- 
sel as  would   re-     p 
quire  the  dividing 
marks  to  be  equi- 
distant, which  Dr. 
Hutton,  in  his  edi- 
tion of  Ozanam's 
Recreations,     has 
asserted    to   be   a 
paraboloid,  or  ves- 
sel formed  by  the 
circumvolution    of      < 

/  / 

'            n 

.- 

11 

a  parabola  of  the  fourth  degree,  the  method  of 
describing  which,  he  gives  thus  : — Let  A  B  S,  be 
a  common  parabola,  the  axis  of  which  is  P  S, 
and  the  summit  S.  Diavv,  in  any  manner,  the 
line,  R  r  T,  parallel  to  that  axis,  and  then  draw 
any  ordinate  of  the  parabola  A  P,  intersecting 
R  T,  in  R  ;  make  P  Q  a  mean  proportional  be- 
tween P  R  and  P  A,  and  let  p  q  be  a  mean  pro- 
portional also  between  pr  and  pa;  and  so  on. 
The  curve  passing  through  all  the  points  Qy, 
Sec.  will  be  the  one  required,  which,  being  made 
the  mould  for  a  vessel  to  be  cast  by,  will  produce 
an  instrument,  which,  when  perforated  at  the 
apex,  will  have  the  singular  property  of  equali- 
sing the  scale,  so  as  to  correspond  to  equal 
times  while  the  water  is  running  out.  Mr.  \';i- 
rignon  has  given  a  geometrical  and  general  me- 


768 


CLEPSYDRA. 


tlnod  of  determining  the  scale  for  a  clepsydra, 
whatever  may  be  the  shape  and  magnitude  of  the 
vessel.  (See  Memoires  de  1'Academie  Royale 
des  Sciences,  p.  78,  1699.) 

A  still  more  simple  water-clock  with  equidis- 
tant hour-lines,  in  any  regular  vessel,  is  con- 
structed by  means  of  the  syphon  fixed  fast  in  the 
centre  of  a  broad  piece  of  cork,  which  is  floated 
in  any  regular  vessel,  as  the  cylindrical  one  at 
fig.  5 ;  for,  as  the  power  of  a  syphon  to  empty 
any  vessel  filled  with  water,  depends  upon  the 
difference  of  atmospheric  pressures  at  the  surface 
of  the  water  and  at  the  orifice  of  the  longer  leg, 
it  is  clear  that  while  the  shorter  leg  sinks  with 
the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  vessel  during  its 
time  of  emptying,  the  relative  pressures,  depend- 
ing on  the  distance  from  the  surface  of  the  water 
to  the  orifice  of  the  lower  leg,  will  continue  un- 
altered in  any  state  of  the  atmosphere ;  hence 
equal  portions  of  water  will  be  discharged  in 
equal  times ;  and  a  light  cock  cemented  on  the 
lower  orifice  would  afford  a  means  of  adjusting 
its  aperture  to  the  size  of  any  vessel  that  may  be 
fixed  upon  ;  or  otherwise  a  second  receiving  ves- 
sel may  be  divided  into  equal  spaces  for  the 
hours,  which  would  in  this  case  be  indicated  by 
the  surface  of  the  rising  water. 

We  conclude  with  extracting  the  construction 
and  action  of  a  clepsydra,  published  in  the  44th 
volume  of  the  Philosophical  Transactions  by  the 
Hon.  Charles  Hamilton. 

A  B  and  C  D  are  two  similar  oblong  vessels 
attached  to  a  frame  of  wood,  which  may  easily 
be  conceived  to  surround  figure  4,  which  shows 
only  the  interior  mechanism ;  a  b  and  c  d  are  two 
columns  of  wood  so  floating  in  water  that  their 
counterpoises,  F  and  G,  just  keep  their  superior 
.ends  equal  with  the  surface  of  the  water  by  means 
of  connecting  chains  passing  over  the  pulley  f, 
and  another  hid  by  the  dial-plate ;  the  former  of 
these  pullies,  f,  has  a  click  which  pushes  the 
ratchet  on  the  barrel,  i,  when  the  counterpoise, 
F,  falls,  but  slips  easily  over  the  slopes  of  the 
teeth  when  the  said  counterpoise  rises ;  the  latter 
pulley  has  also  a  similar  click  acting  in  like  man- 
ner, with  a  second  ratchet  at  the  opposite  end  of 
the  barrel,  »',  which  ratchet  is  also  hid  in  the 
drawing,  so  that,  whichever  of  the  two  counter- 
poises shall  at  any  time  be  falling,  the  barrel,  i, 
will  move  forwards  in  the  same  direction ;  and 
carry  the  minute-hand  along  with  it  on  the  dial- 
plate;  the  hour-hand  goes  round  by  means  of 
dial-work,  as  in  an  ordinary  clock  or  watch, 
where  a  diminution  of  velocity  is  effected  by  two 
wheels  and  two  pinions.  The  action  is  thus 


produced  by  means  of  five  syphons  ard  two 
balances. 

The  water  enters  with  an  unvaried  influx, 
drawn  from  a  reservoir,  by  a  syphon  of  small 
bore,  the  longer  leg  of  which  is  seen  at  J,  into 
the  middle  of  what  may  be  called  a  horizontal 
trough,  supported  like  a  balance  by  a  fulcrum  or 
axis  in  such  a  way,  that  either  end  of  the  ba- 
lance may  be  elevated  accordingly  as  the  long 
vessels  A  B  and  C  D  require  to  be  alternately 
filled ;  near  the  top  of  each  of  these  vessels  is 
inserted  a  long  syphon  or  tantalus,  /  and  m,  the 
lower  legs  of  which  reach  down  to  two  small  cy- 
lindrical vessels,  n  and  o,  which  are  poised  by 
another  balance  at  the  fulcrum/?;  these  cylin- 
drical vessels  have,  in  like  manner,  each  a  small 
syphon,  q  and  r ;  lastly,  a  silken  thread  tied  to 
the  upper  end  of  the  cylinder,  n,  is  carried  up 
round  a  small  pulley  fast  to  the  frame  at  s,  and 
fastened  to  the  end  of  the  trough  under  it,  and 
similar  thread  is  fastened  in  like  manner  to  the 
cylinder  o,  and  end  of  the  trough  under  the  small 
pulley  t.  Now  it  is  easy  to  conceive,  that  when 
the  vessel,  A  B,  is  filled  to  nearly  the  head  of  the 
tantalus,  I,  the  bore  of  which  is  larger  than  of  the 
feeding  syphon  J,  the  water  will  be  discharged 
into  the  cylindrical  vase  n,  which  consequently 
will  preponderate,  and  by  means  of  the  silken 
cord  elevate  the  end  of  the  trough  higher  than 
the  horizontal  line,  and  make  its  opposite  end 
under  the  small  pulley,  t,  to  be  depressed,  which 
will  therefore  conduct  the  water  into  the  other 
long  vessel  CD;  during  this  action  the  coun- 
terpoise, F,  rises,  and  its  pulley,/,  produces  no 
effect  on  the  ratchet  by  reason  of  the  click,  h, 
sliding  over  the  sloping  sides  of  its  teeth,  but  the 
counterpoise,  G,  falls,  and  the  click  of  its  pulley 
(not  seen)  pushes  the  second  ratchet  forwards  in 
the  direction  of  the  figures  of  the  face  I.  II. 
III.  &c. 

When  C  D  is  nearly  full,  the  long  syphon,  m, 
begins  to  discharge  its  water ;  makes  the  cylin- 
drical vase,  o,  preponderate,  and  again  elevates 
by  means  of  its  silken  string  the  end  of  the  trough 
under  the  small  pulley  t,  and  depresses  the  op- 
posite end  to  fill  the  vessel,  A  B,  again,  during 
which  time  the  click,  h,  of  the  pulley,  f,  acts 
with  its  ratchet ;  and  thus  the  alternate  increase 
and  decrease  of  the  water  in  the  two  vessels  are 
continued  without  interruption,  so  long  as  the 
feeding  syphon  continues  to  supply  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  pure  water. 

CLERC  (George  le),  count  de  Buffon.    See 

BUFFON. 


END  OF  VOL.  V. 


UCSB   LIBRARY 


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